Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Chapter 7

Pavement Materials

Project appraisal
Ch
Environment

DESIGN ELEMENTS

Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage Traffic Subgrade

Ch

Pavement Materials

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Problem Soils

Pavement DesignNew Roads Pavement Rehabilitation Bituminous Surfacings Gravel Roads

Comparison of alternatives and selection of design Refinement of design, if required

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Comments:

7.0 General
This chapter defines the physical properties for materials to be used in the pavement structure and forms an essential part of the method for design of new roads as given by the design catalogue, and rehabilitation design for existing roads. Requirements for materials in bituminous surfacings and gravel roads are given in /Chapter 10/ and /Chapter 11/ respectively. Within the limitations given in this chapter, materials used in the structural layers of the pavement shall be selected according to criteria of availability, economic factors and previous experience.

Details on the method to assess data from the quality control of material properties are given in Standard Specifications for Highway Construction.

All materials are indicated by means of codes, e.g. G80, C2, CM, etc., which refer to materials with certain defined properties prescribed in this chapter. For the sake of consistency and ease of reference, the same codes are used in the pavement design catalogue and elsewhere in the manual where reference is being made to material types with specific properties. As far as possible all material types commonly used in the country are included, e.g. natural gravel/soils, processed or crushed materials, materials stabilised with cement or lime and bituminous materials.
.

References to the relevant standards are given in Standard Specifications for Highway Construction for manufactured materials such as lime, cement and bitumen.

7.1 Material Types

7.1.1
Materials made by crushing and screening of hard rock sources of a variety of rock types can be used in layer work and in bituminous materials provided they meet the respective material standards. Two different qualities are used for layer work, CRR or CRS, depending on the type of source and the refinement of the quarry product. Crushed materials of qualities falling below the material classes CRR and CRS shall be denoted G80 or lower as appropriate.

Crushed, fresh rock or boulders

7.1.2

Weathered rocks and laterites

General Weathered rocks and laterites are common sources for pavement materials in the category of natural gravel and as a source for production of chemically stabilised materials. Laterites are highly weathered materials formed in a secondary process where the hydrated oxides of iron or aluminium have been accumulated in sufficient concentrations to affect the physical character of the deposits where they occur /7 - 8/.
One test method alone is often insufficient to describe the durability of the rock and observations of past performance is invaluable supplementary information where the deposit has been used previously. It is important to consider quality variations within one rock deposit where performance data are used in the assessment of durability.

Basic igneous rocks Weathered rocks of basic igneous origin, such as basalt and dolerite, may release additional plastic fines during construction and in service, and thereby cause loss of strength over time. Such materials may require specialised additional laboratory testing to verify their long term durability. Tests of durability /7 - 3/ may include. n chemical tests such as Sodium or Magnesium Sulphate Soundness tests (SSS or MSS)

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n investigations of mineralogy by counts of secondary minerals n physical tests by aggregate crushing in wet vs. dry condition or modified ball mill tests with studies of associated changes in grading and Atterberg limits after testing Reference is made to the Central Materials Laboratory of Ministry of Works for appropriate procedures to test durability.

Comments:

7.1.3

Coral rock and calcrete

General Coral rock is a major source for pavement materials along the coast, where alternative sources of hard rock or good gravel are generally unavailable within short distances. Calcretes are formed under favourable conditions in dry and moderate climatic zones in a secondary process where calcium carbonate have been accumulated in sufficient concentrations to partly or fully alter or replace the host material thereby affecting the physical character of the deposits where they occur. Both calcretes and coral rocks typically have large variations in quality within a deposit and require careful selection and stockpiling. Laboratory tests The Atterberg limits of coral rocks and calcretes will appear artificially high as a result of the typical low specific gravity and the high water absorption of the particles often seen in these materials. Standard grading tests may give a distorted impression of the particle distribution in the material due to varying specific gravity of particles having different size within one sample. The design limits of coral rocks and calcretes are therefore modified compared to the general requirements and grading envelopes are not given for these types of materials.
. Drying of material during testing of Atterberg limits is carried out at 60oC for calcrete and coral rock, in accordance with guidelines of Central Materials Laboratory of Ministry of Works.

7.1.4

Volcanic tuff often fail to meet pavement material standards due to low particle strength and can give construction problems even when meeting required material standards for layer work. This is due to poor compactability caused by their open grain structure and a rough particle shape. Admixture of suitable fines can greatly improve workability, reduce the breaking of particles during construction and give acceptable results.

Volcanic tuff (scoria)

The use of special compaction equipment such as grid rollers can be beneficial under circumstances where breaking of particles is desirable.

7.1.5

Certain types of natural gravel such as some pedogenic materials - e.g. calcrete and laterite - are known to exhibit self-cementing properties in pavement layers, possibly caused by suction. Such materials would require specialised testing and evaluation before any favourable selfcementing properties can be taken advantage of in the pavement design.

Self-cementing materials

Petrifaction test of the soil fines and tests of CBR after wet/dry cycles or others may be used to identify self-cementing properties in soils /7 - 3/ and /7 - 4/.

