Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala Facultad de Ingeniera Technical English 4 Proficiency Exam, Oral Part

PROJECT. PROFICIENCY EXAM, TECHNICAL ENGLISH 4

Felipe Rafael Ochoa Reyes July 26, 2013

201020810

INDEX Page Introduction Objectives Bridges Structure Structural Analysis for a Bridges Substructure Conclusions Bibliography 3 4 5 9 34 35

INTRODUCTION Known as the bridges are constructed, its structure, materials used to perform these procedures and use are given to these. The traditional building materials for bridges are: stone, timber and steel, and more recently reinforced and pre-stressed concrete. For special elements aluminum and its alloys and some types of plastics are used. These materials have different qualities of strength, workability, durability and resistance against corrosion. They differ also in their structure, texture and color or in the possibilities of surface treatment with differing texture and color. Bridges may be classified by how the forces of tension, compression, bending, torsion and shear are distributed through their structure. Most bridges will employ all of the principal forces to some degree, but only a few will predominate. The separation of forces may be quite clear. In a suspension or cable-stayed span, the elements in tension are distinct in shape and placement. In other cases the forces may be distributed among a large number of members, as in a truss, or not clearly discernible to a casual observer as in a box beam. Bridges can also be classified by their lineage, which is shown as the vertical axis on the diagram. There are six main types of bridges: beam bridges, cantilever bridges, arch bridges, suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges and truss bridges. The bridge supports are mechanical devices capable of transmitting the vertical and horizontal loads from the superstructure to the substructure. Forces or actions to be borne by the support depend on the degree of restriction that these possess, while determining the stresses on the elements of the substructure to which they connect.

OBJECTIVES General Specifics To learn the materials used to build a bridge. To know how to do the structural analysis for a bridge. To know how a bridge is built.

BRIDGES STRUCTURE A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. Designs of bridges vary depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed, the material used to make it and the funds available to build it. A bridge is designed for trains, pedestrian or road traffic, a pipeline or waterway for water transport or barge traffic. An aqueduct is a bridge that carries water, resembling a viaduct, which is a bridge that connects points of equal height. A roadrail bridge carries both road and rail traffic. Bridges are subject to unplanned uses as well. The areas underneath some bridges have become makeshift shelters and homes to homeless people, and the undersides of bridges all around the world are spots of prevalent graffiti. Some bridges attract people attempting suicide, and become known as suicide bridges. The traditional building materials for bridges are stone, timber and steel, and more recently reinforced and pre-stressed concrete. For special elements aluminum and its alloys and some types of plastics are used. These materials have different qualities of strength, workability, durability and resistance against corrosion. They differ also in their structure, texture and color or in the possibilities of surface treatment with differing texture and color. Bridges may be classified by how the forces of tension, compression, bending, torsion and shear are distributed through their structure. Most bridges will employ all of the principal forces to some degree, but only a few will predominate. The separation of forces may be quite clear. In a suspension or cable-stayed span, the elements in tension are distinct in shape and placement. In other cases the forces may be distributed among a large number of members, as in a truss, or not clearly discernible to a casual observer as in a box beam. Bridges can also be classified by their lineage, which is shown as the vertical axis on the diagram. There are six main types of bridges: beam bridges, cantilever bridges, arch bridges, suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges and truss bridges.

1.

Beam bridges: are horizontal beams supported at each end by abutments, hence their structural name of simply supported. When there is more than one span the intermediate supports are known as piers. The earliest beam bridges were simple logs that sat across streams and similar simple structures.

2.

Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevershorizontal beams supported on only one end. Most cantilever bridges use a pair of continuous spans that extend from opposite sides of the supporting piers to meet at the center of the obstacle the bridge crosses. Cantilever bridges are constructed using much the same materials & techniques as beam bridges.

3.

Arch bridges: have abutments at each end. The weight of the bridge is thrust into the abutments at either side.

4.

Tied arch bridges: have an arch-shaped superstructure, but differ from conventional arch bridges. Instead of transferring the weight of the bridge and traffic loads into thrust forces into the abutments, the ends of the arches are restrained by tension in the bottom chord of the structure. They are also called bowstring arches.

5.

