Constitution of Society Anthony Giddens Del 2 av 3, s. 40-180 Innholdsfortegnelse del 2.

Constitution of Society Anthony Giddens Del 2 av 3, s. 40-180 ..................................................................................................................................................................1 nnholdsfo!te"nelse del 2..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1 nnholdsfo!te"nelse del 3 #i$$e hy%e!lin$et&.....................................................................................................................................................................................................1 'ote o( layout fo! del 2 o" del 3).....................................................................................................................................................................................................................1 2. Consciousness, Self and Social *ncounte!s..................................................................................................................................................................................................1 +efe!ences) Consciousness, Self and Social *ncounte!s............................................................................................................................................................................,1 3. -i(e, S%ace and +e"ionali.ation..............................................................................................................................................................................................................102 C!itical 'otes) /oucault on -i(in" and S%acin"......................................................................................................................................................................................148 +efe!ences) -i(e, S%ace and +e"ionali.ation..........................................................................................................................................................................................101 4. St!uctu!e, Syste(, Social +e%!oduction....................................................................................................................................................................................................114

Innholdsfortegnelse del 3 (ikke hyperlinket)

Constitution of Society Anthony Giddens Del 2 av 3, s. 40-180 ..................................................................................................................................................................1 nnholdsfo!te"nelse del 2..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1 nnholdsfo!te"nelse del 3 #i$$e hy%e!lin$et&.....................................................................................................................................................................................................1 'ote o( layout fo! del 2 o" del 3).....................................................................................................................................................................................................................1 2. Consciousness, Self and Social *ncounte!s..................................................................................................................................................................................................1 +efe!ences) Consciousness, Self and Social *ncounte!s............................................................................................................................................................................,1 3. -i(e, S%ace and +e"ionali.ation..............................................................................................................................................................................................................102 C!itical 'otes) /oucault on -i(in" and S%acin"......................................................................................................................................................................................148 +efe!ences) -i(e, S%ace and +e"ionali.ation..........................................................................................................................................................................................101 4. St!uctu!e, Syste(, Social +e%!oduction....................................................................................................................................................................................................114

Note om layout for del 2 og del 3: - +esten av 2o$a e! delt o%% to file!, consitution-del2 o" constitution-del3. innholdsfo!te"nelse del 2 ove! de$$e! dette do$u(entet, (en innholdsfo!te"nelse del 3 de$$e! det and!e do$u(entet. - 'oen en$le fi"u!e! o" illust!as3one! e! sletta - Sidetall 4ve!st - +efe!anse! sa(let i e"en se$s3on i slutten av hve!t $a%ittel, so( e! (a!$e!t i innholdsfo!te"nelsen. 2. Consciousness, Self and Social ncounters

n this cha%te! shall see$ to fulfil seve!al o23ectives. /i!st of all, shall discuss so(e 2asic conce%tual %!o2le(s %osed 2y connectin" the (ain conce%ts of st!uctu!ation theo!y to an inte!%!etation of the natu!e of the unconscious. -his tu!ns u%on 5uestions of ho6 the self, es%ecially the 7 7 of the !efle8ive a"ent, should 2est 2e conce%tuali.ed. shall then (ove on to a %o!t!ayal of ho6 the %sycholo"ical foundations of the inte!6eavin" of conscious and unconscious can 2e !e%!esented, utili.in" in %a!ticula! the 6!itin"s of *!i$son. 9ut it 6ill 2e a (a3o! %a!t of (y a!"u(ent that such a %o!t!ayal i((ediately !aises 5uestions of a social natu!e to do 6ith the !outini.ed cha!acte! of day-to-day life. :ia an analysis of 7c!itical situations7, in 6hich !outines a!e !adically dis!u%ted, shall t!y to indicate ho6 the !efle8ive (onito!in" of encounte!s in ci!cu(stances of co-%!esence o!dina!ily co-o!dinates 6ith unconscious co(%onents of %e!sonality. -his 6ill lead di!ectly th!ou"h to an e8a(ination of so(e of the insi"hts 6hich can 2e d!a6n f!o( Goff(an a2out inte!action 2et6een co-%!esent a"ents. Conce!n 6ith the 2ody, as the locus of the actin" self and as %ositioned in ti(e-s%ace, is the $ey lin$in" the(e of the (ate!ial discussed and analysed.