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Comments:

7.2 Unbound Materials

7.2.1 Natural gravel
Classification The natural gravel category includes granular materials - without any admixture of stabilisers - having the following composition: n 100% natural gravel, or n natural gravel with such small proportions of crushed particles that the material properties are almost identical to the uncrushed portion Pavement materials falling into this category are shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Natural gravel, material classes
Material class G 80 G 60 G 45 G 25 C haracteristics
- the class i ncludes crushed materi als where less than 50% by mass of particles retained on the 5 mm sieve has a crushed face

- C BR mi n. 80%

C BR mi n. 60% C BR mi n. 45% C BR mi n 25%

Material requirments Natural granular pavement materials shall comply with the requirements in Tables 7.2 and 7.3.
Table 7.2
Material properties
CBR [%] at 98% MDD of BS-Heavy

Material requirements - G80 and G60

Material class
CML test method

G80
Wet or moderate climatic zones: min 80 after 4 days soak Dry climatic zones (both requirements shall be met): min 80 at OMC of BS-Heavy min 60 after 4 days soaking max 0.5 measured at BS-Heavy compaction General requirements Wet or moderate Dry climate Coral rock, calcrete or other calcified materials Wet climate Dry or moderate

G60
Wet or moderate climatic zones: min 60 after 4 days soak Dry climatic zones (both requirements shall be met): min 60 at OMC of BS-Heavy min 45 after 4 days soaking max 1.0 measured at BS-Heavy compaction General requirements Wet climate Dry or moderate Coral rock, calcrete or other calcified materials Wet climate Dry or moderate

1.7 and 1.11

CBR - swell [%]

Atterberg limits 1)
max LL [%] max PI [%] max LS [%] Grading, sieve sizes [mm]

30 8 4

40 14 7

35 10 5

45 16 8

35 10 5

45 16 8

40 12 6

45 18 9

1.2 1.3 1.4

Grading envelope, G80 [% passing]

(no envelope for G60, coral rock, calcrete or other calcified materials)

63 37.5 20 5 2 0.425 0.075 Particle strength Soluble salts Field density

100 80 - 100 Grading requirements: 60 - 95 - dMAX shall be maximum 2/3 of the compacted layer thickness 30 - 65 - Grading Modulus (GM *) ): min 2.0 20 - 50 *) 10 - 30 GM = [ 300 - (% passing 2mm) - (% passing 0.425mm) - (% passing 0.075mm) ] / 100 5 - 15 TFVdry : min 80 kN TFVdry : min 50 kN TFVsoaked : min 60% of TFVdry TFVsoaked : min 60% of TFVdry
Where the gravel is used under a surface treatment, soluble salt content is assessed in accordance with /7-11/. Nominal value: min 98% of MDD, BS-Heavy

1.7

2.7

1) It is emphasised that the Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow BS procuders and utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with the given material requirements.

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Table 7.3 Material requirements - G45 and G25

Comments:

Material properties
CBR [%] at 95% MDD of BS-Heavy

Material class

G45
Wet or moderate climatic zones: min 45 after 4 days soak Dry climatic zones (both requirements shall be met): min 45 at OMC of BS-Heavy min 25 after 4 days soaking max 0.5 measured at BS-Heavy compaction General requirements Wet or moderate Dry climate Coral rock, calcrete or other calcified materials Wet climate Dry or moderate

G25
Wet or moderate climatic zones: min 25 after 4 days soak Dry climatic zones (both requirements shall be met): min 25 at OMC of BS-Heavy min 15 after 4 days soaking max 1.0 measured at BS-Heavy compaction General requirements Wet or moderate Dry climate Coral rock, calcrete or other calcified materials Wet climate Dry or moderate

CML test method

1.7 and 1.11

CBR - swell [%]

Atterberg limits 1)
max LL [%] max PI [%] max LS [%]
*) Grading Modulus (GM) Particle size Soluble salts Field density

40 14 7

45 18 9
*)

45 16 8
min 1.5

50 20 10

45 16 8

50 20 10

45 18 9
min 1.2

55 24 12

1.2 1.3 1.4 1.7

GM = [ 300 - (% passing 2mm) - (% passing 0.425mm) - (% passing 0.075mm) ] / 100

dMAX shall be maximum 2/3 of the compacted layer thickness

Where the gravel is used under a surface treatment, soluble salt content is assessed in accordance with /7-11/. Nominal value: min 95% of MDD, BS-Heavy

1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow BS procuders and utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with the given material requirements.

7.2.2

Crushed materials

Comments:

Classification The category includes crushed granular materials - without any admixture of stabilisers - where the full range of particle sizes from fines up to the max. nominal size are included. The pavement design catalogue uses two basic qualities of crushed base course materials, as described in Table 7.4. The classes of pavement materials falling into this category are shown in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4 Crushed materials, material classes
It should be noted that the requirements for compaction of CRR materials are very high and are normally not achieved unless special techniques such as slushing with water are applied during construction. This type of material is therefore never prescribed unless a subbase stabilised with cement or lime is used in order to provide a firm platform for construction of the base course enabling slushing to be safely carried out without softening of the subbase.

Material class C RR

C haracteristics - fresh, crushed rock or large, crushed boulders, >0.3 m di ameter - requi rements are restri cti ve - compacti on requi rements are restri cti ve - the class i ncludes crushed oversi ze from gravel sources, crushed all-i n sources of boulders and crushed coral rocks of selected quali ti es - mi n. 50% by mass of parti cles retai ned on the 5 mm si eve shall have at least one crushed face

C RS

Material requirements Crushed granular materials for pavement layers shall comply with the requirements in Table 7.5.

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Comments:

Table 7.5 Material requirements - CRR and CRS

Material class

Material properties
Material source

CRR
Crushed rock. Shall be made by crushing and screening of fresh quarried rock or clean, un-weathered boulders of minimum 0.3 m diameter. All particles shall be crushed, no soil fines allowed.

CRS
Crushed stone. Made by crushing and screening of blasted rock, stones, boulders and oversize from natural gravel. Min 50% by mass of particles larger than 5 mm shall have at least one crushed face. Max 30% of material passing 5 mm can be soil fines.

