IIICSpat Weninger Jung Libre

BERNHARD WENINCER, REINHARD JUNC
ABSOIUTE CHRONOIOCY
OF THE END OF THE AECEAN BRONZE ACE
INTRODUCTION
In iecent yeais the debate about the oveiall absolute chionology of the latei phases of the
Aegean Iate Bionze and Eaily Iion Ages has been fuelled by iadiocaibon and dendio-dates
fiom two tell sites in cential Macedonia, Kastans and Assiios. These dates have been taken to
piove, oi dispiove, the tiaditional aichaeological-histoiical chionology established since many
decades (e.g. DESBOROUCH 1952, 294295; cf. below). In the piesent papei we ie-assess in
detail the veitical stiatigiaphic sequences of both sites, and make pioposals foi the solution of
the chionological pioblems posed by the iadiocaibon and dendio-dates. We aiiive at a new
absolute phasing of the Iate Helladic III C Piotogeometiic peiiods.
1

One of the long-standing pioblems in Aegean Bionze Age chionology is the existence of
age diffeiences (in the following: disciepancies) between the stiatified calibiated iadiocaibon
dates fiom the site of Kastans (WIIIKOMM 1989), and the histoiical-aichaeological dating at
this site (JUNC 2002, 218229. IDEM 2003). The entiie set of Eaily Iion Age
14
C-ages (fiom
Ievel 9 onwaids) appeais systematically too old by seveial hundieds of yeais, independent of
the dated mateiial (tiee chaicoal, animal bones; see JUNC WENINCER 2004, 217; 224225).
Even today, we have no explanation foi these
14
C-ages. Howevei, in pievious studies (JUNC
WENINCER 2002. IDEM IDEM 2004), we have been able to explain at least some of the abei-
iant dates fiom Ievels 1610 in teims of an old-wood effect, that is due to the dating of long-
lived samples (wood, chaicoal). We now take a closei look at the stiatigiaphic setting, func-
tional use, and aichitectuial positioning of these wood chaicoals. It tuins out that the dating
bias caused by the old-wood effect has some entiiely systematic (and indeed cyclic) piopei-
ties, which aie best undeistood in teims of the site-specific buining events and subsequent ie-
building. Howevei, in oidei to finally iesolve the iemaining
14
C-disciepancies foi Ievels 1610,
even this explanation is not sufficient. We conclude that, as pait of the pioblem, in deiiving
absolute ages fiom the Kastans
14
C-database we cannot simply use the iecommended tiee-
iing calibiation cuive INTCAI04 (REIMER ET AI. 2004). Due to statistical ovei-smoothing, foi
ceitain time-windows in the Iate Bionze Age, notably foi single
14
C-ages but also undei ceitain
conditions foi seiiated
14
C-data, this calibiation can pioduce ma|oi systematic offsets (> 100
yis). The ciicumstances undei which this occuis will be studied in detail, below. To avoid these
offsets, we use the tiee-iing calibiation iaw data as published by the laboiatoiies Belfast and
Seattle.
Kastans is not the only site wheie ma|oi diveigences between tiee-iing calibiated
14
C-ages
and histoiical ages aie obseived. Similai age diffeiences, in the iange of 50150 yis, aie known
fiom othei sites in the Eastein Mediteiianean (e.g. MANNINC 1999. VAN DER PIICHT
BRUINS 2001). Ovei the last decades ma|oi effoits to iesolve these diffeiences have been un-
deitaken (e.g. BRUINS 1989. BIETAK 2003. BIETAK HFIMAYER 2007), but iemaining

1
We thank Stefanos Cimatzidis foi illuminating discussions on Macedonian Eaily Iion Age potteiy.
Beinhaid Weningei, Reinhaid Jung 374
dating disciepancies aie sometimes geneialized and taken as demonstiation foi the existence
of two ma|oi dispaiate chionological systems, which itself causes fuithei pioblems. Once such
systems have been cieated, whethei iightly oi not, the discussion is fuithei complicated, since
mixing between such systems may lead to eiioneous coiielations (BRUINS ET AI. 2008).
The appioach taken in the following papei is to step aside fiom geneializations, and ietuin
to the undeilying aichaeological and
14
C-iadiometiic data. We begin with a site-to-site
appioach, in which the dates fiom Kastans and Assiios aie ie-evaluated, followed by a iegion-
to-iegion study, which includes a compaiison of Cieek, Italian and Swiss stiatified finds
(cf. JUNC 2006). Pievious discussions of the Aegean Iate Bionze Age
14
C-data have alieady
focussed on such necessaiily wide inteiiegional synchionisms, but these studies aie ultimately
all iefeienced to the Egyptian phaiaonic chionology (e.g. MANNINC 1999). The Italian-Aegean
studies, as piesented heie, give the discussion a new geogiaphic peispective. The Italian sites
can themselves be synchionized, acioss the Alps, with the Uinfield phases in Switzeiland, foi
which impoitant dendio-dates aie available. The piesent papei is one component of a geo-
giaphically widei ieseaich piogiam, aimed at establishing a piecise absolute chionology foi the
Aegean Bionze Age. Howevei, to begin we must addiess the long-standing dating disciepan-
cies as obseived at the sites of Kastans and Assiios, which theiefoie occupy most of oui pie-
sent attention.
Recently foi the fiist time a dendio-date was intioduced into the debate, by Kenneth
Waidle, Maiyanne Newton and Petei Kuniholm (NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005.
WARDIE NEWTON KUNIHOIM 2007), and used to challenge the tiaditional absolute chio-
nology of the end of the Aegean Iate Bionze and beginning of the Eaily Iion Age. The newly
dated wood samples aie fiom the stiatigiaphy of Assiios Tomba, in the Iangadhs Basin
noith of Salonica. The pioposal of the scholais woiking with the Assiios mateiial is to date the
beginning of the PC peiiod to 1120 BCE,
2
iathei than to the yeais aiound 1050,
3
1025,
4
oi even
1020/1000,
5
as in diffeient conventional chionologies. This pioposal is based on a netwoik of
dendiochionological synchionisms, as well as on the diiect dendiochionological
14
C wiggle-
matching foi constiuction timbeis fiom the mud-biick houses at the tell settlement of Assiios.
The new dendio-dates fiom Assiios, which we considei coiiect (see below), have been com-
bined with the Aegean ielative chionology based on wheel-made painted potteiy, but in a
mannei we do not considei coiiect (see below).
Of couise, when selected foi dating puiposes, whethei by dendiochionology oi by iadio-
caibon dating, such long-lived (multi-annual) timbei samples iequiie caieful sciutiny in teims
of potential old wood effects e.g. dating of innei giowth-iings oi secondaiy domestic oi aichi-
tectuial use. Such caution is necessaiy, due to the high economic value of all foiestiy pioducts,
and most notably foi the laige wooden beams iequiied foi building puiposes, especially when
these have been adapted to ma|oi suppoiting functions (e.g. ioof suppoits, doois, wall con-
stiuctions). In the piesent papei, having fiist checked and confiimed the
14
C-based dendio-
dating at Assiios, we demonstiate that the dating is indeed likely to be affected by a secondaiy
old wood effect. In this specific case, we piopose, the timbeis weie iecycled, following decon-
stiuction of the Phase 4 buildings, ieuse in Phase 3, and subsequent iecycling in Phase 2 due to
theii incomplete combustion duiing the destiuction of Phase 3. This multiple iecycling is en-
tiiely plausible, as will be aigued, since the constiuction beams will have had sufficient
mechanical stability, even aftei paitial chaiiing, foi ieuse in the next settlement phase. That
such inteipietational pioblems foi the dating of chaiied wood samples weie likely to occui at

2
NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 185. WARDIE NEWTON KUNIHOIM 2007, 495; 497 fig. 7.
3
DESBOROUCH 1964, 241. IDEM 1972, 79; 134135.
4
DESBOROUCH 1952, 294295.
5
MOUNTJOY 1988, 27. HANKEY 1988. IEMOS 2002, 26.
Absolute Chionology of the End of the Aegean Bionze Age

375
Kastans, was alieady anticipated by the excavatoi, Beinhaid Hnsel (HANSEI 1989), immedi-
ately aftei publication of the iadiocaibon measuiements by WIIIKOMM (1989). Accoiding to
HANSEI (1989, 8) such iepeated ieuse (wiedeiholte Sekundiveiwendung) of old timbeis
would have been a natuial option foi the inhabitants of Kastans, due to the expected lack of
good foiests in this iegion. HANSEI (1989, 8) fuithei mentions his hope that futuie
14
C-ages
may be measuied on shoit-lived giain samples. Unfoitunately, such samples nevei became
available in sufficient amounts foi conventional -decay dating, noi did laigei chaiied wood
samples evei tuin up, with sufficient iing giowth foi dendio-suppoited wiggle matching as at
Assiios.
Similai pioblems apply to the laige ma|oiity of aichaeological sites, anywheie in the woild.
At Kastans, such ciitical piopeities of
14
C-ages undeitaken on wood and chaicoal samples
have long been iecognised as a cause foi ma|oi disciepancies. At Kastans, howevei, theie
appeai to exist othei pioblems of the
14
C-ages, that aie not simply connected with sample
taphonomy. These iemaining disciepancies tuin up |ust as much foi
14
C-measuiements on ani-
mal bones with cleai teiiestiial nutiition, as well as foi animals with hypothetical mixed teiies-
tiial and maiine nutiition (possibly iecognisable due to maiine-neai o
13
C-values).
6
As will be
shown, theie aie stiong indications that the iemaining
14
C-disciepancies aie caused by techni-
cal effects (ovei-smoothing) ielated to the constiuction of the tiee-iing calibiation cuive, dui-
ing the second millenium calBC. If confiimed, this pioposal may have consequences beyond
the piesent study. We undeiline oui iesults, theiefoie, by demonstiating that similai effects
apply to calibiated
14
C-ages foi othei peiiods. This is shown in a complementaiy case study
towaids the chionology of the Eaily Neolithic Iineaibandkeiamik cultuie (IBK), that is foi
ages c. 55004900 calBC (cf. below). In both case studies (Kastans and IBK) some ielatively
laige piopoition of the aichaeological
14
C-ages weie measuied at the Kln laboiatoiy (Iab
code: KN). Foi systematic ieasons, theiefoie, we begin oui studies by analyzing the piecision
and accuiacy of the KN-measuiements. It must be emphasised, howevei, that oui aigumenta-
tion is independent of any specific aichaeological data.
KIN RADIOCARBON IABORATORY. INTERCOMPARISON RESUITS
The iadiocaibon laboiatoiy at the Kln Univeisity (Iab.Code: KN) is actively involved in the
intei-calibiation and quality contiol studies of the Inteinational Radiocaibon Community (e.g.
SCOTT, 2003. SCOTT 2007). These inteilaboiatoiy studies aie aimed at supplying individual
laboiatoiies with exteinal expeitise conceining piecision and accuiacy of
14
C-measuiements, as
obtained by a laige numbei of paiticipating laboiatoiies. Tabs. 1 and 2 show the
14
C-ages
achieved by the Kln laboiatoiy foi a set of nine inteicompaiison samples (wood, cellulose,
tuibidite, bailey) in compaiison to the iesults obtained by statistical analysis of a laige numbei
(N-92) of independently paiticipating iadiocaibon laboiatoiies using diffeient measuiing
techniques (
14
C-AMS, liquid scintillation, -decay counting). With given highly satisfactoiy
agieement, it suffices to state that the aichaeological
14
C-iadiometiic disciepancies undei
study in the piesent papei aie unlikely to have been caused by impiecise KN-measuiements.
CAUSSIAN MONTE CARIO WICCIE MATCHINC
Oui studies iequiie a second biief intioductoiy section, in oidei to desciibe the methodology
of Caussian Monte Cailo Wiggle Matching (CMCWM). The basic methodology undeilying
CMCWM is outlined by WENINCER 1997. Since then the method has been iefined, to allow foi

