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PeterSipes DiscourseAnalysis

Fightthepower: Howtoattackakingwithoutlosingyourhead
Abstract
ThomasMoresUtopiahashadalonghistoryofanalysis,frommanypointsofview.Reduced toitsminimum,Utopiatellsthestoryofafictionallandwithoutrageouscustomsto16thCentury Europeans.ButwhenviewedthroughthelensofBrownandLevinsonspolitenesstheory,itisamodel forhowtogoaboutmakingapoliticalattack.ThomasMorewillmanagehisattackbyincreasingsocial distancebetweenhimselfandEnglandsKingHenryVIIIandrecruitingreadersasZajdmansthird partytoputsocialpressureonthekingtofindtheattackfunny.

Introduction
ThomasMoresUtopiawassomemorablethatitlentitsnametoawholegenreofwriting: utopianliterature.Hedescribesafictionallandwheregoldisforchainingslavesandpeopleare displayednudebeforegettingmarried.ButviewingUtopiaasanamesakeforaliterarygenreignores ThomasMoresphilosophicalintentinwritingit.IarguethatMorelaunchedanattackonHenryVIIIof EnglandinUtopia.ThereasonthatthereissomuchdisputeonthispointisthatMorewasnotfreeto attackHenryVIII.SinceHenryVIIIwasanabsoluteruler,hehadthefreedomtosettlematters.In ordertokeephisheadattachedtohisneck,Moreneededtotendtohowthekingperceivedthebook. HewilldothisthroughhumoranddistancingtheworldofUtopiafromEnglandandtheking. TheexcitingpointaboutapplyingdiscourseanalysismethodstoRenaissanceliteratureisthatwe canseethatthereistrulynothingnewunderthesun.Languagewasbeingusedthenforthesamesorts ofpurposesasnow.

LiteratureReview


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DiscourseAnalysis Sowhatisdiscourseanalysis?Howdoesitdifferfromotherscholarlywork?Jonesdefines discourseanalysisverybroadlyasthestudyofthewayssentencesandutterancesareputtogetherto maketextsandinteractionsandhowthosetextsandinteractionsfitintooursocialworld(2012).So thediscoursepartiseasy.Discourseislanguage,writtenorspoken,inuse.Theanalysisgetstrickier.At itsbase,theideaistoteaseoutwhatisreallybeingsaid,becausepeopledontalwayssaywhatthey mean,andpeopledontalwaysmeanwhattheysay(Jones,2012).Fromhere,allsortsofanglescan beexplored,including,buthardlylimitedto:socialidentity,narrativestructures,ideologyand pragmatics.Whilethispapermaytouchonthoseareas,thereareothersofmoredirectinterest. Intertextuality Noticingandusingintertextualityissecondnatureforpeople.Wedoitallthetimewithout meaningto.Incasualconversation,intertextualityisthequotefromthemovieyousawoverthe weekendwhentalkingtoafriendatlunch.Thetextoftheconversationanditsmeaningrelieson someknowledgeofthemovieyousawovertheweekend.Yourfriendneedssomeknowledgeofthe movietomakefullsenseofwhatyoutoldher.1 Applyingmoreformality,Cullerexplainsintertextassayingthingsindiscoursewhichonehas notexplicitlythoughtorreadbutarerelatedinsomepositivewaytowhatonehasinthepastthoughtor read(1981).Thekeyhereisthatonediscourse,ortextdependingonterminology,relatestoanotherin awaythatallowsforthemeaningintheformergainsmeaningfromthelatter.Infact,intertextualityisso criticalthatCullergoesontostatethattoproduceastrongdiscourseonemustbeanacuteanalystof

IusedtotellmymotherThesearentthedroidsyourelookingforwheneversheaskedaboutatopicIdidnt wanttodiscuss.ShewasnotasfamiliarwithStarWarsasIwas,soshedidntgetthatsheshoulddropthattopicof conversation.Ifyouneedtoseethescenebecauseyouarentfamiliarwiththeintertext,goto http://youtu.be/DIzAaY2Jmsandjumptothe3:12mark.


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intertextuality(1981).Andinfact,allpeopleareanalystsofintertextuality.Indiscourseanalysisthe moveisfromaconversationalorliteraryallusiontoamorerigorousapproachtoapplyingintertextuality.
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Positioning Asmatterofcourse,participantsinaconversationarealwaysbuildingidentitiesforeachother andourselves.Thisidentitybuildingiscalledpositioning,whichDaviesandHarrdescribethisway: Positioning,aswewilluseitisthediscursiveprocesswherebyselvesarelocatedin conversationsasobservablyandsubjectivelycoherentparticipantsinjointlyproducedstory lines.Therecanbeinteractivepositioninginwhichwhatonepersonsayspositionsanother.And therecanbereflexivepositioninginwhichonepositionsoneself.Howeveritwouldbeamistake toassumethat,ineithercase,positioningisnecessarilyintentional.Onelivesone'slifeinterms ofone'songoinglyproducedself,whoevermightberesponsibleforitsproduction(1990). Twothingsjumpout.Firstandforemost,wepositionourselvesandothersonanongoingbasiseither withorwithoutintention.Wedoitwhetherwemeantoornot.Theotheritemisthatitisin conversation.Utopia,whilenotaconversationwithinthedailyusesenseoftheword,isaconversation insofarasabookistheauthorstooltohaveaonewayconversation.3 SohowwillMoreaffectposition?InthecaseofUtopiaitwillbestrictlyverbal,sinceitisa book.DaviesandHarrmakeitclearthatpositioningneednotbeverbal,thoughtheverbalisone component.Infact,thewordsthespeakerchoosesinevitablycontainimagesandmetaphorswhich bothassumeandinvokethewaysofbeingthattheparticipantstakethemselvestobeinvolvedin. (DaviesandHarr,1990).Theseimagesandmetaphorspushthespeakerandlistenerintorolesin manyways.IfIamaddressedasdude,thespeakerispositioningmemuchdifferentlythanaspeaker