CML test method

max LL [%] max LS [%]

1) 1)

30 3 [% passing] Coarse Type 100 87 - 97 75 - 90 52 - 68 38 - 55 23 - 40 18 - 33 11 - 24 4 - 12 TFVsoaked : min 75% of TFVdry Fine Type

35 4 [% passing] Coarse Type 100 90 - 100 100 75 - 95 87 - 97 60 - 90 62 - 77 40 - 75 44 - 62 29 - 60 27 - 45 20 - 45 22 - 38 17 - 40 13 - 27 12 - 31 5 - 12 5 - 15 TFVsoaked : min 60% of TFVdry TFVdry : min 110 kN Fine Type 100 90 - 100 65 - 95 40 - 70 29 - 52 20 - 40 15 - 33 10 - 24 4 - 12

1.2 1.4

Grading, sieve sizes [mm] 50 37.5 28 20 10 5 2 1,18 0,425 0,075 Aggregate strength Soluble salt content Field density requirements

1.7

2.7

For aggregate used under a surface treatment, soluble salt content is assessed in accordance with /7-11/. Nominal value: min 88% Nominal value: min 100%

of Aggregate Density

of MDD BS-Heavy

1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow BS procuders and utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with the given material requirements.

Comments:

7.3 Cemented materials

7.3.1
Cemented materials described in this manual include all natural or crushed materials where a stabiliser of cement or lime has been admixed. The classes of cemented materials are shown in Table 7.6.
Table 7.6 Cemented materials, material classes

Classification

Material class C4 will normally be used as subbase in concrete pavements and material standards are not given here.

Material class

C haracteristics - UC S mi n. 4 MP a - used as subbase i n concrete pavements - made from source materi als of quali ty nomi nally as C RS - wi th modi fi ed requi rements - UC S mi n. 2 MP a - made from source materi als of quali ty nomi nally as G45 - wi th modi fi ed requi rements - UC S mi n. 1 MP a - made from source materi als of quali ty nomi nally as G25 - wi th modi fi ed requi rements - UC S mi n. 0.5 MP a modi fi ed materi al - made from source materi als of quali ty nomi nally as G7 - wi th modi fi ed requi rements

C4

C2 C1

CM

7.3.2

Cemented materials shall comply with the requirements in Table 7.7.

Material requirements

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Table 7.7 Material requirements - C2, C1 and CM.

Material properties
Source material
min UCS [MPa] ICL - test max PI after stabilisation [%] Before stabilisation: min CBRsoaked [%] at 95% MDD of BS-Heavy max PI [%]
1)

Comments:

Material class

C2

C1

CM

CML test method

Subbase quality soils/gravel Earthworks quality soils/gravel Nominal quality of source material - with requirements as given here 2,0 1,0 0,5 Stabiliser content [ % design ] shall be minimum the initial consumption of lime (ICL) value
1)

1.21 1.22 1.2 and 1.3

30 20 min 1.5
*)

20 25 min 1.2

35 -

1.11 1.2 and 1.3 1.7 2.7

Grading modulus

*)

Particle size, d MAX

GM = [ 300 - (% passing 2mm) - (% passing 0.425mm) - (% passing 0.075mm) ] / 100 d MAX to be max 2/3 of compacted layer thickness -

TFVdry : min 50 kN Aggregate strength Nominal value: min 97% of MDD BS-Heavy Field density The content of organic matter should not exceed 0.5% - 1% - 2% for C2 - C1 - CM materials respectively.

1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow BS procuders and utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with the given material requirements.

7.3.3

The stabiliser shall be Ordinary Portland Cement or lime meeting the requirements of BS-890. Hydrated lime or quicklime may be used, but a programme describing the safety precaution for protection of personnel shall be established on sites where quicklime is used. Table 7.8 gives the best suited type of stabiliser to use depending on the soil properties.
Table 7.8 Selection of stabiliser for cemented materials

Type of stabiliser

Comments: High contents of organic matter will increase the demand for stabiliser to achieve the required Unconfined Compression Strength (UCS) for the material.

% passing the 75 mm siev e

PI PI [% ] PI i s less than 6% or PI x (%pass. 75 mm) i s less than 60 6 - 10 more than 10 less than 10

B est suited stabiliser cement only 1 ) cement preferred cement or li me cement preferred cement or li me li me preferred
2)

Lime can be successfully used for stabilisation of some calcified materials even when the PI is low. TRL-Road Note 31 /7 - 7/ and South Africa TRH 13 /7 - 9/ refers for guidelines on the use of pozzolans and for further details about the stabilisation process in general.

Less than 25%

More than 25%

10 - 20 more than 20

1)

Li me requi res presence of clay parti cles to react and i s therefore used for materi als wi th hi gh PI. Admi xture of pozzolans, such as pulveri sed fuel ash from coal fi red power plants, can make stabi li sati on wi th li me possi ble also for materi als wi th low PI. C ement i s the preferred stabi li ser for materi als wi th low PI. However, cement can be used for stabi li sati on of materi als wi th hi gh PI provi ded the workabi li ty of the materi al i s i mproved by pre-treatment wi th 2% li me pri or to cement stabi li sati on.

2)

7.3.4 Content of stabiliser

The design content of stabiliser, expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the soil, is determined according to CML tests 1.19, 1.20,1.21 and 1.22 and shall not be less than the minimum content found in the test of Initial Consumption of Lime (ICL). Where mixing on the road is employed the content used in the field shall exceed the design content from laboratory tests by 1% - point.
Ministry of Works

The ICL is the amount of stabiliser consumed in the initial ion exchange reaction and is a required minimum content when using cement or lime. Below this amount of stabiliser one will not achieve a permanent gain in strength. Large amounts of stabiliser causes excessive crack developments in the cemented layer.