6
But see JUNC WENINCER 2004, 224 foi the difficulties in identifying the effects of feeding fiom a mixed caibon
ieseivoii.
a widei field of applications. The CMCWM appioach is an extension of the Wiggle Matching
method developed long ago (PEARSON 1986. WENINCER 1986), and now widely used in the
analysis of sequenced
14
C-data (e.g. tiee-iing sequences, aichaeological data sets). A compaii-
son of Wiggle Matching methods is given by BRONK RAMSEY ET AI. 2001. The idea undeilying
the CMCWM extension is that it may be useful to estimate, undei as iealistic as possible condi-
tions, the oveiall dating eiioi foi any given aichaeological age-model based on seiiated
14
C-
ages. In its piesent technical iealisation, the method is limited to the analysis of lineai age-
models. Howevei, assuming this limitation can be accepted (as is the case foi tiee-iing se-
quences), the method may be used to some advantage, due to its flexibility in eiioi definitions,
to deiive numeiically highly piecise wiggle matching eiioi estimates. Basically, |ust as in the
classical lineai wiggle matching appioaches, in CMCWM the usei is fiist obliged to foimulate
a distinct (quantitative) age-model foi the
14
C-data undei study. This kind of age model has the
appeaiance, simply, of a list of
14
C-dated samples aiianged accoiding to the independently
established stiatigiaphic oidei. Staiting by convention with the youngest
14
C-dated sample as
iefeience (distance = 0), foi each
14
C-age/sample a numeiic estimate of the calendiic age dis-
tance to the next oldei sample is defined. An example of such a sequence, that is ieady to be
enteied into the CMCWM algoiithm, is given in Tabs. 4a, 4b.
In a computationally intensive piocess, the CMCWM-pioceduie then iepeatedly fits the
calendiically seiiated
14
C-age/sample paiis to the calibiation cuive. The numbei of iuns is cho-
sen (Nmax=10.000) accoiding to the numeiic piecision iequiied foi the oveiall dating eiioi.
Duiing each iun the best-fit yeai, on the calendiic-scale, is calculated. This yeai is stoied, along
with its piobability, and the iun is iepeated. Piioi to each new iun, the input data is vaiied,
accoiding to thiee independently iunning iandom numbei geneiatois. These geneiatois aie
used to define Caussian distiibutions coiiesponding to (i) simulated iepeat measuiements of
the enteied aichaeological
14
C-ages, (ii) simulated iepeat measuiements of the entiie calibia-
tion cuive, and (iii) simulated iepeat measuiements of the listed calendiic-scale distances. As a
iesult of the applied geneiic pioceduie, finally, a distiibution of best-fit yis on the calendiic
timescale is obtained. Expeiiments show that similai iesults aie achieved, when equal weights
aie applied to each best fit-yi, oi when the calculated (vaiiable) dating piobability is applied as
statistical weight to each iun. To conclude, by simulating (Caussian) dating eiiois foi the ai-
chaeological age-model on both time-scales (
14
C and calendiic), as well as by simulated iepeat
constiuction of a new calibiation cuive foi each iun, the method of Caussian Monte Cailo
Wiggle Matching can be used to deiive a piecise estimate of the oveiall dating eiioi foi the age
model undei study. The CMCWM method is integiated in the CalPal softwaie package
(www.calpal.de). The method is piogiammed to supply a numeiic piecision of 1 yeai on both
timescales (
14
C and calendiic).
KASTANAS RADIOCARBON CHRONOIOCY
The database (Tabs. 4a, 4b)
7
contains a total of N=60
14
C-ages (oveiall Kastans Ievels 16
to 6), of which 45 ages weie measuied on chaicoal and 15 ages weie measuied on animal bone.
As discussed in JUNC 2002, using synchionisms of ciitically selected potteiy finds fiom Kas-
tans with stiatified paiallels fiom sites in southein and cential Cieece (such as Mycenae,
Tiiyns, Iefkandi and Peiati), which aie in tuin linked to the histoiical chionology of Egypt (by
contexts in the Ievant and Egypt), foi many of the aichitectuial phases at Kastans it was pos-
sible to deiive a unique aichaeological-histoiical age with expected dating piecision in the
iange of a few decades. Based on fuithei stiatigiaphic and taphonomic analysis of individual
14
C-samples, including lineai age inteipolations on the aichitectuial intiaphase (-1030 yis)

7
New dates aie desciibed in Tab. 3.

377
level, this chionological system was then used to deiive an aichaeological-histoiical age foi
each
14
C-dated sample. We have aiianged these aichaeological ages in Tabs. 4a, 4b, along with
the coiiesponding (conventional)
14
C-ages, measuied stable caibon fiactionation (o
13
C, pei-
mille PDB), iefeience to the dated mateiial (e.g. chaicoal, bone), as well as designation of the
aichitectuial phase fiom which the dated mateiial deiives. The expected calendiic ages aie
nominated as hist. BC (column 7). In this table, we puiposely iefiain fiom giving tiee-iing
calibiated ages foi individual
14
C-ages.
8
It is fuithei emphasised that, foi the puiposes of the
piesent papei, we only pay attention to the
14
C-ages fiom Ievels 1610. The ieason is that the
stiatigiaphically youngei samples (both chaicoal and bone) fiom Kastans Ievels 96 (- 900
700 hist.BC) have
14
C-ages that still today allude all explanations. Foi completeness these
14
C-
ages aie included in Tab. 4a (nos. 113), but aie excluded fiom the piesent analysis. The set of
samples (Tabs. 4a, 4b, nos. 1460) undei study in the piesent papei, have an oldest expected
age of 1365 hist.BC (Tab. 4b, no. 60) and a youngest expected age of 910 hist.BC (Tab. 4a,
no. 14).
KASTANAS RADIOCARBON CHRONOIOCY
AITERNATIVE ACE MODEIS AND DISCREPANCIES
As alieady stated in the intioduction, at Kastans theie is the long-iecognised pioblem that the
available laige set of
14
C-ages (Tabs. 4a, 4b) shows systematic deviations fiom ages deiived by
histoiical ieasoning. These deviations amount to an aveiage of -140 yis on the calendiic age-
scale (cf. JUNC WENINCER 2004, 216), with the
14
C-ages ianging systematically oldei than the
histoiical ages. These cleaily non-tiivial deviations aie illustiated in Figs. 1 and 2. Both giaphs
show exactly the same stiatigiaphically sequenced set of
14
C-data (we call data package), and
both giaphs use exactly the same quantitative estimates foi the (calendiic) time duiation of
Kastans phases. Depending on the constiuction method, theie aie ma|oi diffeiences in these
giaphs. Fig. 1 shows the statistical age-model, achieved by fitting the data package to the cali-
biation cuive by statistical pioceduies.
Fig. 2 shows the histoiical age-model, achieved by setting the same data package to the cal-
endiic time-scale accoiding to histoiical expectations. To begin, we acknowledge theie aie
seemingly good ieasons to give piefeience to the statistical age model (Fig. 1). In this model,
the
14
C-data bais show a compaiatively small spiead aiound the calibiation cuive. The spiead
is fuitheimoie symmetiic i.e. the data above the calibiation cuive aie cleaily balanced by the
data below the cuive. This is, of couise, a diiect consequence of the applied statistical method,
which has been engineeied to do exactly that: piecisely and accuiately balance the data aiound
the calibiation cuive, accoiding to the statistical weights of given measuiements. This balanc-
ing is oiganised to be effective, by statistical ciiteiia, ovei the entiie length of the calendiic
window coveied by the aichaeological sequence. We will ietuin to this impoitant point, below.
In contiast, the same sequence of
14
C-ages, when set accoiding to the histoiical age model,
shows a cleaily visible systematic offset of some 100150
14
C-yis against the tiee-iing calibia-
tion cuive. Theie is some vaiiability in the spiead of data, depending on Kastans phase, but
the data invaiiably show oldei
14
C-ages than expected foi contempoianeous dendio-dated tiee-
iings. This offset shows up foi the ma|oiity of
14
C-ages fiom all aichitectuial Ievels (1610).

8
Due to stiong atmospheiic
14
C-vaiiations and associated non-lineai shape of the age-calibiation cuive, such
calculations peifoimed foi isolated single
14
C-ages pioduce little moie than misleading lists of alteinative calen-
diic age inteivals. It is also to be questioned whethei the supposedly vaiiable dating piobability, assigned to such
inteivals by standaid
14
C-calibiation softwaie packages (e.g. OxCal, Calib, Cal25), is ieally significant. If cali-
biated ages foi single
14
C-dates aie ieally deemed necessaiy, oui pioposal is to calculate the 95 %-confidence
limits foi the calendiic scale piobability distiibution, and use the half-length of this inteival (FWHM=Full
Width Half Maximum) to measuie the cal-scale 68 %-confidence inteival. Such methods aie widely applied in
nucleai physics foi peak-shape analysis e.g. in high-iesolution y-spectioscopy (cf. WENINCER 1993).
Due to the cleaily systematic appeaiance of this offset, theie aie seemingly good ieasons (as
pioposed e.g. by TRACHSEI 2004, 166168 and NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 186)
to eniole the existence of a ma|oi eiioi in the histoiical dating at Kastans. Befoie peipetuat-
ing such wiong conclusions (TRACHSEI 2004, 166168), howevei, let us take a closei look at
the data. In oui opinion, in spieading systematically above the calibiation cuive in this mannei,
the ma|oiity of
14
C-ages fiom Kastans aie doing exactly what we would expect foi old wood
samples. That is not the pioblem. Howevei, what we do considei cuiious is the cleaily visible
|ump of the data fiom Ievel 13 (with thiee values below the calibiation cuive) up to Ievel 12
(with a clustei of
14
C-values all above the calibiation cuive, aiound 1120 calBC). We adiess this
conspicuous |ump of the data below.
Befoie continuing, we conclude, the statistical age model (Fig. 1) has some cleai meiits due
to the appaient symmetiy of the dating solution. We neveitheless piefei the histoiical age
model (Fig. 2), mainly because the systematic setting of the data above the calibiation cuive
(towaids oldei ieadings) coiiesponds to what we would expect foi a ma|oi selection of old
wood samples. The iemaining pioblem, foi the histoiical age model, is the iathei extieme old
wood age of many of the dated samples. A neutial compaiison of both age-models shows that
the statistical solution places the aichitectuial phases 1610 at an aveiage -140 yis oldei than
expected on aichaeological giounds. These dating solutions, and the age diffeiences obtained,
aie ielatively stable against vaiiations in the aveiage phase length.
THE STRATICRAPHY OF KASTANAS
It is necessaiy to elaboiate fuithei on the stiatigiaphic sequence of the tell site at Kastans.
Above, we have focussed on analysing the laige numbei of
14
C-dates on chaicoal and animal
bones now available as a backgiound to dating the uninteiiupted veitical sequence of Ievels 16
to 10. Those settlement Ievels aie all well dated by wheel-made potteiy to the time span fiom
IH III A Iate to IPC. In theii discussion of the published dates fiom Kastans, fiist Maitin
Tiachsel (TRACHSEI 2004, 166168) and latei Waidle, Newton and Kuniholm (NEWTON
WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 185187) did not adequately take into consideiation the stiati-
giaphic evidence undeilying these dates, although this was desciibed in much detail, in two
eailiei papeis (JUNC WENINCER 2002. IDEM IDEM 2004).
9

In the piesent papei we take a fiesh view of the stiatigiaphy and its chionology, which we
can now base on a new set of iadiocaibon dates, measuied to the highest possible analytical
piecision as achievable at the Kln iadiocaibon laboiatoiy. Although this admittedly necessi-
tated lumping of diffeient animal bones, foi foui of the total six new dates, in oidei to obtain
the laige amount of caibon iequiied foi the applied method of conventional
14
C-beta-decay
measuiements, we aie confident that the stiatigiaphic location of these samples is coiiect, as
given in Tab. 3.
We have alieady made iefeience above to the aichaeological age-model developed foi Kas-
tans (Tabs. 4a, 4b). This is a combination of stiatigiaphic positioning of each sample inside its
aichitectuial Ievel, the stiatigiaphical evidence foi the ielative duiation of each building
Ievel, and the histoiical-aichaeological dating of these Ievels. Subsequent to its constiuction,
this age-model was independently tested by compaiison of the
14
C-sequence with the high-
piecision iadiocaibon calibiation cuive INTCAI04 (Fig. 4). Altogethei, we found the best
agieement between the aichaeological and iadiocaibon age-models foi an aveiage shift of the
dates obtained on chaicoal in the sample sequence of 15 yis oldei than the initial aichaeolo-

9
Apait fiom that, theie aie othei pioblems with Tiachsels pioposal. He does not take into consideiation ie-
gional stylistic vaiiations of Aegean-type potteiy and theii dating iange, he does not discuss the stiatigiaphical
contexts of the potteiy, which aie dated by histoiical souices, and does not use the coiiect phase teiminology foi
the IBA Aegean (cf. TRACHSEI 2004, 196 fig. 109).

