Module 6: Sections 3.1 through 3.

4
Module 7 and 8: Sections 3.5 through 3.9
1
Table of Contents
3.1 Potential and Potential Energy............................................................................. 3-2
3.2 Electric Potential in a UniIorm Field ................................................................... 3-5
3.3 Electric Potential due to Point Charges ............................................................... 3-6
3.3.1 Potential Energy in a System oI Charges ........................................................ 3-8
3.4 Continuous Charge Distribution .......................................................................... 3-9
3.5 Deriving Electric Field Irom the Electric Potential ........................................... 3-10
3.5.1 Gradient and Equipotentials.......................................................................... 3-11
Example 3.1: UniIormly Charged Rod .................................................................. 3-13
Example 3.2: UniIormly Charged Ring ................................................................. 3-15
Example 3.3: UniIormly Charged Disk ................................................................. 3-16
Example 3.4: Calculating Electric Field Irom Electric Potential ........................... 3-18
3.6 Summary ............................................................................................................ 3-18
3.7 Problem-Solving Strategy: Calculating Electric Potential ................................. 3-20
3.8 Solved Problems ................................................................................................ 3-22
3.8.1 Electric Potential Due to a System oI Two Charges ..................................... 3-23
3.8.2 Electric Dipole Potential ............................................................................... 3-24
3.8.3 Electric Potential oI an Annulus ................................................................... 3-25
3.8.4 Charge Moving Near a Charged Wire .......................................................... 3-26
3.9 Conceptual Questions ........................................................................................ 3-27
These notes are excerpted 'Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism by Sen-Ben Liao, Peter
Dourmashkin, and John Belcher, Copyright 2004, ISBN 0-536-81207-1.
3-1
1

Electric Potential
3.1 Potential and Potential Energy
In the introductory mechanics course, we have seen that gravitational Iorce Irom the
Earth on a particle oI mass m located at a distance r Irom Earth`s center has an inverse-
square Iorm:
F

g
= G
M
2
m
r` (3.1.1)
r
11 2 2
where G = 6. 6710 N m /kg is the gravitational constant and r` is a unit vector
pointing radially outward. The Earth is assumed to be a uniIorm sphere oI mass M. The
corresponding gravitational Iield g

, deIined as the gravitational Iorce per unit mass, is
given by

g

=
F
g
=
GM
r` (3.1.2)
2
m r
Notice that g

only depends on M, the mass which creates the Iield, and r, the distance
Irom M.
Figure 3.1.1
Consider moving a particle oI mass m under the inIluence oI gravity (Figure 3.1.1). The
work done by gravity in moving m Irom A to B is

r
j
GMm
\ ,
GMm
]
r
B
j 1 1 \
W
g
=

F
g
d s =

r
A
B
,
(

r
2
(
,
dr =

,
r ]
]
r
A
= GMm
,
(
r
B

r
A
(
,
(3.1.3)
The result shows that W
g
is independent oI the path taken; it depends only on the
endpoints A and B. It is important to draw distinction between W
g
, the work done by the
3-2
Iield and W
ext
, the work done by an external agent such as you. They simply diIIer by a
negative sign: W = W .
g ext
Near Earth`s surIace, the gravitational Iield g

is approximately constant, with a
magnitude g GM = / r
E
2
9.8m/s
2
, where r
E
is the radius oI Earth. The work done by
gravity in moving an object Irom height y
A
to y
B
(Figure 3.1.2) is
g

g
ds =

A
mg cos ds =

A
mg cos ds =

y
A
mg dy = mg y
B
y
A
) (3.1.4) W = F

B B y
B
(
Figure 3.1.2 Moving a mass m Irom A to B.
The result again is independent oI the path, and is only a Iunction oI the change in
vertical height y
B
y
A
.
In the examples above, iI the path Iorms a closed loop, so that the object moves around
and then returns to where it starts oII, the net work done by the gravitational Iield would

be zero, and we say that the gravitational Iorce is conservative. More generally, a Iorce F
is said to be conservative iI its line integral around a closed loop vanishes:

F
r
d
r
s = 0 (3.1.5)
When dealing with a conservative Iorce, it is oIten convenient to introduce the concept oI
potential energy U. The change in potential energy associated with a conservative Iorce

F acting on an object as it moves Irom A to B is deIined as:

U U
B
U
A
=

A
B
F

d

s = W = (3.1.6)
where W is the work done by the Iorce on the object. In the case oI gravity, W W and =
g
Irom Eq. (3.1.3), the potential energy can be written as
GMm
U
g
= +U
0
(3.1.7)
r
3-3
where U
0
is an arbitrary constant which depends on a reIerence point. It is oIten
convenient to choose a reIerence point where U
0
is equal to zero. In the gravitational
case, we choose inIinity to be the reIerence point, with
0
( = = 0 . Since U
g
depends U r )
on the reIerence point chosen, it is only the potential energy diIIerence U that has
g
physical importance. Near Earth`s surIace where the gravitational Iield g

is
approximately constant, as an object moves Irom the ground to a height h, the change in
potential energy is U
g
= + mgh , and the work done by gravity is W
g
= mgh .
A concept which is closely related to potential energy is 'potential. From U , the
gravitational potential can be obtained as
U B

B

=
g
= ( / m d ) s V
g
m

A
F
g
s =

A
g d (3.1.8)
Physically V
g
represents the negative oI the work done per unit mass by gravity to
move a particle IromA to B.
Our treatment oI electrostatics is remarkably similar to gravitation. The electrostatic Iorce
ur
Fe given by Coulomb`s law also has an inverse-square Iorm. In addition, it is also

conservative. In the presence oI an electric Iield E , in analogy to the gravitational Iield
g

, we deIine the electric potential diIIerence between two points A and Bas
V

B
( / F

q d
0
)

s =
B
E

=
e

d s (3.1.9)
A A
where q
0
is a test charge. The potential diIIerence V represents the amount oI work
done per unit charge to move a test charge q
0
Irom point A to B, without changing its
kinetic energy. Again, electric potential should not be conIused with electric potential
energy. The two quantities are related by
=
0
U q V (3.1.10)
The SI unit oI electric potential is volt (V):
1volt =1 joule/coulomb (1 V 1 J/C) (3.1.11)
When dealing with systems at the atomic or molecular scale, a joule (J) oIten turns out to
be too large as an energy unit. A more useIul scale is electron volt (eV), which is deIined
as the energy an electron acquires (or loses) when moving through a potential diIIerence
oI one volt:
3-4
1eV = (1.6 10
19
C)(1V) =1.6 10
19
J (3.1.12)
3.2 Electric Potential in a Uniform Field
Consider a charge +q moving in the direction oI a uniIorm electric Iield E

= E
0
( )
`
j , as
shown in Figure 3.2.1(a).
(b)
(a)

Figure 3.2.1 (a) A charge q which moves in the direction oI a constant electric Iield E .

that moves in the direction oI a constant gravitational Iield g .

, the potential diIIerence between points A and B is
(b) A mass m

E Since the path taken is parallel to
given by
B

B

s = V V V =
B A
=

E d E d

s = E
0
d < 0 (3.2.1)
0
A A
implying that point B is at a lower potential compared to A. In Iact, electric Iield lines
always point Irom higher potential to lower. The change in potential energy is
U U U =
B

A
= qE
0
d . Since q > 0, we have U 0 , which implies that the potential <
energy oI a positive charge decreases as it moves along the direction oI the electric Iield.

The corresponding gravitational analogy, depicted in Figure 3.2.1(b), is that a mass m
loses potential energy ( = U mgd ) as it moves in the direction oI the gravitational
Iield g .
Figure 3.2.2 Potential diIIerence due to a uniIorm electric Iield
3-5

What happens iI the path Irom A to B is not parallel to E , but instead at an angle , as
shown in Figure 3.2.2? In that case, the potential diIIerence becomes

E s

s = E s
0
cos = E y
0
(3.2.2)
B
V V
B
V
A

= = E d
A
Note that y increase downward in Figure 3.2.2. Here we see once more that moving along
the direction oI the electric Iield E leads to a lower electric potential. What would the
change in potential be iI the path were A C B ? In this case, the potential diIIerence
consists oI two contributions, one Ior each segment oI the path:
V + V
CA BC
(3.2.3) = V
When moving Irom A to C, the change in potential is V = E y . On the other hand,
CA 0


when going Irom C to B, V
BC
= 0 since the path is perpendicular to the direction oI E .
Thus, the same result is obtained irrespective oI the path taken, consistent with the Iact

that E is conservative.
Notice that Ior the path A C B , work is done by the Iield only along the segment
AC which is parallel to the Iield lines. Points B and C are at the same electric potential,
i.e.,V
B
=V
C
. Since = , this means that no work is required in moving a charge U q V
Irom B to C. In Iact, all points along the straight line connecting B and C are on the same
'equipotential line. A more complete discussion oI equipotential will be given in
Section 3.5.
3.3 Electric Potential due to Point Charges

Next, let`s compute the potential diIIerence between two points A and B due to a charge

0
r
2
)r` , where r` is a unit vector Q. The electric Iield produced by Q is E = ( / 4 Q
pointing toward the Iield point.
Figure 3.3.1 Potential diIIerence between two points due to a point charge Q.

