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com Form 4 : Chapter 2 : Cell Structure and Cell Organisation

Homeostasis
- Homeostasis literally means same state and it refers to the process of keeping the internal body environment in a steady state.

Temperature Homeostasis (thermoregulation)

- One of the most important examples of homeostasis is the regulation of body temperature. - Not all animals can do this. Animals that maintain a fairly constant body temperature birds and mammals! are called homeotherms also spelt homoiotherms!" #hile those that have a variable body temperature all others! are called poikilotherms. - $he homeotherms maintain their body temperatures at around %&'(" so are sometimes called #armblooded animals - )n humans temperature homeostasis is controlled by the thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus. )t receives input from t#o sets of thermoreceptors* - $he thermoregulatory centre sends impulses to several different effectors to ad+ust body temperature*

- $he body thus has a range of responses available" depending on the internal and external temperatures. Effector ,mooth muscles in arterioles in the skin. Response to low temperature -uscles contract causing vasoconstriction. .ess heat is carried from the core to the surface of the body" maintaining core temperature. /xtremities can turn blue and feel cold and can even be damaged frostbite!. Response to high temperature -uscles relax causing vasodilation. -ore heat is carried from the core to the surface" #here it is lost by convection and radiation. ,kin turns red.

,#eat glands

No s#eat produced.

0lands secrete s#eat onto surface of skin" #here it evaporates and it takes heat from the body.

/rector pili muscles in skin attached to skin

-uscles contract" raising skin hairs and trapping an insulating layer of still" #arm air next to the skin. Not very effective in

-uscles relax" lo#ering the skin hairs and allo#ing air to circulate over the skin" encouraging convection and evaporation.

hairs!

humans" +ust causing goosebumps.

,keletal muscles

-uscles contract and relax repeatedly" generating heat by friction and from metabolic reactions.

No shivering.

Adrenal and thyroid glands

0lands secrete adrenaline and thyroxine respectively" #hich increase the metabolic rate in different tissues" especially the liver" so generating heat.

0lands stop releasing adrenaline and thyroxine.

1ehaviour

(urling up" huddling" finding shelter" putting on more clothes.

,tretching out" finding shade" s#imming" removing clothes.

- $he thermoregulatory centre normally maintains a set point of %&.2 3 4.2 '( in most mammals.
Ho#ever the set point can be altered is special circumstances* Fever. (hemicals called pyrogens released by #hite blood cells raise the set point of the thermoregulatory centre causing the #hole body temperature to increase by 5-% '(. $his helps to kill bacteria and explains #hy you shiver even though you are hot. Hibernation. ,ome mammals release hormones that reduce their set point to around 2'( #hile they hibernate. $his drastically reduces their metabolic rate and so conserves their food reserves.

Blood Glucose Homeostasis

- 0lucose is the transport carbohydrate in animals" and its concentration in the blood affects every cell in the body. - )ts concentration is therefore strictly controlled #ithin the range 64-744 mg 744cm-%" and very lo# level hypoglycaemia! or very high levels hyperglycaemia! are both serious and can lead to death. - 1lood glucose concentration is controlled by the pancreas. $he pancreas has glucose receptor cells" #hich monitor the concentration of glucose in the blood. - it also has cells called the islets of .angerhans in the pancreas #hich secrete hormones. - $he islets of .angerhans cells secrete the hormone glucagon" #hile the islets of .angerhans cells secrete the hormone insulin. $hese t#o hormones are antagonistic" and have opposite effects on blood glucose* - insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells for respiration" and in the liver it stimulates the conversion of glucose to glycogen therefore decreases blood glucose. - glucagon stimulates the breakdo#n of glycogen to glucose in the liver" therefore increases blood

glucose.

- 1. After a meal" glucose is absorbed from the gut into the hepatic portal vein" increasing the blood
glucose concentration. 5. $his is detected by the pancreas" #hich secretes insulin from its cells . %. )nsulin causes glucose to be taken up by the liver and converted to glycogen. 8.$his reduces blood glucose" #hich causes the pancreas to stop secreting insulin. 2. )f the glucose level falls too far" the pancreas detects this and releases glucagon from its cells. 9. 0lucagon causes the liver to break do#n some of its glycogen store to glucose" #hich diffuses into the blood. &. $his increases blood glucose" #hich causes the pancreas to stop producing glucagon. $hese continue all day" as sho#n in this graph*

Diabetes

ellitus

- :iabetes is a disease caused by a failure of glucose homeostasis. - $here are t#o forms of the disease. 7. )n type 7 or early-onset diabetes there is a severe insulin deficiency due to autoimmune killing of cells possibly due to a virus!. 5. )n type 5 or late-onset diabetes insulin is produced" but the insulin receptors in the target cells don;t #ork" so insulin has no effect. - )n both cases there is a very high blood glucose concentration after a meal" so much of the glucose is excreted in urine .$his leads to the symptoms of diabetes*

high thirst due to osmosis of #ater from cells to the blood" #hich has a lo# #ater potential. copious urine production due to excess #ater in blood. poor vision tiredness due to loss of glucose in urine and poor uptake of glucose by liver and muscle cells. muscle #asting caused by increased glucagon.

- :iabetes can be treated by in+ections #ith insulin or by careful diet.

Blood !ater Homeostasis ("smoregulation)

- $he #ater potential of the blood must be regulated to prevent loss or gain of #ater from cells. - 1lood #ater homeostasis is controlled by the hypothalamus. )t contains osmosreceptor cells" #hich can detect changes in the #ater potential of the blood passing through the brain. - )n response" the hypothalamus controls the sensation of thirst" and it also secretes the hormone A:H antidiuretic hormone!.

E#cretion and Homeostasis

- /xcretion means the removal of #aste products from cells. - $here are five important excretory organs in humans* 7. ,kin *excretes s#eat" containing #ater" ions and urea 5. .ungs * excrete carbon dioxide and #ater %. .iver < excretes bile" containing bile pigments" cholesterol and mineral ions

8. 0ut * excretes mucosa cells" #ater and bile in faeces. $he bulk of faeces comprises plant fibre and bacterial cells" #hich have never been absorbed into the body" so are not excreted but egested.! 2. =idney * excrete urine" containing urea" mineral ions" #ater and other foreign chemicals from the blood