AP CALCULUS

FORMULA LIST
Definition of e:
1
lim 1
n
n
e
n

_
+

,
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Absolute value:
0
0
x if x
x
x if x

'
<

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Definition of the derivative:
( ) ( )
0
( ) lim
x
f x x f x
f x
x

+

(original form: gives a function)

( )
( ) ( )
lim
x c
f x f c
f c
x c

(alternative form: gives slope at a particular point)

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Definition of continuity: f is continuous at c iff
1) f (c) is defined;
2)
lim ( ) eists;
x c
f x

!)
lim ( ) ( )"
x c
f x f c

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Average rate of change of
( ) ( )
( ) on #a$ b% &
f b f a
f x
b a

(slope)
Instantaneous rate of change implies use of derivative"
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'olle(s )heorem: *f f is continuous on #a$ b% and differentiable on (a$ b) and if f (a) = f (b)$
then there is at least one number c on (a$ b) such that
( ) 0" f c
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+ean ,alue )heorem: *f f is continuous on #a$ b% and differentiable on (a$ b)$ then there
eists a number c on (a$ b) such that
( ) ( )
( ) "
f b f a
f c
b a

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*ntermediate ,alue )heorem: *f f is continuous on #a$ b% and k is any number bet-een f (a)
and f (b)$ then there is at least one number c bet-een a and b
such that f (c) & k"
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2 2
2
2
sin 2 2sin cos
cos sin
cos 2 1 2sin
2cos 1
x x x
x x
x x
x

'

2
2
1 cos 2
cos
2
1 cos 2
sin
2
x
x
x
x
+

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.inear Approimation: to approimate y/value of a function using a tangent line -ith
point of tangency at
x a
( ) ( ) (( )( ) L x f a f a x a +
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Definition of a definite integral:
( ) ( ) ( )
0
1
lim
n
x
i i
i
b
a
f x dx f x x

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Domains of 0arc1 trig functions:
( )
/
arcsin$ arctan$ arccsc: $
2 2
arccos$ arccot$ arcsec: 0$

_

,
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_
.imits of )rig 2unctions:
0
sin
lim 1
x
x
x

0
1 cos
lim 0
x
x
x

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Derivative 'ules:
[ ]
0
d
c
dx

1 n n
d
x nx
dx

1
]
(po-er rule)
[ ]
d
uv uv vu
dx
+ (product rule)
2
d u vu uv
dx v v
1

1
]
(3uotient rule)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
d
f g x f g x g x
dx
1
]
(chain rule)
#sin % cos ( #cos % sin (
d d
u u u u u u
dx dx

2 2
#tan % sec ( #cot % csc (
d d
u u u u u u
dx dx

#sec % sec tan ( #csc % csc cot (
d d
u u u u u u u u
dx dx

( )
1 1
#ln % ( #log % (
ln
a
d d
u u u u
dx u dx a u

( ) # % ( # % ln (
u u u u
d d
e e u a a a u
dx dx

2 2
1 1
#arcsin % ( #arccos % (
1 1
d d
u u u u
dx dx
u u


2 2
1 1
#arctan % ( #arccot % (
1 1
d d
u u u u
dx u dx u

+ +
2 2
1 1
#arcsec % ( #arccsc % (
1 1
d d
u u u u
dx dx
u u u u


( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1
1
1
f x
f f x

(derivative of an inverse)
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*ntegral 'ules:
cos sin sin cos u du u C u du u C + +

