1.

101 Things to Know About BiologyThis list is something that I have composed over the years and is a work in progress (a living work, if you will). It is ever changing! It was based on the old "Regents Biology" syllabus, but it still holds true for the new Living environment Curriculum (except it contains morethan is most likely needed). Please take this list with a grain of salt and understand that my humor is not the most refreshing stuff...)1. Bio is life, the rest is just details.2. Seven main life functions: nutrition, transport, respiration, excretion, synthesis, regulationand growth.3. Reproduction is a life function, but it is not necessary for individuals (only the species).4. Kings play chess on flat glass stools = Linnaean Classification: kingdom, phylum, class, order,family, genus, species. Genus is always capitalized and species is always lowercase. Genus andspecies will make up an organisms "Scientific name".5. Homeostasis is the key that fits the lock called life = bio-balance.6. Five main kingdoms: Mother protests funny pink alligators = Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plants,Animals7. Cells are: (a) the basic unit of structure and function; and (b) come only from preexistingcells.8. Exceptions to Cell Theory: (a) where did the first cell come from? (b) viruses undergoreproduction and synthesis, but no other functions. (c) although they are organelles,mitochondria and chloroplasts will reproduce independently of the cell.8. Total magnification = ocular multiplied by objective9. To adjust focus, coarse, then fine; to adjust brightness, adjust iris diaphragm.10. Magnification increases, field of view decreases; Magnification decreases, field of viewincreases.11. Indicators and stains: Lugols Solution - stains cellulose, turns starch blue-black. MethyleneBlue dyes most cells dark blue. Bromothymol blue turns yellow in presence of carbon dioxide,back to blue in presence of oxygen, phenolpthalein - acid base indicator - clear in presence ofacid, pink in presence of bases.12. 1 millimeter = 1,000 micrometers ( = symbol for micrometers).13. Plant cells are "cuboidal" and animal cells end to be more "spherical". This is due to the cellwall (cellulose wall) that gives shape to the plant cells.14. Two kinds of molecules: either organic (containing C and H) or inorganic (lack either C orH)15. Carbohydrates: CarbOHydrates always contain C:H:O in a close to 1:2:1 ratio. -starch, 2. sugars.16. Lipids: Sometimes called fats - contain C:H:O ratio of 1:2:>>1 ratio. - Cholesterol, fats,waxes, oils.17. Proteins: Composed of building blocks called amino acids. Amino acids are composed of anamino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH) and another group (R=variable sidechain)18. Enzymes - (a) each chemical reaction requires a specific enzyme. (b) enzymes modify(speed up or slow down) the rate of reaction.19. Just like a key fits one lock, enzymes and substrates fit together. Enzymes are effected by:temperature, relative amounts of enzyme or substrate, and pH.20. If it ends in -ase, it is most likely an enzyme.21. Photo- means "light"; synthesis means "to make". You do the math! It is the basis ofnutrition in autotrophs (those that AUTOmatically make their own food.)22. Plants grow best at the wavelength they are not (green doesnt work, red and blue are best)23. 6CO2 + 12H2O ---light and enzymes- C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O224. Results of Photosynthesis: glucose is formed for: (a) use as energy for cellular respiration;(b) synthesized into other metabolic compounds. (c) converted into storage products bydehydration synthesis and other reactions.25. Nutrition in Heterotrophs: Ingestion (taking IN), digestion (DIviding), and egestion (Ejectingwastes).26. Carbohydratessimple sugars (fructose, galactose, glucose); lipidsfatty acids andglycerol;proteinsamino acids27. Nutrition: Fungi - rhizoids; Protozoan - pseudopods, phagocytosis, food vacuole; Hydra -stinging cells (nematocysts), gut cavity; Earthworm - one-way, pharynx, crop, gizzard,intestine; Grasshopper - gastric caeca, mouth parts, salivary glands, one-way; Human - one wayalimentary canal, specialized structures and glands for breakdown.28. Cell Membrane: called a bilipid layer (protein floating between two lipid layers "floatingprotein icebergs in a fatty sea"; Diffusion - movement of molecules from an area of highconcentration to an area of low concentration; Osmosis - diffusion across a semipermeablemembrane.29. Phagocytosis (cell eating) - engulfing of undissolved large particles by "growing" aroundthem and enclosing them in a vacuole; Pinocytosis (cell drinking) - vacuoles form at cell surface"sip" large particles through the cell membrane.30. Active transport in a "pump" (its active) that move particles through a membrane - itrequires energy.31. Intra- versus Inter-: Remember it this way: If you are intra, you stay inside the track (within