+efle8ivity, Discu!sive and ;!actical Consciousness /!eud divides the %sychic o!"ani.ation of the individual into th!ee divisions !e%!esented in *n"lish 2y the unfo!tunate te!(s 7id7, 7e"o7 and 7su%e!-e"o7. do not 2elieve these te!(s a!e %a!ticula!ly useful and shall instead su2stitute the th!eefold division su""ested in the st!atification (odel) 2asic secu!ity syste(, %!actical and discu!sive consciousness. do not (ean

##42&& these to %a!allel the /!eudian notions di!ectly. -he inte!sectin" %lanes of the inte!%!etative sche(es and no!(s 6hich acto!s utili.e in the constitution of thei! conduct a!e e(2edded in all th!ee di(ensions of %e!sonality. 9ut ce!tainly the 7 7 (das Ich) is at the co!e of 6hat is involved in discu!sive consciousness and de(ands conside!a2le attention conce%tually. <e can a%%!oach the issues involved 2y t!acin" so(e of the difficulties %osed 2y /!eud7s division of the %e!sonality, es%ecially in so fa! as these 2ea! u%on %!o2le(s of a"ency.7= /!eud, of cou!se, !e"a!ded the individual as an a"ent 2ut also often s%o$e of the id, e"o and su%e!-e"o as a"encies 6ithin the individual. n his 6!itin"s %!io! to the 1,20s /!eud f!e5uently used the te!( das Ich to !efe! to the 6hole %e!son, as 6ell as to desi"nate a %a!t of the (ind. -hese shifts of usa"e also a%%ly to 7su%e!-e"o7, so(eti(es diffe!entiated f!o( anothe! notion, that of 7e"o-ideal7. -e!(inolo"ical inconsistencies and t!ansitions see( to indicate he!e so(e !athe! (o!e si"nificant conce%tual t!ou2les. Su%%ose das Ich is a su2division of (ind. >o6 can /!eud then say such thin"s as that the e"o 7decides on the !e%udiation of the inco(%ati2le idea7 ?2 s the e"o7s decidin" so(e so!t of %!ocess in (iniatu!e of the a"ent7s decidin"? -his, su!ely, does not (a$e (uch sense. /!eud also 6!ites, fo! e8a(%le, of the e"o7s 76ish to slee%7, althou"h 6hile slee% occu!s it 7stays on duty7 to %!otect a"ainst the 6o!st e(anations of the unconscious, 7"ua!din"7 the slee% of the d!ea(e!. -he sa(e so!t of 5uestions a!ise. <hose slee% is it that the e"o desi!es? -he a"ent7s? ts o6n? <hose 6a$in" does the 7"ua!d7 %!otect? And so on. Conside!, finally, /!eud7s (ost "ene!al cha!acte!i.ation of the tas$s of the e"o. -he e"o has the tas$ of 7self-%!ese!vation7, 6hich it e8ecutes 72y lea!nin" to 2!in" a2out chan"es in the e8te!nal 6o!ld to its o6n advanta"e7.7 9ut 6hich 7self7 does the e"o defend? s its advanta"e also (y advanta"e? 'o6 one t!aditional tactic a(on" inte!%!ete!s of /!eud is to acce%t that the!e a!e (isleadin" anth!o%o(o!%hic usa"es in /!eud7s 6!itin"s, 2ut to clai( that these can 2e dis%elled if 6e unde!stand id, e"o and su%e!-e"o as !efe!!in" to 7%!ocesses7 o! 7fo!ces7. 9ut this

is not !eally ve!y (uch hel%, fo! such conce%ts do not allo6 us %!o%e!ly to "!as% the natu!e of hu(an a"ency. ##footnote&& =+efe!ences (ay 2e found on %%. 10@-,.