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Comments:

If a stabiliser content in excess of 4-5% is required then consideration shall be given to selecting better qualities of materials to stabilise.

7.3.5
It is recommended practice to mix in water to at least OMC of BS-Heavy before adding the stabiliser, thereby minimising the required time for watering and mixing after the stabiliser has come in contact with the material.

Construction

Time limits Table 7.9 gives the maximum allowed time from the stabiliser has come in contact with the material until compaction and finishing of the layer is completed.
Table 7.9 Cemented materials, time for completion of the layer

Stabiliser and material class C ement - C 4, C 2, C 1, C M Li me - C 4, C 2, C 1 Li me - C M

Allowed time for completion max 4 hours max 8 hours max 48 hours

Hi gh contents of calci um carbonate i n calcretes may cause a more rapi d reacti on wi th li me than expected. In such cases the maxi mum allowed ti me for completi on shall be altered as requi red after tri als on si te.

Curing by continuous watering is likely to cause leaching out of stabilisers in the surface, there is a risk of detrimental wetting/drying cycles to take place and the method is overall unlikely to be effective in practice.

Curing - general The cemented layer shall be kept moist and sealed off as soon as possible after completed compaction. Curing is essential for proper gain in strength by preventing drying out of the layer. Curing is also important to prevent future loss of strength in the cemented material by carbonisation caused by exposure to air. Curing by continuous watering shall be restricted to the period from completed construction until the curing methods described below are in place according to the time limits given. Curing method - cemented base course A bituminous curing membrane shall be applied without undue delays and within 24 hours after completion of the layer. Drying out of the layer must not be allowed. The curing membrane shall be applied at a spray rate that gives minimum 0.5 l/m2 of residual bitumen. Bitumen emulsion is the preferred type of bituminous curing membrane. However cutback bitumen, MC30 or MC70 prime, may be used if trials show no adverse effect such as loosening of the surface of the layer. Traffic shall be kept off the completed layer for minimum 7 days after completed compaction. The curing membrane shall be protected from damage by traffic. Sanding-off after the curing period shall be employed if required due to site conditions. Curing method - cemented subbase Granular base course material shall be placed on the cemented subbase in a loose thickness of minimum 50 mm - and watered - without undue delays and within 48 hours after completion of the cemented layer. Drying out of the layer must not be allowed. Alternatively a temporary granular layer of minimum 50 mm loose thickness can similarly be spread and watered, and removed immediately before placing the base course. The cemented subbase shall receive a bituminous curing membrane in the cases where a bituminous base course is used. The applied method shall be as described for curing of cemented base courses.

Penetration of bituminous prime into fresh cemented materials is not desirable as this can cause impaired conditions for curing of the upper part of the layer.

curing membrane

cemented base course

Loose - 50 mm granular layer to be kept wet.

cemented subbase

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7.3.6

Chemical stabilisers other than bitumen, cement or lime, may only be used on agreement with the Ministry of Works at project level. Such alternative stabilisers include ionic soil stabilisers and other chemical products sold under various brand names. The following issues shall be clarified for each project before use of alternative chemical stabilisers are allowed in structural layers: n certification of the chemicals effect on personnel and environment n required properties of the stabilised material to suit the requirements of the structural layer in question n required properties of the source materials and their availability n mix formula n routines for laboratory testing and quality assurance n assessments of material properties over time n contractual obligations of suppliers n the possibility for competitive bidding

Other chemical stabilisers

Comments: Alternative chemical constituents including ionic soil stabilisers and various products from the chemical industry have been used in soil stabilisation in some countries and there are reports on successful use under given conditions. These stabilisers should be reserved for trials unless the long-term stabilising effect of the particular product is properly documented.

7.4 Bituminous Base Course Materials

7.4.0 General
There is a considerable amount of innovative work being done in the field of bituminous materials and this manual cannot fully include specialised material types which may be proposed for projects.

Scope This chapter includes bitumen penetrated macadam and bituminous mixes used in the base course - whether mixed in plant or mixed on the road. The appropriate use of each individual material type, such as limitations with regards to traffic, is set out in the pavement design catalogue /Chapter 8.3.2/. Alternative bituminous base course materials that are not included here, shall have their properties measured against the requirements for the material types described in this chapter prior to approval for use. Structural function of bituminous mixes for base course Bituminous mixes for base course function as main structural layers and the desired properties are therefore primarily high stiffness and resistance against deformation. The ability of the bituminous mix to withstand plastic deformation is emphasised due to the severe consequences with costly repair of such type of distress. The method to minimise the risk of fatigue cracking is primarily by providing the stiffest possible support and thereby minimising strain in the base course layer. The largest possible aggregate size corresponding to the layer thickness is desirable for economical reasons and to provide high shear strength in the layer. Description and structural function of penetration macadam Construction of penetration macadam involves spraying of relatively large amounts of bitumen on a layer of coarse aggregate without fines, and subsequently rolling in a layer of chipping as a key stone to provide interlocking and stability of the layer. Alternatively a bituminous mix can be used instead of key stone. The function of the penetration macadam is fundamentally different from the bituminous mixes - being exceptionally

It is considered risky to compromise resistance against deformation of the bituminous base course for high resistance against fatigue cracking under the prevailing temperature conditions.