379
gical pioposal. Such a shift can easily be explained as the minimum amount of caibon (at Kln:
c. 3 giams) necessaiy to piocess a conventional iadiocaibon date at high piecision. This
amount will automatically, indeed unavoidably, compiise mateiial fiom quite a laige numbei
of tiee iings (> 1020). In consequence, the caibon sampling itself intioduces a shift of the
date backwaids in time, away fiom the cutting event. The bone dates do not appeai age-shifted
in this mannei, at least not on the scale (-15 yis) of the wood chaicoal dates, since most of the
animals weie iegulaily slaughteied well befoie ieaching 10 yeais of age.
10

We obseive, fuithei, that actually only veiy few dates fiom Ievels 16, 15, 14b and 14a fit
well with the aichaeological-histoiical age expectations. This is because most of the chaicoal
samples fiom these Ievels have a significant old wood effect, in stiong contiast to the shoit-
lived bone dates fiom the middle and latei pait of Ievel 16, which can be attiibuted to the wig-
gle at 1330/1325 calBC. The oveiall pictuie, heie, is that the chaicoal and bone samples fiom
the same aichitectuial levels show laige diffeiences in age.
Inteiestingly, this pictuie changes in the latei Ievels. A stiiking example is piovided by the
dates foi Ievel 13, neaily all of which immediately agiee quasi-peifectly with the histoiical-
aichaeological chionology. In fact, this applies also to the two bone dates (KN-5238 and KN-
5239). But they should also have been set aiound 1170 hist.BC, because stiatigiaphically they
belong to the beginning oi at least the fiist half of the use peiiod of Ievel 13. Foi stiatigiaphi-
cal ieasons they aie, in fact, only shoitly youngei than the chaicoal samples, which date fiom
the constiuction peiiod of the houses. Note heie, we have spiead the 5 dates of Ievel 13
slightly, to inciease theii giaphic visibility. In fact, foui (KI-1788, KN5239, KN-5238, KI-1789)
out of five dates fiom Ievel 13 can be asciibed to the iegion of the downwaid wiggle aiound
1180 calBC (Fig. 6), the existence of which is confiimed by analysing the iaw data fiom which
the INTCAI04 calibiation has been constiucted (Fig. 3; zoom in Fig. 5).
A similai exact agieement with the histoiical age expectations is found in six dates on chai-
coal fiom Ievel 12, which come fiom veiy diffeient paits of the settlement and can mainly be
asciibed to constiuction timbeis (cf. alieady JUNC WENINCER 2002, 290. IDEM IDEM
2004, 217).
11
They centie aiound the upwaid wiggle aiound 1130 calBC (Figs. 4 and 6).
In Ievel 11 two dates on chaicoal may show the expected old wood effect, while a thiid
one fiom the outei tiee iings of a wall post in the Cential House (KN-5024: 2839 34 BP) is in
veiy good agieement with the aichaeological age-model (see also JUNC WENINCER 2002,
289290). The two bone dates (KN-5234 and KN-5235) give
14
C-ages oldei than expected by
the aichaeological age-model. Since both samples show eniiched o
13
C values, hinting at some
dietal effects, this appeais to have influenced the
14
C ages obtained on the collagen (JUNC
WENINCER 2004, 223224).
12
Similai eniiched values aie found in most of the bones of the
youngei Iion Age Ievels 96, which show maiked deviations fiom the aichaeological age ex-
pectations
13
(Tabs. 4a, 4b).

10
Foi the species iepiesented in the
14
C-bone samples see Tab. 3 and in addition JUNC WENINCER 2004, 222
tab. 3. These aie ied deei, fallow deei, cattle, pig. See BECKER 1986, 31 tab. 5; 32; 6465 tab. 23; 119 tab. 48;
129 tab. 55.
11
The dates KN-2584 and KI-1982 aie not discussed heie because of theii high standaid deviations.
12
The pionounced diveigence of the bone date KN-5235 fiom the aichaeological-histoiical age expectation may
theoietically be due to stiatigiaphical distuibance. The sample comes fiom an aiea in the Cential House of
Ievel 11, which is paitially distuibed by a pit fiom Ievel 10 (cf. HANSEI 1989, plan 16, squaies ZAB 5557).
Apait fiom that, the stiatigiaphic sepaiation of that building fiom its piedecessoi in Ievel 12 was difficult due to
the paitial distuibance of that aiea and to the end of the excavation, which pievented fuithei investigations of
the Ievel 12 building (cf. HANSEI 1989, 199203). The othei bone sample of Ievel 11 (KN-5234) also comes
fiom the aiea of the foimei Cential House, but not fiom any distuibed context.
13
The dates of these Ievels will be discussed in ielation to the aichaeological-histoiical age expectations, once the
ielative chionology of the latei Iion Age Ievels has been finally established by Stefanos Cimatzidis, who is
studying the wheel-made potteiy of Ievels 91.
Foi Ievel 10 all thiee animal bones and one chaicoal date with low standaid deviation
(KN-5063) confiim the aichaeological chionology.
A good and we think at any iate immediately plausible explanation foi the altogethei quite
complicated pattein of agieements and non-agieements between the
14
C data, and the histoii-
cal-aichaeological chionology, becomes appaient, when we look at the diffeient house con-
stiuction techniques in use fiom Ievels 16 to 10. Fiom Ievel 18 onwaids houses on the tomba
of Kastans weie built basically with mud-biicks, in combination with some wooden posts set
close to oi diiectly into the walls (HANSEI 1989, 70146 plans 813.) This changed with Ievel
13, a phase in which wooden houses pievailed and mud-biick walls weie an exception (HANSEI
1989, 147171 plan 14). People now had to cut fiesh tiees in laige quantities. The availability of
ieusable wooden posts would have been minimal because of the small numbei of houses in use
duiing the pieceding Ievel (HANSEI 1989, 135146 plan 13). Thus, we can expect that the
chaicoal dates foi Ievel 13 aie diiectly ielated to the constiuction of the houses. When Ievel
13 was destioyed by fiie, neaily no constiuction elements of the light wooden buildings would
have suivived the catastiophe. Theiefoie, again, newly cut tiees would have been necessaiy to
eiect the mud-biick houses of Ievel 12 (foi these buildings see HANSEI 1989, 171190 plan
15). This explains the veiy shoit time inteival (between 2950 and 3000 BP) coveied by the dates
on chaicoal fiom Ievel 12. The destiuction of Ievel 12 was not a total one. The excavatoi
Beinhaid Hnsel stiessed that in the following Ievel 11 one can obseive the existence of pai-
tially pieseived buildings, that weie ieconstiucted and ieused. A new oveiall town planning
could not be obseived (IBIDEM, 190208; esp. 193 fig. 77 plan 16). The two old wood dates of
Ievel 11 can be explained in this way. Ievel 10 was again piedominantly chaiacteiized by light
wooden dwellings (IBIDEM, 208222 plan 10). One of its chaicoal dates (KI-1785) cleaily shows
an old wood effect, piobably iesulting fiom a ieused constiuction timbei. Anothei date on
chaicoal (KN-5063) is a young-wood date that clusteis along with the bone dates in the second
half of the 10
th
centuiy calBC. It may belong to iepaii woik at the end of the phase.
This ie-assessment of the Kastans sequence now offeis a cleai explanation foi the seem-
ingly confusing mixtuie of old wood effects and paitial agieements of iadiocaibon and his-
toiical-aichaeological chionology. Inteipieted in this way, the sequence of iadiocaibon dates
fiom Kastans now suppoits some new and we think highly significant conclusions conceining
the absolute chionology of the Aegean Iate Bionze Age. The dates fiom Ievels 13 and 12 aie
especially impoitant in this context, fiist, because they fit neatly on the downwaid wiggle
aiound 1180 and the upwaid wiggle aiound 1130 calBC and second because the ielative phase
duiation of Ievel 13 iestiicts any ma|oi shifting of the dates foi Ievel 12.
14

In teims of ielative chionology, the houses of Ievel 13 weie built at the beginning of
IH III C Developed oi in a developed stage of IH III C Eaily, while those of Ievel 12 weie
eiected duiing IH III C Advanced. This suggests a stait of IH III C Eaily one oi two decades
befoie 1200 and a stait of IH III C Advanced aiound 1150/40 BC. Foi the stait of MPC a date
on the splint of a post fiom Ievel 11 (KN-5024) gives a hint at the yeais aiound 1000 calBC.
The clustei of Ievel 10 dates anchoi IPC well into the 10
th
centuiy calBC.

14
Contiaiy to what NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 186 state: In any case this mean deteimination foi the
set fiom Schicht 12 can equally well be placed on any of the thiee peaks in the calibiation cuive between 1200
and 1100 BC and theie seems to be no good ieason foi piefeiiing any of these matches above the otheis without
independent evidence.

381
CAIIBRATION CURVE CONSTRUCTION
SAMPIE-WIDTH DEPENDENT
14
C-CAIIBRATION
As alieady iecognisable in Fig. 2, and showing up moie cleaily in context with the calibiation
iaw data (Fig. 6), theie is a conspicuous |ump in
14
C-ages fiom Kastans Ievel 13 to Ievel 12.
This |ump could simply be the chance pioduct of biased aichaeological sampling, oi of natuial
fluctuations in the
14
C-measuiements. Howevei, beyond its being highly iepioducible in the
aichaeological
14
C-sequence, theie aie fuithei ieasons to adiess this |ump in moie detail.
Cleaily, if this |ump in the aichaeological data is ieal, and coiiesponds to a similai |ump in the
calibiation cuive, the histoiical dating of Kastans Ievels 14b12 undeilying the samples at
stake would theieby achieve an independent (tiee-iing based) confiimation, on a hitheito un-
achieved level of confidence. Befoie submitting to this conclusion, it appeais wise to study the
piopeities of the undeilying
14
C-calibiation data in moie detail. The same need foi cautious
aigumentation also applies to the Kastans data in the iegion of c. 1330 calBC (Fig. 7, iight),
wheie theie is a anothei conspicuous wiggle (oi anothei gioup of misplaced calibiation iaw
data: Fig. 7, left). Such data stiuctuies aie difficult to analyse, since they have extiemely low
signal-noise iatios and may theiefoie be (suggestively) pioduced by aitificial effects e.g. chance
vaiiations in measuiing piecision oi data density.
Most laigei aichaeological data sets contain a sample admixtuie that includes both shoit-
lived samples with annual giowth peiiod (e.g. giain), inteimediate-life samples with caibon
accumulation ovei some few yeais (e.g. animal bones), as well as long-lived samples with multi-
decadel giowth peiiod (e.g. wood oi wood-chaicoal). Depending on the amount of time
coveied by the sample, in theoiy theie exists foi each sample-type a diffeient (sample-width
specific)
14
C-age calibiation cuive (MOOK 1983). Due to limitations in technical iesouices,
beginning with the eailiest consensus calibiation (KIEIN ET AI. 1982), in lack of annual meas-
uiements, the cuives have always been built using decadel and bidecadel tiee-iing blocks. Al-
though not widely acknowledged in the usei community, this geneial limitation of all iecom-
mended calibiation cuives has always been cleaily stated in ielevant publications (e.g. INT-
CAI86, INTCAI98), including the most iecently iatified calibiation INTCAI04 (REIMER ET
AI. 2004). In seaich of a cause foi the age-diffeiences between
14
C-iadiometiic and histoiical
chionologies foi the Aegean Iate Bionze Age it is, theiefoie, quite natuial to include a de-
tailed analysis of the technical specifications of INTCAI04 in these studies. Theie may be
othei piopeities of the calibiation, we should also adiess (e.g. iegional offsets, caibon iesei-
voiis, seasonal giowth diffeiences). Howevei, foi ieasons that will soon become appaient, it is
sufficient to addiess one main technical paiametei of the calibiation cuive, that is its shape
(smoothness) in ielation to the undeilying iaw data.
CAIIBRATION CURVE CONSTRUCTION (INTCAI98, INTCAI04)
The oveiall time-window undei study in the piesent papei is 1600800 calBC (35502759
calBP). Howevei, since oui focus is on undeistanding the aichaeological
14
C-ages fiom Kas-
tans phases 14b12, it suffices to zoom into this time-window at two diffeient positions,
(i) 12601100 calBC and (ii) 14201280 calBC. The iawdata undeilying constiuction of the
calibiation INTCAI04 in these time-windows is assembled in Tab. 5 and Tab. 6, along with
complementaiy high-piecision measuiements of the Heidelbeig laboiatoiy.
Paiticipating laboiatoiies aie Belfast (Iab Code: UB) and Seattle (Iab Code: QI), with
tiee-iing measuiements based on Iiish Oak (UB) and southein Ceiman Oak (QI). Uppei
limit inteilaboiatoiy offsets between Belfast and Seattle, foi these data sets, aie estimated to
be 6 1
14
C-BP, with Belfast pioducing the (insignificantly) youngei values (REIMER ET AI.
2004, 1035: tab. 1). In the constiuction of INTCAI04, no coiiections weie undeitaken to allow
foi these diffeiences (REIMER ET AI. 2004, 1035). The data shown in Tab. 5 (12501100

