00CHAPTER OUTLINE

Personality is the unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings and actions that characterize a person. I0. THE PSYCHO Y!"#IC "PP$O"CH How did paralyzed patients lead Freud to psychoanalysis? Sig%und &reud treated 'neurotic( disorders)*lindness, paral+sis)for ,hich no ph+sical cause could *e found and that could *e re%o-ed ,ith h+pnosis. This led hi% to *elie-e in psychic determinism, the idea that personalit+ and *eha-ior are caused *+ ps+chological factors),hat one thin.s and feels)%ore than *+ *iolog+ or current e-ents. &reud held that one %ight *e una,are of one/s ps+chic deter%inants. &ro% these ideas &reud de-eloped psychoanalysis, a theor+ of personalit+ and treat%ent of %ental disorders. This theor+ *eca%e the *asis of the psychodynamic approach, ,hich assu%es that -arious unconscious ps+chological processes interact to deter%ine our thoughts, feelings, and *eha-ior. "0. The Structure of Personalit+ &reud clai%ed that personalit+ de-elops fro% a personal struggle to %eet in*orn *asic needs in a ,orld that %a+ frustrate such efforts. 00. Id, Ego, and Superego &reud sa, the personalit+ as %ade of three *asic co%ponents1 id, ego, and superego. a02 The id contains the *asic in*orn instincts for food, ,ater, se3, and so on. The life instincts underlie *eha-iors to satisf+ needs for positi-e ele%ents li.e lo-e or .no,ledge, and death instincts underlie aggressi-e and destructi-e *eha-iors. The id operates on the pleasure principle, ,hich see.s i%%ediate satisfaction, regardless of societ+/s rules or the rights of others. *02 The ego operates on the reality principle and organizes ,a+s to get ,hat a person ,ants ,hile ta.ing into account the constraints of the real ,orld. c02 The superego de-elops as one internalizes parental and societal -alues. The superego houses the person/s sense of %oralit+4 the 'shoulds( and 'should nots( of ho, to *eha-e. It is 5ust as unreasona*le as the id in its de%ands. 60. Conflicts and efenses a02 &reud sa, *asic needs and urges 7id2, reason 7ego2, and %oralit+ 7superego2 as co%peting ,ith each other, causing an3iet+ and intrapsychic or psychodynamic conflicts. The ego/s 5o* is to pre-ent an3iet+ and guilt that %ight arise if unconscious, sociall+ unaccepta*le urges *eca%e conscious. The ego %a+ use -arious pro*le%8sol-ing strategies to acco%plish this. *02 The ego %a+ also use defense mechanismsunconscious tactics that protect against an3iet+ and guilt *+ either person *+ either pre-enting threatening %aterial fro% surfacing or disguising it ,hen it does. 7020 Ta*le 00.0 descri*es repression, rationalization, pro5ection, reaction for%ation, su*li%ation, displace%ent, denial, and co%pensation. 90. Stages of Personalit+ e-elop%ent &reud argued that personalit+ de-elops during childhood through a series of psychosexual stages. &ailure to resol-e a stage/s conflicts lea-es one fixated, unconsciousl+ preoccupied ,ith the pleasure area associated ,ith that stage. The stage at ,hich a person *eco%es fi3ated in childhood can *e seen in adult personalit+ characteristics.