Suspension bridges: are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension bridges were made of ropes or vines covered with pieces of bamboo. In modern bridges, the cables hang from towers that are attached to caissons or cofferdams.

6.

Cable-stayed bridges: like suspension bridges, are held up by cables. However, in a cablestayed bridge, less cable is required and the towers holding the cables are proportionately shorter.

7.

Double-decked or double-decker bridges: have two levels with two road levels. Some double-decker bridges only use one level for street traffic; the Washington Avenue Bridge in Minneapolis reserves its lower level for automobile traffic and its upper level for pedestrian and bicycle traffic.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF BRIDGES SUBSTRUCTURES ACCORDING TO STANDARDS AASHTO 1. SUPPORTS

1.1.1 General.

The bridge supports are mechanical devices capable of transmitting the vertical and horizontal loads from the superstructure to the substructure. Forces or actions to be borne by the support depend on the degree of restriction that these possess, while determining the stresses on the elements of the substructure to which they connect.

It is clear that as increases the span length of a bridge, the greater the deflection in the longitudinal strength members of the bridge, and also higher rotations at the supports, this last depending on the type of support that could lead to concentrations undesirable stress in localized areas of the same.

The AASHTO Article 10.29.1.1 at 10.29.1.2 and set the conditions for a bridge support on the basis of the length of their course. To clear fixed braces under 50 feet, no need to make considerations for deflection, while for spans greater than or equal to 50 feet shall be provided special type of support that tolerate higher levels of turnover, with clear bridges under 50 feet also can rely on mobile devices, consisting of steel plates with smooth surfaces that do not take into account the deflection. But if the gap is greater than or equal to 50 feet when the bridge will provide support for mobile devices that tolerate greater degrees of rotation.

According to the type of material they are made, the supports can be classified into metallic and elastomeric. The using of metal supports is generally limited to bridges with a superstructure based in metallic structure, while the elastomeric bearings are used independently in bridges with concrete or metal superstructures.

As stated above, the elastomeric bearings offer greater versatility in use, which is why this section will focus on the study of these. 1.1.2 Elastomeric Bearings.

An elastomeric bearing bridge is a mechanism to partially or completely constructed of elastomer, can be simple (consisting of a single plate of elastomers) or laminates (consisting of several layers 9

of elastomer constrained between its sides with sheet steel or fully subject factory reinforcement). It is not advisable to use very thin layers of elastomer. In addition to any internal reinforcement, the supports may have an outer steel plate, attached to the lower or upper plate of the elastomer, each load plate is at least as long as the elastomer layer bonded to which this (Sec. 14.1 .)

1.1.3. Determination of Design Actions. The design of elastomeric bearings is based on the method of load factors, the reactions involved in the analysis and design in this type of elements are those generated by the loads from the superstructure, excluding impact.

The charges which produce this reaction are: a) Dead load b) Live load. c) longitudinal force d) Wind load e) Wind load live load applied to f) seismic force g) Thermal Force M1 V1 FL1 CV1 CVV1 FS1 FT1

Which are displayed according to the previous corresponding literal. Figure 1.1 sets out the application points or lines of action defining conveniently loads seat lement substructure. (Bracket).

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1.1.4 AASHTO Specifications for the proportioning of support elastomeric. Once actions have been evaluated from the superstructure and has established a tentative predimensioning, the AASHTO in Art.14.2 presents the following design procedure:

1.1.4.1 Material properties for the design.

The properties of the elastomeric components depend on their constituents. One of the most important properties of elastomer is the shear modulus, which can be defined as the force per square inch of the bearing (contact area) required to deforming an amount equal to its thickness. When specified or know the shear modulus of elastomer that is made each supports, this value should be used for the design, otherwise, the values used are those of the applicable range in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 SHEAR MODULUS ELASTOMER FOR DIFFERENT HARDNESS. HARDNESS (CLASS A) 50 60 70

Shear modulus at 73 F (psi) Plastic flow due a deflection of 25 years instantaneous deflection

85-110

120-155

160-260

25%

35%

45%

1.1.4.2 Review of efforts to understand. If not prevented shear deformation, the average compressive stress, or in any layer shall not exceed 1000 psi for steel reinforced supports, 800 psi for rolled steel reinforced supports or bearings simple module by cutting and shape factor: GS/ (Eq. 4.1). Where: G = shear modulus of the elastomer at 73 F S = shape factor (see Fig. 1.2) = Area loaded Effective area free of bulge = modification factor has a value of 1.0 for inner layers of support strengthened, 1.4 and 1.8 for layers for cushions covered in a single layer. 11

In support containing layers of different thickness, the value of S used will be the thickest layer. Allowed compressive stress can be increased by 10% where the translation is prevented by cutting.