From Figure 3.3.1, we see that ` d = r s ds cos = dr , which gives
3-6
V V
B
V
A

B
Q
2
r s ` d

B
Q
2
dr =
Q
,
j 1 1
(
\
= = (3.3.1)
A
4
0
r
A
4
0
r 4
0 (
r
B
r
A ,
Once again, the potential diIIerence V depends only on the endpoints, independent oI
the choice oI path taken.
As in the case oI gravity, only the diIIerence in electrical potential is physically
meaningIul, and one may choose a reIerence point and set the potential there to be zero.
In practice, it is oIten convenient to choose the reIerence point to be at inIinity, so that the
electric potential at a point P becomes
P

V = d

E s (3.3.2)
P

With this reIerence, the electric potential at a distance r away Irom a point charge Q
becomes
1 Q
( ) = V r (3.3.3)
4
0
r
When more than one point charge is present, by applying the superposition principle, the
total electric potential is simply the sum oI potentials due to individual charges:
( ) =
1

q
i
= k
e
q
i
V r (3.3.4)
4
0
i
r
i
i
r
i
A summary oI comparison between gravitation and electrostatics is tabulated below:
Gravitation Electrostatics
Mass m Charge q
Gravitational Iorce
2
`
g
Mm
G
r
F = r

Coulomb Iorce
2
`
e e
Qq
k
r
= F r

Gravitational Iield /
g
m = g F

Electric Iield /
e
q = E F

Potential energy change
B
g
A
U d =

F s


Potential energy change
B
e
A
U d =

F s


Gravitational potential
B
g
A
V d =

g s

Electric Potential
B
A
V d =

E s


For a source M:
g
GM
V
r
= For a source Q:
e
Q
V k
r
=
3-7
, ,
g
U mgd = (constant g

)
, , U qEd = (constant E

)
3.3.1 Potential Energy in a System of Charges
II a system oI charges is assembled by an external agent, then U W = + W
ext
= . That is,
the change in potential energy oI the system is the work that must be put in by an external
agent to assemble the conIiguration. A simple example is liIting a mass m through a
height h. The work done by an external agent you, is +mgh (The gravitational Iield
does work mgh ). The charges are brought in Irom inIinity without acceleration i.e. they
are at rest at the end oI the process. Let`s start with just two charges q
1
and q
2
. Let the
potential due to q
1
at a point P be V
1
(Figure 3.3.2).
Figure 3.3.2 Two point charges separated by a distance r
12
.
The work W
2
done by an agent in bringing the second charge q
2
Irom inIinity to P is
then W = q V . (No work is required to set up the Iirst charge and W = 0 ). Since
2 2 1 1
V = q / 4 r , where is the distance measured Irom q
1
to P, we have
1 1 0 12
r
12
1 q q
U
12
=W
2
=
1 2
(3.3.5)
4
0
r
12
II q
1
and q
2
have the same sign, positive work must be done to overcome the electrostatic
repulsion and the potential energy oI the system is positive, U
12
> 0 . On the other hand, iI
the signs are opposite, then U
12
< 0 due to the attractive Iorce between the charges.
3-8
Figure 3.3.3 A system oI three point charges.
To add a third charge q
3
to the system (Figure 3.3.3), the work required is
W
3
= q V
1
+V =
3 1
+
2
(3.3.6)
4
0 (
r
13
r
23 ,
3
(
2
)
q
,
j q q
(
\
The potential energy oI this conIiguration is then
1 j q q q q q q \
U W =
2
+W
3
=
,
1 2
+
1 3
+
2 3
(
=U
12
+U
13
+U
23
(3.3.7)
4
0 (
r
12
r
13
r
23 ,
The equation shows that the total potential energy is simply the sum oI the contributions
Irom distinct pairs. Generalizing to a system oI N charges, we have
1
N N
q q
U =

i j
(3.3.8)
4
0
i=1 j=
>
1
r
ij
j i
where the constraint j > i is placed to avoid double counting each pair. Alternatively,
one may count each pair twice and divide the result by 2. This leads to
j \
N N N N N
U =
1

q q
i j
=
1

q
i
,
1

q
j (
=
1
i
( )
8
0
i=1 j=1
r
ij
2
i=1
,
,
4
0
j=

1
r
ij
(
(
,
2
i=1
qV r
i
(3.3.9)
j i
(
j i
where ( )