00. The Oral Stage a02 uring the first +ear of life the %outh is the center of pleasure. *02 :hen oral needs are neglected or o-erindulged, pro*le%s arise that %a+ lead to adult characteristics such as tal.ati-eness, s%o.ing, o-ereating, drin.ing e3cessi-el+, or '*iting( sarcas%. 60. The "nal Stage a02 The anal stage, during the second +ear, occurs ,hen the ego de-elops to cope ,ith parental de%ands for sociall+ appropriate *eha-ior. In :estern cultures, it coincides ,ith toilet training. *02 If toilet training is too la3 or too harsh, pro*le%s arise. "nall+ fi3ated adults can *e sting+, stu**orn, and o*sessed ,ith orderliness or) con-ersel+)%a+ *e slopp+, disorganized, and i%pulsi-e. ;0. The Phallic Stage a02 The phallic stage occurs *et,een the ages of three and fi-e, ,hen the focus of pleasure shifts to the genital area. *02 " *o+/s id i%pulses in-ol-e se3ual desire for the %other and a desire to eli%inate, e-en .ill, the father. This is the Oedipus complex. The ego represses these desires, and e-entuall+ a *o+ identifies ,ith his father and *egins to de-elop a superego. c02 " girl *egins ,ith a strong attach%ent to her %other. She de-elops penis envy, ,hen she realizes she is %issing a penis, and transfers her lo-e to her father. This is the Electra complex. The child e-entuall+ represses the conflict, identifies ,ith her %other, and *egins to de-elop a superego. d02 &i3ation at the phallic stage includes adult pro*le%s, such as difficulties ,ith authorit+ figures and pro*le%s %aintaining a sta*le lo-e relationship. <0. The =atenc+ Period In the latency period, *et,een ages si3 and adolescence, se3ual i%pulses lie dor%ant as one focuses on education, sa%e8se3 pla+, and the de-elop%ent of social s.ills. >0. The ?enital Period The genital stage *egins in adolescence and continues the rest of one/s life. The qualit+ of relationships and the degree of fulfill%ent e3perienced during this stage are directl+ affected *+ ho, intraps+chic conflicts ,ere resol-ed during the earlier stages. C0. @ariations on &reud/s Personalit+ Theor+ Neo-Freudian theorists re-ised &reud/s ideas, still stressing %an+ *asic ideas in &reud/s theor+, *ut de-eloping their o,n approaches. Ego-psychologists %odified &reud/s ideas to e%phasize the ego %ore than the id. 00. Aung/s "nal+tical Ps+cholog+ a02 One of &reud/s %ost pro%inent dissenters, Carl Aung/s approach e%phasized people/s innate dri-e for creati-it+, gro,th8oriented resolution of conflicts, and producti-e *lending of *asic i%pulses ,ith real8,orld de%ands. *02 He suggested that people graduall+ de-elop differing degrees of introversion or extraversion, along ,ith differing tendencies to rel+ on specific ps+chological functions, such as thin.ing -ersus feeling. 60. Other !eo8&reudian Theorists a02 "lfred "dler e%phasized that the %ost i%portant innate factor dri-ing the de-elop%ent of personalit+ ,as a desire to o-erco%e infantile feelings of helplessness and gain control o-er the en-iron%ent.

*02 Eri. Eri.son, Erich &ro%%, and Harr+ Stac. Sulli-an argued that, once *iological needs are %et, the atte%pt to %eet social needs is the %ain shaper of personalit+. c02 Baren Horne+, the first fe%inist personalit+ theorist, argued that it ,as %en ,ho en-+ ,o%en 7wom envy2 rather than ,o%en/s en-+ing %en. 0. Conte%porar+ Ps+chod+na%ic Theories 00. ! "ect relations theory focuses on ho, earl+ relationships, particularl+ ,ith their parents, affect ho, people percei-e and relate to other people later in life. 60. #ttachment theory focuses specificall+ on earl+ attach%ent processes and ho, -ariations in attach%ent are related to different adult characteristics and social *eha-iors. E0. E-aluating the Ps+chod+na%ic "pproach 00. &reud de-eloped the %ost co%prehensi-e and influential personalit+ theor+ e-er proposed. So%e of his ideas ha-e recei-ed support fro% research on cogniti-e processes. He also sti%ulated the de-elop%ent of personalit+ assess%ent techniques. 