3. its boundaries). If you are inter, you are interfering with other cells (between the cells).32. Plants bryophytes look like a brush - short and low with no vascular tissue. Tracheophytesare taller because they have vascular tissue (xylem & phloem).33. Root hairs - increase water absorption Someone with lots of hair can have wet hair for along time if they dont dry it. Bald people cannot get wet hair!34. Xylem & Phloem - Remember that water always phloes (flows) down a hill.35. Transport in animals: Hydra-flagellated cells that assist in circulation; Earthworm-closedcirculatory system with aortic arches to help move blood that contains hemoglobin;Grasshopper-open circulatory system and blood without hemoglobin; Human - closedcirculatory system, four chambered heart, hemoglobin rich blood.36. Respiration - think energy release and transfer. ATP - energy molecule; aerobic - when youdo aerobics, you require a lot of oxygen. If no oxygen, then it is anaerobic (antiaerobic, forthose of you who do not like to exercise!)37. Fermentation-breakdown of glucose that produces lactic acid, alcohol, and or carbondioxide.38. Aerobic respiration - that which uses oxygen - produces 38 ATP molecules in eukaryoticorganisms.39. Respiratory adaptations: plants - stoma (whats stomata wit you?) and lenticels; hydra - gasexchange in watery environment; earthworm moist skin air exchange (worms dont last longon a hot sunny day on the pavement!!); grasshoppertracheal tubes that "ship" oxygen directlyto tissues; human - moist membranes inside lungs exchange gases by diffusion across moistmembranes.40. Excretion - Whats waste? - carbon dioxide, water, mineral salts, nitrogenous wastes (mosttoxic is ammoniamoderately toxic is urealeast toxic is uric acid)41. Adaptations: protista - contractile vacuoles; plants - excrete and recycle; hydradepends onwatery environment; earthworm-carbon dioxide through skin...most nitrogenous wastesthrough nephridia; grasshopper water and bodily fluids through tracheal tubes, uric acidthrough Malphigian tubules; human - excretion through lungs, excretion of nitrogenous wastesthrough nephrons.42. Regulation - coordination; Hydra-nerve net; earthworm; cerebral ganglion, ventral nervecord; grasshopper-fused ganglion ("brain"); human - use your brain (and spinal cord).43. Chemical control in Plants - lean towards the source of the answer!!! (ie. geotropism -attraction to ground, phototropism - attraction towards light, hydrotropism - attractiontowards water, etc...) - all due to the concentration of auxins (plant hormones).44. Chemical control in animals endocrine glands secrete hormones. Principle use in insects ismetamorphosis (change in the body).45. Locomotion - NOT a dance step!!!! why do you need it? increased opportunities to obtain 4. food, seek shelter, avoid predators, move away from toxic wastes, find a mate (kind of likegetting your license allows you to go to McDonalds, get out of the rain, get away from the bigguy that is trying to beat you up, get away from the landfill that stinks, and go pick up yourgirlfriend/boyfriend.)46. Adaptation for locomotion - protista, flagella, pseudopods, or cilia; hydra - mostly sessile,can somersault or bubble float; earthworm-setae and longitudinal muscles; grasshopper -jumpers and walkers, occasionally fly; human-endoskeleton that allows them to walk.47. Nutrition in humans - needed for the energy, growth, repair and maintenance of tissues includes water, minerals, fats, carbohydrates, and proteins - foods move via peristalsis -rhythmic contraction.48. Starts in mouth - mechanical digestion to increase surface area and chemical digestion ofamylose and simple starch starts here as well. passes through esophagus, into stomach whereprotein digestion starts and acid is added to the food, now known as chyme. Into the smallintestine, where in the first foot or so bile (manufactured by liver and stored in gall bladder) issquirted in to start emulsification of fats and pancreatic juices start to react with the sugars.Much of the absorption occurs here as the villi (which house the lacteals) absorb dissolvednutrients directly into the bloodstream. Then, it passes to the large intestine, where it iscompacted, water is removed and recycled, and is passed from the body as feces.49. Hydrolysis: chemical breakdown of large molecules to small molecules; maltose+water2glucose; proteins+wateramino acids; lipids+water3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol50. Malfunctions: constipation - dry fecal mass doesnt pass; diarrhea loose watery fecal massthat will pass too easily; appendicitis-inflammation of appendix due to infection; gallstones-solidification of bile and cholesterol deposits in the gall bladder.51. Transport circulatory system: Transport media known as blood - has plasma (liquid), redblood cells (hemoglobin oxygen carriers), platelets (cell fragments) that trap to form clots.White blood cells prevent disease and fight infection; active immunity - antigen-antibodyreaction such as a