Penetration macadam base course has been used successfully in this country on a large scale giving excellent service life. The high flexibility allows penetration macadam to be used successfully in pavements with marginal stiffness in supporting layers, such as on lightly

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Comments: (contd.) trafficked roads. Penetration macadam can be constructed by the use of labour intensive methods and is well suited for construction in areas with restricted access by heavy plant and where it is difficult to perform good layer-work techniques which are often critical with alternative material types.

flexible and able to absorb deficiencies in the strength of sub-layers, and at the same time providing high shear strength. Penetration macadam is particularly well suited on roads with low traffic speed such as urban roads. On roads with high traffic speed a levelling layer of a bituminous mix will provide the required riding quality.

7.4.1 Classification

Classes of bituminous base course materials are shown in Table 7.10.

Table 7.10 Bituminous base course - material classes

Material class D BM LAMBS PM FBMIX BEMIX

C haracteristics Name D ense bi tumen macadam Process Mi xi ng method Hot Mi xi ng plant,

Large aggregate mi x Hot for bases Penetrati on macadam C old

Chapter 7.4.2

On the road, sprayed,

Chapter 7.4.3

Foamed bi tumen mi x C old Bitumen emulsion mix C old

Mi xi ng plant or on the road, Chapter 7.4.4

7.4.2

Hot bituminous mixes

Dense Bitumen Macadam (DBM) Dense bitumen macadam for base course layers shall comply with the requirements in Table 7.11.
Table 7.11 Material requirements DBM

Material properties
Max nominal size Grading, sieve sizes [mm] 50 37.5 28 20 14 10 5 2 1,18 0,425 0,300 0,075 Bitumen content Type of bitumen Aggregate strength Layer thickness

Material class

DBM 40
Dense bitumen macadam 40 mm

DBM 30
Dense bitumen macadam 30 mm CML test method

% passing
100 95 - 100 70 - 95 56 - 76 53 - 70 39 - 56 24 - 40 19 - 35 9 - 25 7 - 21 2-9 nominally 4.0%

% passing
100 90 - 100 70 - 95 58 - 82 52 - 73 40 - 56 24 - 40 19 - 35 9 - 25 7 - 21 2-9 nominally 4.5%

1.7

3.22

60/70 or 40/50 penetration grade TFV soaked : min 75% of TFV dry TFV dry : min 110 kN 80 - 200 mm 60 - 150 mm

2.7

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Large Aggregate Mix for Base Course (LAMBS) LAMBS is a hot mixed bituminous material for base course on heavily trafficked roads and areas of extreme loading, such as climbing lanes. Large Aggregate Mixes (LAMBS) obtain their strength and resistance to deformation primarily from aggregate interlock and exhibit the following typical features: n large upper nominal particle size (dMAX up to 50 mm) and flexibility in grading requirements, giving good crushing economy n high stability and shear strength, providing good resistance against deformation caused by heavy loading n low required bitumen contents for good economy LAMBS shall comply with the requirements in Table 7.12. The design method for LAMBS shall be carried out in accordance with /7 - 5/. The design method for LAMBS requires special equipment for preparation of test specimens due to the large aggregate size. If such equipment is not available the material type DBM 40 shall be the alternative for the base course.
Table 7.12 Material requirements - LAMBS

Comments: The aim in the design of LAMBS is to optimise the properties of available materials and plant and grading envelopes are therefore not specified.

Material properties
Aggregate type Max particle size, dMAX [mm] Shape of the grading curve, n-value Aggregate strength Water absorption [%] Aggregate LS [%] Filler content, pass. 0.075 mm [%] Bitumen grade Bitumen content [%] Mix design Layer thickness
*)

LAMBS
Large aggregate mix for base course Aggregates shall be made by crushing of fresh rock or clean, large boulders with a diametre >0.3 m. min 37.5 max 50 *) min 0.4 max 0.7 TFVsoaked 24hrs : min 75% of TFV dry TFVdry : min 110 kN max 3 max 2 5-8 Traffic TLC 20 and TLC 50: 40/50 pen. grade Traffic TLC 1 to TLC 10: 60/70 pen. grade 3.5 to 4.5 to be determined in the mix design Shall be carried out in accordance with Ref/7- 4/ min 1.5 x ( dMAX ), preferably 2 x ( dMAX ) 80 - 200 mm compacted thickness

CML test method

1.7

2.7 3.13 1.4 1.7 3.5 3.22

The target grading curve is derived from the formula given below. The shape of the grading curve shall be such that it falls within the outer limits defined by an n value from 0.4 to 0.7 as specified in Table 7.12. The formulae for the n value is the following:

Values of n higher than 0.7 may result in segregation and poor workability.

P=
where:

(100 - F) ( dn 0.075n) (Dn - 0.075n)

P D F n

+F

= percentage passing sieve size d (mm) = max particle size ( dMAX ) = filler content = a parameter to describe the shape of the grading curve

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Comments:

7.4.3

Penetration macadam base course materials shall comply with the requirements in Table 7.13.
Table 7.13 Material requirements penetration macadam

Penetration macadam

Material properties
Max nominal size [mm] Layer thickness [mm] Bitumen spray rate [l/m ] Bitumen type Aggregate strength Grading, sieve sizes [mm] 100 75 63 50 37,5 28 20 14 10 Flakiness Index Grading, sieve sizes [mm] 50 37,5 28 20 14 10 6.3 5 Flakiness Index
2 *)

Material class

PM 80
80

PM 60
60

PM 30
30

CML test method

125 100 50 The layer thickness of the penetration macadam should correspond with the aggregate fraction in order to obtain stability of the layer. 3- 4 TFV soaked 3-4 2-3 80/100 or 60/70 penetration grade : min 75% of TFV dry TFV dry : min 110 kN 3.5 2.7

Main fraction
% passing
100 75 - 100 0 - 50 0 - 25 0-5 -

% passing
100 80 - 100 0 - 50 0 - 25 0-5 -

% passing
100 80 - 100 0 - 50 0 - 25 0-5 35 2.4

2.3

Key stone
% passing
100 85 - 100 0 - 50 0 - 25 0-5 -

*)

% passing
100 85 - 100 0 - 50 0 - 25 0-5 35

% passing
100 85 - 100 0 - 55 0 - 25 0 - 10 35 2.3

2.4

*) Requirements for alternative use of a bituminous mix instead of key stone are set out in the text.