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Holymetaintertextuality,Batman!Imtalkingaboutintextualitybyreferringtoabookaboutintertextuality. Anotherwayofputtingit:BecauseIviewthebooksIvereadasconversationpartners,andbecauseIviewmany oftheirauthorsasfriends,Ihaveahabitofinvitingthemintoconversationswithmyphysicallypresentfriends. AllisonGrady,http://ccsummerresearch.blogs.wm.edu/forthebloggers/


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whoaddressesmeasMr.Sipesandevenmoredifferentlythanthespeakerwhoaddressesmeas Sir.Thefirstspeakerpositionsmeasafriendwhosharescertainidentitypointswithme,theseconda moredistantrelationshipthoughstillcloseenoughthatthespeakerknowsmynameandthethirda completestranger.Butaddressformsarenottheonlywaypositioninghappens.IfIwalkintoaprint shop,IpositionmyselfmuchdifferentlyifIsayIwantthistobeincolor,thanifIsayThiswillbe twocolor:blackandPantone183224.4Thefirststatementpositionsmeasaninexperiencedprint buyer.Theotherpositionsmeasaninsider,beIprinterordesigner. Inadditiontotheseroles,thetextcanpositionthereaderasoutsidelookinginbyhowthe readerpercieves[sic]thenarratorand/orauthortobepositioningthem(asreader)oritmaybecreated bythereader'sperceptionofthecharactersthemselves(DaviesandHarr,1990).Readerperception mattersforMore,sincetheking,amongothers,willbereadingUtopia. Whoelsewillhepositionandhow?DavisandHarrnotethatonespeakercanpositionothers byadoptingastorylinewhichincorporatesaparticularinterpretationofculturalstereotypes(1990). Thispointiscritical,asthesecondhalfofUtopiaisanethnographyofthelandofUtopia.Infact,More isnotonlypositioninghiscontemporaries,butallofus.AndthoughMoremaynothaveintendedUtopia astravelliterature,thereareelementssuchascreatingadistinctionbetweentheknownandthe unknown:itispredicatedonconfrontingfamiliarwaysofthoughtandperceptionwithaliennaturaland culturalphenomena(BellerandLeerssen,2007,p.448).Utopiapositionsreadersasoutsiders, whetheritwasMoresintentornot. Face Face,aslaidoutinBrownandLevinson,comesintwokinds:positiveandnegative.Negative

RadiantOrchid,Pantones2014coloroftheyear.http://www.pantone.com/pages/index.aspx?pg=21129


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faceisapersonsfreedomofactionandfreedomfromimposition.Positiveface,whichwillbethefocus oflatersections,isapersonspositiveselfimage(1987,p.321).Thesetwokindsoffaceinteract betweenthespeakerandhearer. Presentedgraphically,thefollowingsortsofactionsshowtheinteractionoffacebetween speakerandhearer.Thisgraphisbynomeansexhaustive.

Threatto Positive face Speaker Apologizing Acceptingcompliment Breakdownofbodycontrol Breakdownofemotionalcontrol Selfhumiliation Confessions Hearer Beingridiculed Beingcontradicted Ssexpressionofviolentemotion Irreverence,mentionoftaboos Gettingbadnews Sinitiatessensitivetopic Ssnoncooperation SmarksHsstatusthewrongwayinan initialmeeting Receivingorders/requests Gettingadviceorreminders Receivingthreats,warnings Gettingoffers Receivingpromises Acceptingcompliments Targetofexpressednegativeemotion

Negative face

Expressthanks Acceptingthanks/apology Excuses Acceptanceofoffers ResponsetoHsfauxpas Unwillingpromises/offers

Figure1:ExamplesofFacethreateningacts(adaptedfromBrownandLevinson,1987). Facethreateningacts(FTA)increaseordecreaseinseverityinaccordancetothreefactors. Thefirstfactorissocialdistance(D)ofspeaker(S)andhearer(H).Thesecondisrelativepower(P)of hearerandspeaker.WithintheDandPfactors,thedirectionoftherelationshipisopposite.D considersthespeakersrelationtothehearer,andPconsidersthepowerthathearerhasoverspeaker. Thethirdistheranking(R)ofhowseriousimpositionsareinagivenculture.(BrownandLevinson, 1987,p.331). Wx=D(S,H)+P(H,S)+Rx


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Aswecansee,therelationbetweenD,PandRisadditivenoonefactorismoreimportant thananyother.Soinlightofthesefactors,whatdoessomeonedowhentheywanttothreatenanothers face?Sneedstoconsiderthreethings:(a)thewanttocommunicatethecontentoftheFTAx,(b)the wanttobeefficientorurgent,and(c)thewanttomaintainHsfacetoanydegree(Brownand Levinson,1987).Tothatend,theyprovideastrategytree.