##43&& /!eud, of cou!se, does hi(self s%ea$ of hyd!aulic flo6s, 2loc$a"es of ene!"y and so on. 9ut these then con3u!e u% the so!t of (echanical conce%tion of the o!i"ins of hu(an conduct associated 6ith the (ost naive fo!(s of o23ectivis(. ;a!t of the %!o2le( is the use of the te!(s e"o, su%e!-e"o and id #6hethe! in thei! o!i"inal Ge!(an fo!(ulation o! in thei! *n"lish ve!sion&, each of 6hich has so(e connotation of a"encyA each is a (inia"ent 6ithin the a"ent as such. Disca!din" the te!(s 7id7 and 7su%e!-e"o7 hel%s, 2ut this has to 2e co(%le(ented 2y !eco"nition of the distinctive cha!acte! of das Ich, the 7 7. <e (i"ht su%%ose that the 7 7 is the a"ent. >o6eve!, this is su!ely (ista$en, even thou"h it fi"u!es as the cent!al assu(%tion o! %!o%osition of 6hole schools of %hiloso%hy, includin" Ca!tesianis( and the latte!-day %hiloso%hy of G. >. Bead. Bead7s 6!itin"s ce!tainly hel% to elucidate the %!ocesses leadin" to the e(e!"ence of a 7self7 as a 7(e7. 9ut the 7 7 a%%ea!s in Bead7s 6!itin"s as the "iven co!e of a"ency, and its o!i"ins hence al6ays !e(ain o2scu!e. -o !elate the 7 7 to a"ency, it is necessa!y to follo6 the detou! su""ested 2y st!uctu!alists in !es%ect of the decent!in" of the su23ect, 6ithout !eachin" conclusions 6hich t!eat the su23ect si(%ly as a si"n 6ithin a si"nification st!uctu!e. -he constitution of the 7 7 co(es a2out only via the 7discou!se of the Cthe!7 - that is, th!ou"h the ac5uisition of lan"ua"e - 2ut the 7 7 has to 2e !elated to the 2ody as the s%he!e of action. -he te!( -is in lin"uistic te!(s a 7shifte!7) the conte8tuality of social 7%ositionin"7 dete!(ines 6ho is an 7 7 in any situation of tal$. Althou"h 6e (i"ht tend to thin$ of 7 7 as 2ea!in" u%on the !ichest and (ost inti(ate as%ects of ou! e8%e!ience, it is in a 6ay one of the e(%tiest te!(s in lan"ua"e.4 /o! the 7 7 !efe!s only to 6ho is s%ea$in", the 7su23ect7 of a sentence o! utte!ance. An a"ent

6ho has (aste!ed the use of 7 7, as Bead says, has also (aste!ed the use of 7(e7 - 2ut only via conco(itant (aste!y of a syntactically diffe!entiated lan"ua"e. /o! have to $no6 that a( an 7 7 6hen s%ea$ to 7you7, 2ut that you a!e an 7 7 6hen you s%ea$ to 7(e7, and that a( a 7you7 6hen you s%ea$ to (e .... and so on. -he %oint is not 3ust that these usa"es %!esu(e lin"uistic s$ills of a ve!y co(%licated $ind 2ut also that they entail a !a(ified cont!ol of the 2ody and a develo%ed $no6led"e of ho6 to 7"o on7 in the %lu!ality of conte8ts of social life. +eco"nition of the essential i(%o!tance of the !efle8ive