vaccination; passive immunity-medicines and the like - give temporaryimmunity from disease.52. Transport through the body - occurs in arteries - carry away from heart, veins - carrytowards the heart, and capillaries, connect the arteries and veins - also a site for oxygen andcarbon dioxide to exchange between blood and cells. - Deoxy blood returns to heart throughinferior and superior vena cava to the right atrium. Passes through the Rt. AV valve into theright ventricle and out to the L and R lungs where it picks up oxygen. Returns to the heartthrough the pulmonary veins and empties into the L atrium. It then passes to the L ventricle,the strongest chamber, where it is then pumped out to the rest of the body through the aorta.Four types of circulation: coronary - circ to heart muscle; hepatic - circ. to the liver;pulmonary - circ. to the lungs; and systemic - circ. to entire body.53. Malfunctions include: high BP (hypertension)-increased arterial pressure that compromisesthe elasticity of the vessels; Heart attack-thrombosis-blockage of vessels and subsequentoxygen deprivation; angina pectoris - heart or chest pain caused by narrowing of vessels andoxygen deprivation; anemia-impairment of oxygen carrying capability; leukemia-cancer of bonemarrow, the cell producing tissues of the system; AIDS-virus which is blood borne that destroysdisease fighting systems of the body.

5. 54. Respiration - respiratory system: involves the processes of cellular respiration and gasexchange and the conversion of chemical bond energy from foods into usable energy (ATP) inhuman cells. Also referred to as breathing - the diffusion of gases into and out of the bloodacross moist membranes after inhalation and expiration of environmental gases.55. Air Flow - where does it go? In through nose (nasal cavity) and mouth (oral cavity) into thetrachea. Trachea is protected from food entering trachea because of the epiglottis. Passesthrough the bronchi, two large tubes that split to each lung. Gradually the "tubes" get smaller:bronchi become bronchioles, become alveoli (the smallest) and these are surrounded bycapillaries for air exchange. Breathing rate is regulated by carbon dioxide concentration in theblood which in turn lowers the pH of the blood. Common malfunctions are: bronchitis-inflammation of the bronchi from dust or other inhalants; asthma-allergic response whichnarrows respiratory passages; emphysema-change in structure of lungs characterized bydegeneration of tissues (caused by pollution and cigarette smoke).56. Excretionridding the body of the metabolic wastes. Lungs - get rid of heat, water, andcarbon dioxide. Liverbreakdown and deamination of amino acids, recycling of usablematerials, and destruction of old, worn-out red blood cells. Urinary system - elimination ofurea and unneeded body fluids through kidneys - pass through kidney where blood is filtered,into the ureter which leads to the bladdercollects and is eliminated through the urethra.Malfunctions: kidney disease-results from damage to or disease of the kidney - result is buildupof toxic wastes in blood stream. Gout - inflammation of joints associated with a buildup of uricacid crystals which lead to arthritic-like painful attacks.57. Regulation-the nervous system. Organized into a series of neurons (nerve cells) which relayan electrochemical message from cell to cell. Divided into two parts: CNS (central nervoussystem) which includes brain and spinal cord and PNS (peripheral nervous system) whichincludes all other nervous tissues. Further extended into the somatic NS to control voluntaryactions and the autonomic NS which controls the automatic or reflex actions of the body.Malfunctions: meningitis - inflammation of the membranes surrounding brain and spinal cord;Stroke-caused by cerebral hemorrhage (burst blood vessel) resulting in brain damage; Polio-viral disease resulting in paralysis (uncommon now since we are all immunized against it).58. Endocrine system - system of ductless glands that helps to regulate body functions - useschemical messages to hit target tissues. Hypothalamus-influences master gland; Pituitarygland-master gland that governs all other glands, produce Growth stimulating hormone; thyroidgland - influences metabolism; parathyroid glands - produce parathormone needed for controlof blood calcium levels; adrenal glands influence metabolism, reabsorption of sodium andchloride ions and adrenalin (fight or flight; Islets of Langerhans-produce insulin and glucagon toregulate blood sugar levels; Gonads (testes and ovaries) control influence of secondary sexcharacteristics.59. Humans have an ENDOskeleton - this means it is inside. It consists of bones(internalsupport); cartilage (cushions bones); tendons(hold muscle to bone); and ligaments(hold bone tobone). It also has muscle (movement tissue) which is divided into three different type: visceral(those of the digestive system); cardiac (the heart); and skeletal (pretty self-