Figure2:FTAstrategies(adaptedfromBrownandLevinson,1987). Startingfromtheleft,thefirstdecisionpointissimple:doesSdotheFTAornot?Ifnot,5.IfS doesgoforwardwiththeFTA,thereisachoicebetweenonrecordandoffrecord.Anonrecord statementisonewherethereisnootherpossibleinterpretation.Anoffrecordstatementisonewhere thereisatleastoneotherpossibleinterpretation,i.e.implicature.Atthispoint,anFTAcaneitherbe performedbaldlyorwithredressiveaction.AnFTAthathasredressiveactioncanthenmakethat redressthrougheitherpositiveornegativepoliteness(BrownandLevinson,1987). PositiveandnegativepolitenessarethebehaviorsthatflowoutofSsintentionstoH.WhenSis tendingHspositivefaceneeds,Hshowspositivepoliteness.WhenStendsHsnegativefaceneeds,H showsnegativepoliteness(BrownandLevinson,1987).Inessence,whensomeoneindicatestothat theyacceptthepersontheyaretalkingtoasamemberofaningrouporasafriend,thatpersonshows positivepolitenesstothepersontheyaretalkingto.Likewisewhensomeonespeaksandactsinaway


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astominimizetheirinterferencewiththeotherperson,theyareshowingnegativepolitenesstotheother person.Pleasenote:negativepolitenessisnotthesameasimpoliteness.Quitethecontrary,Brownand Levinsonindicatethatnegativepoliteness,alongwithpositivepoliteness,isattheheartofredressive actionactionthatattemptstorestorethehearersfacebeitpositiveornegative(1978).Butpoliteness isnottheonlywaytosaveface. HumorasanoutforFTAs BuildingonBrownandLevinsonswork,Zajdmanfollowsupontheirclaimthathumorisone possiblepositivefacesavingstrategy.Thekeytousinghumorasapositivefacesavingstrategyisto makesurethatthehearerdoesnottakeoffense.Hedevelopsahierarchyofspeakerintentandhearer interpretation. Ssintention Meaningoffense Meaningoffense Notmeaningoffense Notmeaningoffense Hsinterpretation Takingoffense Nottakingoffense Takingoffense Nottakingoffense Ssexpectation insult insult amusement amusement Hsreaction insult amusement insult amusement

Figure3:PossibleresultsofajokingFTA(afterZajdman,1995). Zajdmanpointsoutthatthefirstandlastconditionshavethespeakerandhearerinterpretingthe communicationinthesameway,whichpresentsnoproblemforthespeaker.Inthesecondsituation,the speakerhasnotfulfilledtheirintent,butthespeakercanfulfilltheiraim.Thespeakersimplyhastotry harder(Zajdman,1995).Thethirdcondition,whenSmeansnooffense,butHtakesoffenseisthe problem.ThissituationcanbeassimpleasSisnotawareHmightinterpretanutteranceasderogatory. Inanycase,SisatstrategicadvantagetoH.IfStakesoffense,Scanalwaysclaimtonothavemeant offense,whethertrueornot(Zajdman,1995).


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ButthespeakersabilitytodisowntheirintentonewayortheotherisnotSsonlystrategic advantage.Athirdpartycanalsobecomeaninadvertentallytothespeakeracriticalpoint.Why? Whenthespeakerstartsspeakingthethirdpartyissupposedtoignoretheconversationaccordingto politenesspostulatesbutthenthespeakersaysomethingfunnythatthethirdpartycannotignore.At thispoint,thehearermayprefertosavefacebyfakingamusementagainsthisorherbetterjudgment andallowtheFTAtopassforhumorratherthanadmitopenoffense(Zajdman,1995).Providedthe jokeworks,ofcourse. Analyzingthecorpus Whilenotsomuchatheoreticalmodelofhowdiscoursefunctions,corpusanalysisisapowerful tooltoputquantificationtointuitionsandhunches.Acorpusisatleastonetextpreparedfordigital analysis(Jones,2012).Inthecaseofthispaper,Utopiaformstheprimarycorpus.Jonesemphasizes thatcorpusanalysisisnotdiscourseanalysisperse,butratherthatitprovidesnewperspectivesonthe datathatweremissedusingmoretraditionaldiscourseanalyticaltechniques(2012,p.33). Thoughitispossibletousethetextunderanalysisasthesoleprimarycorpus,itisalsopossible (andevendesirable)insomecircumstancestouseareferencecorpus,whichisanothercorpusthatyou willcompareyourprimarycorpuswith(2012,p.79).Anexampleofareferencecorpuswouldbethe BYUCorpusofContemporaryAmericanEnglish(http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/).Thereferencecorpus maybebroaderthantheprimarycorpusornot,dependingonthepurposeoftheanalysis.

Hypothesis
Turningtowardworldlyconcerns,Moreattackingthepoliticalstructureandnotthereligious structureinEnglandinUtopia,whichmeansthatheisattackingtheking,HenryVIII,andnotthepope, LeoX.Heisgoingtogetawaywiththisattackbecauseheispositionsthekingwellandattendstothe kingspositivefaceasheattackshim.