2 2
sec tan csc cot u du u C u du u C + +

sec tan sec csc cot csc u u du u C u u du u C + +

1
ln du u C
u
+

tan ln cos cot ln sin u du u C u du u C + +

sec ln sec tan csc ln csc cot u du u u C u du u u C + + + +

1
ln
u u u u
e du e C a du a C
a
+ +

2 2
2 2
1
arcsin arctan
du u du u
C C
a u a a a
a u
+ +
+

2 2
1
sec
u
du
arc C
a a
u u a
+

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Definition of a 4ritical 5umber:
.et f be defined at c" *f ( ) 0 or if f c f
is undefined at c$ then c is a critical number of f.
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2irst Derivative )est:
.et c be a critical number of a function f that is continuous on an open interval I containing c" *f
f is differentiable on the interval$ ecept possibly at c$ then ( ) f c
can be classified as follo-s"
1) *f ( ) f x
changes from negative to positive at c$ then ( ) f c
is a relative minimum of f"
2) *f ( ) f x
changes from positive to negative at c$ then ( ) f c
is a relative maximum of f"
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6econd Derivative )est:
.et f be a function such that the second derivative of f eists on an open interval containing c"
1) *f ( ) 0 f c
and ( ) 0 f c >
$ then ( ) f c
is a relative minimum"
2) *f ( ) 0 f c
and ( ) 0 f c <
$ then ( ) f c
is a relative maimum"
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Definition of 4oncavity:
.et f be differentiable on an open interval I" )he graph of f is concave upward on I if
f
is
increasing on the interval and concave downward on I if
f
is decreasing on the interval"
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)est for 4oncavity:
.et f be a function -hose second derivative eists on an open interval I"
1) *f ( ) 0 f x >
for all x in I$ then the graph of f is concave up-ard in I"
2) *f ( ) 0 f x <
for all x in I$ then the graph of f is concave do-n-ard in I"
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Definition of an *nflection 7oint:
A function f has an inflection point at ( ) ( )
$ c f c
1) if ( ) ( ) 0 or f c f c
does not eist and
2) if
f
changes sign from positive to negative or negative to positive at
x c

OR if ( ) f x
changes from increasing to decreasing or decreasing to increasing at x & c"
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2irst 2undamental )heorem of 4alculus: ( ) ( ) ( )
b
a
f x dx f b f a

6econd 2undamental )heorem of 4alculus: ( ) ( )

x
a
d
f t dt f x
dx

4hain 'ule ,ersion: ( )

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
g x
a
d
f t dt f g x g x
dx

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Average value of f (x) on #a$ b%:
1
( )
b
AVE
a
f f x dx
b a

,olume around a hori8ontal ais by discs:
2
# ( )%
b
a
V r x dx

,olume around a hori8ontal ais by -ashers:

2 2
(# ( )% # ( )% )
b
a
V R x r x dx

,olume by cross sections ta9en perpendicular to the x/ais: ( )

b
a
V A x dx

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*f an ob:ect moves along a straight line -ith position function ( ) s t
$ then its
,elocity is ( ) ( ) v t s t
6peed & ( ) v t
Acceleration is ( ) ( ) ( ) a t v t s t
Displacement (change in position) from to x a x b is Displacement & ( )
b
a
v t dt

)otal Distance traveled from to x a x b is )otal Distance & ( )
b
a
v t dt

or )otal Distance & ( ) ( )
c b
a c
v t dt v t dt +

$ -here ( ) v t
changes sign at
" x c
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CALCULUS C O!L"
Summation Using Limits
Definition of the Area of a 'egion: .et f be continuous and non/negative on
# $ % a b
" )he area of
the region bounded by f$ the x/ais$
x a
$ and x b is:
Area &
1
lim ( )
n
i
n
i
f c x

V
-here n & ; of rectangles < intervals
i & particular rectangles < intervals
b a
x
n

( )
i
c a x i +
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#
Trig Integration:
=allis> 2ormulas (definite integrals involving sine and cosine -ith 0 a and
2
b

):
1) *f
n
is odd ( ! n )$ then
2
0
2 ? @ 1
cos """
! A B
n
n
x dx
n

_ _ _ _

, , , ,

2) *f
n
is even ( 2 n )$ then
2
0
1 ! A 1
cos """
2 ? @ 2
n
n
x dx
n

_ _ _ _ _

, , , , ,

*ntegrals involving sine/cosine products -ith different angles:

( )
( )
( )
1
sin sin (cos#( ) % cos#( ) %)
2
1
sin cos (sin#( ) % sin#( ) %)
2
1
cos cos (cos#( ) % cos#( ) %)
2
mx nx dx m n x m n x dx
mx nx dx m n x m n x dx
mx nx dx m n x m n x dx
+
+ +
+ +



*ntegrals involving sine/cosine products -ith different po-ers:
i
c
( )
i
f c
x
( ) f x
/if the po-er of one function is odd$ save one factor and convert the remaining factors to the
other function using the 7ythagorean identity
2 2
sin cos 1 x x +
/if the po-ers of both<all functions are even$ ma9e repeated use of the half/angle formulas

2 2
1 cos 2 1 cos 2
sin cos
2 2
x x
x x
+

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Differential e3uation for logistic gro-th:
( )
0
0
1 $ -here lim
then -here
1
t
kt
dP P
kP L P t
dt L
P P L
P b
be P

_


,

+
*ntegration by parts:
u dv uv v du

Arc length for functions:
2
1 # ( )%
b
a
s f x dx +

Arc length for parametrics:

2 2
b
a
dx dy
s dt
dt dt
_ _
+

, ,

Arc length for polar: s

2
+

_
,

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Parametric:
*f an ob:ect moves along a curve$ its
7osition vector & ( ) ( ) ( )
$ x t y t
,elocity vector & ( ) ( ) ( )
$ x t y t
Acceleration vector & ( ) ( ) ( )
$ x t y t
6peed (or magnitude of velocity) vector &
2 2
( )
dx dy
v t
dt dt
_ _
+

, ,
Derivative:
dy
dx

/
/
6econd derivative: d
2
y
dx
2

1
]
1
/
Polar:
cos and sin x r y r
tan

and r
2

2
+
2
Derivative (slope of a polar curve):
dy
dx

/
/

+
+
)angents at the pole: -here does r 0 and r ' 0
Area inside a polar curve:
2
1
2
b
a
A r d

$e%inition o% a Ta&lor pol&nomial:

*f f has n derivatives$ centered at c$ then the polynomial

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 !
"""
2C !C C
n
n
n
f c f c f c
P x f c f c x c x c x c x c
n

+ + + + +
is called the nt' Ta&lor pol&nomial %or f at c(
Lagrange )rror ound %or a Ta&lor Pol&nomial *or Ta&lor+s T'eorem Remainder,-
*f f is differentiable through order 1 n + in an interval I containing c$ then for each x in I$
there eists z bet-een x and c such that
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2
1
1
""" $
2C C
-here " gives a bound for the si8e of the error
1 C
found by the nth degree )aylor polynomial"
n
n
n
n
n
n n
f c f c
f x f c f c x c x c x c R x
n
f z
R x x c R x
n
+
+

+ + + + +

+
)he remainder represents the difference bet-een the function and the polynomial" )hat is$
( ) ( )
n n
R f x P x
"
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Alternating Series Remainder-
*f a series has terms that alternate$ decrease in absolute value$ and have a limit of 0 (so that the
series converges by the Alternating 6eries )est)$ then the absolute value of the remainder
n
R

involved in approimating the sum by
n

is less than the first neglected term" )hat is$

1 n n n
R a
+
<
"
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Maclaurin series t'at &ou must .now:
2 !
0
1
2C !C C
n
x
n
x x x
e x
n

+ + + +

L
( )
2 ? @ 2
0
cos 1 1
2C ?C @C (2 )C
n
n
n
x x x x
x
n

L
( )
! A B 2 1
0
sin 1
!C AC BC (2 1)C
n
n
n
x x x x
x x
n
+

+
+

L
)uler+s Met'od: a numerical approach to approimating the particular solution of a differential
e3uation that passes through a point$ and has a 9no-n slope"
( ) ( )
1 1 n n n
y y x m

+
-here
n
y
y/value
1 n
y


previous y/value
x change in x/value from previous point
1 n
m


slope at previous point