Introductionto Stoicism:TheThree Disciplines

[CopyrightDonaldRobertson,2013.Allrightsreserved.BasedonmaterialfromtheforthcomingbookTeach yourselfStoicism(Hodder,2013).SeealsoASimplifiedApproachtoModernStoicismforabriefintroductionto Stoicdailyexercises.]

FromitsoriginStoicismplaced considerableemphasisonthedivision ofphilosophicaldiscourseintothree topicscalledEthics,Physicsand Logic.Philosophyitselfwasunified buttheoreticaldiscussionscouldbe broadlydistinguishedinthiswayand theStoicswereparticularlyknownfor theirthreefoldcurriculum.Epictetusis theonlyStoicteacherwhosework survivesinsignificantamounts,we

havefourvolumesofhisDiscourses, recordedfromhispubliclecturesby hisstudentArrian,althoughanother fourvolumeshaveapparentlybeen lost.Wealsohaveacondensed versionofhisteachingscompiledin thefamousStoicHandbook orEnchiridion.AlthoughEpictetus livedaboutfourcenturiesafterZeno, thefounderofStoicism,andbyhis timetheformalinstitutionoftheStoic schoolhadapparentlyceasedtoexist, heappearstohavebeenparticularly

faithfultotheearlyteachingsofthe schoolsmainfounders:Zenoand Chrysippus. However,Epictetusalsodescribesa threefolddivisionbetweenaspectsof livedphilosophicalpractice,which scholarscanfindnotraceofin previousStoicliterature.(Hence, anotherfamousRomanStoic, Seneca,wontcomeintothis discussionbecausehebasicallylived beforeEpictetusandnevermentioned thesethreedisciplines.)

1. TheDisciplineofDesire, whichhastodowithacceptanceof ourfate 2. TheDisciplineofAction, whichhastodowith philanthropyorloveofmankind 3. TheDisciplineofAssent, whichhastodowithmindfulnessof ourjudgements TheRomanemperorMarcusAurelius, theStoicbestknowntomodern readers,wastaughtbyphilosophers whopossiblystudiedwithEpictetus, althoughhenevermethimhimself.

OneofMarcusteachersgavehima copyofnotesfromEpictetuslectures, almostcertainlytheDiscourses recordedbyArrian.Indeed,Marcus referstotheteachingsofEpictetus repeatedlythroughoutThe Meditationsanditsclearthathes primarilyinfluencedbythisparticular formofStoicism.Healsomakes extensiveuseoftheThreeDisciplines describedintheDiscourses,which provideoneofthemainkeysto interpretinghisownwritings.

SohowarewetointerprettheseStoic practicaldisciplines?TheFrench scholarPierreHadotwroteavery thoroughanalysisofMarcusAurelius MeditationscalledTheInnerCitadel (1998),inwhichheexploresthe ThreeDisciplinesindetail,employing themasaframeworkforhis exposition.IfwefollowHadots interpretation,itactuallyprovidesa fairlyclearandsimplemodelfor understandingtheteachingsof Stoicism.ThewayofStoicphilosophy

wastraditionallydescribedasliving accordingtonatureorliving harmoniouslyandHadotsuggests thatallthreedisciplinesareintended tohelpusliveinharmonyindifferent regards,andthattheycombine togethertoprovidethesecrettoa sereneandharmoniouswayoflife, practicalphilosophyastheartofliving wisely. 1.TheDisciplineofDesire(Stoic Acceptance)

AccordingtoHadot,thedisciplineof desire(orexis)istheapplicationto dailylivingoftheStoictheoreticaltopic ofphysics,whichincludestheStoic studyofnaturalphilosophy, cosmology,andtheology.The disciplineofdesire,accordingtothis view,isthevirtueoflivinginharmony withtheNatureoftheuniverseasa whole,orinthelanguageofStoic theology,withZeusorGod.This entailshavingaphilosophicalattitude towardalifeandacceptanceofour

Fateasnecessaryandinevitable.Its temptingtoseethisdisciplineas particularlyentailingthecardinal virtuesassociatedwithselfcontrol overtheirrationalpassions,whichare courage,orenduranceinthefaceof fearandsuffering,andselfdiscipline (temperance),ortheabilityto renouncedesireandabstainfrom falseorunhealthypleasures.(Hence, Epictetusfamousslogan:endure andrenounce.)Hadotcallsthegoal ofthisdisciplineamorfatiorthe

lovingacceptanceofonesfate.This disciplineissummedupinoneofthe moststrikingpassagesfromthe Enchiridion:Seeknotforeventsto happenasyouwishbutwishevents tohappenastheydoandyourlifewill gosmoothlyandserenely.ButStoics arenotdoormats.TheStoichero CatoofUticafamouslymarchedthe shatteredremnantsoftheRepublican armythroughthedesertsofAfricato makeadesperatelaststandagainst thetyrantJuliusCaesar,whosought

