Nucleic acids are polymeric macromolecules, or large biological molecules, essential for all known forms of life.

Nucleic acids, which include DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), are made from monomersknown as nucleotides. Each nucleotide has three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. If the sugar is deoxyribose, the polymer is DNA. If the sugar is ribose, the polymer is RNA. Together with proteins, nucleic acids are the most important biological macromolecules; each is found in abundance in all living things, where they function in encoding, transmitting and expressing genetic informationin other words, information is conveyed through the nucleic acid sequence, or the order of nucleotides within a DNA or RNA molecule. Strings of nucleotides strung together in a specific sequence are the mechanism for storing and transmitting hereditary, or genetic, information via protein synthesis. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that encodes the geneticinstructions used in the development and functioning of all known livingorganisms and many viruses. DNA is a nucleic acid; alongside proteinsand carbohydrates, nucleic acids compose the three majormacromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Most DNA molecules are double-stranded helices, consisting of two longbiopolymers made of simpler units called nucleotideseach nucleotide is composed of a nucleobase (guanine, adenine, thymine, andcytosine), recorded using the letters G, A, T, and C, as well as abackbone made of alternating sugars (deoxyribose) and phosphategroups (related to phosphoric acid), with the nucleobases (G, A, T, C) attached to the sugars. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a ubiquitous family of large biological molecules that perform multiple vital roles in the coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes. Together with DNA, RNA comprises the nucleic acids, which, along with proteins, constitute the three major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Like DNA, RNA is assembled as a chain of nucleotides, but is usually single-stranded. Cellular organisms use messenger RNA (mRNA) to convey genetic information (often notated using the letters G, A, U, and C for the nucleotides guanine, adenine, uracil and cytosine) that directs synthesis of specific proteins, while many viruses encode their genetic information using an RNA genome. Some RNA molecules play an active role within cells by catalyzing biological reactions, controlling gene expression, or sensing and communicating responses to cellular signals. One of these active processes is protein synthesis, a universal function whereby mRNA molecules direct the assembly of proteins on ribosomes. This process uses transfer RNA(tRNA) molecules to deliver amino acids to the ribosome, where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) links amino acids together to form proteins. Comparison with DNA

The chemical structure of RNA is very similar to that of DNA, but differs in three main ways:

Unlike double-stranded DNA, RNA is a single-stranded molecule in many of its biological roles and has a much shorter chain of nucleotides. However, RNA can, by complementary base pairing, form intrastrand double helixes, as in tRNA. While DNA contains deoxyribose, RNA contains ribose (in deoxyribose there is no hydroxyl group attached to the pentose ring in the 2' position). These hydroxyl groups make RNA less stable than DNA because it is more prone to hydrolysis. The complementary base to adenine is not thymine, as it is in DNA, but rather uracil, which is an unmethylated form of thymine.[1]

Like DNA, most biologically active RNAs, including mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, snRNAs, and othernon-coding RNAs, contain self-complementary sequences that allow parts of the RNA to fold[2] and pair with itself to form double helices. Analysis of these RNAs has revealed that they are highly structured. Unlike DNA, their structures do

not consist of long double helices but rather collections of short helices packed together into structures akin to proteins. In this fashion, RNAs can achieve chemical catalysis, like enzymes.[3] For instance, determination of the structure of the ribosomean enzyme that catalyzes peptide bond formationrevealed that its active site is composed entirely of RNA.[4]