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AboutThomasMore
St.SirThomasMore(14781535),thoughneithersaintnorknightatthetimehewrote Utopia,wasattheforefrontofEnglishhumanism.Hewasacomplexmanwhowasbothreligiousand scholarly.Nauertnotesthatdespitehisdeeppiety,oneofthestrongestclassicalinfluencesonhimwas thebiting,irreverent,andantireligioussatiristLucian,someofwhosedialogueshetranslatedfrom GreektoLatinabout1503(2006,p.124).Lucian,whoserelationtoUtopiawillbeexploredinThe namingofthingsinUtopia,wasoftenfunny,whichmayhavedrawnMoresattention.Hisfriend Erasmusnotedthatheenjoyedjokingandthatwitalwaysgavehimpleasure,evenifdirectedagainst himself(Curtright,2014,p.14).MoreswitplaysanimportantpartinhowhewillmanagetheFTAsin Utopia. Moreisalsoknownasareligiousman,butthatistooonedimensional.Therewasmoreto Morethanhisreligiousbeliefs.HewasalsoascholarofAncientGreek.ThoughMorejustifiedhis workonLucianbyreferringtotheauthorscriticismofhumanviceandfolly,thetruevalueofLucianfor himwastheauthorsskillatlayingbaretheessentialambivalenceofthehumancondition,torn(asMore himselfwas)bythecontendingimperativesofworldlyandspiritualgoals(Nauert,p.124).AndMore trulywastornbyworldlyandspiritualgoals.AshislifeprogressedhenotonlydefendedhisCatholic faithfromtheReformationonthecontinent,heservedKingHenryVIIIinvariouscapacities(British Library,n.d.).

AboutUtopia
Utopiais,likeanythingelse,aproductofitstimes,andin1516thetimesbelongedtothe humanists.ThehumanistmovementofRenaissanceEurope,withoutignoringotheraspectsofit,an educationalreformmovementthatimpliedabroadgeneraleducation,but[that]alsoimpliedastrong emphasisontheoratoricalskillsandsocialvaluesmostneededbytherulingelite(Nauert,p.13).As


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such,MorewouldnothaveintendedUtopiatobereadbyordinarypeople,aboutwhichmorelater. Further,Moresembraceofthehumanistrhetoricaltacticofinutramquepartem5compels himtoapproachUtopiansocietyfrommanyangles.Indeed,Utopiaissplitintotwobooks:one exploresthephilosophy,theotherdescribestheislandofUtopia.Initsverystructure,Moregivesus twoanglestoconsider,butthereismorebecause[Utopia]isthusnotintendedtobereadasa straightforwardpoliticaltreatise,but,likeErasmussPraiseofFolly,isinflectedwithmultipleironies (CraneinHattaway,p.22).Indeed,Utopiacanbereadasatraveloguetoafictionallandwhere ridiculouscustomsreign,butreaderscanalsochoosetoseeothermeaningsinitthepurposeofthis paper.

Analysis
MoreneededtostrikeadelicatebalanceinUtopia.Hewantedtomakeanattack,buthe couldnotdoitdirectly.ToattackopenlywoulddamageKingHenryVIIIspositivefacesobadlythat someformofretributionwouldhavebeennecessary.Sincehecannotaffecttherelativepower differencebetweenhimselfandthekingnorcanheaffecttherankingofoffense,thenhemustmanage theattackbycreatingsocialdistance.Beforegettingtotheseangles,itisimportanttoestablishjustwhat Utopiaisandisnot. Isitapoliticalattack? LexicalfrequencyofcertainkeywordsinUtopiaprovidesinsighttothisquestion.Obviously Utopiawillbetheprimarycorpus.CicerosdeRepublicaisthereferencecorpus,becauseitisa philosophicaldialogaboutgovernment.6Sincethereissomeambiguitypossibleintheinflectedforms, thefrequenciesarereportedasarange.Comingupwithanexactfrequencyfigureisalargetask,so

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Onbothsides[ofacase],aLatinlegalterm. Ifthatisstartingtosoundlikeagenreofdiscourse,youarethinkingwhatIamthinking.


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CicerosvocabularyisreportedasarangeasfoundatthePerseusDigitalLibrary,whichgivesusa broaderpossibilityforvocabularyfrequenciesinpoliticalworkswritteninLatin. Latinword publicus rex magistratus miles legatus lex princeps English equivalent public king bureaucrat soldier envoy law prince FrequenciesinUtopia 105tokens(38.13/10k) 37tokens(13.43/10k) 19tokens(6.90/10k) 11tokens(3.99/10k) 12tokens(4.36/10k) 50tokens(18.16/10k) 65tokens(23.66/10k) FrequenciesinCicerosde Republica (106.6551.08/10k) (124.12/10k) (10.312.24/10k) (2.240.48/10k) (5.830/10k) (43.0213.00/10k) (34.950/10k)