(location oI q
i
) due to all V r
i
, the quantity in the parenthesis, is the potential at r
i
the other charges.
3.4 Continuous Charge Distribution
II the charge distribution is continuous, the potential at a point P can be Iound by
summing over the contributions Irom individual diIIerential elements oI charge dq .
3-9
Figure 3.4.1 Continuous charge distribution
Consider the charge distribution shown in Figure 3.4.1. Taking inIinity as our reIerence
point with zero potential, the electric potential at P due to dq is
dV =
0
1
4
dq
r
(3.4.1)
Summing over contributions Irom all diIIerential elements, we have
V =
0
1
4

dq
r
(3.4.2)
3.5 Deriving Electric Field from the Electric Potential

In Eq. (3.1.9) we established the relation between E

which are separated by a small distance ds , the Iollowing diIIerential Iorm is obtained:
and V. II we consider two points

d

s = dx
dV = d E s (3.5.1)

`
i
`
j
`
i
`
j k
`
and + dz k
`
, we have E In Cartesian coordinates, = E E E dy + + +
x y z
dV =
(
E
`
i + E
`
j + E k
`
) (
dx
`
i + dy
`
j + dz k
`
)
= E dx + E dy + E dz (3.5.2)
x y z x y z
which implies
V V V
E
x
= , E
y
= , E
z
= (3.5.3)
x y z
By introducing a diIIerential quantity called the 'del (gradient) operator


`
i +

`
j +

k
`
(3.5.4)
x y z
3-10
the electric Iield can be written as
E

= E
x
`
i + E
y
`
j + E
z
k
`
=
j
,
V
`
i +
V
`
j +
V
k
`
\
(
=
j
,

`
i +

`
j +

k
`
\
(
V = V
(
x y z
, (
x y z
,

E = V (3.5.5)
Notice that operates on a scalar quantity (electric potential) and results in a vector
quantity (electric Iield). Mathematically, we can think oI E as the negative oI the

gradient V oI the electric potential . Physically, the negative sign implies that iI
V increases as a positive charge moves along some direction, say x, with
then there is a non-vanishing component oI E in the opposite direction ( E
x
0) . In the
case oI gravity, iI the gravitational potential increases when a mass is liIted a distance h,
the gravitational Iorce must be downward.

V / x > 0 ,
II the charge distribution possesses spherical symmetry, then the resulting electric Iield is

( ) a Iunction oI the radial distance r, i.e., E = E r` . In this case, dV = E dr. II V r is
r r

known, then E may be obtained as
E

= E
r
r` =
,
j dV
(
\
r`
(3.5.6)
(
dr
,
For example, the electric potential due to a point charge q is V r ( ) = q / 4
0
r . Using the

above Iormula, the electric Iield is simply E = ( 4 q/
0
r
2
)r` .
3.5.1 Gradient and Equipotentials
Suppose a system in two dimensions has an electric potential V x y ( , ) . The curves
characterized by constant V x y ( , ) are called equipotential curves. Examples oI
equipotential curves are depicted in Figure 3.5.1 below.
Figure 3.5.1 Equipotential curves
3-11
In three dimensions we have equipotential surIaces and they are described by

V x y z ( , , ) constant. Since E = V, we can show that the direction oI E is always
perpendicular to the equipotential through the point. Below we give a prooI in two
dimensions. Generalization to three dimensions is straightIorward.
Proof:
ReIerring to Figure 3.5.2, let the potential at a point P x y ( , ) be ( , V x y) . How much is
V changed at a neighboring point ( + dx y + dy ) ? Let the diIIerence be written as P x ,
( + dx y , + dy ) ( , ) dV =V x V x y
=
,
( , ) + dx + dy +
]
( , )
,
V x y
V V ]
V x y
V
dx +
V
dy
(3.5.7)

x y
]
x y
Figure 3.5.2 Change in V when moving Irom one equipotential curve to another
With the displacement vector given by d s

= dx
`
i + dy
`
j , we can rewrite dV as

dV =
,
j

V
x
`
i +


V
y
`
j
(
\

(
dx
`
i + dy
`
j
)
= ( V) ds = E ds

(3.5.8)
( ,
II the displacement ds

is along the tangent to the equipotential curve through P(x,y),
then dV = 0 because V is constant everywhere on the curve. This implies that E

ds


along the equipotential curve. That is, E is perpendicular to the equipotential. In Figure
3.5.3 we illustrate some examples oI equipotential curves. In three dimensions they
become equipotential surIaces. From Eq. (3.5.8), we also see that the change in potential
dV attains a maximum when the gradient V is parallel to d s

:
max
j
,
dV \
(
= V (3.5.9)
(
ds
,
Physically, this means that V always points in the direction oI maximum rate oI change
oI V with respect to the displacement s.
3-12