60. &reud/s ps+chod+na%ic approach has se-eral ,ea.nesses. a02 His sa%ple ,as unrepresentati-e, co%posed pri%aril+ of ,ealth+ and %entall+ trou*led ,o%en ,ho ,ere raised in a societ+ that sa, discussion of se3 as unci-ilized. *02 &reud/s theor+ reflected :estern European and !orth "%erican cultural -alues, ,hich %a+ or %a+ not *e helpful in understanding people in other cultures. c02 &reud %a+ also ha-e %odified reports of ,hat happened during therap+ to *etter fit his theor+ and as.ed his patients leading questions. d02 &reud/s *elief that ,o%en en-+ %ale anato%+ and his focus on %ale ps+chose3ual de-elop%ent has also *een attac.ed. e02 &reud/s theor+ ,as not -er+ scientific. #an+ of his ideas are not %easura*le or testa*le. His theor+ ignores that %uch of hu%an *eha-ior is consciousl+ deter%ined and is %oti-ated *+ %ore than i%pulse gratification. II0. THE T$"IT "PP$O"CH $hat personality traits are most asic? Personalit+ traits are tendencies that help direct ho, a person usuall+ thin.s and *eha-es. The trait approach %a.es three *asic assu%ptions1 Personalit+ traits re%ain relati-el+ sta*le and predicta*le o-er ti%e4 personalit+ traits re%ain relati-el+ sta*le across situations4 and people differ ,ith regard to ho, %uch of a particular personalit+ trait the+ possess. "0. Earl+ Trait Theories 00. ?ordon "llport suggested ho, traits %ight co%*ine to for% unique personalities. a02 %entral traits *roadl+ characterize a person/s *eha-ior in %an+ settings. *02 &econdary traits are situation8specific, t+pif+ing far less *eha-ior. 60. $a+%ond Cattell ,as interested in personalit+ traits that people share. a02 Cattell used a statistical %ethod called factor analysis to stud+ ,hich traits are correlated ,ith one another. *02 Cattell found si3teen clusters of traits that he *elie-ed %a.e up the *asic di%ensions of personalit+. 90. The 9ig8&i-e #odel of Personalit+ 00. The big-five model or five-factor personality model ,as also disco-ered through the use of factor anal+sis. Its factors are openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreea leness, and neuroticism.

60. So%e -ersion of the *ig8fi-e factors relia*l+ appears in %an+ countries and cultures, thus pro-iding e-idence that these factors %a+ represent *asic co%ponents of hu%an personalit+. Note' These fi-e factors can *e re%e%*ered ,ith the %ne%onic !%E#N, ,hich consists of the first letter of each of the *ig8fi-e factors. C0. 9iological Trait Theories 00. Eysenc()s *iological +rait +heory a02 Hans E+senc./s research using factor anal+sis con-inced hi% that personalit+ can *e descri*ed using t,o %ain factors or di%ensions1 7002 Introversion-Extraversion 7602 Emotionality-Stability *02 E+senc. argued that -ariations in personalit+ characteristics could *e traced to inherited differences in the ner-ous s+ste%, especiall+ the *rain. c02 His theor+ suggests that extroverts inherit lo,er than ideal le-els of arousal and ,ill *e constantl+ loo.ing for e3cite%ent to increase their arousal. ,ntroverts inherit higher than ideal le-els of arousal that lead the% to tr+ to reduce arousal. People ,ho are %ore sta*le ha-e ner-ous s+ste%s that are relati-el+ insensiti-e to stress, and those ,ho are %ore e%otional ha-e s+ste%s that react %ore strongl+ to stress. 60. -ray)s .einforcement &ensitivity +heory a02 ?ra+ clai%s that the t,o personalit+ di%ensions ste% fro% t,o related *rain s+ste%s1 7002 The ehavioral approach system /*#&0 affects people/s sensiti-it+ to re,ards and their %oti-ation to see. these a,ards. People ,ith an acti-e 9"S tend to e3perience positi-e e%otions. 7602 The flight or freeze system /FF&0 affects sensiti-it+ to punish%ent and the %oti-ation to a-oid punish%ent. People ,ith an acti-e &&S are %ore li.el+ to e3perience negati-e e%otions. *02 ?ra+/s theor+ is %ore ,idel+ accepted than E+senc./s *ecause it is supported *+ neuroscientific research. 0. Thin.ing Criticall+1 "re Personalit+ Traits InheritedC 00. $hat am , eing as(ed to elieve or accept? So%e core aspects of personalit+ %ight *e partl+, or e-en largel+, inherited. 60. ,s there evidence availa le to support the claim? "necdotal stories descri*e personalit+ si%ilarities a%ong fa%il+ %e%*ers. Studies sho, s%all *ut significant correlations on personalit+ test scores *et,een fa%il+ %e%*ers. Such correlations are stronger in identical t,ins 7,ho share identical genes2 e-en ,hen reared apart. 9eha-ior geneticists conclude that a*out >0 percent of -aria*ilit+ in adult personalit+ traits is due to genetic factors. ;0. %an that evidence e interpreted another way? Parent8child si%ilarities in personalit+ %a+ co%e fro% their si%ilar en-iron%ental surroundings, especiall+ fro% the %odeling that parents and si*lings pro-ide. Co%pared to t,ins, nont,ins tend to *e affected %ore *+ nonshared environments. <0. $hat evidence would help to evaluate the alternatives? Studies of infants *efore the en-iron%ent e3erts an influence are needed. !e,*orns do sho, differences in temperament, suggesting a *iological and perhaps genetic influence. Studies e-aluating the personalit+ characteristics of adopted children sho, that their personalit+ is %ore li.e that of their *iological fa%il+ rather than their adopti-e fa%il+. #ore research should address ,hich en-iron%ental aspects %ost i%portantl+ shape personalit+.