##44&& (onito!in" of conduct in the day-to-day continuity of social life does not (ean disavo6in" the si"nificance of unconscious sou!ces of co"nition and (otivation. 9ut it does involve "ivin" so(e attention to the diffe!entiation 6hich se%a!ates 7conscious7 f!o( 7unconscious7. C!dina!y *n"lish usa"e "ives us at least a "ene!al "uide to this. So(eti(es 6e s%ea$ of consciousness as e5uivalent to 6hat (i"ht 2e called 7sensi2ility7.7 -hus so(eone 6ho falls aslee% o! is $noc$ed ove! the head 7la%ses into unconsciousness7 o! is 7!ende!ed unconscious7. 7Dnconscious7 he!e (eans so(ethin" diffe!ent f!o( its o!thodo8 /!eudian usa"e, and the 7consciousness7 6ith 6hich it is cont!asted has a ve!y 2!oad sense. -o 2e 7conscious7 in this (eanin" is to !e"iste! a !an"e of su!!oundin" sti(uli. -he!e is nothin" s%ecifically !efle8ive a2out consciousness unde!stood in this 6ay. -he sense in 6hich hu(an 2ein"s 7lose7 and 7!e"ain7 consciousness is di!ectly a%%lica2le to the hi"he! ani(als also. -his notion of consciousness evidently !efe!s to the senso!y (echanis(s of the 2ody and to thei! 7no!(al7 (odes of o%e!ation and is %!esu%%osed 2y the conce%ts of 2oth %!actical and discu!sive consciousness. 7Conscious7 is so(eti(es used to !efe! to ci!cu(stances in 6hich %eo%le %ay attention to events "oin" on a!ound the( in such a 6ay as to !elate thei! activity to those events. n othe! 6o!ds, it !efe!s to the !efle8ive (onito!in" of conduct 2y hu(an a"ents, la!"ely in the sense of 6hat have called %!actical consciousness. -hus, fo! e8a(%le, a school teache! (ay 2e 7conscious7 of 6hat the child!en in the f!ont !o6s of the class!oo( a!e doin" 2ut 7unconscious7 of othe!s nea! the 2ac$ 6ho have sta!ted "ossi%in" 6ith one anothe!. -he teache! (ay 2e 2ein" inattentive, 2ut is not unconscious in the sa(e sense as an individual 6ho has 7lost consciousness7. f this sense of 7conscious7 has its counte!%a!t a(on" ani(als, it is not as una(2i"uously defined as in the (o!e ele(ental sense of consciousness noted a2ove. A thi!d sense of 7conscious7, la2elled 2y -oul(in 7a!ticulateness7, co!!es%onds !ou"hly to discu!sive consciousness.7 -o use -oul(in7s e8a(%le, a 2usiness(an 6ho o2tains (oney on false %!etences f!o( a client can 2e said to have en"a"ed in 7conscious and deli2e!ate f!aud7. Cn the othe! hand, if

the sa(e conse5uence follo6s 5uite inadve!tently f!o( the activities of the 2usiness(an, 6ithout his 2ein" a6a!e of it, he 7unconsciously7

##4@&& 2eco(es the inst!u(ent of the othe!7s financial disco(fitu!e. >e!e the a"ent has to 7thin$7 a2out 6hat he o! she is doin" fo! that activity to 2e ca!!ied out 7consciously7. 7Consciousness7 in this sense %!esu(es 2ein" a2le -to "ive a cohe!ent account of one7s activities and the !easons fo! the(.

-he Dnconscious, -i(e, Be(o!y t is clea! that the %sychoanalytic sense of 7unconscious7 has so(ethin" to do 6ith a cont!ast d!a6n 2et6een it and this thi!d (eanin" of 7conscious7, a cont!ast 6ith 6hat have te!(ed discu!sive consciousness. Discu!sive consciousness (eans 2ein" a2le to %ut thin"s into 6o!ds. -he 7unconscious7 in %sychoanalytic theo!y has !efe!ence to the o%%osite of this - not 2ein" a2le to "ive ve!2al e8%!ession to the %!o(%tin"s of action. -o fu!the! e8%licate the notion of 7unconscious7 as 7the unconscious7, ho6eve!, it is necessa!y to (a$e so(e co((ents on (e(o!y, since (e(o!y and lan"ua"e a!e %atently ve!y close. %!o%ose to a!"ue that 7the unconscious7 can 2e unde!stood only in te!(s of (e(o!y and that this in tu!n (eans e8a(inin" !athe! ca!efully 6hat (e(o!y is. >e!e all the issues of theo!i.in" te(%o!ality 6hose si"nificance have insisted u%on 2efo!e !ea%%ea!. #1& ;!i(a facie, one (i"ht su%%ose that (e(o!y !efe!s si(%ly to the %ast - to %ast e8%e!iences, t!aces of 6hich so(eho6 !e(ain in the o!"anis(. Action then occu!s in the s%atiality of the %!esent, d!a6in" u%on (e(o!ies of the %ast 6heneve! such a!e needed o! desi!ed. A (o(ent7s !eflection 6ill de(onst!ate the inade5uacy of such a vie6. 7;!esent7 cannot 2e

said o! 6!itten 6ithout its fadin" into the %ast. f ti(e is not a succession of 7%!esents7 2ut 7%!esencin"7 in the sense att!i2uted to this 2y >eide""e!, then (e(o!y is an as%ect of %!esencin". #2& Cne (i"ht i(a"ine that (e(o!y is a2ove all a !ecall device - a (ode of !et!ievin" info!(ation o! 7!e(e(2e!in"7. Such a vie6 is 5uite consistent 6ith the idea that the %ast is clea!ly seve!ed f!o( the %!esent 2ecause (e(o!y can then 2e seen as the !ecall of the %ast into the %!esent. 9ut once 6e disca!d such a stand%oint, it is no lon"e! %lausi2le to define (e(o!y

