Submarine pipeline
A submarine pipeline (also known as marine, subsea or offshore pipeline) is a pipeline that is laid on the seabed or below it inside a trench.[1][2] In some cases, the pipeline is mostly on-land but in places it crosses water expanses, such as small seas, straights and rivers.[3] Submarine pipelines are used primarily to carry oil or gas, but transportation of water is also important. A distinction is sometimes made between a flowline and a pipeline.[4] The former is an intrafield pipeline, in the sense that it is used to connect subsea wellheads, manifolds and the platform within a particular development field. The latter, sometimes referred to as an export pipeline, is used to bring the resource to shore. Sizeable pipeline construction projects need to take into account a large number of factors, such as the offshore ecology, geohazards and environmental loading they are often undertaken by multidisciplinary, international teams.
Route selection
One of the earliest and most critical tasks in a submarine pipeline planning exercise is the route selection.[5] This selection has to consider a variety of issues, some of a political nature, but most others dealing with geohazards, physical factors along the prospective route, and other uses of the seabed in the area considered.[6] This task begins with a fact-finding exercise, which is a standard desk study that includes a survey of geological maps, bathymetry, fishing charts, aerial and satellite photography, as well as information from navigation authorities.
Example of a submarine pipeline route: the Langeled pipeline.
Physical factors
The primary physical factor to be considered in submarine pipeline construction is the state of the seabed whether it is smooth (i.e. relatively flat) or uneven (corrugated, with high points and low points). If it is uneven, the pipeline will include free spans when it connects two high points, leaving the section in between unsupported.[7] If an Interaction between a submarine pipeline and the unsupported section is too long, the bending stress exerted onto it (due seabed onto which it rests (four possible to its weight) may be excessive. Vibration from current-induced scenarios). [8] vortexes may also become an issue. Corrective measures for unsupported pipeline spans include seabed leveling and post-installation support, such as berm or sand infilling below the pipeline. The strength of the seabed is another significant parameter. If the soil is not strong enough, the pipeline may sink into it to an extent where inspection, maintenance procedures and prospective tie-ins become difficult to carry out. At the other extreme, a rocky seabed is expensive to trench and, at high points, abrasion and damage of the pipelines external coating may occur. Ideally, the soil should be such as to allow the pipe to settle into it to some extent, thereby providing it with some lateral stability.
Submarine pipeline
Other physical factors to be taken into account prior to building a pipeline include the following:[9][10] Seabed mobility: Sandwaves and megaripples are features that move with time, such that a pipeline that was supported by the crest of one such feature during construction may find itself in a through later during the pipelines operational lifespan. The evolution of these features is difficult to predict so it is preferable to avoid the areas where they are known to exist.
Submarine landslides: They result from high sedimentation rates and occur on steeper slopes. They can be triggered by earthquakes. When the soil around the pipe is subjected to a slide, especially if the resulting displacement is at high angle to the line, the pipe within it can incur severe bending and consequent tensile failure. Currents: High currents are objectionable in that they hinder pipe laying operations. For instance, in shallow seas tidal currents may be quite strong in a straight between two islands. Under these circumstances, it may be preferable to bring the pipe elsewhere, even if this alternative route ends up being longer. Waves: In shallow waters, waves can also be problematic for pipeline laying operations (in severe wave regimes) and, subsequently, to its stability, because of the waters scouring action. This is one of a number of reasons why landfalls (where the pipeline reaches the shoreline) are particularly delicate areas to plan. Ice-related issues: In freezing waters, floating ice features often drift into shallower waters, and their keel comes into contact with the seabed. As they continue to drift, they gouge the seabed and can hit the pipeline. Stamukhi can also damage this structure, either by exerting high local stresses on it or by causing to soil around it to fail, thereby inducing excessive bending. Strudel are another pipeline hazard in cold waters - water gushing through them can remove the soil from below the structure, making it vulnerable to overstress (due to self-weight) or vortex-induced oscillations. Pipeline route planning for areas where these risks are known to exist has to consider laying the pipeline in a back-filled trench.
One of a number of reasons why submarine pipelines are buried below the seabed: to protect them against the gouging action of drifting ice features, such as icebergs.
Submarine pipeline
Pipeline construction
Pipeline construction involves two procedures: assembling a large number of pipe segments into a full line, and installing that line along the desired route. Several systems can be used for a submarine pipeline, the choice in favor of any one of them is based on the following factors: physical and environmental conditions (e.g. currents, wave regime), availability of equipment and costs, water depth, pipeline length and diameter, constraints tied to the presence of other lines and structures along the route. These systems are generally divided into four broad categories: pull/tow, S-lay, J-lay and reel-lay.[14][15][16][17]
Simplified drawings showing three configurations used to tow subsea pipelines offshore to the planned installation site (not to scale).