Fig 1.2 FORM FACTOR FOR NEOPRENE SUPPORTS

1.1.4.3 Calculation of the deformation by compression. Instantaneous deformation by compression will be calculated as:

DU= EUi * t i (Equation 1.2) Where: EUi = compressive deformation of the i-th layer of the elastomer and equal to the quotient resulting from dividing the change in thickness by the undeformed thickness. ti = thickness of the i-th layer of the elastomer. The value of compressive deformation depends inter alia on the form factor and the hardness of the elastomer. Compression deflection decreases with increasing the shape factor and / or hardness. The effects of plastic flow of the elastomer will be added to the instantaneous deformation by compression deformation when considered over time. Deformation by plastic flow can be obtained from Table 1.1 as long as no other information available.

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4.1.3.4. Rotation Relative rotation between the upper and lower surfaces is limited by: L + Ww >2DU for rectangular supports Eq. 1.3 D (L + w ) >2DU for circular supports Eq. 1.4 Where: L = support dimension in the direction parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bridge. W = the support dimension in the direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bridge. L(w) = relative rotation of the upper and lower surfaces of the support about an axis perpendicular (parallel) to the longitudinal axis of the bridge (radians). D = diameter round total support. 1.1.3.5. Shear. The shear strain (DU) is taken as the maximum possible deformation caused by creep, shrinkage and thermal effects post-tensioning calculated between installation temperature and extreme temperature less favorable, unless a displacement device is installed. Support will be designed so that: T>2DU Eq. 4.5

Where: T = Total thickness of the elastomer support =ti DU= shear deformation at the support. The shear strain induced by shear can be approximated by the following expression: F = G (A / T)DU ec. 4.6 Where: F = shear force on the support (lbs) G = Shear Modulus of the elastomer whose value is a function of temperature. A = Flat area of support (in )

1.1.3.6. Stability. To ensure the stability of the support, the same total thickness shall not exceed the lesser of the following values:

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L/5, W/5 or D/5 for simple supports. L/3, W/3 or D/4 to support reinforced

Eq. 4.7 Eq. 4.8

1.1.3.7. Reinforcement. As prescribed in the AASHTO, the reinforcement must meet the requirements of M251 and its strength in pounds per linear inch to work efforts in each direction should not be less than: 1, 400 ti for rolled steels 1, 700 ti for steels. For these purposes ti will be taken as the average thickness of the two layers of elastomer attached to the reinforcement, if they are of different thickness. The resistance per linear inch is given by the product of the thickness of the material and allowed efforts on the net section. The thickness of steel will be appropriately increased if holes are punched in it. 1.1.3.8. Anchors. If there is any combination of loads causing a shear force greater than 1/5 of the compression force occurring simultaneously, the support is secured against horizontal movement. If the supports are subject to both upper and lower surfaces, the union should be such that l vertical stress is not possible. 1.2 BUTTRESS. 4.2.1 General. The principles governing the analysis of stability and strength of the stirrups are common to those who govern the analysis of cantilever retaining walls. The forces that are commonly considered in the project of the individual parts of a spur depends strongly on the tendency of these parties to work together. The stirrups and buttresses are discussed as though acting independently cantilever, although they are attached or not monolithically and the base beneath them is continuous. This assumption is generally considered conservative from the point of view of stability of the structure together, because the resisting moment of the entire area of the base acting as a unit is larger than if it is assumed that the three components act separately, and the resistance increases rapidly with increasing angle between the buttresses and the body of the stirrup.

