Urinalysis, Stool Analysis & Hematology

1. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N

Kidney Ureter urinary bladder Urethra renal pelvis Ureter Cortex renal pyramid bowman's capsule Glomerulus loop of Henle proximal convoluted tubule collecting duct distal convoluted tubule

2. The kidney functions to : filter and excrete metabolic wastes including urea,creatinine,uric acid and ammonia as well as water from the bloodstream. Balance chemicals in your body Release hormones Help control blood pressure Help produce red blood cells Produce vitamin D

3. In a healthy individual 96% of urine is water while the remaing 4% are accounted for by the solutes in the table below. Percentage, % 2 0.03 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.015 0.01

Solute component urea uric acid creatinine sodium potassium calcium magnesium

chloride phospahte sulphate ammonia

0.6 0.12 0.18 0.05

4. Three kidney diseases are : Glomerulonephritis- damages glomerulus and consequent blood and protein in urine Pyelonephritis kidney infection caused by bacteria, leading to blood in urine Polycistic kidney disease-formation of fluid-filled sacs called cysts in kidney resulting in blood in urine 5. The renal threshold is the normal concentration at which a solute is found to be in the blood. Above this concentration the solute is said to be exceeding the renal threshold and is removed via the urine from the body. 6. Diuretics induce increased urine and electrolyte excretion. They act by inhibiting the reabsorption of electrolytes form the nephrons lumen thereby increasing osmolarity and water excretion . 4 natural diuretics are: leafy greens, pumpkin, onion, and garlic. 7. Anuria is characterized as a lack of urine production or the inability to pass more than a minute amount of urine. In practice it is the passage of less than 50mL of urine per day. Anuria is associated with obstructions in the urinary tract or maybe due to complications with kidney function. A clean catched urine sample is a method that is used which prevents the contamination of the sample with bacteria from the genitalia .The area is cleaned and not allowed to touch the sample obtained from the patient. It promotes more accurate results. These samples are analyzed mainly for urinalysis, cytology, and urine culture 8. 1.refrigeration at 2-8oC 2.chemical preservation using tartaric and boric acids kept at room temperature. (24 to 72 hours) 3. prolonged storage specimens may be frozen and stored below -20oC

9. The freezing method at -20oC causes fragmentation of albumin at a loss of 40%. So, different specific temperatures are required for specific components of urine to be preserved. The refrigeration method poses the same problem. Different components may remain unchanged during the storage period while others would not. This method requires the urine be analyzed within 6 to 8 hours maximum time limit in order to get reliable results.

10. 1.observation and recoding of physical urine characteristics: eg. colour ,transparency and odor. 2. chemical analysis of urine sample.: reactions of the chemical constituents stated above 3. sediment from urine sample is examined under a microscope to identify the sediment components. 11. Abnormal urine colours maybe due to : medication diet dehydration medical conditions such as liver disease

12. Cloudy urine can be attributed to the presence of : red blood cells white blood cells yeast 13. Specific gravity measures the solute concentration in urine. From this, the ability of the renal tubules of the kidney to either concentrate or dilute the glomerular filtrate can be assessed. 14. A lighter colured urine indicates a more dilute sample, containing more water, while a darker coloured one indicates more solute than water, that is, a concentrated sample. Specific gravity is based on the number of molecules in urine together with their molecular size and weight. The darker colured sample will give a higher specific gravity as its mass of solutes would be higher than the solvent (water) present. 15. Six chemical tests are: pH,blood,protein,ketones,glucose and bilirubin.