>0. $hat conclusions are most reasona le? The genetic contri*ution to personalit+ %ost li.el+ co%es as genes influence people/s ner-ous s+ste%s and general predispositions to,ard certain te%pera%ents. These characteristics interact ,ith en-iron%ental factors to produce specific features of personalit+. People appear to inherit ra, %aterials that are then shaped *+ the ,orld into indi-idual personalities. E0. E-aluating the Trait "pproach 00. Trait theories descri*e personalit+ %ore than the+ e3plain it. "nd the+ tell little a*out ho, traits relate to the thoughts and feelings that precede, acco%pan+, and follo, *eha-ior. 60. Trait approaches onl+ gi-e a static list of superficial personalit+ descriptions, ,ithout clarif+ing the d+na%ics of ho, such traits co%*ine and interact in a real person, as ,ell as ho, such traits interact ,ith situations. III0. THE SOCI"=8CO?!ITI@E "PP$O"CH 1o we learn our personality? The social-cognitive approach or social learning approach sees personalit+ as a full set of *eha-iors that people acquire through learning and then displa+ in particular situations. This -ie, e3pands *e+ond traditional *eha-ioris% *+ e%phasizing learned patterns of thought as guiding actions and the fact that %uch of personalit+ is learned in social situations fro% interacting ,ith and o*ser-ing others. "0. Pro%inent Social8Cogniti-e Theories 00. .otter)s Expectancy +heory a02 Aulian $otter argued that learned cogniti-e expectancies guide *eha-ior. 9eha-iors reflect *oth e3pected outco%es and the -alue one places on those outco%es. Thus *eha-ior is deter%ined *+ its re,arding or punishing consequences and *+ an e3pectation that a particular *eha-ior ,ill *e re,arded or punished. *02 People also learn general e3pectancies a*out ho, re,ards and punish%ents are controlled. ,nternals e3pect that their o,n efforts ,ill control e-ents 7'I failed the test *ecause I did not stud+(2. Externals e3pect e-ents to *e controlled *+ e3ternal forces o-er ,hich the+ ha-e no control 7'I failed the test *ecause it ,as too hard(2. 60. *andura and .eciprocal 1eterminism a02 "l*ert 9andura argues that thought, en-iron%ent, and *eha-ior all interact4 each can onl+ *e understood relati-e to the other t,o. Personalit+ is shaped *+ the %utual influence of these ele%ents, ,hich is called reciprocal determinism. *02 In 9andura/s -ie,, one i%portant cogniti-e ele%ent is percei-ed selfefficacy, a learned e3pectation that +ou can perfor% ,ell regardless of past failures or current o*stacles. ;0. 2ischel)s %ognitive3#ffective +heory a02 :alter #ischel/s theor+ is *ased on learned, trait li.e cognitive person varia les)identifia*le di%ensions along ,hich people differ. 7020 The %ost i%portant person -aria*les are encodings 7the person/s *eliefs a*out the en-iron%ent and other people2, expectancies 7including self8efficac+ and ,hat the person e3pects to follo, fro% -arious *eha-iors2, affects 7feelings and e%otions2, goals and values 7the things a person *elie-es in and ,ants to achie-e2, and competencies and self-regulatory plans 7the things a person can do and the a*ilit+ to thoughtfull+ plan *eha-iors2.