The foundation of a stirrup shoe generally consists of a run, defined as a continuous strip of slab along the stirrup and a width greater than the thickness thereof. Projections of the foundation slab are treated as cantilever loaded with distributed soil pressure. 14

Since the bridge superstructure in question is based on longitudinal beams, the number and spacing of these determine the number and position of concentrated reactions that must withstand the stirrup. Although the reactions vertical and horizontal in the structure are concentrated loads will be presumed distributed over the entire length of the stirrup.That is, the reactions horizontal or vertical, shall be divided by the length of the stirrup to get a load per linear meter for use in the analysis of stability and in the structural. In general, analysis of a stirrup takes place both in the transverse direction as the longitudinal axis of the bridge. However, be so great rigidity of the stirrup in the direction transverse to the axis of the bridge, the effects produced by the loads in this area are usually less unfavorable and therefore often limit the analysis to the longitudinal direction. 4.2.2. Loads applied to a buttress. In Chapter II of this study, we analyzed those charges involved in the structural analysis of the substructure of a bridge. In the case of stirrups loads to be considered in the analysis are as follows: a) Dead load of the superstructure from b) Dead load due to the weight of the bracket, c) Fill Weight above the part of the foundation which is located behind the footboard, d)Live load transmitted from the superstructure for the support e) Overloading living on the exterior surface of the bracket, f) Increase in the living earth pressure overload, g) Longitudinal forces from the superstructure, h) Push active earth, i) Wind load from the superstructure, j) Wind load applied to the live load, k) Wind load applied to the bracket, l) Seismic forces from the superstructure, m) Seismic force produced by the mass of the stapes, n) Frictional force at the base of the stirrup. M1 M2 M2 V SCV EA ' FL EA CV1 CVV1 CV2 FS1 FS2 Ff

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Which are shown in Figure 1.4, in said figure, the points of application or the lines of action of the loads, three defined appropriate ways: I. II. III. With respect to item or (x, y) With respect to the chair of the stapes (y `) With respect to the deck of the superstructure (which may or may not coincide with the upper bracket). (Y'').

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4.2.3. Structural Analysis. 4.2.3.1 Stability Analysis. The AASHTO Article 7.4.1.2 states that the stirrups were projected to provide safety against overturning about the toe of the shoe to slip on the base and against crushing of material foundation. Global stability of the stirrup, according to its size and specific gravity, is reviewed by the load factor method, with load factors equal to one (AASHTO Section 3.22.3). The stability analysis of the bracket body is generally carried out using the following procedure: 1 - Determine the characteristics of the loads acting on the brackets, ie, address, direction, magnitude and point of application, as indicated in Figure 3.4. 2 - Calculation of overturning moments and strong around the toe of the shoe (or point) of the stapes (Fig. 4.4). The overturning moments are those that tend to overturn the step forward, while the resistant moment counteracting the effect of tumbling. Table 4.2 indicates the type of torque produced by the loadings shown in Fig. 4.4. 3 - Review by tumbling. The safety factor to dump (FSV) is obtained by dividing the sum of resisting moments (Mr) between the sum of overturning moments (Mv). To consider the proportioning of the stapes is satisfactory, the safety factor to the dump must be greater or equal to 1.5 for granular soils and greater than or equal to 2 for cohesive soils.

FSv = M resistant > 1.5 or 2.0 Eq. 4.9 M dump 4 - Review by sliding. Table 4.3 shows the effects in terms of horizontal stability, causing the loads shown in Figure 4.4.

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The sliding safety factor (DSF) is obtained by dividing the sum of the loads that oppose slip ( Fr) between the sum of the loads that cause ( Fd). For the restribo found not to slip, the sliding safety factor must be greater than or equal to 1.5 for granular soils and greater than or equal to 2.0 for cohesive soils. FSD F = 1.5 or 2.0 Ec resistant 4.10 F slip

5 - Review of capacity. At this stage compares the stresses generated in the cementing material to the permissible load capacity (qa). The allowable pressure (q) under service loads are generally based on a safety factor of between 2.5 and 3.0 respect to the maximum load capacity of the net (qd), so that: qa = qd Eq. 4.11 Safety factor the distribution of following considerations: I. II. ground support pressure depends inter alia of the

The manner in which the stirrups loads are transmitted to the foundation. The degree of rigidity thereof.

Can be seen that the ground support pressure is evenly distributed if the load resulting from the stirrup is applied to the centroid base of the foundation (Figure 3.5a). If the axial load is applied or not symmetrically, the distribution of the soil pressure will vary uniformly and will have one of the two cases shown in Figure 3.5b and 3.5c.

