1 Lecture Notes on Fluid Dynamics (1.63J/2.21J) by Chiang C. Mei, MIT February 6, 2007 1-6stressstrain.

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1.6

Relations between stress and rate-of-strain tensors

When the uid is at rest on a macroscopic scale, no tangential stress acts on a surface. There is only the normal stress, i.e., the pressure pij which is thermodynamic in origin, and is maintained by molecular collisions. Denoting the additional stress by ij which is due to the relative motion on the continuum scale, ij = pij + ij 2 qi qi , . xj xj xk (1.6.1)

The second part is called the viscous stress ij and must depend on gradients of velocity,

1.6.1

Newtonian uid

For many uids in nature such as air and water, the relation between ij and qi /xi are linear under most circumstances. Such uids are called Newtonian. For second-rank tensors, the most general linear relation is, ij = Cijm q . xm (1.6.2)

where Cijm is a coecient tensor of rank 4. In principle there are 34 = 81 coecients. It can be shown (Spain, Cartesian Tensors) that in an isotropic uid the fourth-rank tensor is of the following form: Cijm = ij m + (i jm + im j ) (1.6.3) Eighty one coecients in Cijm reduce to two: and , and ij = qj qi + xj xi + q ij . x (1.6.4)

where , are viscosity coecients depending empirically on temperature. Note that the velocity gradient is made up of two parts qi 1 = xj 2 qj qi + xj xi + 1 2 qj qi xj xi

2 where eij = is the rate of strain tensor, and ij = 1 2 qj qi xj xi (1.6.6)

1 2

qj qi + xj xi

(1.6.5)

is the vorticity tensor. Note also that (1.6.4) depends only on the rate of strain but not on vorticity. This is reasonable since a uid in rigid-body rotation should not experience any viscous stress. In a rigid-body rotation with angular velocity , the uid velocity is q =r i j k qi = 1 2 3 x1 x2 x3

The vorticity components are not zero; for example, 212 = q2 q1 = (2 x3 3 x2 ) (3 x1 1 x3 ) = 23 . x2 x1 x2 x1

Hence ij cannot depends on ij and only on eij . The trace of ij is qi ii = (2 + 3) = (3 + 2) q. xi where k = 3 + 2 = is called the bulk viscosity. For incompressible uids q = 0; the viscous stress tensor is ij = The total stress tensor is therefore ij = p ij + qi qj + xj xi (1.6.8) qi qi + xj xi (1.6.7)

The governing equations for an incompressible Newtonian uid may now be summarized: D = 0, Dt (incompressibility) (continuity) (momentum conservation) (1.6.9) (1.6.10) (1.6.11)

qi = 0, xi

p 2 qi Dqi = + + fi , Dt xi xj xj

3 after using continuity. The last equation (1.6.11) and sometimes the set of equations (1.6.11), (1.6.9) and (1.6.10), is called the Navier-Stokes equation(s). Now we have just ve scalar equations for ve unknowns , p, and qi . Boundary and initial conditions must be further specied. For example on the surface of a stationary rigid body, no slippage is allowed, so that qi = 0, on a rigid stationary surface (1.6.12)

1.6.2

Non-Newtonian uids

Many uids such as toothpaste, gel, honey, heavy oil (DNAPL), etc., ows like a uid if the shear stress is above a critical value, and behaves like a solid if below. Of geological interest is the mud which is a mixture of water with highly cohesive clay particles. From volcanic eruption, lava can mix with rain, melting snow, or lake water to form mud, which ows down the hill slope, carries along stones, trees and other debris, to cause severe damages. In some mountainous areas, heavy rainfall inltrates the top soil and causes mud to slide and ow into rivers to form hyper concentrated uid-mud. These uids are called non-Newtonian since the relation between ij and eij is nonlinear. We shall only discuss a special model of non-Newtonian uid, i.e., the Bingham plastic model. For simple shearing ow u = u(y ), the constitutive relation for a Bingham plastic is u = 0, c ; y 1 u = ( c ), > c y (1.6.13)

where c is called the yield stress and the Bingham viscosity, both of which depend on the clay concentration C . In three dimensions, the Bingham model can be generalized by introducing the second invariants of the stress and rate-of-strain tensors. The second invariant of the viscous stress tensor is 1 IIT ij ij (kk )2 (1.6.14) 2 2 2 2 = 12 + 23 + 31 (11 22 + 11 33 + 22 33 ) Similarly the second invariant of the rate of strain tensor is IIE 1 eij eij (ekk )2 2 2 2 = e2 12 + e23 + e31 (e11 e22 + e11 e33 + e22 e33 )

(1.6.15)
2

u v 1 + = 4 y x

v w + + z y

w u + + x z

u v u w v w + + x y x z y z

4 The Bingham plastic law is then eij = 0, ij IIT < c , eij = 2eij + c , if IIE if (1.6.16) IIT c .

This is due to Hohenemser and Prager (1936). In simple shear u = u(y ), the only non-zero components of ij and eij are xy and exy . The Bingham law reduces to exy = 0, if |xy | < c , xy = 2exy + c , if |xy | c . In other words, u = 0, if |xy | < c , y u u xy = + c sgn , y y We shall examine some examples later. (1.6.18) if |xy | c . (1.6.17)