explanatory).They work in pairs - one that flexes (flexors) and one that extends(extensors). basicmalfunctions include arthritis (pain associated with swelling around he bones) andtendinitis(inflammation of the tendons).60. Two different types of reproduction exist: Asexual (without sex) and sexual(meaning withsex). Remember, sex is not an act, in the biological sense, but rather a conjoining of the actual

6. male and female reproductive cells.61. Asexual: most organisms that are asexual reproduce by means of mitosis - the replication ofnuclear material that is followed by cytokinesis (splitting of the cytoplasm). It is characterizedby 4 stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. It differs between animal andplant cells because plant cells for a cell plate. If cells continue to grow at an irregular anduncontrollable rate, it is called metastasis (cancer).62. 5 main types of asexual reproduction in organisms. 1. binary fission - bi- means two, sothink of an organism splitting equally into two distinct parts; 2. budding - incomplete divisionof cytoplasm, equal division of nuclear material; 3. sporulation-spores, need we say more, driftoff of the mother plant and create new life; 4. Regeneration - re-means again, generationmeans to make; so put the two together and we get the answer: the making of new material (itis a bit more involved, but thats for you to look up.) and lastly 5. Vegetative propagation - thereproduction of new veggies: think of the different plants, some are bulbs, some have runners,some are grafted (where do the seeds for seedless orange trees come from?), some arecuttings.63. Sexual reproduction - literally the joining (fertilization or fusion) of specialized sex cells(gametes) to create a fertilized egg (zygote) that will undergo a series of divisions (cleavages)in which the number of cells increases, but the mass stays the same. Then, the "cell ball"gastrulates and starts to differentiate and increase in mass and area.64. These gametes are formed by gametogenesis (genesis means beginning). Oogenesis makesthe egg (ovum, ova, etc) cells and spermatogenesis makes the sperm (male) sex cells.65. This brings us to meiosis (not the same as mitosis). It occurs in two distinct stages and issometimes referred to as reduction division (I know, a math flashback, AAUUGGHHHH!!!!!). InMeiosis 1, each single stranded chromosome replicates and forms sister chromatids. Thesesister chromatids join together, a process called synapsis, having a total of 4n the normalnumber of chromosomes. After this, they align at the equator of the cell and then tear apartinto two different cells. Meiosis 2 begins with the alignment of these sister chromatids (now 2nsince it has undergone cytoplasmic division)once again at the center of the two new cells. Onceagain, the sister chromatids replicate and then begin to migrate towards the end of the poles.When cytoplasmic division occurs this time, however, each resulting cell has only the "n"number of chromosomes. Meiosis in a nutshell is: 2n4n2n & 2n: 2n &2nn & n & n & n. Thisproduces: in oogenesis - 1 mature egg cell and 3 polar bodies and in spermatogenesis 4 viablesperm cells.66. Fertilization and development: to fertilize, you will need 1 "n" male gamete and 1 "n"female gamete. When you join these two together, you get one fertilized egg (called a zygote)(Note: Regardless of what your math teacher says, 1+1 does equal 1. However in their defense,n+n=2n)67. Fertilization happens either internally, as in humans and most mammals, or externally, asis the case with fish and amphibians. There are some exceptions to this rule.68. As far as cleavage (see #63), this cleaving or splitting ball of cells will start to differentiate.This means it forms new layers that will start to get distinct functions. The ectoderm (outside)forms the skin and nervous system. The mesoderm (middle) forms the muscles, circulatorysystem, skeleton, excretory system, and gonads. The endoderm forms the lining of the 7. respiratory and digestive systems and portions of the liver and pancreas.69. A marsupial is a mammal that is nonplacental in which the young are born very prematurelyand get their nutrition from the mammary glands of a mother organism (usually in some formof pouch as the kangaroo has.70. The human reproductive system is pretty much the same as most other mammals. The malesystem consists mainly of a pair of testes, sperm producing glands, that are held outside thebody in an outpocketing of skin called the scrotum. It is necessary to produce sperm cells andto deposit the cells into the female reproductive system. The female system is important notonly for reproduction, but also for the development of the young. It consists of a hollowmuscular tube called the vagina, which accepts the penis during intercourse. It is joinedinternally by the uterus, the