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For a buttress to be considered stable, it must meet the requirements shown in sections 3.4 and 5 for all groups of combinations load specified by AASHTO in Article 3.22, if not should find resized to the dimensions that meet the stability requirements. The steps in the stability analysis of the buttresses, are similar to those shown previously in this section, except that the loading conditions are different, not all those involved coming from the superstructure. 4.2.3.2 Determination of the shares of the design. After reviewing the overall stability of the stirrup, structural analysis is made of it. This analysis concerns the calculation of the internal actions of the structure, ie moment, shear and axial force. The determination of the internal actions of design for each component of the stapes (stirrup body, buttresses and foundations) depends, among other things, the constituent material and the structural form of the same. In each of these components can be located in certain sections which groups of load combinations generate the maximum design internal actions. These sections are commonly known as critical sections. In the case of the bracket body and buttresses, critical sections regardless of the material, are located, both for cutting and for now, at the junction of the rear wall retention and aletn with the foundation. (Figure 4.6).

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Usually all the high bracket body and buttresses are provided as actions resulting in the critical section. However if required refine results for cheaper designs, it is recommended explore other sections to make changes in the characteristics of the cross section. Moreover, in the case of foundations there are two shear critical sections-two times. In the case of reinforced concrete foundations critical sections are located: I. II. For cutting, at a distance "d" from the front edges back of the bracket body, where "d" is the effective camber of the shoe (Figure 3.7a). Conversely if the foundation is considered stone masonry or plain concrete, critical sections are located: I. II. For now, at the midpoint between the central axis of the body the bracket and the front and rear edge thereof. (Fig 3.7b). For cutting, in the front and rear edges of the support body, delimiting the toe and heel respectively. (Fig. 3.7b). For time, in the front and rear edges of the body of bracket, defining respectively the toe and heel (Figure 3.7a).

The calculation of the internal actions of design is done by loading the toe and the heel with the net pressure of the soil, as if they were projections. The net pressure of the soil (Figure 3.8) is obtained by subtracting the efforts produced by the weight of the foundation and soil resistance (s + z) the total stress diagram shown in Figure 3.5.

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4.3. PILE. 4.3.1. Overview. Batteries are the elements of the substructure of bridges that are subject to the greatest number of requests, some more critical than others, depending on battery type used, the site and the service provided by the bridge in general. In order to illustrate the analysis approach intermediate supports of a bridge, were selected within the range of existing forms, three types of batteries that are generally the most used. These are: a) Wall type b) Type hammerhead c) Type frame. The structural behavior of the body wall of the stack type resembles that of a cantilever, and its foundation consists of a shoe run along the pile, which are considered as cantilevers its projections with the net pressure loaded floor. Just as in stirrups, concentrated loads from the superstructure and applied to the body of the stack is divided by the total length of the stack in order to consider, in the analysis and structural stability as structural loads and uniformly distributed as uniformly distributed loads per unit length.

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Stacks of hammerhead are composite structures, in which the structural behavior can be determined based on the members that make up (head, spine and foundation). The projections of the head act as cantilever beams embedded in the column. This, due to the interaction of loads acting as in both directions (longitudinal and transverse to the axis of the bridge), behaves as a column subjected to axial load and biaxial moments. On the other hand, behaves as a foundation pad footing is also subjected to biaxial effects. The structural behavior of the stack frame type, as its name suggests, is that of a rigid frame in which its elements, beams and columns are connected rigidly at its ends by joints or knots bending moments and resistant to cutting, so that the elements which converge to a node can rotate or move together, but do not move relative to one another. The load capacity of the structure is increased to the extent that the knots resist the effect of the bending moment. The columns in the stack frame type shoes are grounded independently in isolated or combined footings joint. 4.3.2. Loads applied to a stack. As to the stirrups, the batteries are elements of the substructure of a bridge that are subject to a variety of load types. Most of the charges that apply to the brackets so do the piles, but there are some burdens that are specific to one or another element of the substructure. In general, the loads studied in Chapter III, which can be obtained from a stack are: a) Dead load from the superstructure. b) Dead load due to the weight of the stack, c) Fill Weight on the foundation of the stack, d) Live load more impact from the superstructure. e) longitudinal forces, f) Wind load from the superstructure. g) Wind load applied to the live load. h) wind load applied to the stack. i) seismic forces produced by the mass of the stack. j) seismic forces produced by the mass of the stack. k) the friction force at the base of the stack. l) Hydraulic pressure upstream (float) m) Pressure of current flow. n) active earth thrust o) passive earth thrust. M1 M2 M2 ' V+I FL CV1 CVV1 CV2 FS1 FS2 Ff PHA PFC EA EP