##40&& as the !e(e(2!ance of thin"s %ast. ;!oust7s title should su!ely 2e !ead as an i!onic co((ent on 3ust this ty%e of naive conce%tion. +ecall is o2viously not i!!elevant to (e(o!y, 2ut it does not desi"nate 6hat (e(o!y is. -hese o2se!vations indicate that (e(o!y and %e!ce%tion a!e ve!y closely lin$ed. t is of so(e inte!est to %oint out that theo!ies of %e!ce%tion tend to divide a!ound an a8is of su23ectivis( ve!sus o23ectivis(. Cne ty%e of stand%oint tends to e(%hasi.e, in 5uasiEantian fashion, the !ole of the %e!ceive! as the %!ocesso! of 6hat 6ould othe!6ise 2e a fo!(less void.7 An o%%osin" vie6 holds that %e!ce%tion is o!"ani.ed 2y the %!e-"iven fo!( of the o23ect-6o!ld.7 Atte(%ts to ove!co(e this division have st!essed the i(%o!tance of ti(e, and of s%atial diffe!entiation, in %e!ce%tion. Fi$e intentions, !easons, etc., %e!ce%tion is not an a""!e"ate of disc!ete 7%e!ce%tions7 2ut a flo6 of activity inte"!ated 6ith the (ove(ent of the 2ody in ti(e-s%ace. ;e!ce%tion is o!"ani.ed via antici%ato!y sche(ata 6he!e2y the individual antici%ates ne6 inco(in" info!(ation 6hile si(ultaneously (entally di"estin" old. ;e!ce%tion no!(ally involves the continued active (ove(ent of the eyes, and usually of the head, even 6hen the 2ody is at !est. 9ecause sche(ata a!e antici%ations, they a!e, as one autho! %uts it, 7the (ediu( 6he!e2y the %ast affects the futu!e7, 6hich is 7identical 6ith the unde!lyin" (echanis(s of (e(o!y7.7 t (ay ve!y 6ell 2e that touch, o!dina!ily !e"a!ded as the (ost hu(2le of the senses, and ce!tainly the least studied, %!ovides (ost clues fo! unde!standin" %e!ce%tion in "ene!al. -ouch

has no clea!-cut %e!ce%tual locus, li$e the eyeA inco(in" ha%tic info!(ation is not o!de!ed th!ou"h any sin"le (echanis( 6ithin the ne!vous syste(A the use of touch is self-evidently %a!t of the (ani%ulato!y (ove(ent of the 2ody in the conte8ts of its action. A st!i$in" featu!e of (ost of the lite!atu!e on %e!ce%tion, (o!eove!, is that it t!eats the senses as thou"h they o%e!ated in se%a!ation f!o( one anothe!. t has 2een o2se!ved that vi!tually all e8%e!i(ental studies of %e!ce%tion have involved only a sin"le sense.G -hat this is a!tificial is sho6n 2y the (ost cu!so!y e8a(ination of the natu!e of day-to-day life, in 6hich the continuity of activities %e!sistently inte"!ates the va!ious senses. ;e!ce%tion, then, de%ends u%on s%atial and te(%o!al continuity,

##41&& actively o!"ani.ed as such 2y the %e!ceive!. -he (ain %oint of !efe!ence has to 2e neithe! the sin"le sense no! the conte(%lative %e!ceive! 2ut the 2ody in its active en"a"e(ents 6ith the (ate!ial and social 6o!lds. ;e!ce%tual sche(ata a!e neu!olo"ically 2ased fo!(ats 6he!e2y the te(%o!ality of e8%e!ience is continually %!ocessed. Such %!ocessin" (ay in tu!n 2e unde!stood as inhe!ently involved 6ith the !efle8ive (onito!in" of action in "ene!al. t see(s i(%ossi2le to deny that the ne6-2o!n infant %ossesses an innate %e!ce%tual e5ui%(ent. n othe! 6o!ds, it has not only the sense o!"ans 2ut also neu!olo"ically esta2lished sche(ata that allo6 it to !es%ond selectively to the su!!oundin" 6o!ld, even if that selectivity is !elatively "!oss co(%a!ed 6ith 6hat is develo%ed late!. A "ood deal of evidence e8ists to the effect that infants !es%ond 6ith