tooverthrowtheRepublicanddeclare himselfdictatorofRome.Althoughhe lostthecivilwar,hebecameaRoman legendandtheStoicsdubbedhim theinvincibleCatobecausehiswill wascompletelyunconqueredhe torehisowngutsoutwithhisbare handsratherthansubmittoCaesar andbeexploitedbythedictatorforhis propaganda.Centurieslater,the StoicemperorMarcusAurelius, despiteadevastatingplagueand countlessmisfortunesbeyondhis

control,ledhisweakenedarmy repeatedlyintobattletodefendRome againstinvadingbarbarianhordes. Heprevaileddespitethemany obstaclestovictory.Ifhedfailed, Romewouldhavebeendestroyed. Aswellsee,thedisciplineofaction explainsthisstrangeparadox:how cantheStoicscombineacceptance withsuchfamousenduranceand courageousactioninthenameof justice?Ivedescribedthisdiscipline

simplyasStoicAcceptance, meaningamorfati. 2.TheDisciplineofAction(Stoic Philanthropy) AccordingtoHadot,thedisciplineof action(horm,whichreallymeans theinceptionorinitialimpulseto action)istheapplicationtodailyliving oftheStoictheoreticaltopicof ethics.Stoicethicswhichincludes thedefinitionofwhatisgood,bad, andindifferent.Italsodealswiththe goaloflifeashappinessorfulfilment

(eudaimonia).Itincludesthe definitionofthecardinalStoicvirtues (wisdom,justice,courage,and selfdiscipline).Accordingtothe centraldoctrineofStoicism,virtueis theonlytruegoodandsufficientby itselfforthegoodlifeandfulfilment (eudaimonia).Likewise,Stoicethics coversthevices,opposingvirtue,and theirrationalandunhealthy passions,classifiedas:fear,craving, emotionalpain,andfalseorunhealthy pleasures.Thedisciplineofaction,

accordingtoHadotsview,isthe essentiallyvirtueoflivinginharmony withthecommunityofallmankind, whichmeansbenevolentlywishingall ofmankindtoflourishandachieve happiness(eudaimonia)thegoalof life.However,asotherpeoples wellbeingisoutsideofourdirect control,wemustalwayswishthem wellinaccordwiththeStoicreserve clause(hupexairesis),whichbasically meansaddingthecaveat:Fate permittingorGodwilling.(Thisis

onewayinwhichthephilosophical attitudetowardlifereconcilesvigorous actionwithemotionalacceptance.)In otherwords,Stoicsdotheirbesttoact withvirtuewhileacceptingthe outcomeoftheiractionsina somewhatdetachedmanner,whether successorfailure.Moreover,Stoics mustactaccordingtotheirrational appraisalofwhichexternaloutcomes arenaturallytobepreferred.Hence, MarcusAureliusappearstoreferto threeclausesthatStoicsshouldbe

continuallymindfultoattachtoallof theiractions: 1. Thattheyareundertakenwitha reserveclause(hupexairesis) 2. Thattheyareforthecommon welfareofmankind(koinnikai) 3. Thattheyaccordwithvalue(kat axian) Itstemptingtoseethisdisciplineas particularlyassociatedwiththe cardinalvirtueofjustice,whichthe Stoicsdefinedasincludingboth fairnesstoothersandbenevolence.

Hadotcallsthisdisciplineactioninthe serviceofmankind,becauseit involvesextendingthesamenatural affectionorcarethatweareborn feelingforourownbodyandphysical wellbeingtoincludethephysicaland mentalwellbeingofallmankind, throughaprocessknownas appropriation(oikeiosis)orwidening thecircleofournaturalselfloveto includeallmankind.Ivedescribed thisasStoicPhilanthropy,orloveof

mankind,atermtheyemployed themselves. 3.TheDisciplineofAssent(Stoic Mindfulness) AccordingtoHadot,thedisciplineof assent(sunkatathesis)isthe applicationtodailylivingoftheStoic theoreticaltopicoflogic.Stoic logicactuallyincludeselementsof whatwewouldnowcallpsychology orepistemology.Thedisciplineof assent,accordingtothisview,isthe virtueoflivinginharmonywithour

ownessentialnatureasrational beings,whichmeanslivinginaccord withreasonandtruthfulnessinboth ourthoughtsandspeech.Its temptingtoseethisdisciplineas particularlyassociatedwiththe cardinalStoicvirtueofwisdomor truthfulness.Hadotcallsthegoalof thisdisciplinetheinnercitadel becauseitinvolvescontinual awarenessofthetrueself,thefaculty ofthemindresponsibleforjudgement andaction,whereourfreedomand