Figure4:FrequenciesofselectedwordswithpoliticalmeaningsinUtopia Unsurprisingly,severalterms(magistratus,legatus,lexandprinceps)aresquareintherangesin Cicerostext.Eventhewordsthatfalloutsideoftherange(milesandpublicus)arenotsofaroutofthe rangeastolookstrange.Theonlywordthatseemssuspiciousisrex.Cicero,writinginthetimeofthe antikingRomanRepublic,usesrexnearlytentimesasoftenasMoredoesinUtopia(124.12/10kvs. 13.43/10k).Moresomissionofrexisconspicuousbyitsminimalpresenceincomparisontode Republica.Giventhatthefrequenciesofseveralkeywordsareinbroadagreement,exceptingrex,the politicalnatureoftheworkisonsolidfooting. Ifitispolitical,doesthatautomaticallyexcludeareligiousangletoo?No,noristhereneedto judgethatquestionwithoutlexicalfrequencyanalysis.Likebefore,thereferencecorpusisreportedasa rangeasfoundonthePerseusDigitalLibrary,butthistimethereferencecorpusisTertullians Apologeticum,whichisareligiouswork7. Latinword sacer
7

English equivalent sacred

FrequenciesinUtopia 9tokens(3.26/10k)

FrequenciesinTertullians Apologeticum 10.530.50/10k

Morespecifically,itsgenreisapology.


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sanctus deus sacerdos religio

holy god priest religion

8tokens(2.91/10k) 39tokens(14.16/10k) 24tokens(8.71/10k) 29tokens(10.53/10k)

9.52/10k 194.95104.74/10k 3.002.00/10k 17.04/10k

Figure5:FrequenciesofselectedwordswithreligiousmeaningsinUtopia Inthiscomparisonhowever,severalkeywordsUtopiaisbelowthefrequencyrangesfoundin Apologeticum.Thewordsacer(sacred)inUtopiaisinthelowendofthefrequencyfor Apologeticum,butsacerdos(priest)inUtopiaisabovetherangefoundinApologeticum.Icannot exactlyaccountforthisanomaly,butsincesacerdosisthepersonwhoconductsreligiousactivitythe waythatrex(king)andmagistratus(bureaucrat)conductpoliticalactivity,itseemedbesttoincludeit.In anyevent,themajorityofthewordsdealingwithreligionarebelowtherangeonemightexpectina religiousworkbutexactlyontargetforapoliticalwork.Butwhosepolitics? IsUtopiaEnglandindisguise? Definitelyyes.GoodeymapsoutthesimilaritiesbetweentheislandofUtopiaandEnglandinhis paperMappingUtopia:ACommentontheGeographyofSirThomasMore.Withoutgettingintotoo greatofdetail,thesizeoftheislandofUtopiaandEnglandareroughlythesame.Utopiaistwohundred mileswide:soisEnglandinalinefromSt.AlbanstotheNorfolkcoast.Utopiahasfiftyfourcities,and EnglandhadfiftythreeadministrativedivisionsalongwithLondon(Goodey,1970). AdditionallythedescriptionsofLondonandAmaurotaremateriallythesame,particularlyinthe beginning.A1572mapofLondon,convenientlyenough,hasadescriptionofthecityinLatin(Historic Cities,n.d.). DescriptionofLondononthemap haecestregiaillatotiusAngliaecivitas LONDINIUMadfluviumThemesimsita. DescriptionofAmaurot situmestigiturAMAUROTUM,inlenideiectu montis,guraferequadrata.namlatitudoeius pauloinfracollisincoeptauerticem,milibus


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passuumduobusadumenAnydrumpertinet, secundumripamaliquantolongior. Thiscity,thecapitalofthewholeofEngland, ThereforeAmaurotissituatedinthegentleslope LondonissituatedalongtheRiverThames. ofmountainwithanearlysquareshape.Forits breadthbegunjustwithinthepeakofthehill stretchestwomilestotheRiverAnyderanda littlebitlongeralongtheshore. Figure6:DescriptionsofLondonandAmaurot. Thestrikingpartisthattwodescriptionswrittenseparatelyisthattherearemanypointsof convergenceinthedescriptions.Threeelementsareofparticularinterest.Thefirstisthenameofthe city.Bothcitiesarenamedinthefirstsentence.Theverbisalsothesameforboth,thoughthemapsplits theverb(estsita)andMoredoesnot(situmest).Butthetrulystrikingthingisthatbotharebeing describedadfluviumThemesimandadflumenAnydrum.Thedifferenceinmeaningbetweenthe wordsfluviumandflumenisnotlarge,sincetheybothultimatelyderivefromthesameroot,fluere(to flow).WhilethisadditionalinformationsupportsGoodeyspaper,itisalsoworthnotingduetothe strikingsimilaritiesinlanguageuse. UtopiaisEngland.WhateverMorescommentis,itispoliticalandaboutEngland. Settingitupwithpositioning SinceUtopiaisanattackontheking,thefirstthingMoredoesinUtopiaistopositiontheking inapositivelight.First, inuictissimusAngliaeRexHenricuseiusnominisoctauus, unconqueredEnglandsKingHenrythatnameseighth, HenvryVIII,unconqueredkingofEngland Immediatelyfollowedwith omnibusegregiiprincipisartibusornatissimus for.allexcellentprinceswith.artsmost.decorated whoisverywellequippedwithallthevirtuesofanexcellentruler