Comments: Penetration macadam made by use of a bituminous mix instead of key stone gives the following advantages: - improved riding quality - a better surface texture for subsequent application of a surface treatment, whereby full waterproofing of the surface is more easily achieved

A bituminous mix can be used instead of key stone to provide stability in the penetration macadam. The bituminous mix shall meet the requirements in Chapter 7.4.2 or /Chapter 10.8/ in the case of hot mixed material and Chapter 7.4.4 for cold mixed material. The upper nominal aggregate size of the bituminous mix shall be adjusted as required to provide sufficient interlocking with the macadam layer. The bitumen spray rates for penetration, as given in Table 7.13, can be reduced in the case a bituminous mix is used instead of key stone. Site trials shall be undertaken to prove that the proposed reduction is possible without causing instability of the layer.

7.4.4

Cold bituminous mixes

General Cold bituminous mixes have the advantage that they can be mixed on the road because they need no heating, thus making it possible to reuse and improve existing layers in place by in-situ milling. In order to enable mixing and coating of aggregate particles in cold bituminous mixes it is necessary to use bitumen that is either:

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n emulsified to reduce viscosity at the time of mixing, or n foamed in order to greatly expand its volume and thereby facilitate coating of the particles This chapter sets out requirements for cold mixes where foamed bitumen or bitumen emulsion is used. Cutback bitumen shall not be used in mixes due to potential stability problems during curing and for environmental reasons associated with the use of large amounts of solvents. Foamed bitumen mix FBMIX Foaming of bitumen is temporary expansion of the bitumen to 15-20 times its original volume by controlled introduction of small amounts of water in hot bitumen, carried out in a special processing plant. Foamed bitumen shall meet the requirements in Table 7.14.
Table 7.14 Requirements for foamed bitumen

Comments:

Due to the alternative use of natural gravel aggregates in cold mixes the density of the mix may vary considerably thus rendering conventional expression of bitumen content as a percentage by weight misleading, unless accompanied by the density of the actual mix.

Properties of the foamed bitumen Rati o between volume of bi tumen i n a foamed state and i n an un-foamed state At least one of the followi ng requi rements shall be fulfi lled: 1. Ti me unti l the volume of the foam has decreased to half of i ts maxi mum volume 2. Rati o between volume of bi tumen i n a foamed state and i n an un-foamed state after 15 seconds
The test of foamed bi tumen uti li ses a 10 li tre cyli ndri cal bucket.

R equirements mi n 15

mi n 15 seconds mi n 7.5

Cold bituminous mixes for base course, made with foamed bitumen, shall comply with the requirements in Table 7.15. Aggregate for foamed bitumen mixes can be natural gravel or crushed materials. The required moisture content in the mix is determined in the mix design and shall be within the limits given in Table 7.15 at the time of laying.

Plastic aggregates may give operational problems during mixing and laying even if the requirement of PI max 14% is fulfilled. /Appendix A1- Definitions of Terms/ includes the definition of dry density of mixes where both bitumen and water is present.

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Comments:

Table 7.15 Material requirements FBMIX

Material class

Material properties
Aggregate source PI [%] CBRsoaked [%] Aggregate strength Grading, sieve sizes [mm] 37,5 28 20 10 5 2 0,425 0,075
1)

FBMIX
Foamed bitumen mix Natural gravel or crushed material, free from lumps of clay or other deleterious matter. max 14 before admixture of bitumen min 30 before admixture of bitumen, tested at 95 % MDD of BS-heavy TFV soaked : min 75% of TFV dry Traffic TLC 3 and TLC 10: TFV dry : min 110 kN Traffic TLC 1 and lower: TFV dry : min 80 kN

CML test method

1.2 and 1.3 1.11 2.7

% passing 100 80 - 100 60 - 95 42 - 78 30 - 65 20 - 50 10 - 30 5 - 15

1.7

o E-Modulus [MPa] 3.21 min 1600, measured by indirect tensile strength, tested at 29 C o Marshall stability [N] min 6000 tested at 40 C 3.18 Marshall flow [mm] 2-4 Moisture content at min: mix design moisture less 1.5% points 1.1 the time of laying [%] max: mix design moisture plus 0.5% points 3.5 Type of bitumen 80/100 or 150/200 penetration grade Adhesion agents Approved adhesion agents shall be admixed at min 0.5% by weight of bitumen 3 3.22 Bitumen content Consumption, residual bitumen: 80 to 100 litres per m of compacted material Field density min 96% of Marshall dry density 1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow BS procuders and utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with the given material requirements.

Comments: When bitumen emulsion is used, as opposed to foamed bitumen, the material is more sensitive to aggregate properties such as grading, plasticity index and fines content and correct moisture content, and is also more prone to damage by rain. In many cases the adding of a cement slurry with 1 - 2% cement may be beneficial.

Bitumen emulsion mix - BEMIX Cold mixed bitumen emulsion for stabilisation of base course layers with minimum 3.5% residual bitumen content shall comply with the requirements in Table 7.16. Materials with smaller amounts of binder shall be classified as bitumen modified and the design of such materials shall be carried out in accordance with /7 - 10/.