holding place for a developing embryo. In most mammals, thelining of the uterus is shed periodically to replenish the lining (this is the menstrual cycle). Itconsists of 4 stages: follicle stage, ovulation, corpus luteum, and the menstruation. It isentirely controlled and regulated by hormones, including FSH follicle stimulating hormone, LH-leutenizing hormone, estrogen, and progesterone. All of these are governed by a negativefeedback system, much the same as the thermostat in your house that regulates temperature.71. Reproduction in flowering plants: Male flower parts - called the stamen composed ofanther which produces pollen grains, and the filament - a stalk like structure that holds theanther at or above the level of the female parts. Female flower parts -commonly called thepistil is composed of the stigma, the style, and the ovary.72. Pollination - two types: self - plants use their own pollen to fertilize their own ovule ORcross - plants use the pollen of other plants to fertilize ovule. The latter increases plant varietyas a result of the recombination of genes.73. Three parts of a seed - the hypocotyl develops into the root and lower portions of the stem;the epicotyl which develops into the leaves and upper portions of the stem; and the cotyledonwhich is the greatest portion of the plant seed - it is the food for the developing seedling.74. Three factors for successful germination: sufficient moisture, sufficient temperature andsufficient oxygen. After it has germinated (sprouted) however, it no longer needs a great dealof oxygen since it will carry out photosynthesis. As it grows, the regions of growth areconcentrated at the apical meristem (which elongates root and shoot tips) and at the lateralmeristem, which regulates the thickness (girth) of the plant.75. Foundations of Genetics - genetics studies father - Gregor Mendel - came up with theoriesby studying pea plants. Three principles: dominance-some traits can be masked by others;segregationthere are so many possibilities because genes can recombine in many differentways; and independent assortment-some traits can be inherited while others are not.76. Mendels work lead to the gene-chromosome theory which states that two genes associatedwith a specific characteristics are known as alleles and are located on homologouschromosomes.77. 8 important words for genetics: homozygous - means alike alleles are present (TT or tt orGG or gg) sometimes referred to as pure; heterozygous - two different alleles exist, althoughthe recessive may be hidden by the dominant (Tt or Gg) sometimes referred to as hybrid;dominant - the expressed gene, rather it is located in an allelic pair that is homozygous orheterozygous; recessive - the masked gene that is covered by the dominant, only present when

8. the organism is said to be homozygous (pure) recessive (gg or tt). Filial (F1) - means theoffspring of the parental generation (these are the ones that fill up the boxes in a Punnettsquare. Parental (P1) - these are the breeding offspring that are giving the experimenter thealleles for the outside of the Punnett Square (which is a way of predicting the possibleoutcomes from a breeding).78. Dominance and recessiveness are relative terms - they do not always work. For instance, inan incomplete dominance cross, the heterozygous offspring are phenotypically different thantheir homozygous parents. This is evident in organisms like the Japanese Four-O-Clocks(red flowers X white flowers = pink flowers).79. Co-dominance is a condition that exists when both dominant alleles are expressed (that ofeach parent) and "blending" occurs. For instance, in some species of cattle, red coat isdominant and in some species, white coat is dominant. When these species are bred, bothhomozygous for their respective coat color, the offspring will be roan colored (a mix of red andwhite). The same is true of blood groups in humans.80. Crossing over - during synapsis in meiosis 1, the chromatids in a homologous pair ofchromosomes often twist around each other and break off, exchanging segments. This results ina rearrangement of linked genes and increases in variability.81. Multiple alleles - much like the co-dominance we talked about in #79. Best example isblood groups in humans. The following are the possible genotypes and phenotypes for bloodgroups in humans:Genotype Phenotype Antigens madeIAIA A A onlyIAi A A onlyIBIB B B onlyIBi B B onlyIAIB AB Both A and Bii O Neither A nor B82. Sex determination - as most people know, there are two predominant sexes: male orfemale. This is because upon fertilization, the female contributes either an X or and X. Themale, however, can contribute either an X or a Y chromosome. Therefore, the MALEdetermines the sex of the offspring (at least in humans).83. Mutations: Lets keep this to a minimum (no pun intended). Mutation is a change in thegenetic material - plain and simple. Mutations that occur only in body cells will not be passedon to offspring.