*02 The cogniti-e person -aria*les interact ,ith situation -aria*les to produce characteristic *eha-iors called ehavioral signatures. c02 The ne, focus is on si%ilarities *et,een the trait and the social8cogniti-e approach)on the relationship *et,een personal and situational -aria*les and ho, the+ affect *eha-ior under -arious conditions. &our conclusions consistent ,ith 9andura/s concept of reciprocal deter%inis% ha-e e%erged1 7020 Traits influence *eha-ior onl+ in rele-ant situations. 7620 Traits can lead to *eha-iors that alter situations, ,hich in turn pro%ote other *eha-iors. 7;20 People choose to *e in situations that are in accord ,ith their traits. 7<20 Traits are %ore i%portant in so%e situations than in others. 90. E-aluating the Cogniti-e89eha-ioral "pproach 00. The social8cogniti-e approach e3panded the role of learning principles to include sociall+ i%portant areas. Social8cogniti-e principles ha-e also generated se-eral effecti-e treat%ent %ethods for ps+chological disorders. 60. This approach is criticized as reducing hu%ans to *eha-ior8acquiring %achines and neglecting the co%ple3ities and uniqueness of hu%an personalit+. It neglects unconscious processes, su*5ecti-e e3periences, and genetic or *iological issues. I@0. THE HD#"!ISTIC "PP$O"CH ,s everyone asically good? The humanistic approach, or phenomenological approach, holds that personalit+ and *eha-ior are guided *+ one/s unique perceptions and -alues, and *+ an innate dri-e to gro, and fulfill one/s natural potential 7self-actuali ation2. "0. Pro%inent Hu%anistic Theories 00. .oger)s &elf +heory a02 Carl $ogers thought that people ha-e an actuali ing tendency, an innate inclination to,ard gro,th and fulfill%ent that %oti-ates all hu%an *eha-ior. In this -ie,, personalit+ is the e3pression of that actualizing tendenc+ as it unfolds in each person/s uniquel+ percei-ed realit+. *02 $ogers/s concept of self refers to ,ho a person reall+ is)preferences, a*ilities, shortco%ings, desires. &elf-actualization requires a correct selfconcept, one/s understanding of one/s self. c02 The need for positive regard)appro-al of the self fro% others)also shapes actions. :hen others/ e-aluations agree ,ith one/s o,n, or are congruent, the person sees hi%Eherself as 'good(4 this *eco%es part of hisEher self8concept. :hen the feelings people e3perience or e3press %a+ *e negati-el+ e-aluated *+ others, the+ often are suppressed. The sociall+ accepta*le feelings that are e3pressed or e3perienced instead are incongruent ,ith their true feelings and %a+ result in ps+chological disco%fort or %ental disorder. d02 Positi-e regard is usuall+ conditional, co%ing onl+ ,hen conditions of !orth are %et. Conditions of ,orth are created ,hene-er people, instead of *eha-iors, are e-aluated. Thus +ou %a+ learn to *elie-e that +our ,orth as a person depends on sho,ing the 'right( attitudes, *eha-iors, and -alues. 60. 2aslow)s -rowth +heory a02 "*raha% #aslo, sa, self8actualization as a hu%an need, not 5ust a capacit+. He felt it ,as the highest need in a hierarch+ of needs that e3ist in life. Ho,e-er, people often do not see. to %eet this need, *ecause the+ are focusing on lo,er needs in the hierarch+.