7.4.5

Construction

Penetration macadam Penetration macadam base course normally requires no special preparation of the underlying surface. Compaction shall be carried out with vibrating rollers and the number of passes shall be min 3 max 5. The number of passes after application of keystone shall be min 2 max 4. Hot mixes Tack coat of bitumen emulsion shall be applied at a rate giving minimum 0.3 l/m2 residual binder on all joints and surfaces where hot mixed bituminous base course is laid. The required minimum temperature for compaction shall be in accordance with /Chapter 10.8.4/.

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Table 7.16 Material requirements - BEMIX

Comments:

Material properties
Aggregate source PI [%] CBRsoaked [%] Aggregate strength Grading, sieve sizes [mm]
1)

Material class

BEMIX
Bitumen emulsion mix Natural gravel or crushed material, free from lumps of clay or other deleterious matter. max 8 before admixture of bitumen min 30 before admixture of bitumen, tested at 95 % MDD of BS-heavy TFV soaked : min 75% of TFV dry Traffic TLC 3: TFV dry : min 110 kN Traffic TLC 1 and lower: TFV dry : min 80 kN

CML test method

1.2 and 1.3 1.11 2.7

% passing

37,5 100 28 80 - 100 20 60 - 95 10 35 - 70 1.7 5 25 - 50 2 18 - 35 0,425 10 - 25 0,075 5-8 o E-Modulus [MPa] 3.21 min 1200, measured by indirect tensile strength, tested at 29 C o Marshall stability [N] min 4500 tested at 40 C 3.18 Marshall flow [mm] 2-4 Moisture content at min: mix design moisture less 1.5% points 1.1 the time of laying [%] max: mix design moisture plus 0.5% points Type of base bitumen 80/100 or 150/200 penetration grade 3.5 3 Consumption, residual bitumen: 80 to 100 litres per m of compacted material Bitumen content 3.22 Field density min 96% of Marshall dry density 1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow BS procuders and utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with the given material requirements.

Comments:

Cold mixes Tack coat of bitumen emulsion shall be applied at a rate giving minimum 0.3 l/m2 residual binder on all joints and on surfaces towards other bituminous layers and between adjacent layers placed in succession where the same type of material is used. Priming or application of tack coat shall be carried out as required if problems with slippage of the bituminous base course occur. Compaction trials Detailed compaction trials shall be carried out at the beginning of laying operations and when a new mix formula or production procedure is introduced. The compaction trial shall show compliance with mix formulas and demonstrate the adequacy of the proposed compaction procedures. The compaction trial shall also confirm that equipment and procedures are adequate for paving at the proposed layer thickness while achieving satisfactory riding quality and sufficient density to the bottom of the layer.

Subbase made of cemented materials will have a bituminous curing membrane and may not require any further application of tack coat. Subbase made of natural gravel can normally receive a bituminous cold mix without use of prime.

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Comments:

7.5 Deleterious Minerals

Sulphide minerals The maximum allowed /7 -21/ content of sulphide minerals such as pyrite, marcasite, and chalcopyrite, in aggregates are given in Table 7.17.
Table 7.17 Sulphide minerals in aggregates

Intended use Bi tumi nous materi als Granular materi als for base course or subbase C ement or li me stabi li sed materi als

Max content of sulphide minerals [% ] max 2 max 1 Zero allowed

The effect of mica is particularly adverse when the mica plates are larger than 0.5 mm diameter. A content higher than 10% by volume means that the mica is easily detectable at a glance during visual inspection.

Mica Muscovite mica (light colour) causes difficulties in achieving compaction of granular layers and the initial density may decrease in service and promote ingress of water. Biotite mica (black colour) tends to break rather than behave like flexing plates in the soil matrix and is therefore of less concern. Contents of muscovite mica above 10% by volume are not allowed in granular pavement layers. No specific limit is set for biotite mica. Soluble salts Testing of electric conductivity is the preferred, simple, method to indirectly determine the content of soluble salts in soils and construction water. Special methods for design and construction of pavements with presence of soluble salts, including the setting of appropriate design limits, are discussed in /7-11/. Rapidly weathering minerals Rapidly weathering minerals, e.g. nepheline, or rock types such as some basic igneous rocks, require special testing to identify their potential for rapid weathering and to verify sufficient durability for use in pavement layers.

/Chapter 6 Problem Soils/.

Testing to identify rapidly weathering minerals: /7-3/ and /7-9/.

7.6 Surveys for Construction Materials

7.6.1
Potential borrow pits shall be surveyed by trial pit excavations and sampling at the stage of detailed design. The survey shall prove sufficient quantities for all pavement and earthworks materials. The sampling frequency shall be minimum that given in Table 7.18.

Borrow pits

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Table 7.18 Borrow pits - minimum test frequency prior to opening

Max m3 to be represented by one test Intended use Bi tumi nous base course C emented base course C emented subbase Base course - nat. gravel Subbase - natural gravel Improved subgrade Fi ll C BR 5 000 5 000 10 000 5 000 10 000 10 000 20 000 Gradi ng and PI 3 000 5 000 10 000 3 000 5 000 10 000 20 000 Aggregate strength 10 000 20 000 20 000

Comments:

No less than four tri al pi ts shall be excavated i n each borrow pi t.

7.6.2

All new quarry sites of massive rock shall at the design stage be investigated by core drilling to establish sufficient quantities for the project. The extent of investigations shall be determined depending on site conditions and the type of project.

Quarries

Existing quarries may be investigated by proof drilling, core drilling, trial blasting or as required depending on site conditions such as the size of current operations compared to required future operations for the project.