However, those that occur in sex cells may possibly be passed on to offspring.84. Chromosomal alteration mutations are a change in the number or structure ofchromosomes. Failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis 1 (nondisjunction) is another

9. form. This most commonly results in offspring having too many or too few chromosomes. It isalso the cause of Downs syndrome (nondisjunction of chromosome #21).85. Translocation - transfer of a section of a chromosome from one chromosome to anonhomologous chromosome; addition - the gain of a portion of a chromosome; deletion - lossof a portion of a chromosome.86. Description and detection of genetic disorders: PKU - absence of a enzyme necessary forthe metabolism of phenylalanine, characterized by the development of mental retardation;Sickle-cell anemia homozygous condition resulting in the formation of abnormal hemoglobinprevalent in African Americans; Tay-Sachs - recessive genetic disorder characterized bymalfunction of the nervous system due to accumulation of fatty deposits along the axon ofnerve cells. Detection: Screening chemical analysis of body fluids to detect presence orabsence of such disorders; karyotyping enlarged photograph of chromosomes which may showchromosome abnormalities; amniocentesis removal of amniotic fluid from fluid around fetusfor cellular or chemical analysis.87. Modern Genetics - DNA and RNA. In 1940, Oswald Avery, Colin McLeod, and Maclyn McCartyfound that DNA is the genetic material found in cells and is passed on from generation togeneration. DNA is structured so that small subunits called nucleotides are arranged, each withthree main parts: a phosphate group, a deoxyribose group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine,guanine, cytosine, or thymine). In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick developed the firstmodel of DNA, a double helix (twisted ladder). This molecule will replicate (when needed as incellular reproduction).88. RNA is slightly different from DNA. It is a nucleic acid, thats for sure, but the three maindifferences are: RNA is a single chain of nucleotides, Ribose is substituted for deoxyribose, anduracil will always replace thymine. It exists in three forms: messenger RNA (mRNA) whichcarries the DNA message from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes; transfer (tRNA) whichtransports amino acids within the cytoplasm to the ribosomes, and Ribosomal (rRNA) whichmakes up the identification code of each ribosome for specific protein manufacturing.89. Evolution - a series of changes over a period of time. Believe what you want theologically,but understand what is here biologically. We call it organic evolution. It is supported by: 1.geologic record - fossils are our window into what once was; 2. comparative biochemistry -nucleic acids and other chemicals and their functions closely relate animals that are currentlyliving, although they may not look like each other or act like each other; 3. comparativecytology - organelles and organisms have similar anatomy and physiology now as they did yearsago; 4. comparative anatomy - different animals and organisms have similar structures (7 neckvertebrae in humans, whales, mice, and giraffes); 5. comparative embryology similarappearance of different embryos as they develop.90. Theories of Evolution - LaMarck (1809) had two main ideas (1) Use and Disuse - new organswill arise when they are needed and their size will be determined by their need. (2)Transmission of Acquired Traits - Useful characteristics that you acquire during your lifetimewill be passed on to your children. Darwin - based all theories on variation and naturalselection - encompassed the following tenets: overproduction (more are born than can possiblysurvive); competition (there is a struggle for existence among all creatures); survival of thefittest (only the most fit will survive long enough to breed); reproduction (if you live longenough, you will most likely breed at one time or another); and speciation - if characteristicshelp you to survive, your chances to reproduce are greater, therefore the trait that you hadwill appear more often) 10. 91. Time Frame for evolution - either gradual (as the name implies - things happen at a slowand steady rate) or punctuated (large change in a very brief amount of time).92. Heterotroph Hypothesis - developing earth was a volatile place with a lot of inorganiccompounds that existed naturally. Over time, these compounds, with the help of severe rainsand storms, started to cool and condense into the seas. Intense sunlight, radiation, and morestorms (mostly electrical) started to change the structure of the molecules and make thembecome, somehow, organic. These organics soon changed again and became life - thats ourbest guess and it was proven by Miller and Ureys