Study batteries generally involves an analysis where the transverse and longitudinal axis of the bridge, except the wall-type battery, which generally only analyzed in the longitudinal direction, since in the other sense of stiffness characteristics are such that they tend to do less unfavorable stresses, similarly to what happens in stirrups. From Figure 4.9 to 4.12 are presented for different types of battery, the loads acting on their common transverse and longitudinal, and shows its point of application and line of action. Fig. 4.9, showing a cutting common to all three types of batteries in the longitudinal axis of the bridge, the figures 4.10, 4.11 and 4.12, showing cuts in the transverse to the axis of the bridge type battery

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wall, hammerhead type, and frame type, respectively. Said cuts in the loads are indicated in subparagraphs function corresponding to the previous listing.

In the figures (Figure 4.9 to 4.12) the points of application to the lines of action of loads conveniently defined with respect to O (X, Y).

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1.3.3. Structural Analysis. 1.3.3.1. Stability Analysis. The batteries should be designed to adequately support the superstructure, that is should provide security against turning around the lower ends of the base against sliding on the base and against crushing of the foundation material. However it is important to mention that in the design process should take precautions to prevent soil slippage or excessive settlement suffering that threatens the stability of the entire structure. The steps discussed in paragraph 4.2.3, for analyzing the stability of temper are equally applicable to the stability analysis of batteries in both directions, taking into account the following considerations. a) It is common to take into account the land earth pressure on the analysis of the stack, due to the pressures exerted on the perimeter thereof are generally similar. However, in situations of irregular topography on the site or scour site on one side of the battery may be necessary inclusion. b) Because the batteries in the process of building a bridge are completed prior to receiving the dead and live loads of the superstructure and that during this period are exposed to various stresses, should be reviewed for conditions with and without superstructure. The stability of the stack with the wind on the front facade is critical without the superstructure. c) In evaluating the weight of the battery and the weight of the field on the basis of this, consider the effect of upward hydraulic pressure. It should be noted that this latest solicitation must be considered in the calculations of stability even in the submerged foundations resting on rock, as water under pressure is likely to penetrate through cracks in the joints of concrete and rock. d) The batteries are located in water courses have certain areas exposed to the current. In these cases it is necessary to consider the pressure effect of the flow itself, mainly in those streams where the flow velocity is high. This load induced effects overturning moments and sliding on the base thereof. 1.3.3.2. Determination of design actions. After reviewing the overall stability of the stack, structural analysis is made of it. This analysis concerns the calculation of the internal actions of the structure, ie moment, shear and axial force. Determining the design internal actions for each type of battery with its specific component depends, inter alia, the constituent material and structural form thereof. In each of these components can locate those sections in which the groups of combinations of loads generate internal actions maximum design, ie, critical sections. The evaluation of internal actions generated design in critical sections of the foundation of a stack, is performed to the foundation charged with net soil pressures, studied previously in paragraph 4.2.3 of temper. 27

1.3.3.2.1. Piles wall. The parties to consider in the analysis of this type of battery with the body and the foundation. As in stirrups, the sections critical analysis of the cell body is located, both for cutting, as for now, at the junction of this with the foundation of the stack (Figure 4.13). In order to obtain cell bodies with proportionings cheaper, generally defines the design internal actions in other sections located at the top of the pile body. (Fig. 4.13).

The location of the critical sections for shear and moment in Battery type foundation wall, depend on the type of material that are constituted. Thus we have that when the foundation is of reinforced concrete critical sections are located as specified below (Figure 4.14a). i) For cutting, at a distance "d" from the edges of the body stack, where "d" is the effective camber of the shoe. ii) For now, at the edges of the pile body. (Section 4.4.6 and 4.4.7).