7.7 Manufactured Materials

7.7.1 Geo-textiles used as separating layers
Geo-textile used for prevention of reflective cracking in pavement rehabilitation works is discussed in Chapter 9.4. Other possible uses of geotextiles, such as in drainage works, are not included in this manual.

General Geo-textiles are used for separation of materials of different grading where there is a risk of undesirable infiltration of fines into the matrix of a coarser material. Manufacture The basic type of geo-textile shall be non-woven, manufactured by needle punching, thermal bonding, or both. The fibres shall be continuous or staple fibres made of either polyester or polypropylene. Material requirements Table 7.19 shows the minimum weight per m2 for geo-textiles depending on the site conditions.

Both cost and quality of geo-textiles are in general proportional to their weight per m2, and the required quality depends on the maximum particle shape, particle size and compression strength of the material to be placed against the geo-textiles.

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Comments:

Table 7.19 Geo-textile separating layers required weight per m2

Aggregate placed adjacent to the geo-textile Aggregate type Gravel, sand or graded crushed materi al Sorted crushed rock D ump rock (D R) dMAX
[mm]

Geo-textile, weight per area [g/m2] Placed on fi rm, dry subsoi l 1) mi n 140 mi n 200 mi n 320 Placed on soft, wet subsoi l 2) mi n 200 mi n 320 Speci al rei nforcement shall be consi dered

max 50 max 200 -

1) D ry subsoi l refers to moi sture contents below OMC of BS-Li ght. 2) Soft, wet subsoi l i s normally si lty or clayey materi als i n water logged areas.

Geo-textiles made of polypropylene are particularly sensitive to the effect of direct sunlight.

Storage Geo-textiles shall be kept away from direct sunlight during storage.

7.7.2
Geo-grids within the embankment itself have doubtful effect and should only be considered when used in specially designed systems of earth reinforcement for construction of steep slopes.

Geo-grids for reinforcement

General Geo-grids are intended for use as reinforcement of earthworks and pavement layers. Geo-grids shall only be considered in special cases due to their high cost. The technical and economical effectiveness of their use shall be carefully assessed and documented before application in the works. Earthworks Geo-grids may be considered in special cases such as to prevent tensile failure at the bottom of embankments when crossing soft areas. Pavements Geo-grids do not add strength to the pavement structure to an extent that make them economically justified in new pavements. No reductions in pavement layer thickness shall be made due to the use of geo-grids. Geogrids may be considered under special circumstances for use in an interlayer system to prevent reflective cracking through overlays.

Use of geo-grids to prevent reflective cracking in pavement rehabilitation works is discussed in /Chapter 9.4/.

References
7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS (1987). Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4.08. Philadelphia, USA. AUSTRALIAN ASPHALT PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION (1997). Cold Mix Granular Materials Guide. HOSKING, J R and TUBEY, L W (1969). Research on low-grade and unsound aggregates. RRL Report LR 293. Transport research laboratory, Crowthorne, London, UK. NETTERBERG, F (1985). Pedocretes. From Engineering Geology of Southers Africa. NITRR report 430 Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.

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7-5

7-6 7-7

7-8 7-9 7 - 10 7 - 11 7 - 12 7 - 13 7 - 14 7 - 15 7 - 16 7 - 17 7 - 18

7 - 19 7 - 20

7 - 21

NETTERBERG, F and M I PINARD (1991). Derivation of interim performance-related specifications for coarsely-graded plastic calcrete basecourse gravels. Proc. 10th Regional Conference for Africa on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Maseru, Leshoto. SOUTHERN AFRICAN BITUMEN ASSOCIATION - SABITA (1993). LAMBS The design and use of large aggregate mixes for bases. Republic of South Africa. TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993). A guide to the structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and subtropical countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31. TRL, Crowthorne, for ODA, London, UK. CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH AND INFORMATION ASSOCIATION (1988). Laterite in road Pavements. Special Publication 47. CIRIA, London, UK. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. Draft TRH 13 (1986): Cementitious stabilisers in road construction. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. SOUTHERN AFRICAN BITUMEN ASSOCIATION - SABITA (1993). Draft guidelines on the use of bitumen emulsion treated materials. Republic of South Africa. OBIKA, B and R J FREER-HEWISH (1990). Soluble salt damage to thin Bituminous surfacings of roads and runways. Australian Road Research, 20 (4.) BOTSWANA ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1994). Draft Volume 3, Materials and Pavement Design. Ministry of Works, Transport and Communications, Roads Department. Republic of Botswana. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TMH 5 (1981): Sampling methods for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 8 (1987): Selection and design of hot-mix asphalt surfacings for highways. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 14 (1985): Guidelines for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. LIONJANGA, A V and T TOOLE and P A K GREENING (1987). The use of calcrete in paved roads in Botswana. Ninth regional conference for Africa, Lagos, Nigeria. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIAN STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES (1986). Guide to stabilisation in roadworks. NAASRA, Sydney, Australia. OCONNELL M J and C S GOURLEY (1993). Expansive clay road embankments in arid areas: moisture-suction conditions. Proc. First International Symposium on Engineering Characteristics of Arid Soils, City University. London, UK. ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1987). Part III, Materials and Pavement Design for New Roads. Ministry of Transport and Comm., Roads Department. Republic of Kenya. TOOLE, T and D NEWILL (1987). A Strategy for assessing marginal quality materials for use in bituminous roads in the tropics. Proc. seminar H, PTRC Transport and Planning Summer Annual Meeting, University of Bath, London, UK. WEINERT, H H (1980). The natural road construction materials of Southern Africa. Academica, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.

Comments:

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