Poliovirus, the causative agent of poliomyelitis, is a human enterovirus and member of the family of Picornaviridae.[2] Poliovirus is composed of an RNA genome and a protein capsid. The genome is a single-stranded positivesense RNA genome that is about 7500 nucleotides long.[3] The viral particle is about 30 nanometres in diameter with icosahedral symmetry. Because of its short genome and its simple compositiononly RNA and a non-enveloped icosahedral protein coat thatencapsulates itpoliovirus is widely regarded as the simplest significant virus.[4] Poliovirus was first isolated in 1909 by Karl Landsteiner and Erwin Popper.[5] In 1981, the poliovirus genome was published by two different teams of researchers: by Vincent Racaniello and David Baltimore at MIT[6] and by Naomi Kitamura and Eckard Wimmer atStony Brook University.[7] Poliovirus is one of the most wellcharacterized viruses, and has become a useful model system for understanding the biology of RNA viruses. rus Group: Order: Family: Genus: Species: Group IV ((+)ssRNA) Picornavirales Picornaviridae Enterovirus Enterovirus C Subtype Poliovirus [1] TEM micrograph of poliovirus virions. Scale bar, 50 nm. Virus classification Poliovirus, the causative agent of poliomyelitis, is a human enterovirus and member of the

Influenza A virus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Orthomyxoviridae

influenza A viruses Virus classification Group: Group V ((-)ssRNA)

Influenzavirus A Influenzavirus B Influenzavirus C Isavirus Thogotovirus

Family: Orthomyxoviridae Genera Electron micrograph of Influenza A virus causes influenza in birds and some mammals, and is the only species of influenza virus A. Influenza virus A is a genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses. Strains of all subtypes of influenza A virus have been isolated from wild birds, although disease is uncommon. Some isolates of influenza A virus cause severe disease both in domestic poultry and, rarely, in humans.[1] Occasionally, viruses are transmitted from wild aquatic birds to domestic poultry, and this may cause an outbreak or give rise to human influenza pandemics.[2][3] Influenza A viruses are negative-sense, single-stranded, segmented RNA viruses. The several subtypes are labeled according to an H number (for the type of hemagglutinin) and an N number (for the type of neuraminidase). There are 18 different H antigens (H1 to H18) and 11 different N antigens (N1 to N11).[4][5] H17 was isolated from fruit bats in 2012.[6][7][8] H18N11 was discovered in a Peruvian bat in 2013.[5] Each virus subtype has mutated into a variety of strains with differing pathogenic profiles; some are pathogenic to one species but not others, some are pathogenic to multiple species. A filtered and purified influenza A vaccine for humans has been developed, and many countries have stockpiled it to allow a quick administration to the population in the event of an avian influenzapandemic. Avian influenza is sometimes called avian flu, and colloquially, bird flu. In 2011, researchers reported the discovery of an antibody effective against all types of the influenza A virus. Mumps virus is the causative agent of mumps, a well-known common childhood disease characterised by swelling of the parotid glands, salivary glands and other epithelial tissues, causing high morbidity and in some cases more serious complications such as deafness. Natural infection is currently restricted to humans and the virus is transmitted by direct contact, droplet spread, or contaminated objects. It is considered a vaccine-preventable disease, although significant outbreaks have occurred in recent years in developed countries such as America, in areas of poor vaccine uptake. These have allowed the further evaluation and ennumeration of its efficacy (~7585% after two doses of MMR).[1] The mumps virus belongs to the genus Rubulavirus in the family Paramyxovirus and is seen to have a roughly spherical, enveloped morphology of about 200 nm in diameter. It contains a linear, single-stranded molecule of negative-sense RNA 15,384 nucleotides long.

Order: Family: Genus:

Mononegavirales Paramyxovirus Rubulavirus Type species Mumps virus

TEM micrograph of the mumps virus. Virus classification Group: Group V ((-)ssRNA)

Mumps virus is the causative agent of mumps, a well-known common childhood disease characterised by swelling of the parotid glands, salivary glands and other epithelial tissues, Structure The mumps virus is a roughly spherical particle made up of concentric layers of fatty lipids, large protein molecules, and nucleic acid. It is dotted with large 'spikes' made up of protein that enable it to gain entry to host cells. Inside lies a core of a single, long molecule of RNA wrapped up in protein that is released into the cell. Human papillomavirus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "HPV" redirects here. For other uses, see HPV (disambiguation). The Papillomavirus article covers the general biological features of human and animal papillomaviruses. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a DNA virus from the papillomavirus family that is capable of infecting humans. Like all papillomaviruses, HPVs establish productive infections only in keratinocytes of the skin or mucous membranes. Most HPV infections are subclinical and will cause no physical symptoms; however, in some people subclinical infections will become clinical and may cause benign papillomas (such as warts [verrucae] or squamous cell papilloma), or cancers of the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, oropharynx andanus.[1] HPV has been linked with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.[2] In addition, HPV 16 and 18 infections are a cause of a unique type of oropharyngeal (throat) cancer.[3][4] More than 30 to 40 types of HPV are typically transmitted through sexual contact and infect the anogenital region. Some sexually transmitted HPV types may cause genital warts. Persistent infection with "high-risk"