(ove(ents of the head to6a!ds the di!ection of sounds, follo6 (ovin" o23ects visually and !each out to6a!ds the(. 7Foo$in" to6a!ds sounds7, of cou!se, al!eady involves inte"!ation of the senses.G 'eonates al!eady assess this in te!(s of a ti(e diffe!ence 2et6een acoustic !es%onses in the t6o ea!s, leadin" to the (ove(ent of the head in one di!ection o! the othe!. Such !es%onses do, of cou!se, 2eco(e (o!e %!ecise 6ith fu!the! %sycholo"ical and (oto! develo%(entA it ta$es a lon" 6hile fo! child!en to lea!n the a!ts of co%in" conce%tually 6ith o23ects that have "one out of si"ht. 'a(in" o! identifyin" o23ects is evidently not 3ust a (atte! of attachin" a la2el to %heno(ena 6hose 5ualities a!e al!eady $no6n. -o na(e so(ethin" co!!ectly is to 2e a2le to tal$ a2out it co!!ectly, 6hich (eans ty%ifyin" its %!o%e!ties) !elatin" it to a class of co(%a!a2le o23ects diffe!entiatin" it f!o( othe! classes.G n this !es%ect 6e can see 2oth the att!actions and the li(itations of Gi2son7s conce%t of 7affo!dance7. Acco!din" to Gi2son, all the uses o! activities 6hich o23ects (a$e %ossi2le - 6hich they affo!d to the hu(an acto! - a!e di!ectly %e!ceiva2le. Such a vie6 has the advanta"e of st!essin" the %!actical cha!acte! of %e!ce%tual activities, 2ut it does not indicate thei! connection 6ith conce%tual desi"nations of o23ects, 6hich a!e li$ely to 2e cultu!ally va!ia2le. f %e!ce%tion 2e unde!stood as a set of te(%o!al o!de!in" devices, sha%ed 2y, yet sha%in", the (ove(ents and o!ientations of the 2ody in the conte8ts of its 2ehaviou!, 6e can unde!stand the!e2y the si"nificance of selective attention in day-to-day

##48&&

conduct. n eve!y conte8t of activity the!e is fa! (o!e "oin" on than the acto! actually attends to, events o! 5ualities that !e(ain unnoticed. >o6 does this ha%%en? -he usual ans6e! is that !edundant (ate!ial is filte!ed out. 9ut this is 5uite (isleadin", fo! it su""ests an active atte(%t to !e3ect !edundant (ate!ial. Selection is, ho6eve!, a %ositive !athe! than a ne"ative %!ocessA it e8%!esses the active en"a"e(ents of a"ents 6ith thei! envi!on(ents. Conside! the follo6in" (uch de2ated e8%e!i(ent.G -a%e !eco!din"s of t6o se%a!ate and diffe!ent s%o$en (essa"es 6e!e %layed si(ultaneously to e8%e!i(ental su23ects, one in each ea! and at e5ual volu(e. Su23ects 6e!e inst!ucted to listen to only one (essa"e and to !e%eat it as they hea!d it. -hey e8%e!ienced no difficulty in doin" this and 2y and la!"e did not 7hea!7 the alte!native (essa"e at all. -he e8%e!i(ental situation is an inte!estin" one 2ecause it (i!!o!s 6hat a"ents do (ost of the ti(e 6hen co-%!esent 6ith othe!s in situations 6he!e (o!e than one conve!sation is "oin" on. -he e8%e!i(ental !esults have 2een 6idely inte!%!eted in te!(s of ne"ative info!(ation filte!s.G +edundant info!(ation, in othe! 6o!ds, is su%%osedly 2loc$ed off f!o( !eachin" the hi"he! co!tical cent!es definite neu!al (echanis(s have 2een su""ested as cont!ollin" such a %!ocess. 9ut this ty%e of theo!y not only t!eats the individual as essentially a %assive !eceive! of in%utA it also de%ends u%on an untena2le dissociation 2et6een %e!ce%tion and (e(o!y. /o! it is su%%osed that 6hile 6e %e!ceive eve!ythin" in ou! envi!on(ent at any "iven (o(ent, (uch of 6hat is %e!ceived is 72loc$ed off7 - ve!y !a%idly 7fo!"otten7.G As 'eisse! has %ointed out, the assu(%tion is that any use of info!(ation a fe6 (illiseconds afte! it has 2een !e"iste!ed is de%endent u%on (e(o!y !athe! than %e!ce%tion. Such a vie6 is neithe! conce%tually co(%ellin" no! e(%i!ically %lausi2le. f %e!ce%tion is !e"a!ded as 6hat a"ents do, as %a!t of thei! te(%o!ally and s%atially situated activities, the!e is no need to %osit any 2loc$in" (echanis(s at all. C!"anis(s a!e active) they do so(e thin"s and leave othe!s undone. -o %ic$ one a%%le f!o( a t!ee you need not filte! out all the othe!sA you 3ust don7t %ic$ the(. A theo!y of a%%le %ic$in" 6ould have (uch to e8%lain #>o6 do you decide