16. Protein-high blood pressure Ketones-diabetes Bilirubin-liver disease:hepatisis Nitrite-bacteria from UTI 17. The Albustix test can be used to measure protein in urine. 18. Microscopic tests are used to detect components such as red blood cells or white blood cells that are such in low quantities, that the detection method used is not sensitive enough to detect it. So it is a secondary measure to evaluate the chemical or physical tests. 19. White blood cells,red blood cells ,epithelial cells and bacterial cells can be seen in the sediment. 20. Comparison of erythrocytosis and polycythemia. polycythemia What is it proportion of blood volume that is occupied by red blood cells increases. due to an increase in the number of red blood cells[1] ("absolute polycythemia") or to a decrease in the volume of plasma

erythrocytosis

Characterized by

Treatment

venesection, the removal of blood from the circulation Pathological diseases seen

a documented increase of red cell mass Due to a number of nonhematogenic systemic disorders in response to a known stimulus (secondary polycythemia), restore viscosity and maintain circulation at optimal level by phlebotomizing or removing the offending red blood cells May be seen in persons living at high altitudes, as well as in persons with emphysema, pulmonary insufficiency, and heart failure. Causes impaired alertness, dizziness,

headaches, and compromised exercise tolerance. Persons would be at increased risk for thrombosis, strokes, myocardial infarction, and deep vein thrombosis. 21. Comparison between thrombocytosis and thrombocytopenia. Thrombocythemia thrombocytosis definition abnormally high platelet abnormally low platelet count count Results increased destruction of platelets, inflammation, severe from decreased production, or increased usage of bleeding, iron deficiency, platelets. or some cancers symptom bloody stools s bruising dizziness headache hemorrhage prolonged bleeding after having surgery or after having a tooth pulled,redness or tingling of the hands and feet bruising, particularly purpura in the weakness forearms,petechia (pinpoint hemorrhages on in rare instances, the skin and mucous membranes),nosebleeds, lymph nodes become and/or bleeding gums. enlarged Platelet counts over 750,000 (and count count below 50,000 per microlitre especially over a million) 22. Four properties are plasma proteins,size of erythrocytes,number of erythrocytes and shape of erythrocytes. 23. There are three primary types of cells(elements) making up blood: 1. Red blood cellstransport oxygen to all body cells and transport waste: carbon dioxide ,away from all body cells

2.White blood cellsform the defense system, protecting the body against microorganisms that have invaded the tissues or blood stream. Types of white blood cells: Neutrophils and monocytes - engulf microorganisms by carrying on phagocytosis. Lymphocytes take part in the immune mechanism via stimulating antibody formation. Eosinophils aids in protection of the body from irritants that cause allergies. Basophils aids in bodys response to allergic reactions, they also secrete heparin, which prevents blood clot formation. 3.Platelets aids in blood clot formation.

24. 1.Heparin -reduces the blood's ability to clot so that clots cannot form in the veins, arteries or lungs. - used during surgical procedures that create a high risk of blood clot formation and to treat heart, lung and blood vessels conditions that increase the likelihood of dangerous clots. 2.Coumadin (warfarin) -reduces blood clot formation by blocking clotting factors from forming in the blood. -used in preventing strokes, heart attacks and blood clot formation in the lungs, arteries and veins. 3.Clopidogrel-for the prevention or management of strokes and heart attacks. -an anti-platelet drug that prevents platelets from sticking together and forming blood clots that can cause strokes . 25. Two conditions are: 1.decreased platelet production by the bone marrow due to : types of cancers such as leukemia or those involving the lymph system can do it. Some medications, vitamins deficiencies (B12 and folate) 2.normal amounts of platelets are made however, they are removed too quickly from the blood stream due to: some viruses and drugs autoimmune disease - antibodies are produced against platelets, destroying them prematurely.

26. Four reasons are: the intestines are not absorbing food as they should(malabsorption) overall malabsorption of fats pancreas are not make enough digestive juice to breakdown fats to allow absorption gallbladder is under producing bile, which you need to absorb fats 27. Four reasons are: inflammation of the colon (colotitis) fragile, abnormal blood vessels which lead to bleeding(Angiodysplasia) sore opening in the lining of the stomach or duodenum(Peptic ulcers ) benign growths that grow, bleed, and become cancerous (Polyps)