virtuereside,thechiefgoodinlife. AccordingtoHadotsanalysis, althoughtheStoicsreferto judgementingeneral(hypolpsis), theyreprimarilyinterestedin monitoringandevaluatingtheirown implicitvaluejudgements.These formthebasisofouractions,desires, andemotions,especiallytheirrational passionsandviceswhichtheStoics soughttoovercome.Bycontinually monitoringtheirjudgements,Stoics aretonoticetheearlywarningsigns

ofupsettingorunhealthyimpressions andtakeastepbackfromthem, withholdingtheirassentor agreement,ratherthanbeingcarried awayintoirrationalandunhealthy passionsandthevices.TheStoics callthisprosochorattentiontothe rulingfacultyofthemind,toour judgementsandactions.Ive describedthisasStoicMindfulness, atermthatcanbetakentotranslate prosoch. TheGoalofLife(FollowNature)

Asyoucanprobablysee,thesethree disciplinesoverlapconsiderablyand areintertwined,justlikethethree traditionaltopicsofStoicphilosophy, whichHadotclaimstheyrebased upon:Logic,Ethics,andPhysics. However,inunison,theyallowthe Stoictoworktowardaharmonious andconsistentwayoflife,inaccord withnature.Bythis,theStoicsmeant alifeintheserviceofthenaturalgoal ofhumannature,theattainmentof fulfilmenteudaimonia,thegoodlife,

achievedbyperfectingmoral reasoningandexcellingintermsofthe cardinalvirtues:wisdom,justice, courage,andselfdiscipline. COMMENTS

JakeFischerFebruary20,2013at10:28pm Veryinterestingandagoodoverview.Justonequestion,whydidyou choosetomentionMarcusAureliusMeditationsbutfailedtomention theworksofSeneca?IbelieveitcouldbearguedthatSenecasworks areverymuchapartofthefoundationofstoicism. Reply DonaldRobertsonFebruary20,2013at11:21pm Thanks.Actually,theresasimpleanswertothatquestion.Seneca nevermentionsthesethreedisciplinesandneitherdoanyother survivingStoicwritingsexceptEpictetus,towhomsomescholars

attributethem,andMarcus,whosbasicallyafollowerofEpictetus,orat leastofhisrecordedlectures. Actually,neitherEpictetusnorMarcusappeartomentionSeneca, althoughtheydcertainlyhaveheardofhimandknowhimasaStoic whobasicallycamefromthegenerationpriortoEpictetus.The differencemaybejustterminological.Epictetus,andthereforeMarcus, appeartobefollowinganapproachthatplacesgreateremphasisona returntotheOldStoa,whereasSenecaseemstobemoreinfluencedby PosidoniusandtheMiddleStoa.Senecaswritingsareimportanttous today,becauseoftheirexemplaryliteraryqualityandclearaccountof philosophy,buttheydontseemtohavebeenasimportanttoancient Stoics.HesnotacontributortothefoundationofStoicism,asan ancientinstitution.HesalateStoic,writingthreecenturiesafterthe foundingoftheStoabyZeno.Andhewouldhaveregardedhimselfas largelyexpoundingonviewsestablishedbythescholarchsofthe schoolratherthanbeinganinnovatorhimself. Reply JakeFischerFebruary20,2013at11:28pm Awesomereply,thanks!Imadetherookiemistakeofassuming becausehiswritingsholdweighttoday,theymustofheldweightback intheday. Reply DonaldRobertsonFebruary21,2013at12:05am

 Thanks.Senecaisoneofthegreatwritersofantiquitybuthewas criticisedforhypocrisy,notlivinginaccordwiththeStoicprincipleshe espousedinhisletters.Someofthatcriticismmaybeunfair,although inhisOnClemency,Idsaythatheobviouslycomesacrossasflattering thetyrantEmperorNero,hisstudent.Thatseemstoflyinthefaceofhis commentsaboutflatteryelsewhere.Wedontknowforsurebutthismay haveputotherStoicsoffhim.(Althoughweretoldhedidshowgreat braveryindeathwhenNerofinallyorderedhisexecution.)Whereas SenecatalksabouttheremarkablegoodnessofNero,bycontrast, MusoniusRufus,thereveredteacherofEpictetus,waspersecutedand exiledfordefyinghim.Itspossiblelatergenerationsofphilosophers lostrespectforSenecabecauseofsomeofthethingshesaidordid, withregardtosupportingNero.(TrytoimagineEpictetusreadingOn Clemency!)Also,intermsofstatus,asitwere,Senecawasjustan individualwithasmallcircleoffriendswhowereStoics,nottheheadof aschool,whereasEpictetuswastheheadofanimportantStoicschool, linkedtothatofMusoniusRufus,andthesemendedicatedtheirlivesto publiclecturesandintensivediscussionsonphilosophy.