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Whilethismayseemoverthetoptomoderneyes,itisnotexcessive.MorenextdescribesCharlesVof Spainasmostserene(serenissimo).SoMoregivesHenryVIIImorepositiveattentionthanother kingsnotonlyinnumberofwordsbutalsoinprimacyofposition.FurthermorehesetsHenryVIIIas theactorinthissituation,asheisinthenominativecase.Moreinadvertentlytipshishandinthis asymmetricaldescriptionofkings.Wardaughtellsusasymmetricuseofnamesandaddresstermsis oftenaclearindicatorofapowerdifferential(2006,p.269).Andapowerdifferentialbetween CharlesVofSpainandHenryVIIIofEnglanddefinitelyexistsforMore:hewasasubjectofHenry VIII.Furthermore,immediatelybeforeHenryisthewordnegotium(business),whichisaworkwith positiveconnotationinLatin.CharlesVwasfollowedbycontroversa(controversial),whichisaboutas positiveinLatinasitsEnglishcounterpart.8 ThenamingofthingsinUtopia Inadditiontopositioningthekingpositively,MoreisgoingtopositionUtopiaasanonsense land.HedoesthisbygivingpeopleandplacesinUtopiahavewondrous,evennonsensical,names. NelsonsuggeststhatthenonsensicalnamingsystemconstitutesastructuringforceandthatMores networkofGreekpunsdonotsimplyentertaintheyorganize(2001). Beyondthis,MorehassetupaveryrichintertextualitywiththeGreeknamesintheLatintext. Nelsonsuggestsoneresultofthatintertextuality:MoreistryingtocreateacontrastbetweenGreekand Romannotionsofpolitics,withMorestakingouttheGreekpositionfortheUtopians.TheRomanview isthatlibertyisastatusofnonintervention[and]libertyencouragesvirtue,whichinturnyields

ThefullopeningofUtopia:cumnonexiguimomentinegotiaquaedaminuictissimusAngliaeRexHenricuseius nominisoctauus,omnibusegregiiprincipisartibusornatissimus,cumserenissimocastellaeprincipeCarolo controuersanuperhabuisset


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justice(Nelson,2001).9TheGreekpositionontheotherhandisthatjusticecomesfroman arrangementofelementsthataccordswithnature(Nelson,2001). 10TheGreeknamescertainlydo helpMorestakeouttheGreekposition,buttheydomore. IsuggestthatMoreusestheGreeknamestoalignhimselfwiththeHumanistmovementand createthecentralcontradictionsofUtopia. Inonemove,MoremanagestosticktotheHumanistpurificationofLatintoitsCiceronian coreandrefertothefantasticlandsofLuciansliterature.HegetsthebenefitsofwritinginLatina cultured,educatedaudienceofeliteswithoutviolatingtheemergingLatinlanguagenormagainst makingnewwords.BywritinginHumaniststyleLatin,healsopositionsreadersasbeingculturedand educated.Thispositivepositioningoftheaudienceisimportant,asIwillshowlater. MoresGreeknamesarealsocontradictorypuns,whichallowsforMoretoplausiblyclaimthat thewholethingisajoke.SinceMoreisusingLuciansnamingasatemplate,theeasiestwaytomake thepointistoshowafewofthenamessidebyside. SampleofLuciansnames aeroknps airmosquito thunnokephalos tunahead nsomachia islandbattle11 SampleofMoresnames Utopia Noplace AnyderRiver NowaterRiver Amaurot Notclear

CicerosumsuptheRomanpositionindeofficiis1.20.Justicecomesfromnotharmingotherswithoutcauseand respectingthedifferencebetweenprivateandpublicproperty.AtraditionalAmericanposition. 10 PlatosumsuptheGreekpositioninRepublic,pp.550553.Wealthandvirtue(andbyextension,justice)are opposites,thereforeweneedrulebywisementomakesureweavoidthisproblem. 11 Aseabattlewithislandsintheplaceofbattleships.


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hippomyrmx horseant

RaphaelHythlodaeus(Moresnarrator) RaphaelNonsensedistributing

Figure7:NamesinLuciansATrueStoryandMoresUtopia Tobesure,LuciansnamesaremorefancifulthanMores,butthatobservationmissesthe point.MoreismakingreferencetoLucianwithhisGreekbasednonsensenames,aswellasmakinga joke.Whohaseverheardofanowhereplace?Awaterlessriver?12Anunknowncity?Moresnarrator isevensuspect,sincehisnameimpliesthatheisaliar.Thesenonsensenamesdistancetheworkfrom bothEnglandandpossibleinsulttoHenryVIIIspositiveface,sincetheyallowthekingtointerpret themasajoke. AtthesametimeMorealsobindsUtopiatoAncientGreecebymakinguseofnames reminiscentofLucian.Thisintertextualrelation,duetohispreviousworkwithtranslatingLucian,serves toincreaseUtopiasperceiveddistancefromcontemporarypoliticalcomment. WritinginLatin MostEnglishspeakingreadersofUtopiaencounteritinEnglish,andlikelyassumeMorewrote inEnglish.Rightlyso,MorewasEnglish.ExceptthatMorewroteUtopiainLatin.Why?Blake suggeststhatEnglishwasnotperceivedtobeasrichasLatinorFrenchintermsofvocabulary (Hattaway,2000,p.78).Thatmaybe. Thesimplefactisthat16thcenturyEuropewasdiglossic.Thehigh13languagewasLatin.Itwas thelanguageoflearning,literatureandthechurch.Thelowlanguageswerethevernacularlanguages spokeninthevariouscountriesofEurope.AsWardaughstates,akeydefiningcharacteristicof diglossiaisthatthetwovarietiesarekeptquiteapartintheirfunctions(2006,p.89).Andtheywere

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InEnglandanyway. High(H)andlow(L)aretechnicaltermsintalkingaboutdiglossia.Thereisnothinginherentlyhighorlowabout theindividuallanguagesoutsideoftheirculturalpositionsanduses.