calBC) and Tab. 6 (14501260 calBC) includes fuithei high-piecision
14
C-measuiements pei-
foimed at the Heidelbeig laboiatoiy (Iab Code: Hd), but which aie not included in the calibia-
tion INTCAI04 since they weie deiived fiom a floating component of the Anatolian tiee-iing
chionology, as published by KROMER ET AI. 2001, with updates by MANNINC ET AI. 2003.
Estimates by REIMER ET AI. (2004, 1035) of the inteilaboiatoiy diffeiences between Heidel-
beig and Seattle give values in the iange of 15 3
14
C-BP, with Heidelbeig giving slightly oldei
values, although diffeiences aie again haidly disceinable.
BAYESIAN PROCESS MODEIIINC
Wheieas pievious iadiocaibon age-calibiations (INTCAI86, INTCAI93, INTCAI98) weie
based on ielatively simple data aveiaging pioceduies (e.g. WARD WIISON 1978), with the
inception of INTCAI04 (REIMER ET AI. 2004), statistically moie advanced methods of calibia-
tion cuive constiuction based on Bayesian piocess modelling have been implemented (BUCK
BIACKWEII 2004). Peihaps most impoitant is, as stated by BUCK BIACKWEII 2004, that the
new INTCAI04 calibiation (i) accounts foi calendiic time scale unceitainties (which weie
pieviously ignoied) and (ii), that the new Bayesian constiuction method allows foi eiiois due
to coiielated measuiements. This type of eiioi (covaiiance) is typical e.g. foi calendiic age-
models based on diiect counting of consecutive events (i.e. tiee-iing dates, wiggle matching,
vaive-counting), in which case eiiois may accumulate. Such eiiois will typically also occui in
aichaeological studies (e.g. duiing inteiiegional tiansfei of potteiy synchionisms), and quite
geneially in the synchionisation of age-models (e.g. coiielation of climate pioxies, ice-coie
synchionisation).
The implementation of this second eiioi component, to allow foi covaiiant eiiois, in the
new INTCAI constiuction methods is cleaily tailoied not so much towaids the Holocene tiee-
iing section of the calibiation, but iathei to its extension into the Clacial peiiods. In the Clacial
peiiods beyond 26 ka
14
C-BP the INTCAI-community has identified (VAN DER PIICHT ET AI.
2000) a numbei of still now officially uniesolved disciepancies (VAN DER PIICHT ET AI. 2004.
BRONK RAMSEY ET AI. 2006) between potential calibiation datasets. These datasets can be
deiived fiom so many diffeient souices (e.g. U/Th-ages on piistine coials, maiine data, ice-
coie synchionisms, stalagmites), that the occuiience of such age diffeiences is not unexpected.
As pioposed by JRIS WENINCER 1998, one of the ma|oi causes of these diffeiences is to be
sought in the age-models undeilying the Cieenland ice-models (CISP2 & CRIP). Foi an up-
to-date account of glacial
14
C-age calibiation cf. WENINCER JRIS 2008. As goes foi the
Holocene, undei study heie, it is indeed impoitant that such coiielated unceitainties aie in-
cluded in the
14
C-age calibiation (BUCK BIACKWEII 2004). Iet us theiefoie have a closei
look at the pioceduies by which this eiioi analysis is established in the INTCAI04 calibiation.
RANDOM WAIK MODEI
As applies to the oveiall Holocene section, and hence also coveiing the time window (1600800
calBC) undei study in the piesent papei, all pievious calibiations (INTCAI93, INTCAI93,
INTCAI98) weie constiucted by calculating a weighted aveiage of all
14
C-data within a 10-yi
calendiic window and assigning this value to the window mid-point (REIMER ET AI. 2004,
1036). Bidecadel tiee-iing samples weie tieated as two independent decadel blocks. Sub-
sampled decades weie binned as if they weie decadel (REIMER ET AI. 2004, 1036). This pioce-
duie was used, due to lack of
14
C-data foi annual samples. Ma|oi exceptions aie foi the peiiods
15101954 calAD (STUIVER ET AI. 1998a), 39033192 calBC (N=90, Cioningen), and 2294
1934 calBC (N=45, Pietoiia). In consequence, most sections of the Holocene calibiation aie
constiucted fiom oveilapping decadel and bidecadel iing blocks. Both effects, the finite block
width as well as block oveilapping, cause an in-built smoothing of the atmospheiic


383
14
C-vaiiations. As emphasised by the authois, it was an explicit goal of the new statistical mod-
elling pioceduies implemented in INTCAI04-constiuction to allow foi calendiic inteival ovei-
lapping, as well as foi co-coiielations of neighbouiing values. This is foimalized in an appioach
based on a Caussian Random Walk (CRW) smoothing model, in which the changes in atmos-
pheiic
14
C fiom one yeai to the next aie desciibed using a Caussian distiibution with mean (oi
diift) and vaiiance (pei yeai) i
2
. Actual values used in the constiuction of INTCAI04 aie
=1 and i
2
= 64 (i.e. i=8) (BUCK BIACKWEII 2004, 1099). Use of the value =1 is due to
the expected change of the calibiation cuive by appioximately 1
14
C-calibiated yeai foi each
consecutive solai yeai (BUCK BIACKWEII 2004, 1099). The a piioii less cleai choice of the
annual vaiiance i
2
of this change was based on numeiic simulations using the single-yeai data
supplied by STUIVER AT AI. 1998b. These simulations, as well as latei constiuction of the INT-
CAI04 cuive, weie based on data blocks with length 100 yis (BUCK BIACKWEII 2004, 1099.
REIMER ET AI. 2004, 1036).
SMOOTHINC EFFECTS
Foi all piactical puiposes this means that, in the constiuction of INTCAI04, a smoothing algo-
iithm has been applied to the calibiated iawdata. The pioceduie is based on a iandomizing
Caussian distiibution with width i=8 yis on the calendiic scale (BUCK BIACKWEII 2004,
1099). The undeilying statistical model coiiesponds to the geophysical assumption that theie is
equal piobability foi a iise oi fall in atmospheiic
14
C-levels, in consecutive yeais.
Accoiding to REIMER ET AI. (2004, 1036), the validity of the RWM has been tested by
compaiing the distiibution of shifts in consecutive decadel bins, of deiived
14
C-values to be
used in calibiation cuive constiuction, as obtained by the two methods (i) the classical binning
method (used in INTCAI98), and (ii) the RWM (as used in INTCAI04). Accoiding to
REIMER ET AI. (2004, 1037 fig. 2) the two methods give veiy similai distiibutions. REIMER ET
AI. (2004, 1037) conclude that, due to this successful testing of the RWM appioach, the undei-
lying basic assumptions of symmetiic atmospheiic
14
C-pioduction and oceanic
14
C-absoiption
aie indeed suppoited by the data, on aveiage foi the entiie Holocene. The question iemains, of
couise, whethei this geneially valid assumption also holds foi each individual 100-yi subintei-
val of the calendiic time scale, and notably whethei it holds foi the stiong wiggles (e.g. at
-1180 and -1330 calBC) identified as impoitant in undeistanding the Kastans age-
disciepancies.
To this question, the authois of INTCAI04 aie caieful in pointing out that INTCAI04 is
somewhat smoothei than INTCAI98 (REIMER ET AI. 2004, 1037). They emphasise fuithei
that wiggle matching of tiee-iing sequences aie sometimes pushed to the limits (IBIDEM),
such that, when wiggle matching methods aie applied, the new INTCAI04 calibiation may
iequiie some ad|ustment in methods.
15
These woids of caution apply, in paiticulai, to shoitei
seiies (REIMER ET AI. 2004, 1037).

15
Oui conclusion that the INTCAI04 calibiation is too smooth foi many aichaeological applications, and espe-
cially foi shoit-lived samples is independently confiimed by BRUINS ET AI. 2005. In theii study of an Iion Age
14
C-seiies fiom Rehov (Isiael) they state: Most Cioningen iadiocaibon dates fiom Tel Rehov aie based on
seeds. Theiefoie, a calibiation cuive based on single yeai dendiochionological measuiements would have been
piefeiable, as stated by Mook and Wateibolk (1985: 22): the
14
C sample and the calibiation data should have
the same time-width (giowth-peiiod). Such a cuive is not available foi the appioximate time-peiiod 1200600
BCE of the Ievantine Iion Age. Since the 1998 calibiation cuive (Stuivei et al. 1998; Stuivei and van dei Plicht
[eds.j 1998) is moie detailed than the smoothed 2004 veision (Reimei et al. 2004), the foimei has been used
iathei than the lattei. The moie detailed IntCal98 calibiation cuive was used, though some compaiisons weie
made with the smoothed IntCal04 cuive. In oui opinion, howevei, the INTCAI98 cuive is itself in many places
too smooth foi calibiation of shoit-lived samples. This is shown in oui IBK example.
CAIIBRATION CURVE CONSTRUCTION
CASE STUDY FOR RADIOCARBON ANAIYSIS: IBK CHRONOIOCY
Accoiding to the iesults achieved at Kastans and Assiios, theie aie two main effects leading
to systematic deviations between
14
C-ages and aichaeological dating, that is (i) potential mis-
ieadings due to selection of old wood chaicoal samples, and (ii) potential misieadings due to
constiuction pioceduies of iecommended tiee-iing based calibiation cuives. Since neithei of
these effects has a site-specific component, they can both be expected to apply, quite geneially,
to all kinds of aichaeological
14
C-data in the Holocene. These effects theiefoie iequiie fuithei
attention. In the following chaptei we adiess the effects of calibiation smoothing in fuithei
detail, based on a case study towaids the
14
C-chionology of the cential Euiopean Iineaiband-
keiamik cultuie. We also give pioceduies to identify coiiesponding age-deviations.
Both, independently, and in combination, the old wood and calcuive smoothing effects
pioduce some iathei stiong distoitions (iange -100 yis) of aichaeological iadiocaibon chio-
nologies. Peihaps contiaiy to what might be expected, cuive-shape ielated distoitions of
14
C-
ages aie quite commonplace in aichaeology. Even if typically moie attention is given to the old
wood effect, the cuive-shape distoition of aichaeological data is so conspicuous, that we have
included a vaiiable (tiackbai-function) calibiation cuive smoothing facility in all CalPal-
piogiams. Neveitheless, to be able to visualize the smoothing effect, fiom case to case, still
iequiies a faii amount of giaphic piocessing. This iequiies, foi example, a iefeience database
that contains the diffeient calibiation cuives, as well as the calibiation iaw data. These meth-
ods and databases aie available in the CalPal-softwaie (www.calpal.de. WENINCER, 1986.
WENINCER JRIS 2008).
As shown in Fig. 8, we have applied this pioceduie to a database containing N=44 well-
known (ININC 2005. STAUBIE 2005) aichaeological
14
C-ages assigned to the Cential Euio-
pean Eaily Neolithic Iineai Potteiy Cultuie. In Fig. 8, the data aie sequenced accoiding to the
detailed discussion of ININC 2005. This analytical sequence is based on a laige numbei of
individual site
14
C-analyses, on a vaiiety of settlement models (e.g. STEHII 1994), and on a long
tiadition of potteiy seiiation by Coiiespondence Analysis (e.g. STEHII 1994. STRIEHN 2000).
The iesults aie, biiefly stated (i) the IBK begins c. 5500 calBC and ends c. 4950 calBC (ii) due
to selective dating of old wood (aichaeological chaicoal), the ma|oiity of
14
C-ages on samples
foi IBK-Phases 115 (52004950 calBC) have positions above the INTCAI98 calibiation
cuive (thin line connecting 68%-eiioi bais), and (iii) due to pievailing laige standaid devia-
tions it is difficult to extiact fuithei infoimation fiom the data. But theie is light in the daik: let
us focus oui attention on the position, ielative to the INTCAI98-cuive, of two AMS
14
C-ages
measuied by VERA-laboiatoiy on human bone (VERA-1417: 6075 35 BP; VERA-1516:
6115 35 BP). These
14
C-ages aie fiom buiials in the cemeteiy of Flomboin, coiiesponding to
- Stehli phase 4 of the IBK-sequence (ININC 2005). As shown in the inlay-giaph, foi this
inteival (52005160 calBC), theie exist two gioups of calibiation iaw-data. The fiist has
14
C-
values - 6100 BP; the second has values - 62006280 BP. This wide spiead of calibiation
cuive iaw data is not entiiely satisfactoiy and leads to some conspicuous ovei-smoothing in the
INTCAI04 calibiation. The aichaeological data at stake deiive fiom the vicinity of what we
call the IBK-Flomboin-wiggle, at - 5200 calBC (Fig. 8). Heie, as in othei subinteivals of the
IBK-window (55004900 calBC), the INTCAI04 calibiation is constiucted to iun well beyond
the ma|oiity of iawdata, and both cuives (INTCAI98, INTCAI04) have cleaily too small eiioi
envelopes. All these effects togethei, in the time-window 55004900 calBC, the calibiation
INTCAI04 is inadequate foi wiggle-matching studies and can theiefoie not be iecommended
foi use with single
14
C-ages.