Figure 3.5.3 Equipotential curves and electric Iield lines Ior (a) a constant E Iield, (b) a
point charge, and (c) an electric dipole.
The properties oI equipotential surIaces can be summarized as Iollows:
(i) The electric Iield lines are perpendicular to the equipotentials and point Irom
higher to lower potentials.
(ii) By symmetry, the equipotential surIaces produced by a point charge Iorm a Iamily
oI concentric spheres, and Ior constant electric Iield, a Iamily oI planes
perpendicular to the Iield lines.
(iii) The tangential component oI the electric Iield along the equipotential surIace is
zero, otherwise non-vanishing work would be done to move a charge Irom one
point on the surIace to the other.
(iv) No work is required to move a particle along an equipotential surIace.
A useIul analogy Ior equipotential curves is a topographic map (Figure 3.5.4). Each
contour line on the map represents a Iixed elevation above sea level. Mathematically it is
expressed as z = f ( , x y ) = constant . Since the gravitational potential near the surIace oI
Earth is V
g
= gz , these curves correspond to gravitational equipotentials.
Figure 3.5.4 A topographic map
Example 3.1: Uniformly Charged Rod
Consider a non-conducting rod oI length having a uniIorm charge density . Find the
electric potential at P , a perpendicular distance y above the midpoint oI the rod.
3-13
Figure 3.5.5 A non-conducting rod oI length and uniIorm charge density .
Solution:
Consider a diIIerential element oI length dx which carries a charge dq = dx , as shown
in Figure 3.5.5. The source element is located at (x,0) , while the Iield point P is located
on the y-axis at (0, y) . The distance Irom dx to P is r = (x
2
+ y
2
)
1/ 2
. Its contribution to
the potential is given by
1 dq 1 dx
dV =
4
0
r 4
0
(x
2
+ y
2
)
1/ 2
Taking V to be zero at inIinity, the total potential due to the entire rod is
/ 2

/ 2
dx
,
2 2
]
V =
4

/ 2 2 2
=
4
ln

x + x + y
]
0 x + y 0 / 2

,
( / 2) ( / 2)
2
+
2
]
]
(3.5.10)
= ln ,
+ y
2 2
4
0 ,

( / 2) + ( / 2) + y ]
]
where we have used the integration Iormula
dx

x
2
+ y
2
= ln
(
x + x
2
+ y
2
)
A plot oI ( ) /V
0
, where V
0
=
0
, as a Iunction oI y / is shown in Figure 3.5.6 V y / 4
3-14
Figure 3.5.6 Electric potential along the axis that passes through the midpoint oI a non-
conducting rod.
In the limit ? y, the potential becomes
,
( / 2) + / 2 1 (2 y / )
2
]
] = ln
,
,
1+ 1 (2 y / )
2
]
]
+ +
V = ln ,
4
0

( / 2) + / 2 1 + (2 y / )
2
4
1+ 1+ (2 y / )
2
]
]
, ]
]
0 ,


j 2 \ j
2
\

4
ln
,
2y
2
/
2 (
=
4
ln
,
y
2
(
(3.5.11)
0 ( , 0 ( ,
j \
= ln
, (
2 y
0 ( ,
The corresponding electric Iield can be obtained as
V / 2
E = =
y

2
y
2
y 2
0
y
( / 2) +
in complete agreement with the result obtained in Eq. (2.10.9).
Example 3.2: Uniformly Charged Ring
Consider a uniIormly charged ring oI radius R and charge density (Figure 3.5.7). What
is the electric potential at a distance z Irom the central axis?
3-15
Figure 3.5.7 A non-conducting ring oI radius R with uniIorm charge density .
Solution:
Consider a small diIIerential element d = Rd on the ring. The element carries a
charge dq = d = Rd , and its contribution to the electric potential at P is
1 dq 1 Rd
dV = =
2 2
4
0
r 4
0 R + z
The electric potential at P due to the entire ring is
V =

dV =
1 R

d =
1 2 R
=
1 Q
(3.5.12)
2 2 2 2 2 2
4
0 R + z
4
0 R + z
4
0 R + z
where we have substituted Q = 2R Ior the total charge on the ring. In the limit z R ,
the potential approaches its 'point-charge limit:
1 Q
V
4
0
z
From Eq. (3.5.12), the z-component oI the electric Iield may be obtained as
V
j
1 Q
\
1 Qz
E
z
=
z
=
z
(
,
4
0 R
2
+ z
2
(
,
=
4
0
(R
2
+ z
2
)
3/ 2
(3.5.13)
in agreement with Eq. (2.10.14).
Example 3.3: Uniformly Charged Disk
Consider a uniIormly charged disk oI radius R and charge density lying in the xy-
plane. What is the electric potential at a distance z Irom the central axis?
3-16
Figure 3.4.3 A non-conducting disk oI radius R and uniIorm charge density .
Solution:
Consider a circular ring oI radius r and width dr . The charge on the ring is
dq =dA = (2r dr ). The Iield point P is located along the z -axis a distance z
Irom the plane oI the disk. From the Iigure, we also see that the distance Irom a point on
the ring to P is r = (r
2
+ z
2
)
1/ 2
. ThereIore, the contribution to the electric potential at P
is
1 dq 1 r dr ) (2
dV = =
2 2
4
0
r 4
0 r + z
By summing over all the rings that make up the disk, we have
R
2r dr
2 2
V =
4