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Where the foundation is stone masonry sections critical are located (fig. 4.14b). i) For cutting in the vertical extension of the side edges of battery body. ii) For point, in a vertical plane half the distance between the central axis of the stack and the vertical extension of the edges side of the body. (AASHTO Arts. 4.4.6 and 4.4.7).

4.3.3.2.2. Hammerhead type pile. This type of battery is similar in action to the wall type, but due to its shape geometry requires a smaller volume of concrete. The components of a pile hammer following head, column and foundation. type which are subject to analysis are

Structural analysis of this type cell is to determine the actions generated in sections internal design of the components before mentioned: a) Head. By regarded as the projections of this cantilever beam, the critical section for shear is located in a vertical plane to a distance "d" in the face of the column for a time located face thereof. In order to optimize the proportioning of the protrusions may be chosen by analyzing other sections, plus criticism, located along the same (Figure 4.15). b) Column. Because the charges that apply to the pile hammer act in two directions, transversal (X) and longitudinal (Y), the design actions in the analysis sections occur with respect to both axes "X" and "Y" thereof. This behavior is known as biaxial effect of the element. The critical sections for shear and time are located in the horizontal plane of attachment to the foundation (Figure 4.15). Generally the actions induced in each of the sections are different, why can be analyzed other sections, plus the critical to detect those in which changes may be made in the proportioning of the same. 29

c) Foundations. The foundation of the hammerhead type batteries consist isolated shoes subjected to loads in two directions transmitted from the column of the stack. This load condition required for treatment of a biaxial analysis in which the determination of the volume of pressures that will be charged the shoe is in itself a more laborious process.

Design actions in any section of the shoe is determined by passing a vertical plane through the same and evaluating them from the pressures acting over the total area of the shoe which can on one side of said plane. The critical section is located at the face of the column (Figure 4.16a), (Section 4.4.6.1), while the critical section for shear in a plane extending across the full width and is located at a distance "d" in the face of the column, where "d" is the effective steepness of the 30

shoe. This section considers the shoe acts as a cantilever beam and that all requirements for shear applied in this case (fig.4.16b). However, there is another critical section for shear is to be considered and which arises due to action in two directions of loading (punching shear). Said critical section, perpendicular to the base plane is located such that its perimeter (bo) is minimal, it is,its distance to the contour of the column is not less than d / 2 (fig. 4.16c).

Revision of the critical sections of bending moment and shear is effected, in general, for all four sides of the shoe, however, for practical purposes are checked one by each hand, they are subjected to the most unfavorable effects.

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1.3.3.2.3. Marco piles. The parties to consider in the analysis of this type of battery is the frame consisting of beams and columns and foundations. To the solution of a frame is necessary to calculate the components efforts and displacements of the structure, so that the equations are fulfilled and conditions of support for forces and displacements at the supports produced by different combinations of load. Typically, the analysis of these structures is limited to elastic deformation range. Generally frames are statically indeterminate structures, meaning that the support reactions and internal actions in the elements cannot be determined by the equations of statics. The solution of the framework involves the internal actions that moment, shear and axial force can be determined in any section of an element. On the horizontal axis at the center of each element you can draw diagrams of shear, bending moment and axial force. There are several methods for the analysis of these structures and each may be mentioned the following: a) Method of flexibility. b) Method of stiffness c) Method of Kani. As mentioned above, there are two basic types of foundation structures for this type of pile: i) Isolated footings ii) Combined footings. For analysis of isolated footings criteria are used, which refers to the determination of the actions of the stack design for hammerhead type.

When the allowable pressure of the soil is low, so that necessary large surfaces, the pads are replaced by individual combined footings. In the analysis of this type of foundation can considered in the longitudinal direction caliper behaves as a loaded beam upwards, with a bore equal to the distance between the columns and to the outer ends as cantilever beams. The critical sections for punching shear and bending are the same as for shoes this is isolated "d / 2" and "d", respectively, of the face of the column. (Figure 4.17).

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CONCLUSION

The structural analysis is the most important phase for the building of a bridge. The materials most used for the construction of bridges are cement, iron, concrete, prefabricated materials. Because of there are many different kinds of bridges, we have to analyze correctly which one were going to use, depending on the environment the bridge is going to be built.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bridge. Consulted on July 26, 2013. Available on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge Chapter IV. AASHTO

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