385
THE STRATICRAPHY OF ASSIROS TOUMBA
Iet us now tuin out attention again to the stiatigiaphy of Assiios Tomba, wheie chaiied con-
stiuction timbeis fiom the excavations of Kenneth Waidle have piovided the fiist diiect neai-
absolute dates foi the stait of the Eaily Iion Age in Macedonia and by extension foi the Pioto-
geometiic peiiod in southein Cieece. Befoie adiessing these issues in fuithei detail, below, the
fiist thing we must do is to piovide an independent check on the validity of the pioposed dates.
The data and methods at stake aie desciibed by NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, with
iesults that can be abbieviated as follows.
Following constiuction of a 104-yeai sequence of tiee iings based on foui sepeiate building
timbeis, a pieliminaiy match with the Anatolian mastei chionology gives a piobable cutting
date of 1080 +4/-7 BC foi tiees associated with Phase 3 buildings and a date of 1070 +4/-7 foi
tiees associated with Phase 2 buildings (NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 173). By ia-
diocaibon wiggle matching (using INTCAI98), a date foi the last pieseived iing of the whole
seiies of timbeis and posts of Phases 2 and 3 of 1090 22 calBC is obtained (NEWTON
WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 173).
16
Taking into account possible missing iings the authois
piopose a cutting date aiound 1070 BC foi the post and the fallen timbei of Phase 2, while c.
1080 BC is pioposed foi the two fallen timbeis of the eailiei phase 3.
17
The authois state that
the finds of Phase 3 would thus fall into an inteival between c. 1080 BC and 1070 BC.
18
We
cannot check on the dendio-dates, but thanks to the iadiocaibon data given by MANNINC
KROMER KUNIHOIM NEWTON 2003 and additional dendio-data piovided by NEWTON
WARDIE KUNIHOIM (2005, 183 fig. 8), it is possible to iun an independent test of the
14
C-
based iesults.
As shown in Fig. 9, by application of the method of Caussian Monte Cailo Wiggle Match-
ing, we do not immediately confiim the cutting date of 1090 22 calBC foi the last tiees in the
sequence of wooden timbeis and posts found in Phases 3 and 2, as pioposed by NEWTON
WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005. As shown in Fig. 9, the Assiios
14
C-sequence actually shows thiee
alteinative dates, that is (allowing 5 iings youngei foi given decadel sample width) - 1165 10
calBC, - 1113 10 calBC, and - 1083 10 calBC (Fig. 9). We can neveitheless accept the
pioposed dendio-based cutting dates of 1080 BC +4/7 denBC (Phase 3) iesp. 1070 +4/7
denBC (Phase 2). The aigument is that the Assiios
14
C-sequence fits nicely to a stiong wiggle at
- 1130 calBC, that shows up in the INTCAI04 calibiation iawdata (Fig. 3). We have above
alieady identified this wiggle in the Kastans data (Fig. 6). The existence of this wiggle is con-
vincingly demonstiated by the Heidelbeig
14
C-data fiom Assiios, notably due to one measuie-
ment (ASR 16: 3008 22 BP, Iab Code not given: NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005,
183 fig. 8).
To conclude, although a definitive dendio-date is not available, we can confiim using the
published
14
C-ages the neai-absolute dates as pioposed foi Assiios by NEWTON WARDIE
KUNIHOIM 2005. Howevei, this does not mean that we automatically accept Waidles stiati-
giaphic aiguments, noi do we accept his conclusions as to the aichaeological application of this
date. Rathei, we think it is most likely that the beams do not oiiginally stem fiom the aichitec-
tuial phases in which they weie found stiatified and excavated. It is impoitant to note that
Phase 4, immediately pieceding Phase 3, did not end in a conflagiation, but was followed
iathei peacefully by the new buildings of Phase 3.
19
This means, it is theoietically possible
and indeed veiy piobable that constiuction timbeis of abandoned and dismantled houses of

16
NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 180; 183. WARDIE NEWTON KUNIHOIM 2007, 493.
17
NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 180181. WARDIE NEWTON KUNIHOIM 2007, 489491.
18
NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 181; 184. WARDIE NEWTON KUNIHOIM 2007, 491.
19
WARDIE 1989, 454455. IDEM 1997, 447 tab.; 450. NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 174176.
WARDIE WARDIE 2007, 455 tab. 1; 471472.
Phase 4, weie ie-used in constiucting new houses of Phase 3. So fai, neithei a settlement plan
noi single house plans of Phase 4 have been published, but appaiently both phases had the
same lay-out of buildings with the ma|oiity of walls being ieused in the following Phase 3
(WARDIE 1989, 454455).
Newton, Waidle and Kuniholm state that even if all the timbeis weie ieused fiom Phase 4,
the stait of the Iion Age in Macedonia would still be set befoie 1070 BC.
20
In oui view, this
conclusion is haidly waiianted. In the case of such wood ieuse fiom Phase 4 foi Phase 3 and 2
buildings, the coiiectly established cutting date of 1070 BC only gives a teiminus post quem foi
the eiection of the Phase 4 buildings, not foi theii destiuction oi foi the building events of the
subsequent Phases 3 and 2. Phase 4 is altogethei of unceitain duiation.
21
The PC amphoia is
said to piovide the ielative chionology of Phase 3. Howevei, iegaiding the intioduction of the
PC style into local Macedonian potteiy pioduction, a cutting date of 1070 BC only supplies a
teiminus post quem with an unknown numbei of yeais following. Even if the amphoia had
been pioduced duiing a iathei developed stage of PC (see below), it would not be possible to
conclude that PC had staited befoie that teiminus post quem.
All these obseivations put togethei, an old-wood effect (in teims of wood iecycling) foi the
beams found in Phase 3 is entiiely possible.
22
Even foi the following phase 2 one cannot ex-
clude such a possibility, as the wooden posts weie often mantled by the mud plastei of the
walls.
23
Such a post inside a wall would not necessaiily buin away in a fieiy destiuction, but
might have been ieusable. This is confiimed by histoiical souices and ethnogiaphic studies on
the fiie combustion piocesses of timbei-fiamed mud-biick houses.
24
If beams of Phases 4 and 3
weie ieused foi Phase 2, such timbei ieuse also ieadily explains why the dendio-dates foi
Phases 3 and 2 aie only 10 yeais apait.
25
In this context, it is especially inteiesting, that Waidle
wiites in a pieliminaiy iepoit: The destiuction of these buildings [i.e. of Phase 3j by yet an-
othei fiie was only a tempoiaiy set-back to iecoveiy, since the iooms weie iebuilt with new
timbei suppoits set into paits of the walls which still stood .
26

20
NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 184 n. 20; iepeated woid by woid in: WARDIE NEWTON KUNIHOIM
2007, 494 n. 67.
21
That duiation may not have been veiy shoit. Deposits of phases 4 and 3 togethei ieach a depth of moie than 1 m
in some places (WARDIE WARDIE 2007, 471).
22
It is veiy inteiesting that the scholais woiking at Assiios did iegaid the ieuse of timbeis as a convincing explana-
tion foi a disciepancy between histoiical-aichaeological and dendiochionological/
14
C-dates. Howevei, they did
so only with iegaid to IBA Phases 7 and 6. They use an aigument veiy similai to the one outlined in the piesent
aiticle foi Phases 42. In Phase 6 the building layout laigely followed that of Phase 7, which was not destioyed by
fiie. So, timbeis weie available foi ie-use and the scholais conclude: it is quite likely that these timbeis aie pait
of the constiuction of Phase 7 and had iemained in position oi weie ieused in the iebuilding of Phase 6
(WARDIE WARDIE 2007, 467). It is not cleai, why they decide in a totally diffeient way, when it comes to the
latei Phases 42. In the case of Phase 6 they hesitate fiom iaising the date foi the beginning of IH III C to the
fiist half of the 13
th
centuiy BC, as suggested by dendiochionological wiggle matching foi thiee timbeis fiom
that building phase (1277 25 BC, see IBIDEM). Theii diveiging chionological tables show that they iemain un-
decided conceining the tiaditional date of c. 1200 foi the stait of IH III C (WARDIE WARDIE 2007, 455 tab. 1.
WARDIE NEWTON KUNIHOIM 2007, 497 fig. 7). Indeed, the histoiical-aichaeological chionology offeis
quite good aiguments foi leaving the stait of IH III C Eaily aiound 1200 and connecting IH III B Middle with
the fiist half of the 13
th
centuiy BC (see below).
23
As becomes appaient foi Phases 2 and 3 (WARDIE 1980, 254255 fig. 15. IDEM 1988, 377 fig. 1; 379 fig. 2.
NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 175 fig. 1. WARDIE NEWTON KUNIHOIM 2007, 488 fig. 4), but also
foi the pieceding IBA phases (WARDIE 1980, 241 fig. 7; 243 fig. 8. WARDIE WARDIE, 460 fig. 2).
24
HRUBY 2006, 2931. On fiie destiuction of stone and mudbiick houses with flat mud coveied ioofs and wooden
ioof posts see CORDON 1953.
25
This small diffeience might then eithei be explained by buint away iings oi by paitial ieconstiuction of buildings
duiing the habitation peiiod of Phase 4 oi Phase 3.
26
WARDIE 1997, 452. Foi the ieuse of standing walls fiom Phase 3 into Phase 2 see also WARDIE 1989, 452.