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keptseparate.Latinwasavibrantlanguageinsuchfieldsasreligion,philosophy,politics,diplomacy, law,educationandscience(WheelockandLaFleur,2005).Theassumptionthatamajorworkwould bewritteninEnglishwasstillinthefuturewhenMorewroteUtopia.Shakespearesaudienceonthe southsideoftheThameswouldhavetowaituntil1599fortheGlobetobebuilt.14Evenlater,Isaac NewtonpublishedhisPrincipiainLatin.SotheEuropeandEnglandofUtopiawasstill diglossicLatinwashigh,andEnglishwasnot.Asaresult,MorewouldwanttowriteUtopiainLatin. Buteventhatisnotthewholestory. IwouldarguethatMorewritesinLatinasapositioningtechnique.First,hepositionsevery potentialreaderwhodoesnotknowLatinasanoutsider.Thetextisopaque.Second,Morepositions potentialreaderstheeducatedelitewhodoknowLatinasthirdpartyalliesinZajdmansjoking schema.Asmentionedabove,MorepositionsthemaseducatedandculturedwithhisHumanisticLatin, whichfurtherpredisposedtheaudiencetohispointofview.ByreadingUtopia,theyseeHenry lampooned.MoreispressuringHenrytofindtheattackfunny.SowhataretheattacksMoreismaking ontheking? TheUtopiansclothes Hereisaclearpointofattack.Butwhyclothes?Tworeasons,bothofwhicharerelated,come tomind.First,HenryVIIIworeluxuriousclothestoprojecthismajestyandwealth,oftenonlyonetime (Hayward,n.d.).Second,hewasresponsibleforsumptuarylaws.Thepurposesofsumptuarylaws varied,butthemainpurposesweretokeepthesocialbalanceintactandtoexercisegreatercontrol overthemassesandthenobility(AbitofHenrylove,2012).Soontheonehand,Henryispositioning himselfaspowerfulbywearinghiswealthandkeepingtherestofsocietyintheirpositionaswell.

14

PleasedontaskhowIknowthiswithoutlooking.


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TheUtopiansdidthingsdifferently. namuestes,quarum,nisiquodhabitusexus Fortheirclothes,whichareofthesameform discernitur,etcaelibatusaconiugio,unaper throughouttheislandexcepttomarkdifferences totaminsulamformaest,eademqueperomne betweenthesexesandthemarriedfromthe aeuumperpetua,necadoculumindecora,etad unmarried,areperpetuallythesameforalltimes, corporismotumhabilis,tumadfrigorisaestusque noraretheyuglyoruncomfortable,andthenthey rationemapposita. aredesignedforheatandcold. Figure8:TheUtopiansclothes. Asanethnography,itwouldbewrongtomisstheUtopiansclothes.ButMorehasasecond intention,andhistargetisclear:theking.Whoworeclothesonceandhadrulesonwhocouldwear what?Theking.Utopianfashionisinsharpdistinctiontotheking.Thefashionsneverchange.The clothesarethesamesummerandwinter.Everyonewearsthesamethingwithonlythebroadestsocietal differencesmarked.Remember,Morewritesthesewordsin1516,whenthreeroundssumptuarylaws hadbeenpassedfromthetimeofHenryscoronationin1509(AbitofHenrylove,2012).15Thisfact wouldnothavebeenlostonUtopiasEnglishreaders. Makinggovernmentofficialslookbad MorealsomakesnonUtopiangovernmentofficialslookbad.Again,Moremakesreferenceto theirclothes. totusillesplendorapparatuspudendusuidebatur,Allofthatsplendorseemedtobeshamefully etinfimumquemqueprodominisreuerenter elaborate.[TheUtopians]greetedeachofthe salutantes,legatosipsosexaurearumusu lowlyaslordsandwithoverlookedthe catenarumproseruishabitos,sineulloprorsus ambassadorswithoutanyhonorat honorepraetermiserunt.quinpuerosquoque allmistakingthemforslaves,sincetheywore uidisses,quigemmasacmargaritasabiecerant, chainsofgold.Andifyouhadalsoseenthe ubiinlegatorumpileisaffixasconspexerunt, children,whohadthrownawaythegemsand compellarematremaclatusfodere. pearls,whentheysawthemfixedtothehatsof theambassadors,calltheirmothersanddigtheir sides.
15

Ok,soparliamentintroducedthelaws,butkeepinmindthattheAffordableCareActof2010originatedintheUS Congress.Whatdowecallit?Obamacare.LetssayImnotconvincedthatalawsoriginationinparliamentmeant thatitwasntHenryslaw.