*02 He argued that %ost people ha-e a deficiency orientation, a preoccupation ,ith percei-ed needs for %aterial things. This tends to render life as %eaningless, disappointing, and *oring. c02 Those ,ith growth orientations focus on *eing satisfied ,ith ,hat the+ ha-e, ,hat the+ are, and ,hat the+ can do. Such people are %ore li.el+ to ha-e pea( experiences, feelings of 5o+ o-er the %ere fact of *eing ali-e, hu%an, and utilizing their fullest potential. 90. E-aluating the Hu%anistic "pproach 00. The hu%anistic approach fits %an+ people/s -ie,s of the%sel-es. These ideas, ,hich are consistent ,ith the field of positive psychology, ha-e inspired therapies, personal gro,th e3periences, and parental techniques. 60. Critics see the hu%anistic approach as -ague, naF-e, ro%antic, and unrealistic. The+ see this approach as gi-ing too little attention to the role of inherited characteristics, learning, situational influences, and unconscious %oti-ations. So%e hu%anistic ideas are culture8specific, particularl+ the notion of stri-ing to fulfill one/s indi-idual and unique potential. @0. =I!B"?ES1 PE$SO!"=ITY, CD=TD$E, "! HD#"! E@E=OP#E!T In :estern cultures, particularl+ !orth "%erica, %an+ people de-elop personalities that are largel+ *ased on a sense of high self8,orth. The -alues of achie-e%ent and personal distinction are taught to children -er+ earl+ in life. #an+ :estern personalit+ theorists see a sense of independence, uniqueness, and self8estee% as funda%ental to %ental health. #an+ non8:estern cultures, such as those of China and Aapan, discourage people fro% de-eloping a unique and independent self. Children are encouraged to get along ,ith others and to a-oid standing out in cro,ds, lest the+ di%inish so%eone else. In fact, the Aapanese ,ord for 'different( /tigau0 also %eans ',rong.( In contrast to the independent self8s+ste% co%%on in %an+ :estern cultures, cultures ,ith a %ore collecti-ist orientation pro%ote personalit+ de-elop%ent that sees the self as interdependent on others, each person onl+ a fraction of the ,hole. In the Dnited States, a sense of ,ell8*eing is associated ,ith having positive attri utes, ,hereas in Aapan, a sense of ,ell8*eing is associated ,ith having no negative attri utes. In collecti-ist cultures life satisfaction is associated ,ith ha-ing social appro-al and har%onious relations ,ith others. In indi-idualist cultures, life satisfaction is associated ,ith ha-ing high self8estee% and feeling good a*out one/s o,n life. ?ender differences %ust also *e e-aluated. &e%ales in the Dnited States tend to ha-e an interdependent self8s+ste%, ,hereas %ales tend to ha-e an independent self8s+ste%. "0. &ocus on $esearch1 Personalit+ e-elop%ent o-er Ti%e 00. $hat was the researchers) 4uestion? Can +oung children/s te%pera%ent predict their personalit+ characteristics and *eha-iors as adultsC 60. How did the researchers answer the 4uestion? "-ashalo% Caspi and colleagues sought to ans,er such questions in a longitudinal stud+ in ,hich the sa%e group of people ,ere follo,ed o-er a long period of ti%e. The research sa%ple included all children *orn in unedin, !e, Gealand, *et,een "pril 0HI6 and #arch 0HI;, a*out 0,000 people. a02 $esearch assistants o*ser-ed participants at the age of three in a standard situation and %ade ratings on a nu%*er of di%ensions. Each child ,as placed into one of fi-e te%pera%ent categories1 undercontrolled5 inhi ited5 confident5 reserved5 and well-ad"usted. *02 The children ,ere o*ser-ed and categorized again at ages fi-e, se-en, and nine. ifferent people %ade the ratings each ti%e. The ratings indicated that the children/s te%pera%ents sta+ed a*out the sa%e fro% three to nine.