387
It is fuithei impoitant to note that the PC amphoia used to pioduce a ielative chionolo-
gical date foi Phase 3,
27
cannot be closely dated in teims of the oveiall PC potteiy chionology
of the Aegean.
28
The vessel belongs to a cential-noith Aegean stylistic family, but no exact pai-
allels aie available fiom Macedonia, Tioy oi cential Cieece (especially iegaiding the single
stiaight line placed between the ciicle systems, see JUNC 2002, 179). The Assiios amphoia
might be Eaily PC, but could |ust as well belong to Middle PC, and maybe even to Iate PC.
Apait fiom the stylistic/typological classification of that vessel, it does not seem unpioblem-
atic to us that some sheids of that (anyway fai fiom complete) amphoia come fiom Phase 2
contexts.
29
It is not-at-all safe to assume that the complex foimation piocesses of a multilayeied
tell site only lead to upwaid ie-deposition. All we can safely state is that theie aie sheids fiom
the same vessel, found both in Phase 3 and in Phase 2 contexts. If the amphoia was asciibed to
Phase 2 iathei than to Phase 3, a teiminus post quem of 1070 BC foi that Phase 2 would sup-
poit a iathei tiaditional absolute chionology, as we shall see in the following discussion. Unfoi-
tunately, at Assiios theie is no othei wheel-made PC potteiy to offei additional contextual
data. Painted Mycenaean potteiy fiom Phase 5 is said to date to IH III C, while the small lin-
eai-decoiated fiagments fiom Phase 4 aie woin and taken to be iesidual.
30
None of the potteiy
of Phases 5 and 4 has yet been illustiated. Foi Phase 4 channeled hand-made potteiy and
wheel-made Ciey Waie aie classified as new Iion Age types of potteiy.
31
Howevei, a compaii-
son with the laige quantities of mateiial fiom the veitical stiatigiaphies of the tell sites at Kas-
tans and Thessaloniki Tomba shows that both classes weie fiist intioduced duiing the latei
IH III C phases to the iepeitoiy of the Cential Macedonian potteiy woikshops.
32
Foi instance,
channelled hand-made potteiy is secuiely attested in Ievel 13 at Kastans, i.e. IH III C Devel-
opedAdvanced.
33

At Assiios the only wheel-made pot, which is asciibed to Phase 3, is the amphoia we aie
discussing. Fiom Phase 2 wheel-made potteiy is said to be totally absent apait fiom so-called
Mycenaean suivivals
34
. Eight handmade pots aie published fiom Phase 3.
35
One is a fully
pieseived amphoia with facetted veitical handles.
36
While its incised decoiation can be easily
attiibuted to the IBA tiadition with paiallels in Ievel 14b (IH III C Eaily) at Kastans
(HOCHSTETTER 1984, pls. 40:1; 51:13), the facetted handles aie chaiacteiistic foi the latei
Ievels of the EIA, but they aie fiist found in Ievel 13 at Kastans (IH III C Developed

27
WARDIE 1997, 448; 455 fig. 3:2. NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 176; 177 fig. 2; 184185; 190 pl. 2.
WARDIE WARDIE 2007, 454455 tab. 1; 472473. WARDIE NEWTON KUNIHOIM 2007, 489; 492 pl. 2; 493
fig. 6; 494497 fig. 7.
28
Piobably in oidei not to piesent an even moie unexpected absolute date the authois chose to opt foi an Eaily
PC date foi the amphoia iaising the absolute date foi the stait of PC to c. 1100 BC. But as they themselves
admit (NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 185. WARDIE NEWTON KUNIHOIM 2007, 495) 1120 BC
might be also possible, if the amphoia is MPC iathei than EPC. One might go even fuithei, if eveiything de-
pends on only that one vessel.
29
NEWTON WARDIE KUNIHOIM 2005, 184 n. 21. WARDIE NEWTON KUNIHOIM 2007, 494 n. 68.
30
WARDIE 1997, 448. WARDIE WARDIE 2007, 469; 472.
31
WARDIE WARDIE 2007, 471472. In eailiei iepoits Ciey Waie was mentioned foi Phase 1 (WARDIE 1980,
260 with fig. 19:54. IDEM 1997, 449).
32
Foi the stiatigiaphic evidence conceining wheel-made Ciey Waie see JUNC 2007. The sequence of Thessaloniki
Tomba is especially ielevant foi this class, see ANDREOU in the piesent volume.
33
HOCHSTETTER 1984, 188194 pls. 62:7; 64:5,10; 71:2; 73:10. Theiefoie, it is incompiehensible that WARDIE
NEWTON KUNIHOIM (2007, 489) state: The stiatigiaphy [of Kastansj does not peimit us to associate the
channelled waie specifically with eithei Mycenaean oi Piotogeometiic potteiy and a Mycenaean date foi its in-
tioduction at this site is haid to suppoit. On the contiaiy, the stiatigiaphy shows cleaily that the pioduction of
this class staited duiing the middle phases of IH III C and was intensified in the following Ievels 12, 11 etc.
34
WARDIE 1980, 260. IDEM 1997, 448.
35
WARDIE 1997, 451 fig. 1:27; 453 fig. 2:5; 455 fig. 3:5. WARDIE NEWTON KUNIHOIM 2007, 486 fig. 3:1,2.
36
WARDIE 1989, 454 pl. 68e. IDEM 1997, 455 fig. 3:5. WARDIE WARDIE 2007, 472 pl. 18.
Advanced).
37
Anothei foui pots illustiated fiom Phase 3 aie steep-sided bowls with wishbone
handles. In one case the flattened handle teiminal shows a maiked caiination (WARDIE 1997,
451 fig. 1:2). Paiallels foi such bowls with veitically placed wishbone handles can be found at
Thessaloniki Tomba fiom IBA Phase 4 onwaids.
38
Caiinated wishbone handles weie thought
to be exclusive to the Eaily Iion Age (staiting at Kastans, Ievel 10),
39
but they aie found in
Phase 4 at Thessaloniki Tomba
40
and at Ayios Mmas (Piehistoiic Olynthus) thioughout the
Iate Bionze Age.
41
The sixth illustiated vessel fiom Phase 3, a cut-away-neck |ug with a step-
like iim and neck shape (WARDIE 1997, 453 fig. 2:5), could be moie decisive in chionological
iespect, as this type is not secuiely attested eailiei than Ievel 11 (MPC) at Kastans
(HOCHSTETTER 1984, 53 fig. 12 [types 1b1dj; 5556). Howevei, a fiagment pieseiving shoul-
dei and facetted handle of a closed vessel fiom a mixed context of Ievels 13 and 14a at
Kastans can veiy piobably be ieconstiucted as a cut-away-neck |ug of that type.
42

The final two published handmade sheids fiom Assiios Phase 3 show channelled decoiation
(WARDIE NEWTON KUNIHOIM 2007, 486 fig. 3:1,2). One is a caiinated bowl with channel-
ling at the caiination. The othei one is a closed vessel with fine channelling on the belly. They
find paiallels at Kastans fiom Ievel 13 onwaids (HOCHSTETTER 1984, 188194 pls. 64:5,10;
82:5,7; 110:8; 112:3; 117:6,9,10).
Thus, the handmade potteiy of Phase 3 does show chaiacteiistics which, in cential Mace-
donia, aie especially common duiing the eaily Iion Age. Howevei, as compaiisons with othei
Cential Macedonian tell stiatigiaphies at Kastans, Thessaloniki Tomba and Ayios Mmas
(Piehistoiic Olynthus) ieveal, none of the few published vessels must necessaiily be dated to
the PC peiiod (the cut-away-neck |ug being the only possible exception).
An iion double axe was found in a laige pit, which could not be secuiely assigned to eithei
Phase 3 oi 2, although an assignation to Phase 3 was piefeiied on the backgiound of the set-
tlement plan as a whole.
43
That heavy iion implement should piobably iathei be dated to PC
than to Submycenaean oi IH III C.
44

To sum up the evidence fiom Assiios, the iedating of the stait of the Cieek Eaily Iion Age
at this site is based on one single, paitially pieseived PC vessel scatteied thiough two consecu-
tive settlement phases, which aie dated by foui timbeis that could have been ieused fiom eai-
liei buildings. This does not, howevei, imply that the dendio-dates fiom Assiios aie not useful.
If the dated timbeis weie ieused constiuction mateiial fiom Phase 4 and the PC amphoia is
EPC in date, fiom these iesults it follows that the end of Submycenaean must be sought some-
time duiing the 11
th
centuiy BC cleaily much latei than assumed by Kenneth Waidle.

37
HOCHSTETTER 1984, pls. 73:10 (even fiom a mixed context of Ievel 13 and the eailiei Ievel 14a); 75:4 (fiom
Ievel 12, IH III C Advanced EPC, stylistically quite similai to the Assiios piece, also with iegaid to the in-
cised band below the iim); 112:2; 117:13 (also similai to the Assiios amphoia); 140:2; 141:5; 156:11.
38
PSARAKI 2004, pls. 6.45:KA 969; 6.47:KA 870/874. ANDREOU PSARAKI 2007, 409 fig. 11:KA 969,KA 870/874.
The handles of these bowls aie not caiinated.
39
Ievel 10 dates to IPC (HOCHSTETTER 1984, 94 fig. 24:11b; 98; 100 pl. 115:1,2; 147:1,2).
40
PSARAKI 2004, pl. 6.45:KA 421; 6.46:KA 1624. Howevei, these handles aie less massive than the one fiom
Assiios. Phase 4 of Thessaloniki Tomba coveis the fiist half of the peiiod IH III C, but can now be divided
into seveial stiatigiaphic sub-phases (see ANDREOU this volume). Phase 2 can be veiy well paialleled with the
end of Ievel 12 of Kastans and similaiily includes the EPC phase (see JUNC ANDREOU WENINCER this vol-
ume).
41
HOREJS 2007, 103 fig. 48; 104 fig. 49; 332 pl. 41:5613,5619; 58:5608; 84:5599.
42
HOCHSTETTER 1984, pl. 73:10. Alteinatively, it could belong to an amphoia like the one fiom Assiios (see
n. 36). The oiientation of the sheid has to be changed in eithei case.
43
WARDIE 1987, 320 pl. 51b. WARDIE WARDIE 2007, 473.
44
Iion tiunnion axes aie known fiom IPC tombs at Athens and Iefkandi, while an iion double axe was found in a
SPC tomb, again at Iefkandi (IEMOS 2002, 122).

389
THE ABSOIUTE CHRONOIOCY OF THE SUBMYCENAEAN PHASE
Potteiy of Submycenaean type is piesent at Kastans, Ievel 12, e.g. monochiome deep bowls,
with stiaight and caiinated piofile, decoiated with a ieseived outei zone caiiying a single oi
double hoiizontal zigzag (Fig. 10:1,4,7), foi which paiallels can be found mainly in Submyce-
naean (Fig. 10:2,3,5,8) and paitly also in EPC contexts in cential and southein Cieece (JUNC
2002, 103104, 226 pls. 23:259; 24:272,274 with bibliogiaphy).
45
Howevei, we unfoitunately
have no absolute dates foi that phase fiom the site. But we can deiive such dates fiom the
West, making use of the tight ielative chionological connections between the Aegean and Italy
(JUNC 2006).
The destiuction hoiizon of the settlement of Rocavecchia at the Adiiatic coast of Apulia
contained hundieds of bioken pots lying in situ on house floois. The indigenous hand-made
potteiy can be dated to an advanced stage of Final Bionze Age 2 (FBA 2), while a numbei of
wheel-made pots of Aegean style, especially monochiome deep bowls with zigzag motifs in the
ieseived outei zone (Fig. 10:6,9), piovide a synchionism with the Submycenaean phase of the
Cieek mainland (CUCIIEIMINO 2005, 643 pl. 167:a,1.2. JUNC 2006, 153165 pl. 12:17).
46

