Totipotent Ones Answers to the Do You Understand the Concept Questions

Chapter 5: Cell Membranes and Signaling

Do You Understand Concept 5.1?

What are the differences between peripheral and integral membrane proteins? Answer: Peripheral membrane proteins lack exposed hydrophobic groups and are not embedded in the lipid bilayer. Their charged, or polar, regions interact with parts of integral membrane proteins or with phospholipid molecules. Integral membrane proteins are partly embedded in the phospholipid bilayer and contain exposed hydrophobic regions in the embedded regions. Why do phospholipids shaken in a water environment assemble into vesicles surrounded by a lipid bilayer? Answer: The bilayer formation is the only way the lipid molecule can exist in an aqueous environment, given its structure with hydrophilic heads, which interact with water, and nonpolar tails, which interact with one another. What is the evidence for membrane fluidity? Answer: The evidence includes cell hybridization experiments, in which tagged membrane proteins were observed to intermix in the plane of the membrane, showing diffusion, and fluorescence photobleaching experiments, in which tagged lipids were shown to diffuse into a hole in the plane of the membrane where the tag on lipids had been bleached. If cells that recognize and attach to one another are separated, they reaggregate because of binding between their membrane glycoproteins. What would happen if the same experiment were conducted with cells treated to remove cell surface carbohydrates? Answer: The cells would not be able to reaggregate because they depend on glycoproteins, which contain carbohydrates, to serve as recognition sites.

Do You Understand Concept 5.2?

What properties of a substance determine whether, and how fast, it will diffuse across a membrane? Answer: The rate of diffusion depends on the size of the molecule, its polarity, the temperature of the solution, and the concentration gradient in the system. Compare the process of facilitated diffusion through a channel and by a carrier protein. Which might be faster, and why? Answer: A channel facilitates diffusion by its structure, which allows certain molecules to pass. A carrier protein in the membrane actually binds to the molecule and speeds up diffusion when the carrier protein changes its shape to release the molecule on the other side of the membrane. Because carrier-mediated transport involves several steps, it might be slower than a channel, which is simple diffusion. After celery is stored in an open refrigerator for two days, it is wilted. However, immersing the cut stalk in water for a few hours restores the integrity of the celery. How? Answer: The concentration gradient for water is in favor of it entering the cells depleted after storage. Water diffuses back into the cells along that gradient. This creates turgor pressure in the celery cells, restoring the stalks to their original crispness.

Do You Understand Concept 5.3?

Why is energy required for active transport? Answer: Active transport must overcome the concentration gradient of a molecule and transport it in the opposite direction of its tendency to diffuse. The drug ouabain inhibits the activity of the Na+K+ pump. A nerve cell is incubated in ouabain. Make a table in which you predict what would happen to the concentrations of Na+ and K+ inside the cell, as a result of the action of ouabain. Answer: Na+ inside cell with ouabain Na+ would increase as it diffuses into the cell along its concentration gradient K+ inside cell with ouabain K+ would decrease as it diffuses out of the cell along its concentration gradient

How would you use experiments to distinguish between the following two ways for glucose to enter a cell: facilitated diffusion via a carrier protein and secondary active transport? Answer: Experiments that alter the concentration gradient could be used to distinguish between carrier proteins, which work with the gradient and secondary active transport, which works against it. In addition, an ATP inhibitor would block active transport-mediated processes, while carrier-mediated transport would be unaffected.

Do You Understand Concept 5.4?

What is the difference between phagocytosis and pinocytosis? Answer: In phagocytosis part of the plasma membrane engulfs a particle or macromolecular aggregate, forming an endocytic vesicle. In pinocytosis, a smaller vesicle also forms but surrounds fluids and small dissolved substances instead of particles. Would a small molecule such as an amino acid enter a cell by receptor-mediated endocytosis? Answer: No, receptor-mediated endocytosis is used to ingest macromolecules. A small amino acid would enter via facilitated diffusion or active transport. Exocytosis involves the fusion of the membranes of a vesicle and the plasma membrane. Explain how this might occur. Answer: Conditions within the cell might change and signal the vesicle to migrate to the membrane, fuse, and release its contents. The vesicle membrane and plasma membrane must fuse, and then a breakage must occur at the point of fusion to the outside of the cell.

Do You Understand Concept 5.5?

What are the three major steps in cell signaling? Answer: The signaling molecule binds to its receptor, the signal is transduced and amplified, and the cell responds to the signal. What are the differences and similarities between ion channel receptors and G protein linked receptors?

Answer: Ion channel receptors act as gates in the cell membrane, allowing entry of a particular ion. A G protein linked receptor actually binds a specific molecule, but only the cytoplasmic region of the receptor changes its conformation, activating a G protein on the inner surface of the membrane. If an intact cell is treated with an enzyme that hydrolyzes proteins, will the cell be able to receive any environmental signals? Explain. Answer: No. Receptors are proteins.

Do You Understand Concept 5.6?

Compare first messengers (e.g., hormones) with second messengers (e.g., cAMP) with regard to their chemical nature, where and when they are made, and locations of synthesis and activity. Answer: First messengers Steroids, proteins, or peptides Made by specific cells (endocrine glands in vertebrates) Made when needed, respond to environmental signal Transported to site of action in blood Extracellular Second messengers Small molecules or ions Made by most cells Made in response to internal signal binding Often made at plasma membrane Intracellular

Outline the steps in the amplification of signaling by epinephrine, resulting in the release of glucose to the bloodstream. At each step, is the amplification due to a covalent or noncovalent interaction? Answer: One molecule of epinephrine binds to the cell membrane of liver cells and activates 20 molecules of cAMP, which activate 20 molecules of protein kinase A. These activate 100 molecules of phosphorylase kinase, which activates 1,000 molecules of glycogen phosphorylase. These produce 10,000 molecules of glucose 1-phosphate, which produce 10,000 molecules of glucose. The activation events are noncovalent. What would happen to a liver cell exposed to epinephrine and at the same time to a drug that inhibits protein kinase A? To epinephrine and to a drug that inhibits the hydrolysis of GTP? Answer: A liver cell exposed to epinephrine and protein kinase A inhibitor would initiate a response but not complete it. Epinephrine would bind and activate cAMP, and then depending on where and how the antagonist drug is active, protein kinase A would either not be activated at all or would be unable to work on its target, phosphorylase kinase. Thus the response would stop. If GTP were not hydrolyzed, it would continue to activate an effector protein to further amplify the signal, thus the response to epinephrine would be sustained. Biochemist Robert Furchgott studied how acetylcholine, released from nerve cells, causes smooth muscles surrounding arteries to relax, dilating the arteries. He found that the smooth muscles in an intact artery section would relax, but if the endothelial cells lining the blood vessel were removed, the addition of acetylcholine would not cause dilation. A second messenger was proposed. How would you investigate this hypothesis? (Hint: see Figure 5.15.) Answer: In order to prove the existence of a second messenger, the endothelial cells could be separated into their cytoplasmic and membrane components. Applying acetylcholine to the membrane fragments to activate receptors and then removing the fragments would leave a solution containing only the suspected second messenger. If the solution applied to the blood vessels causes them to dilate, there must be a second messenger produced within the endothelial cells.