Mid-depth tow: The pipeline is not buoyant either because it is heavy or it is weighted down by hanging chains. In this configuration, the line is suspended in a catenary between two towing vessels. The shape of that catenary
Submarine pipeline (the sag) is a balance between the lines weight, the tension applied to it by the vessels and hydrodynamic lift on the chains.[20] The amount of allowable sag is limited by how far down the seabed is. Off-bottom tow: This configuration is similar to the mid-depth tow, but here the line is maintained within 1 to 2m (several feet) away from the bottom, using chains dragging on the seabed. Bottom tow: In this case, the pipeline is dragged onto the bottom the line is not affected by waves and currents, and if the sea gets too rough for the tow vessel, the line can simply be abandoned and recovered later. Challenges with this type of system include: requirement for an abrasion-resistant coating, interaction with other submarine pipelines and potential obstructions (reef, boulders, etc.). Bottom tow is commonly used for river crossings and crossings between shores.[21]
Simplified drawings of three common systems used for the construction and installation of subsea pipelines (not to scale): S-lay, J-lay and reel.
environments.
In
this
system,
Submarine pipeline
vertical ramp (or tower). There is no overbend only a sagbend of catenary nature (hence the J notation), such that the tension can be reduced. The pipeline is also less exposed to wave action as it enters the water.[26] However, unlike for the S-lay system, where pipe welding can be done simultaneously at several locations along the vessel decks length, the J-lay system can only accommodate one welding station. Advanced methods of automatic welding are used to compensate for this drawback.[27]
The DCV Aegir, a pipelay vessel designed for J-lay and reel-lay.
Simplified drawing showing a typical jetting system for trenching below a submarine pipeline that is lying on the seafloor.
Jetting: This is a post-trenching procedure whereby the soil is removed from beneath the pipeline by using powerful pumps to blow water on each side of it.[34][35] Mechanical cutting: This system uses chains or cutter disks to dig through and remove harder soils, including boulders,[36] from below the pipeline. Plowing: The plowing principle, which was initially used for pre-trenching, has evolved into sophisticated systems that are lighter in size for faster and safer operation. Dredging/excavation: In shallower water, the soil can be removed with a dredger or an excavator prior to laying the pipeline. This can be done in a number of ways, notably with a cutter-suction system, with the use of buckets or a with a backhoe.
Submarine pipeline A buried pipe is far better protected than a pipe in an open trench.[37] This is commonly done either by covering the structure with rocks quarried from a nearby shoreline. Alternatively, the soil excavated from the seabed during trenching can be used as backfill. A significant drawback to burial is the difficulty in locating a leak should it arise, and for the ensuing repairing operations.[38]
References
[1] Dean, p. 338-340 [2] Gerwick, p. 583-585 [3] Palmer & King, p. 2-3 [4] Bai & Bai, p. 22 [5] Palmer & King, p. 11-13 [6] Dean, p. 342-343 [7] Palmer &King, p. 13-16 [8] Dean, Sect. 7.2.2 [9] Palmer & Been, p. 182-187 [10] Croasdale et al. 2013 [11] Palmer & King, p. 16-18 [12] Ramakrishnan, p. 185 [13] Ramakrishnan, p. 186 [14] Dean, p.347-350 [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] Palmer & King, Chap.12 Bai & Bai, p. 910-912 Wilson, Chap.1 Brown, p. 1 Palmer & King, 12.4 Palmer & King, p. 415 Palmer & King, p. 417 Gerwick,15.2 Palmer & King, p. 395 Palmer & King, p. 397 Palmer & King, p. 401 Palmer & King, p. 402 Gerwick, p. 615 Bai & Bai, p. 145 Gerwick, p. 611 Bai & Bai, p. 144 Gerwick, p. 610 Palmer & King, sect. 12.5.1 Ramakrishnan, p. 212 Palmer & King, p. 420 Ramakrishnan, p. 214 Palmer & King, p. 421 Palmer & King, p. 424 Palmer & King, p. 425
Bibliography
Bai Y. & Bai Q. (2010) Subsea Engineering Handbook. Gulf Professional Publishing, New York, 919p. Brown R.J. (2006) Past, present, and future towing of pipelines and risers. In:Proceedings of the 38th Offshore Technology Conference (OTC). Houston, U.S.A. Croasdale K., Been K., Crocker G., Peek R. & Verlaan P. (2013) Stamukha loading cases for pipelines in the Caspian Sea. Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Port and Ocean Engineering under Arctic Conditions (POAC), Espoo, Finland. Dean E.T.R. (2010) Offshore Geotechnical Engineering - Principles and Practice, Thomas Telford, Reston, VA, U.S.A., 520p.
Submarine pipeline Gerwick B.C. (2007) Construction of marine and offshore structures. CRC Press, New York, 795p. Palmer A.C. & Been K. (2011) Pipeline geohazards for Arctic conditions. In: W.O. McCarron (Editor), Deepwater Foundations and Pipeline Geomechanics, J. Ross Publishing, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, pp.171188. Palmer A. C. & King R. A. (2008). Subsea Pipeline Engineering (2nd ed.). Tulsa, USA: Pennwell, 624p. Ramakrishnan T.V. (2008) Offshore engineering. Gene-Tech Books, New Delhi, 347p. Wilson J.F. (2003) Structures in the offshore environment. In: J.F. Wilson (Editor), Dynamics of Offshore Structures. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey, U.S.A., pp.116.
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