Some of the monochiome deep bowls show the same stiaight piofile and ieseived outei zone
with single oi double zigzag as the afoiementioned vessels fiom Kastans (IBIDEM, pl. 12:2,3).
Apait fiom the potteiy scatteied on house floois, theie aie two iich bionze hoaid finds
(MACCIUIII in piess), which help to fix the Rocavecchia destiuction towaids the end of FBA 2
and connect it with closed find complexes fiom cential and noithein Italy. Among the chiono-
logically impoitant types theie aie e.g. twisted symmetiical bow fibulae (Fig. 11:2) fiom hoaid
2 (IBIDEM, fig. 1:15b35,77). This type is not known eailiei than Submycenaean in the Aegean
(Fig. 11:1; see JUNC 2006, 190 pls. 16:6; 18:56,8; 19:5,6. RUPPENSTEIN 2007, 218
47
, pls.
30:Ci. 136/10; 33:Ci. 143/3. DECER-JAIKOTZY this volume), while in Italy it fiist appeaied in
FBA 2 contexts (Fig. 11:3; see JUNC 2006, 191 pl. 14:1,2), e.g. in the uinfield cemeteiies of the
Veneto (COIONNA 2006, 9092: types 2022bis; 255 pl. 31:59; 256258 pl. 3234). The pio-
duction of those fibulae seems to have staited duiing a latei stage of FBA 2 and continued into
FBA 3 (IBIDEM, 182, 187 fig. 3; 193, 199; fig. 1). Anothei inteiesting type of hoaid 2 of
Rocavecchia is the symmetiical bow fibula with two knots, which aie shaped as gioups of thin
iings (MACCIUIII in: SETTIS PARRA 2005, 312313 cat. no. II.208. EADEM in piess, fig.).
This shape of bow knots is not found on IH III C bow fibulae in Cieece, it fiist appeais at two
fibulae fiom Submycenaean tombs in the Keiameikos (MIIER-KARPE 1962, 86 fig. 4:7; 88
fig. 6:7. RUPPENSTEIN 2007, 218: type 2b). In Italy it is attested in a buiial context at Campo
del Fico in Iatium (DEIPINO 1987, 17 figs. 67; 27, 30 fig. 16:5; 35 no. 5), dated to FBA 2
(PACCIAREIII 2000, 212213 fig. 120). In the Aegean symmetiical bow fibulae with semiciicu-
lai bow and two knots do not appeai in closed contexts of IH III C date.
48
In Italy this type of
bow fibulae seems to have been in use since FBA 2 oi 3 (JUNC 2006, 156 n. 1096).

45
Note that it is often not easy to diffeientiate between tight wavy line and tiue zigzag. Even on one and the same
vessel the motif may change fiom a moie wavy to a moie |agged ondulation.
46
One
14
C-date is published fiom that settlement phase: ITI 1872A (on beans): 2876 60 BP (CAICACNIIE
DEIIA QUARTA in: PACIIARA ET AI. 2007, 357 fig. 21). Unfoitunately, the only date fiom the pieceding set-
tlement phase is a cleai outliei in contiadiction to its stiatigiaphical position in the whole sequence (IBIDEM,
356). Thus, this single date fiom the FBA 2 destiuction cannot be used in the piesent aigument.

47
The stiatified IH III C examples quoted by RUPPENSTEIN (2007, 219220) eithei have a diffeient bow shape
(iectangulai instead of semiciiculai at Peiati, chambei tomb 74, cf. JUNC 2006, 190192 pl. 19:3) oi aie secon-
daiily distoited (Aigos, tumulus on the Kantzvelos plot, inv. no. 10105 peisonal examination thanks to the
kind peimission of Chiistos Piteis).

48
IH III C bow fibulae with knots aie asymmetiical with the bow iaising veitically fiom the catch plate and being
slightly bent at the point, wheie its semiciiculai pait begins, see JUNC 2006, 192194. Foi symmetiical bow fibu-
lae with knots see IBIDEM, 156, n. 1096.
By means of bionze ob|ects the Italian Final Bionze Age can be synchionized acioss the
Alps with the Uinfield phases in Switzeiland and southein Ceimany. At the beginning of
Ha B1 (Ha B1 eaily) a new seiies of lake-side settlements was founded on the shoies of the
Swiss and southein Ceiman lakes.
49
Those lake-side sites can be exactly dated by dendiochio-
nology. The wooden posts of the houses piovide teimini post quem foi the fiist phase of these
settlements with dendiodates between 1071 and 1034/35. The iich finds fiom Ievel 3 at
Hauteiive-Champiveyies at Iake Neuchtel with dendio-dates fiom cutting

phases between
1054 and 1037 denBC may seive as an example.
50
The ielevant bionze iepeitoiy which belongs
to that phase has paiallels in FBA 2 in Italy. It includes winged axes with wings placed close to
the neck (Fig. 12:3; see RYCHNER-FARACCI 1993, 36, 38, pls. 24:26; 25:3) and tanged knives
with bulging back and a loop at the tang end (Fig. 12:5,6; see IBIDEM, 40 pl. 30:510). The same
type of tanged knife is found in the hoaid of Poggio Beini (Fig. 12:4) in Emilia Romagna,
noith-eastein Italy (MORICO 1984, 2325 fig. 4:15. BIANCO PERONI 1976, 58 no. 257
pl. 31:257). The winged axes find close paiallels in the cential Italian hoaid of Monte Piimo
(Fig. 12:1,2), Maiche iegion (PERONI 1963, I.7.8-[3j nos. 9 and 10;
51
8-[4j no. 16; 8-[8j nos. 42
and 43). While the fiist hoaid is dated only ioughly to FBA 1/2 (containing types of both
phases) by Cian Iuigi Caiancini and Renato Peioni, the second one is dated to FBA 2 in theii
seiiation of hoaid finds fiom continental Italy (CARANCINI PERONI 1999, 1819 pl. 29). The
winged axes of Monte Piimo aie eponymous foi a whole type, which, as a iesult of that hoaid
find seiiation, can be taken as chaiacteiistic foi FBA 2 (IBIDEM, 62 no. 9 pls. 30:9; 32:9).
Anothei knife shape piesent at Ievel 3 of Hauteiive-Champiveyies has a bulging back and
a tang without loop (foim 2: RYCHNER-FARACCI 1993, 41 fig. 36). Some of the specimen can
be closely compaied to two fiagmentaiy knives fiom the 4
th
hoaid found at Fiattesina
(cf. IBIDEM, pls. 31:8; 32:4 with SAIZANI 1987, 219 nos. 9 and 10; 226 fig. 1:9,10), which based
on the iest of the mateiial can again be dated to FBA 2.
Ambei beads of Allumieie type weie also found at Hauteiive-Champiveyies (Fig. 11:9).
Again they aie confined to Ievel 3 (RYCHNER-FARACCI 1993, 66, pl. 124:6,7), which makes
them ielevant foi the synchionisation with the Italian ielative chionological sequence. In
noithein Italy ambei beads of Allumieie type aie piesent at Bismantova tomb XXXI, which
accoiding to the oveiall seiiation of noith Italian cemeteiies by Cecilia Colonna is dated to
Phases I/II, that is FBA 2 (COIONNA 2006, 129, 177, 191 fig. 5; 193, 199, 201; fig. 1). Seveial
examples of that type weie also found in the Campo del Fico buiial of FBA 2 date (Fig. 11:7,8),
which yielded the bow fibula mentioned above (DEIPINO 1987, 18 fig. 9; 27, 32 fig. 18:712; 35
36 nos. 712).
The significance of ceitain bionze types in the tombs of the Naide cemeteiy belonging to
the settlement of Fiattesina foi the compaiative ItalianSwiss chionology has alieady been
highlighted by Chiistophei Paie (PARE 1998, 314315 fig. 8).
52
An incised pin with globulai
head and two globules below fiom tomb 227 (Fig. 11:4; see SAIZANI 1989, 16, 38 fig. 16:10)
belongs to the most impoitant finds in this iespect. It has no paiallels in othei noith Italian
tombs (COIONNA 2006, 8283, 249 pl. 25:2), but is attested with seveial examples in Ievel 3 of

49
This phase is chaiacteiised by a mixtuie of types conventionally thought to be chaiacteiistic foi Ha A2 and
otheis iepiesenting the succeeding phase Ha B1 in the tiaditional ielative sequence. Theiefoie, it was suggested
to classify the iepeitoiy of this phase as a tiansitional Ha A2/B1 style oi as eaily B1 (RYCHNER 1995, 457, 460,
483). The last suggestion pievailed (DAVID-EIBIAII DUNNINC 2005, 151156. TRACHSEI 2004, 3739).
50
See also dendiochionologically dated bionzes fiom the settlements at Cieifensee-Bschen (with dates between
1048 and 1042 denBC), Zug-Sumpf (with dates between 1056 and 994 denBC) and Ziich-Cioei Hafnei, Ievel
3 (1055 denBC): DAVID-EIBIAII DUNNINC 2005, 145146; 152156 fig. 3; 180181 pls. 23.
51
This one is slightly diffeient fiom the Italian examples in having a moie tiapezoid blade.
52
PARE 2008 came to bioadly similai conclusions when compaiing Italian finds to the Swiss assemblages.

391
Hauteiive-Champiveyies (Fig. 11:5,6; see RYCHNER-FARACCI 1993, 4749 fig. 43, pl. 55:1
6).
53
In Colonnas seiiation Naide tomb 227 belongs to hei Phase II and thus to a late stage of
FBA 2 (COIONNA 2006, 173, 189192 fig. 5; 199201 fig. 1), which means it should be contem-
poiaiy with the destiuction of Rocavecchia and the Submycenaean phase in the Aegean.
Anothei inteiesting pin type is attested in tombs 142 and 168 of the Naide cemeteiy (SAIZANI
1989, 14, 34 fig. 12. IDEM 199091, 137, 185 fig. 38:6). Those pins have a double-conical head
with the uppei conus being highei than the lowei one. They beai no decoiation. Accoiding to
Colonna and like the pieceding type these pins aie typical foi hei phase II, i.e. a late stage of
FBA 2 (COIONNA 2006, 75, 172, 187 fig. 3; 244 pl. 20:1,4; fig. 1: SP 16A). At Hauteiive-
Champiveyies they aie chaiacteiistic foi Ievel 3 (RYCHNER-FARACCI 1993, 48 fig. 45,
pl. 63:8,10,14).
Fiom the above discussion it follows that Ievel 3 of Hauteiive-Champiveyies can be syn-
chionised with Italian FBA 2, and most piobably only with its latei pait. Cleai types of FBA 3
only appeai in the following phase of the Swiss settlements with dendio-dates aftei 1000
denBC (PERONI VANZETTI 2005, 61, 80 pl. 13. PACCIAREIII 2005, 8384). As best exam-
ples pins with heads cphalaiie fiom Ievel 03 at Hauteiive-Champiveyies aie named
(RYCHNER-FARACCI 1993, 4748 fig. 44, pls. 57:1,8,10; 58:25,7,9,11,14; 59:6,9,12,14), because
they find a good paiallel at the neciopolis of Moiano sul Po, tomb 1/95 (VENTURINO CAM-
BARI IUZZI 1999, 113114 fig. 96:6. COIONNA 2006, 83, 249 pl. 25:11). This tomb is dated
by Colonna to hei phase III, i.e. FBA 3 (COIONNA 2006, 175, 199, 211; fig. 1).
Thus, we get a date aiound 1040 foi the end of the Italian FBA 2 and Cieek Submycenaean.
Additional data come fiom Italy itself, fiom Tuscany, fiom a pile dwelling settlement at
Iivoino-Stagno. This Final Bionze Age settlement was situated in a biackish lagoon enviion-
ment, which helped to pieseive paits of wooden house constiuctions. The Bionze aitefacts of
the settlement can be dated to FBA 2, while the potteiy belongs to FBA 2 and the beginning of
FBA 3.
54
Seven veitical posts of elm wood weie sampled foi dendiochionological analysis on a
local sequence compiising 70 tiee-iings. Two cutting phases, 25 yeais apait fiom each othei,
could be deteimined due to the piesence of a Waldkante in two samples. Foui iadiocaibon
dates measuied at Heidelbeig allow a dendiochionological wiggle match of that sequence.
55