HPV typesdifferent from the ones that cause skin wartsmay progress to precancerous lesions and invasive cancer.[5] HPV infection is a cause of nearly all cases of cervical cancer.[6] However, most infections do not cause disease. Seventy percent of clinical HPV infections, in young men and women, may regress to subclinical in one year and ninety percent in two years.[7] However, when the subclinical infection persistsin 5% to 10% of infected womenthere is high risk of developing precancerous lesions of the vulva and cervix, which can progress to invasive cancer. Progression from subclinical to clinical infection may take years; providing opportunities for detection and treatment of pre-cancerous lesions. Progression to invasive cancer can be prevented when subclinical HPV infection is detected early and regular examinations are performed. In more developed countries, cervical screening using a Papanicolaou (Pap) test or liquid-based cytology is used to detect abnormal cells that may develop into cancer. If abnormal cells are found, women are invited to have a colposcopy. During a colposcopic inspection, biopsies can be taken and abnormal areas can be removed with a simple procedure, typically with a cauterizing loop or, more commonly in the developing worldby freezing (cryotherapy). Treating abnormal cells in this way can prevent them from developing into cervical cancer. Pap smears have reduced the incidence and fatalities of cervical cancer in the developed world, but even so there were 11,000 cases and 3,900 deaths in the U.S. in 2008. Cervical cancer has substantial mortality in resource-poor areas; worldwide, there are an estimated 490,000 cases and 270,000 deaths each year.[8][9] HPV vaccines (Cervarix and Gardasil), which prevent infection with the HPV types (16 and 18) that cause 70% of cervical cancer, may lead to further decreases.

HIV/AIDS. This article is about the virus. For the disease, see HIV/AIDS. For other uses, see HIV (disambiguation). "AIDS virus" redirects here. For the computer virus, see AIDS (computer virus). Human immunodeficiency virus Multiple round bumps on cell surface represent sites of assembly and budding of virions. Genus: Virus classification Species Group: Group VI (ssRNART) Scanning electron micrograph of HIV-1 (in green) budding from cultured lymphocyte. Order: Unassigned

Family:

Retroviridae

Subfamily: Orthoretrovirinae Lentivirus

Human immunodeficiency virus 1 Human immunodeficiency virus 2

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (slowly replicating retrovirus) that causes the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS),[1][2] a condition in humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections andcancers to thrive. Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid, pre-ejaculate, or breast milk. Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells. HIV infects vital cells in the human immune system such as helper T cells (specifically CD4+ T cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells.[3] HIV infection leads to low levels of CD4+ T cellsthrough a number of mechanisms including: apoptosis of uninfected bystander cells,[4] direct viral killing of infected cells, and killing of infected CD4+ T cells by CD8 cytotoxic lymphocytes that recognize infected cells.[5] When CD4+ T cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-mediated immunity is lost, and the body becomes progressively more susceptible to opportunistic infections.

Viral replication

Viral life cycle

Viral replication is the term used by virologists to describe the formation of biological viruses during the infection process in the target host cells. Viruses must first get into the cell before viral replication can occur. From the perspective of the virus, the purpose of viral replication is to allow production and survival of its kind. By generating abundant copies of its genome and packaging these copies into viruses, the virus is able to continue infecting new hosts. Replication between viruses is greatly varied and depends on the type of genes involved in them. Most DNA viruses assemble in the nucleus while most RNA viruses develop solely in cytoplasm.[1] "