0
R
2

2
=
2

,
r + z
]

2 2
z
]
]
(3.5.14) =
,
R + z , ,
2

0 r + z 0
]
0 0
In the limit , z , R ,
R
2
+
2
= z
j
,
R
2
2
\
(
1/ 2
,
j
,
R
2
2
\
(
z , , 1+ = z , 1+ + ,
(
z
, (
2z
,
and the potential simpliIies to the point-charge limit:
R
2
1 ( R
2
) 1 Q
V = =
2
0
2 , z , 4
0
, z , 4
0
, z ,
As expected, at large distance, the potential due to a non-conducting charged disk is the
same as that oI a point charge Q. A comparison oI the electric potentials oI the disk and a
point charge is shown in Figure 3.4.4.
Figure 3.4.4 Comparison oI the electric potentials oI a non-conducting disk and a point
charge. The electric potential is measured in terms oI V
0
= Q/ 4
0
R.
3-17
Note that the electric potential at the center oI the disk ( z = 0 ) is Iinite, and its value is
V
c
=
R
=
Q
2

R
=
1 2Q
= 2V
0
(3.5.15)
2
0
R 2
0
4
0
R
This is the amount oI work that needs to be done to bring a unit charge Irom inIinity and
place it at the center oI the disk.
The corresponding electric Iield at P can be obtained as:
V
,
z z
]
E
z
= =
,

]
(3.5.16)
2 2
z 2
0
, z ,
R + z
]
which agrees with Eq. (2.10.18). In the limit R ? z, the above equation becomes
E
z
= / 2
0
, which is the electric Iield Ior an inIinitely large non-conducting sheet.
Example 3.4: Calculating Electric Field from Electric Potential
Suppose the electric potential due to a certain charge distribution can be written in
Cartesian Coordinates as
V x y z)
2 2
( , , = Ax y + Bxyz
where A , B and C are constants. What is the associated electric Iield?
Solution:
The electric Iield can be Iound by using Eq. (3.5.3):
E
x
=
V
= 2Axy
2
Byz
x
V
2
E
y
= = 2Ax y Bxz
y
V
E
z
= = Bxy
z
ThereIore, the electric Iield is E ( 2Axy ) i (2 Ax y + Bxz ) j Bxy k .

=
2
Byz
`
2
` `
3.6 Summary
3-18

A Iorce F is conservative iI the line integral oI the Iorce around a closed loop
vanishes:

F

d s

= 0

The change in potential energy associated with a conservative Iorce F acting on an
object as it moves Irom A to B is
U U U =
B

d

s =
B

A

A
F

The electric potential difference V between points A and B in an electric Iield E is
given by

U
B

V V V
B

A
= =

E s = d
q
0
A
The quantity represents the amount oI work done per unit charge to move a test
charge q
0
Irom point A to B, without changing its kinetic energy.
The electric potential due to a point charge Q at a distance r away Irom the charge is
1 Q
V =
4
0
r
For a collection oI charges, using the superposition principle, the electric potential is
1 Q
i
V =

4
0
i
r
i
The potential energy associated with two point charges q
1
and q
2
separated by a
distance r
12
is
1 q q
U =
1 2
4
0
r
12
From the electric potential V , the electric Iield may be obtained by taking the
gradient oI V :

E = V
3-19
In Cartesian coordinates, the components may be written as
V V V
E
x
= , E
y
= , E
z
=
x y z
The electric potential due to a continuous charge distribution is
V =
1

dq
4
0
r
3.7 Problem-Solving Strategy: Calculating Electric Potential
In this chapter, we showed how electric potential can be calculated Ior both the discrete
and continuous charge distributions. Unlike electric Iield, electric potential is a scalar
quantity. For the discrete distribution, we apply the superposition principle and sum over
individual contributions:
V k
e
q
i
=
i
r
i
For the continuous distribution, we must evaluate the integral
V k
e

dq
=
r
In analogy to the case oI computing the electric Iield, we use the Iollowing steps to
complete the integration:
(1) Start with dV = k
e
dq
.
r
(2) Rewrite the charge element dq as
dl (length)
dq =

dA (area)

dV (volume)
depending on whether the charge is distributed over a length, an area, or a volume.
(3) Substitute dq into the expression Ior dV .
3-20
(4) SpeciIy an appropriate coordinate system and express the diIIerential element (dl, dA
or dV ) and r in terms oI the coordinates (see Table 2.1.)
(5) Rewrite dV in terms oI the integration variable.
(6) Complete the integration to obtain V.