The application of Caussian Wiggle Matching to the floating Iivoino
14
C-age sequence
(Fig. 13) places the youngest dated decadel tiee-iing block at 1092 25 calBC (68%) oi 1127
1025 calBC (95%). This iesults in a 5 yi youngei cutting date, that is 1097 25 calBC (68%) oi
11221020 calBC (95%). This age-fitting foi the Iivoino tiee is not as stable as we would like.
As shown in Fig. 13, the distiibution of best-fitting calendiic ages (achieved foi N=10000 iteia-
tions; with assumed cutting eiioi o 3 iings and assumed Caussian inteilaboiatoiy offset o
10 yis
14
C-BP) is not entiiely Caussian. Next to the ma|oi age value with highest piobability
(-1092 25 calBC), theie exist othei iegions (- 10201060 calBC, - 11001130 calBC, even
- 1180 calBC) that must also be seiiously taken into consideiation. Due to theii extiemely
seldom occuiience in the Monte Cailo simulation, we may decide that the few high ieadings -
1180 calBC aie uniealistic. What then iemains, is that 1130 calBC can be taken as cleai teimi-
nus post quem foi the beginning of FBA 3. In paiticulai, the youngei dating of the Iivoino
sequence - 10601020 calBC (cleaily visible in Fig. 13 as an extended and theiefoie highly
iepioducible peak in dating piobability, peihaps only scaled by chance to somewhat lowei
piobability values) agiees veiy well with a laige numbei of aichaeological synchionisms,

53
Moie examples weie found in othei Swiss lake settlements with analogous dendio-dates, which allows the con-
clusion that the type went out of use duiing the second half of the 11
th
centuiy BC (TRACHSEI 2004, 3334 fig.
15: type 3).
54
ZANINI 1997a. ZANINI MARTINEIII 2005, 148149. Foi the ielative chionological date see also PACCIA-
REIII 2000, 4445 fig. 23:C. IDEM 2005, 83.
55
ZANINI MARTINEIII 2005, 147, 149, 151 tab. 2; 152 fig. 5.
absolutely dated by an extended set of dendio-dates foi exactly this window (- 10551035
calBC) fiom foui Swiss sites (Hauteiive-Champiveyies, Ievel 3; Cieifensee-Bschen, Zug-
Sumpf and Ziich-Cioei Hafnei, Ievel 3 ).
Due to the gieatei quantities of aichaeological finds and dendio-dated samples the Swiss
dates should be given gieatei weight than the cential Italian ones. By combining Swiss and
Italian dates, the end of FBA 2 may now be naiiowed down to the time between c. 1070 and
1040 BC. The Rocavecchia synchionism of the end of FBA 2 and Submycenaean allows us to
tiansfei these dates to the Aegean, wheie we piopose an end of Subymycenaean and a begin-
ning of PC aiound 1070/40 BC, at the maximum 10 to 20 yeais eailiei than Desboioughs tiadi-
tional date of 1050 BC. This is in neai-peifect agieement with the tiaditional histoiical-
aichaeological data of the IH III C phases accoiding to the
14
C sequence of Kastans. As a
iesult we would like to make a new pioposal foi the absolute chionology of the end of the
Cieek Iate Bionze and the beginning of the Eaily Iion Age (Fig. 14).
The left column gives an impiession of the ielative phase length of Iate Mycenaean potteiy
phases, by the numbei of settlement hoiizons coiiesponding to each ceiamic phase at Tiiyns,
Iowei Citadel (accoiding to PODZUWEIT 2007).
56
Columns 2 to 4 summaiize oui anchois foi
the absolute chionolgy of the 12
th
to 10
th
centuiies BCE. The pioposal in column 5 is the iesult
of combining the evidence of columns 1 to 4.
The only histoiical-aichaeological date, which can be secuiely linked to the Aegean potteiy
chionology is the destiuction of the Syiian coastal sites of Ugaiit and Tell Kazel. Both sites
show cleai signs of violent destiuctions, and both destiuction levels contain Mycenaean-type
potteiy, of which the typologically latest vessels cannot be dated eailiei than IH III B Final.
Most piobably the latest Mycenaean-type potteiy fiom both sites dates to the beginning of
IH III C Eaily (MONCHAMBERT 2004, 269300, 321322. MOUNTJOY 2004. JUNC 2008,
191196). The destiuctions of those two Syiian cities aie best explained as iesulting fiom at-
tacks by enemies coming fiom the sea and iefeiied to in texts found at Ugaiit (KIENCEI 1992,
149151) and, most impoitant, in a dated insciiption fiom Egypt. That is the famous insciiption
fiom phaiaoh Ramesses III temple at Medinet Habu, which is dated to his iegnal yeai 8. It
mentions a coalition of enemies coming fiom some Mediteiianean islands (most piobably in
the Aegean), who tiy to attack Egypt. These people, iefeiied to in the scholaily liteiatuie as
Sea Peoples, aie said to have destioyed vaiious countiies including Caichemish, i.e. the iegion
of noithein Syiia, wheie Ugaiit is situated. The same insciiption mentions that the aggiessois
set up a camp in Amuiiu befoie moving on, towaids Egypt. The laigest Iate Bionze Age tell in
the iegion of Amuiiu and theiefoie piobably its capital is Tell Kazel in Syiia. The yeai 8 in-
sciiption states that Amuiiu was destioyed by that peoples coalition, and a total destiuction is
also iepoited in anothei insciiption fiom Medinet Habu dated to yeai 5 of Ramesses.
57
Thus,
the Medinet Habu insciiptions set a numbei of teimini ante quem foi the destiuctions of
Ugaiit and Amuiiu. Today theie seems to be consideiable agieement among the Egyptologists
as to the iegnal peiiod of phaiaoh Ramesses III. Accoiding to the diffeient ieconstiuctions of
the phaiaonic chionology his yeai 8 is calculated to be 1180 (KRAUSS 2007, 187), 1177
(KITCHEN 2000, 49) oi 1176/75 (VON BECKERATH 1997, 106, 190) BCE, while his 5
th
yeai
would be 1183, 1180, 1179/78 BCE. These aie the lowest possible teimini ante quem foi the
stait of IH III C Eaily. But the dating iange can be fuithei naiiowed down at Ugaiit with the
help of an Egyptian lettei found in the House of Uitenu.

56
Note that theie aie diffeiences in labelling some of the hoiizons between Klaus Kilians pioposal and the one by
Chiistian Podzuweit. Heie, Podzuweits pioposal is used, as this foims the basis foi the potteiy chionology of the
site.

57
Howevei, it is debated amongst egyptologists, whethei the yeai 5 insciiption ieflects a ieal histoiical event oi is
iathei an anachionistic anticipation of the piocesses desciibed undei the heading yeai 8 (CIFOIA 1988, 291).

393
That lettei (wiitten in Akkadian) was sent by Bay (FREU 1988), phaiaoh Siptahs chancel-
loi. A iecently discoveied new document fiom Egypt states that Bay was executed as a tiaitoi
in Siptahs iegnal yeai 5 (CRANDET 2000). Accoiding to cuiient calculations Siptah ieigned
fiom 1197 (KRAUSS 2007, 187) oi 1194/93 (VON BECKERATH 1997, 105, 190. KITCHEN 2000,
49). This means that Bays execution occuiied in 1193 oi 1190/89. This date sets a teiminus
post quem non foi the posting of the lettei fiom the House of Uitenu. Thus, IH III C Eaily
must have begun befoie the time peiiod between 1197 and 1175, the extieme dates offeied by
the discussed wiitten souices.
Anothei kind of teiminus ante quem is offeied by the
14
C-dates of Kastans, Ievel 13,
which, as discussed above, centie aiound the downwaid wiggle - 1180 calBC (Figs. 4 and 6)
The buildings of this Ievel weie eiected duiing IH III C Eaily oi Developed.
58
The dating
unceitainty of its beginning is due to the veiy fiagmented mateiial fiom the Ievel itself and to
the scaicity of datable sheids fiom the pieceding Ievel 14a. Ievel 14b can be assigned a moie
secuie date to IH III C Eaily and most piobably to an eaily stage of that phase (JUNC 2002,
222224). Theiefoie, the thiee
14
C-dates with ieadings aiound 1180 calBC give a teiminus ante
quem foi a somewhat developed stage of IH III C Eaily oi foi IIIC Developed. The ieal build-
ing event cannot have happened much latei than 1180, say between 1180 and 1170 BCE, be-
cause two of the thiee dates aie on shoitlived animal bones. It has to be taken into consideia-
tion that IH III C Eaily cannot have been a veiy shoit phase, because it is iepiesented by two
building hoiizons inside the Iowei Citadel of Tiiyns (PODZUWEIT 2007, 324325) and in the
noithwestein and noitheastein quaiteis of the town (MARAN PAPADIMITRIOU ET AI. 2006).
On that basis, the
14
C-dates fiom Kastans can be combined with the Neai Eastein histoiical
dates in an entiiely satisfactoiy mannei. If the destiuction of Ugaiit and Amuiiu occuiied to-
waids the beginning of the time window 119778 BCE, the Kastans dates do not foice us to
push back the stait of IH III C Eaily much into the 13
th
centuiy. In this way, one can confiim a
veiy conventional date foi the end of the Mycenaean palace system of c. 1210/1200 BCE.
59

The Kastans teiminus ad quem of -1130 calBC foi a ceitain moment duiing the couise of
IH III C Advanced (as extiacted fiom the Ievel 12 dates), is fuitheimoie in good agieement
with the calculated end date of 1070/40 BCE foi the Submycenaean phase, because
(i) IH III C Advanced was a lengthy settlement phase at Tiiyns (cf. PODZUWEIT 2007, 325
326) and (ii) Submycenaean does not seem to have been a veiy shoit phase |udging by the
Keiameikos tomb evidence (RUPPENSTEIN 2007, 269).
60
Theiefoie, on balance we have as-
signed a longei time peiiod to Submycenaean than to IH III C Iate.
CONCIUSIONS
Most impoitant, we conclude theie exists neai-peifect agieement (with iemaining eiiois on
the scale of a few decades) between the tiaditional histoiical-aichaeological dating of the
Aegean Iate Bionze Age foi all phases between IH III B Eaily and Submycenaean and the
tiee-iing calibiated
14
C-data as obtained fiom Kastans. As a iesult of chionological fine-
tuning of finds fiom the sites of Kastans, Assiios, Tiiyns, Tell Kazel and Ugaiit, and by tians-
fei of dendio-dates fiom Switzeiland via Italy to the Aegean, we make a new pioposal foi the
absolute chionology of the end of the Cieek Iate Bionze and the beginning of the Eaily Iion
Age (Fig. 14).

58
They weie destioyed duiing IH III C Advanced.
59
This date is also consistent with the
14
C-dates of the eailiei Ievels of Kastans, which we do not discuss in detail
in the piesent papei (but cf. JUNC WENINCER 2004, 216217, 224).
60
Howevei, the 100 yeai duiation discussed by RUPPENSTEIN (2007, 269) foi the Submycenaean phase cannot be
confiimed by oui piesent study, even if his stage IV (Submycenaean/Piotogeometiic Tiansitional Style) is incoi-
poiated into the EPC phase.
We fuithei conclude that the long-standing dating-disciepancies at Kastans can be ex-
plained by a combination (stacking) of diffeient effects, mainly: (i) measuiements peifoimed
on old-wood samples, (ii) ma|oi distoition of calibiated ages foi shoit-lived (- 14 yi old
animal bone) samples by application of an inadequate (1020 yi) tiee-iing calibiation cuive,
and (iii) inadequate (ovei-smoothed) constiuction of tiee-iing calibiation cuives (both INT-
CAI98 and all the moie INTCAI04), based on an inadequately low tiee-iing sample density.
This explanation is demonstiated by paiiwise compaiisons of the aichaeological data with the
INTCAI04 cuive, the aichaeological data with INTCAI04 iaw data, as well as the INTCAI04
cuive with INTCAI04 iaw data.
The inescapable coiollaiy of this woik is that the Radiocaibon Community must seiiously
considei undeitaking a ma|oi ieseaich piogiam, diiected at establishing a Holocene
14
C-age
calibiation based on a continuous sequence of annual samples. This annual
14
C-age calibiation
would supply to aichaeologists, on a woild-wide scale, the widely iequested chionological con-
tiol ovei cultuial events and piocesses, including the Aegean Iate Bionze Age undei study in
the piesent papei, with achievable decadel dating piecision.

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