c02 :hen participants ,ere age t,ent+8one, the+ ,ere inter-ie,ed a*out their in-ol-e%ent in ris.+ and unhealth+ *eha-iors *+ inter-ie,ers ,ho ,ere gi-en no infor%ation a*out childhood te%pera%ents. "t age t,ent+8si3, the+ too. a standard personalit+ test and ,ere rated *+ friends on the *ig8 fi-e personalit+ di%ensions. ;0. $hat did the researchers find? The researchers found se-eral significant differences in the personalit+ test results of the fi-e original te%pera%ent groups. &or e3a%ple, those ,ho had *een classified as 'undercontrolled( in childhood sho,ed that the+ ,ere %uch %ore aggressi-e, alienated, negati-e, and hostile than an+ other te%pera%ent group. "lso, there ,ere s%all *ut significant correlations *et,een childhood te%pera%ent and ris.+ *eha-ior in +oung adulthood. <0. $hat do the results mean? :e can %a.e relati-el+ accurate predictions a*out people/s personalit+ and *eha-ior as adults if ,e .no, a*out their te%pera%ent as children. Ho,e-er, it is i%portant to note that, although personalit+ is influenced and shaped *+ te%pera%ent, it is not co%pletel+ deter%ined *+ it. >0. $hat do we still need to (now? :e still need to .no, ,h+ there is continuit+ *et,een te%pera%ent as a child and personalit+ as an adult. The researchers proposed an e3planation that dra,s hea-il+ on 9andura/s concept of reciprocal deter%inis%. The process of %utual influence *et,een personalit+ and situations can continue o-er a lifeti%e. @I0. "SSESSI!? PE$SO!"=ITY How do psychologists measure personality? ". There are four *asic %ethods in assessing and descri*ing personalit+1 0. 6ife outcomes are such things as records of education, inco%e, or %arital status. 6. &ituational tests are o*ser-ations of *eha-ior in situations designed to %easure personalit+. ;. ! server ratings are 5udg%ents %ade a*out a person *+ friends or fa%il+. <. &elf-reports are a person/s o,n responses to inter-ie,s and personalit+ tests. 9. :hile life outco%es, situational tests, and o*ser-er ratings pro-ide direct assess%ent of %an+ aspects of personalit+ and *eha-ior, interviews gather infor%ation fro% the person/s point of -ie,1 0. &tructured inter-ie,s are standardized fro% person to person, ai%ed at gaining specific infor%ation ,ithout ta.ing too %uch ti%e 7for e3a%ple, a quic. %edical screening inter-ie, *efore donating *lood2. 6. !pen-ended inter-ie,s can *e tailored to the intellectual le-el, e%otional state, and special needs of the person *eing assessed C. Personality tests are a standardized, ine3pensi-e ,a+ to gather infor%ation. "s ,ith all tests, useful personalit+ tests %ust *e relia le 7%easure things in a consistent or sta*le ,a+2 and valid 7%easure ,hat the+ clai% to *e %easuring2. The tests are classified as either pro"ective or nonpro"ective. 00. Pro5ecti-e Personalit+ #easures a02 Pro"ective personality measures contain unstructured sti%uli that can *e percei-ed in %an+ ,a+s. Ho, people respond to such ite%s presu%a*l+ reflects their unconscious needs, fantasies, conflicts, thoughts, and other personalit+ features. i02 The +hematic #pperception +est /+#+0, designed to %easure need for achie-e%ent, is a series of pictures sho,ing people in a%*iguous situations. The test ta.er %ust %a.e up a stor+ descri*ing ,hat is happening in each picture.