experiment.93. Over time, these molecules (from #92) started to carry on some primitive form ofphotosynthesis and then started to produce oxygen. This allowed other organisms that wereformerly anaerobic to start using oxygen in ways that we still dont understand and this mayhave lead to the first autotrophic organisms.94. Ecology is a science. It investigates the interactions of all life (biotic) with all of the non-living (abiotic) forces that exist in our environment. It has a "step-up" approach: populationsare all of one certain species in a given area at a given time, communities are all of thedifferent populations in a given area at a given time, an ecosystem is all of the communities ina certain are at a given time, and a biosphere is basically everything on Earth working togetherand against each other to achieve a living and nonliving equilibrium.95. Ecosystems are the level of ecological organization that is commonly talked about in thenews media. It has very basic requirements: (2) it must have a constant energy source and aliving system capable of incorporating the energy in these compounds into organic energy and(2) it must be able to cycle and recycle these materials between the organisms and theenvironment.96. Biotic versus abiotic: biotic factors include things like trees, algae, deer, bacteria, protists,birds, etc... Essentially, everything that is alive. Abiotic factors are everything that is not livinglike rocks, water, temperature, sunlight, humidity, gases, pH, etc...97. Biotic factors also depend on some sort of Nutritional relationships. The include:(1)autotrophs - any organism (not just plants) that can synthesize their own food frominorganic molecules and a usable energy source. Commonly referred to as autotrophs and insome instances chemotrophs. (2) Heterotrophs - are organisms that rely on autotrophs andother heterotrophs for their energy source. based on this, these are any organism that isdescribed in #98.98. The different types of heterotrophs are: (1)saprophytes - organisms of decay, includingnongreen plants, fungi and bacteria. These are the janitors of the planet, converting waste anddead material back into usable energy. (2)Herbivores - as the name implies, these are the planteaters. Around here, people think of things like cows and deer as being the only herbivores.However, one of the largest scale herbivores on the planet is insects, closely followed byhumans. Can a human be an herbivore - of course. In a sense we all are. Since a cow eatsgrasses, and we eat the cow, we are basically eating grass that has been converted into meat!(3)Carnivores - are those animals that eat only other animals. They are divided into twoseparate categories (a) predators, which actively hunt and kill their prey such as eagles andwolves; and (b) scavengers which live off the "leftovers" from the predators, hoping that thepredator didnt strip the bones of what it killed bare (these include vultures and crabs.)99. All or at least most of these animals live in some sort of symbiotic (dependent)relationship. The three different types are: (1) Commensalism - commonly referred to as a +,0

11. relationship. This means that one organism benefits from the interaction and one isunaffected. (2)Mutualism - is commonly called a +,+ relationship in which both organismsbenefit from the interaction; and (3)Parasitism - is commonly called a +,- relationship becauseone organism benefits and the other is negatively affected.100. Food Chains and Succession - A food chain is just that - a chain. The grass grows, theinsect eat the grass, the frog eats the insect, the fox eats the frog, the car biffs the fox, thebacteria consume the fox carcass, and this in turn fertilizes the soil so that the grass growsagain. A web is slightly more complex. In the web, a linear fashion is not followed. At any ofthe above stages in a web, other organisms can "sneak in" and upset the balance of the chain.For instance, maybe the bear eats half the frogs and humans eat some. But, a human caughtoff guard gets eaten by a bear and the fox comes in to finish off the carcass (kinda gruesome, Iknow). See, everything is related as far as this is concerned. I suggest watching the Disneymovie "The Lion King". When Mufasa explains the prideland to Simba - he does a better jobthan any textbook ever could - get it and watch it! Also, there are distinct regions on our plantwhere materials are recycled - look back into your review book and you will see these cycles -once again - the old saying "What goes around comes around" holds true. Lastly, these regionshave certain flora (plants) and fauna (animals) that exist at certain latitudes and altitudes. Thebiomes, as they are called, are somewhat like biological homes (thus the word biomes) wherecertain conditions exist that will allow only certain species to live at certain conditions. Theyare: tundra (like upper reaches of Canada), taiga (like Alaska), temperate deciduous forest(most of New York State), tropical forest (Central

America), grassland (such as the savannaplains of the states of Wyoming and Nebraska), and desert (kind of like Arizona).101. The most important bit of wisdom I can pass on is: "If you know half the world, youautomatically know the other half" -M. Fenlon - my favorite Jefferson Community Collegeprofessor(ex. black - ; right - ; cold- ) See what I mean!