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Figure9:Theambassadorssplendoroverlooked Rightoff,Morecallstheambassadorssplendor(splendor)shameful(pudendus).Thento

underlineit,hehasUtopianchildrenpointouttheirjewelsandgoldchains.Children,beingchildren, pointoutwhennormsarebroken.Onechildsaysthefollowing. enmater,quammagnusnebulomargaritisadhuc Hey,mom,thisbigclownstillusesgemsand etgemmulisutitur,acsiessetpuerulus!atparens pearls,justasifhewereasmallchild!Butthat serioetiamilla,taceinquitfili,estopinor parentsaysearnestly,Bequietson,heis,I quispiamemorionibuslegatorum.aliicatenas think,oneofthefoolsoftheambassadors. illasaureasreprehendere,utpotenulliususus, Otherspassedjudgmentonthegoldenchains, quippetamgraciles,uteasfacileseruus sincetheywereofnouse,obviouslysothinthata infringere,tamlaxasrursus,uticumfueritlibitum slavecouldbreakthem,andalsosoloosethathe possitexcutere,etsolutusacliberquouis couldrunfreewheneverhewantedtobreak aufugere. them. Figure10:Theambassadorsmocked Thechildcallstheambassadoragovernmentofficialanebulo(clown)whodresseslikea smallchild.Thechildispositioningtheambassadorsasnotjustchildren,butsmallchildren (puerulus)anFTAtotheambassadorspositiveface.Whethertheambassadorhearsthisattackon hispositivefaceisnotinthetext,butwe,thereaders,doseethisattackonhispositiveface.Thechilds mothergoesontosilencethechildsFTAbutthenlabelstheambassadorsasmoriones(fools)ina separateFTAthatwewitness.Bytheendofit,Morehasthewholecrowdpassingjudgmentonthe ambassadorsinawaythatpositiontheminanegativelight. Anattackonagovernmentrepresentativemaybeconstruedasanattackonthegovernment, whichinthecaseof1516Englandmeanstheking.SinceUtopiaispoliticalandaboutEngland,itissafe tosaythatwemayinterpretthetheambassadorsasstandinsfortheEnglishgovernment,whichisto sayHenryVIII. War


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PerhapsthemostdirectthingMorecouldtoinsultthekinginabookistosuggestthatHenryis badatkinglythings.Warbeingthemostkinglyofthings. First,MorestatestheUtopiansopiniononthematter. bellumutpoteremplanebeluinamsummopereabominantur War,anobviouslybeastlythingiswhattheyloatheverymuch. Thenwhentheyengageinwar,theUtopiansavoidneedlesskilling. siabipsisuictoriasit,haudquaquamcaedegrassantur, Ifbythemthereshouldbevictory,theydontgoprocedewithslaughterbyanymeans, fugatosenimcomprehendunt,quamocciduntlibentius. fortheywouldratherapprehendthosethatfleethankillthemfreely. NotthatHenryVIIIsreignwasknownformassivemilitarybloodshed,butMoredepictstheUtopians asbeingaversetobloodshedwhennotnecessary.Infact,whentheydogotowar,heshowsthe Utopiansashavinggoodreason. nontemerecapessunttamen,nisiquoautsuosnestueantur, theydonottaketo[war]rashlyanyway,unlesstheyshouldeithermaketheirborders safe autamicorumterris,infusoshostespropulsent, orpushoutenemiespouredinfromthelandsoftheirallies. Thisreasoningisfarfromthereasoningthatwentintothe1513EnglishinvasionofFrance.Why didHenrypackuptoinvadeFrance?KingFerdinandofSpain,HenryVIIIsfatherinlaw,induced theEnglishtojointheHolyLeague(Viault,1992).ItispossiblethatMoreisreflectingcommon opinionthattheinvasionofFrance,whilenotafailure,wasnotseentofallintothecategoryofjustwar. RemindinghisreadersofHenrysfailureinjudgmentaboutwaristhemostseriousFTAtoHenrys positivefaceinUtopia.MoreisremindingthereadersofHenrysfailureasaking.Hegoestowarfor


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frivolousreasons. PersonaMore OneofthelastthingstorealizeisthatMoreisboththeauthorandacharacterwithinthebook. ThomasMorethemanissimplyMore,whereasThomasMorethecharacterinUtopiaisPersona More.BydoingthisMorecreatesfurtherdistancebetweenhimselfandthebook.Ifheisaskedabout it,hecanalwaysdismissPersonaMoreswordsasbeingthoseofaliterarycharacterratherthanhis ownwords. Thefinalword InonelaststrokeofcreatingsocialdistancetominimizetheFTA,Moreclosestheworkvery dismissively, haecubiRaphaelrecensuitperquamabsurdeuidebanturinstituta(More) WhenRaphaelfinishedthese[recountings,they]seemedcompletelyabsurdlyfounded Sowhateverhisintent,PersonaMoredismissesitasnonsense,whichistheperfectwaytousehis advantageasthespeakeraccordingtoZajdman.Thekingcannottakeoffense:thewholethingisajoke anyway,andthereadersallknowit.

Conclusion
Intheend,Moremanagedtocreateenoughsocialdistancebetweenhimselfandthekingto minimizeUtopiasthreattoHenryspositiveface.BypublishingtheworkinLatin,hepositioned Utopiaasseriousworkthatexcludedmostpotentialreadersbutalsopositionedthereadersasalliesin Moresattack.Hethenproceededtomocktheking,asseenbyhisloveofclothesandfailuresinwar. Butintheend,MoredidmanagetoexecutehisFTAwithredressiveactionpositivepositioningofthe kingandcreatingsocialdistancetominimizethethreat.HewassosuccessfulthathebecameHenry VIIIsLordChancellorin1529(BritishLibrary,n.d.).


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Ofcourse,theironyisthatHenryVIIIdecapitatedMorein1536foranotherdifferentFTA.

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