ii02 In the .orschach ,n( lot +est, people e3plain ,hat each of a series of in.*lots %ight *e. 7Scoring %ethods pa+ attention to ,hat part of the *lot the person responds to4 ,hat features Jsuch as details or colorK appear to deter%ine each response4 the content of the responses4 and ho, unusual the responses are.2 *02 Pro5ecti-e %easures/ results are -er+ su*5ecti-e4 the+ are difficult to put relia*l+ into nu%erical for%. Though supporters clai% that these tests can %easure personalit+ features that people %ight *e a*le to hide on nonpro5ecti-e personalit+ %easures, the+ are su*stantiall+ less relia*le and -alid than nonpro5ecti-e personalit+ %easures and often add little ne, infor%ation a*out indi-iduals. 6. !onpro5ecti-e Personalit+ #easures c02 #onpro"ective personality measures, or o "ective personality measures, as. clear and direct questions a*out a person/s thoughts, feelings, or *eha-iors. The+ are usuall+ in a %ultiple8choice or true8false for%at, can *e ad%inistered to %an+ people at once, and can *e scored *+ %achine. The results are co%pared to norms, a-erage scores fro% others of the sa%e age and gender. 0a02 !onpro5ecti-e %easures can focus on one trait or on %an+, li.e the Neuroticism Extraversion !penness 7ersonality ,nventory, .evised 7NE!-7,-.2, ,hich %easures the *ig8fi-e factors. The !EO8PI8$ is quite relia*le and has successfull+ predicted perfor%ance on specific 5o*s and o-erall career success, social status, and the li.elihood of continued cri%inal *eha-ior. c02 The 2innesota 2ultiphasic 7ersonality ,nventory 7227,2, the %ost ,idel+ used o*5ecti-e personalit+ test for diagnosing ps+chological disorders, consists of >>L true8false ite%s. It has *een re-ised and updated in the ##PI86. i02 The ##PI has ten clinical scales 7groups of ite%s that ha-e pre-iousl+ *een sho,n to correlate ,ith specific ps+chological disorders2 and four validity scales 7groups of ite%s intended to detect if people distort ans,ers, %isunderstand ite%s, or are uncooperati-e2. The person/s scores on the scales for% a profile, ,hich is co%pared ,ith the profiles of others ,ho are .no,n to ha-e certain personalit+ characteristics or pro*le%s. Interpretation of the profile focuses on the pattern for%ed *+ the o-erall pattern in the scales, particularl+ on the co%*ination of the highest t,o or three scales. ii02 Considera*le e-idence supports the ##PI/s relia*ilit+ and -alidit+. iii02 The ##PI86 uses nor%s that represent a %ore culturall+ di-erse population. Ho,e-er, ps+chologists %ust still *e cautious ,hen interpreting the profiles of people ,ho identif+ ,ith %inorit+ su*cultures and %a+ ha-e different perceptions, -alues and e3periences. ;0. Personalit+ Tests and E%plo+ee Selection *02 Personalit+ tests are used to select people for 5o*s. i02 Se-eral researchers ha-e found significant relationships *et,een scores on the *ig fi-e di%ensions and o-erall 5o* perfor%ance. The+ ha-e also *een sho,n to reduce thefts and other disrupti-e e%plo+ee *eha-iors. ii02 Ho,e-er, personalit+ tests are not perfect tools for e%plo+ee selection. 7002 So%e tests %easure traits that are too general to predict specific 5o* perfor%ances. 7602 Traits %a+ influence perfor%ance in so%e 5o* situations, *ut not others. 7;02 So%e e%plo+ees see personalit+ tests as an in-asion of pri-ac+ and that their tests ,ill *e %isinterpreted and hurt their chances for

pro%otion or e%plo+%ent. These concerns ha-e pro%pted the "P" and related organizations to pu*lish ethical standards relating the procedures for the de-elop%ent, distri*ution, and use of all ps+chological tests.

KEY TERMS
"n acti-it+ *ased on the .e+ ter%s could *e used to introduce students to search engines li.e Ps+cI!&O or Ps+c"$TIC=ES. This could *e done as an in8class de%onstration or as an assign%ent. actuali ing tendency /p. 8890 anal stage /p. 8:;0 five factor personality model /pp. 898-89< and 89;0 conditions of !orth /pp. 889-88<0 defense mechanisms /pp. 8:=-8:> and 89?0 ego /pp. 8:=-89:0 Electra complex /p. 8:;0 genital stage /p. 89@0 humanistic psychology /p. 8890 id /p. 8:=0 latency period /p. 8:;0 nonpro"ective personality measures /pp. 8<?-8<80 Oedipal complex /p. 8:;0 oral stage /pp. 8:>-8:;0 personality /p. 8:A0 personality traits /p. 89:0 phallic stage /p. 8:;0

pleasure principle /p. 8:=0 pro"ective personality measures /pp. 8<@-8<?0 psychoanalytic theory /p. 8:=0 psychodynamic approach /p. 8:=0 psychosexual development /p. 8:>0 reality principle /p. 8:=0 self-actuali ation /pp. 889-88<0 self-concept /p. 8890 self-efficacy /pp. 88@-88?0 social-cognitive approach /pp. 89;-88@0 superego /pp. 8:=, 8:;, and 8880 trait approach /p. 89:0