Using the result obtained Ior V , one may calculate the electric Iield by E = V .
Furthermore, the accuracy oI the result can be readily checked by choosing a point P
which lies suIIiciently Iar away Irom the charge distribution. In this limit, iI the charge
distribution is oI Iinite extent, the Iield should behave as iI the distribution were a point
charge, and Ialls oII as 1/ r
2
.
Below we illustrate how the above methodologies can be employed to compute the
electric potential Ior a line oI charge, a ring oI charge and a uniIormly charged disk.
3-21
3.8 Solved Problems
Charged Rod Charged Ring Charged disk
Figure
(2) Express dq in
terms oI charge
density
dq dx = dq = dl dq = dA
(3) Substitute dq
into expression Ior
dV
e
dx
dV k
r

=
e
dl
dV k
r

=
e
dA
dV k
r

=
(4) Rewrite r and the
diIIerential element
in terms oI the
appropriate
coordinates
dx
2 2
r x y = +
dl R d =
2 2
r R z = +
2 dA r dr =
2 2
r r z = +
(5) Rewrite dV
2 2 1/ 2
( )
e
dx
dV k
x y

=
+
2 2 1/ 2
( )
e
Rd
dV k
R z

=
+
2 2 1/ 2
2
( )
e
r dr
dV k
r z

=
+
(6) Integrate to get V
/ 2
2 2 / 2
0
2 2
2 2
0
4
( / 2) ( / 2)
ln
4
( / 2) ( / 2)
dx
V
x y
y
y






=
+
, ]
+ +
= , ]
, ] + +
]

2 2 1/ 2
2 2
2 2
( )
(2 )
e
e
e
R
V k d
R z
R
k
R z
Q
k
R z



=
+
=
+
=
+

( )
( )
2 2 1/2
0
2 2
2 2
2
2
( )
2 , ,
2
, ,
R
e
e
e
r dr
V k
r z
k z R z
k Q
z R z
R



=
+
= +
= +

Derive E Irom V
2 2
0
/ 2
2
( / 2)
y
V
E
y
y
y

=

=
+


2 2 3/ 2
( )
e
z
k Qz V
E
z R z

= =
+
2
2 2
2
, ,
e
z
k Q V z z
E
z R z
z R
j \
= =
, (

+ ( ,
Point-charge limit
Ior E
2
e
y
k Q
E y
y

2
e
z
k Q
E z R
z

2
e
z
k Q
E z R
z

3-22
3.8.1 Electric Potential Due to a System of Two Charges
Consider a system oI two charges shown in Figure 3.8.1.
Figure 3.8.1 Electric dipole
Find the electric potential at an arbitrary point on the x axis and make a plot.
Solution:
The electric potential can be Iound by the superposition principle. At a point on the x
axis, we have
V x ( ) =
1 q
+
1 (q)
=
q
,
, 1

1
]
]
0
,
0
x a 4
0
+
]
4 , x a 4 , + , , x a , , x a ,
The above expression may be rewritten as
V x ( ) 1 1
=
V
0
x a , / , / 1, x a +1,
where V
0
= q / 4
0
a . The plot oI the dimensionless electric potential as a Iunction oI x/a.
is depicted in Figure 3.8.2.
Figure 3.8.2
As can be seen Irom the graph, ( ) x a / = 1 , where the charges are V x diverges at
located.
3-23
3.8.2 Electric Dipole Potential
Consider an electric dipole along the y-axis, as shown in the Figure 3.8.3. Find the
electric potential V at a point P in the x-y plane, and use V to derive the corresponding
electric Iield.
Figure 3.8.3
By superposition principle, the potential at P is given by
1 j q q \
V =

V
i
=
,

(
i
4
0 (
r
+
r
,
where r

2
= r
2
+ a
2
2 cos . II we take the limit where r a ra , then
r
1 1
r

1+ ( / )
2
a r ]
]
1/ 2
=
1
r
,
,
1
1
2
a r
2
( / ) cos
]
]
= , a r 2( / ) cos ( / ) a r +

]
and the dipole potential can be approximated as
q ,
,
1
1
( / ) a r
2
+ a r 1+
1
a r
2
+ ( / ) cos
]
]
V = ( / ) cos ( / ) a r +
4
0
r

2 2
]
2 cos pcos

`

q

a
=
2
=
p r
2
4
0
r r 4
0
r 4
0
r
where p

= 2aq
`
jis the electric dipole moment. In spherical polar coordinates, the gradient
operator is

1
`
1
= r` + + `
r r r sin
3-24
Since the potential is now a Iunction oI both r and , the electric Iield will have
components along the r` and
`
directions. Using E

= V , we have
E
r
=
V
=
p cos
3
, E

=
1 V
=
p sin
3
, E

= 0
r 2
0
r r 4
0
r
3.8.3 Electric Potential of an Annulus
Consider an annulus oI uniIorm charge density , as shown in Figure 3.8.4. Find the
electric potential at a point P along the symmetric axis.
Figure 3.8.4 An annulus oI uniIorm charge density.
Solution:
Consider a small diIIerential element dA at a distance r away Irom point P. The amount
oI charge contained in dA is given by
dq = dA = ( ' r d )dr '
Its contribution to the electric potential at P is
1 dq 1 ' ' r dr d
dV = =
2 2
4
0
r 4
0 r ' + z
Integrating over the entire annulus, we obtain
b 2
r dr d ' ' 2
b
r ds '
2 2 2 2
V =

= =
,
b + z a + z
]

]
4
0
a 0
r '
2
+ z
2
4
0

a
r '
2
+ z
2
2
0

where we have made used oI the integral
3-25
ds s

2 2
= s
2
+ z
2
s + z
Notice that in the limit a 0 and b R, the potential becomes
V =
2

0
,

R
2
+ z
2
, ,
]
z
]
which coincides with the result oI a non-conducting disk oI radius R shown in Eq.
(3.5.14).
3.8.4 Charge Moving Near a Charged Wire
A thin rod extends along the z-axis Irom z = d to z = d . The rod carries a positive
charge Q uniIormly distributed along its length 2d with charge density = / 2 Q d .
(a) Calculate the electric potential at a point z > d along the z-axis.
(b) What is the change in potential energy iI an electron moves Irom z = 4d to z = 3d ?
(c) II the electron started out at rest at the point z = 4d , what is its velocity at z = 3d ?
Solutions:
(a) For simplicity, let`s set the potential to be zero at inIinity, V( ) = 0 . Consider an
inIinitesimal charge element dq = dz located at a distance z ' along the z-axis. Its
contribution to the electric potential at a point z > d is
dz '
dV =
4
0
z z '
Integrating over the entire length oI the rod, we obtain
( ) =

z d
dz'
=

ln
,
j z + d
(
\

V z
4
0
+
z z' 4
0
( ,
z d
z d
(b) Using the result derived in (a), the electrical potential at z = 4d is
4 + 5 \
( = 4 ) = ln
j d d
(
\
= ln
,
j
(
V z d
,
4
0
(
4d d
,
4
0
3
,

(
Similarly, the electrical potential at z = 3d is
3-26
3d d \ j +
V z d ( = 3 ) =

ln
(
,

(
=
4
ln2
4
0
3d d
,

0
The electric potential diIIerence between the two points is
6 j \
= (z = 3 ) (z = 4 ) = ln
, (
> 0 V V d V d
4
0
( ,
5
Using the Iact that the electric potential diIIerence V is equal to the change in potential
energy per unit charge, we have
U q V
, , 6 e j \
= = ln
, (
< 0
0
( ,
4 5
where q = , , e is the charge oI the electron.
(c) II the electron starts out at rest at z = 4d then the change in kinetic energy is
1
2
K = mv
2
f
By conservation oI energy, the change in kinetic energy is
, , 6
K =
e j \
= U ln
, (
> 0
4
0
( ,
5
Thus, the magnitude oI the velocity at z = 3d is
2, , 6 e j \
v
f
= ln
, (
4
0
m 5
( ,
3.9 Conceptual Questions
1. What is the diIIerence between electric potential and electric potential energy?
2. A uniIorm electric Iield is parallel to the x-axis. In what direction can a charge be
displaced in this Iield without any external work being done on the charge?
3. Is it saIe to stay in an automobile with a metal body during severe thunderstorm?
Explain.
3-27
4. Why are equipotential surIaces always perpendicular to electric Iield lines?
5. The electric Iield inside a hollow, uniIormly charged sphere is zero. Does this imply
that the potential is zero inside the sphere?
3-28
MIT OpenCourseWare
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8.02SC Physics II: Electricity and Magnetism
Fall 2010
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