6hich one you 6ant? Guide you! hand to it? G!as% it?& 2ut it 6ould not have to s%ecify a (echanis( to $ee% un6anted a%%les out of you! hand. 10

##4,&&

f the 7%!esent7 is not cut off f!o( the flo6 of action, 7(e(o!y7 can 2e nothin" othe! than a 6ay of desc!i2in" the $no6led"ea2ility of hu(an a"ents. f (e(o!y does not desi"nate 7%ast e8%e!ience7, neithe! does consciousness #in any of the th!ee senses (entioned a2ove& e8%!ess the 7%!esent7. <hat a %e!son is 7a6a!e of7 cannot 2e fi8ed at a %a!ticula! %oint in ti(e. <e need to distin"uish, the!efo!e, 2et6een consciousness as senso!y a6a!eness #the fi!st and (ost "ene!al sense of the te!( (entioned a2ove&A (e(o!y, as the te(%o!al constitution of consciousnessA and !ecall, as the (eans of !eca%itulatin" %ast e8%e!iences in such a 6ay as to focus the( u%on the continuity of action. f (e(o!y !efe!s to this te(%o!al (aste!y so inhe!ent in hu(an e8%e!ience, then discu!sive and %!actical consciousness !efe! to psychological mechanisms of recall, as utili.ed in conte8ts of action. Discu!sive consciousness connotes those fo!(s of !ecall 6hich the acto! is a2le to e8%!ess ve!2ally. ;!actical consciousness involves !ecall to 6hich the a"ent has access in the dure of action 6ithout 2ein" a2le to e8%!ess 6hat he o! she the!e2y 7$no6s7. -he unconscious !efe!s to (odes of !ecall to 6hich the a"ent does not have di!ect access 2ecause the!e is a ne"ative 72a!7 of so(e $ind inhi2itin" its un(ediated inco!%o!ation 6ithin the !efle8ive (onito!in" of conduct and, (o!e %a!ticula!ly, 6ithin discu!sive consciousness. -he o!i"ins of the 72a!7 a!e of t6o !elated so!ts. /i!st, since the ea!liest e8%e!iences of the infant, sha%in" the 2asic secu!ity syste( 6he!e2y an8iety is canali.ed o!, cont!olled, %!edate diffe!entiated lin"uistic co(%etence, they a!e li$ely to !e(ain the!eafte! 7outside the 2ounds7 of discu!sive consciousness. Second, the unconscious contains !e%!essions 6hich inhi2it discu!sive fo!(ulation. As a (atte! of conce%tual definition, these !e(a!$s a!e (ode!ately consonant 6ith /!eud7s cha!acte!istic usa"e of the 7conscious7 and 7the unconscious7. 9ut the thesis that (ost day-today activities a!e not di!ectly (otivated (eans %lacin" in 5uestion the (odel of

(otivation 6ith 6hich /!eud cha!acte!istically o%e!ated. /o! /!eud all hu(an activities a!e (otivated, includin" #fo! e8a(%le& a%%a!ent t!iviata o! 7e!!o!s7 such as sli%s of the ton"ue. /!eud 6as often conce!ned %!ecisely to de(onst!ate that %heno(ena 6hich (i"ht 2e su%%osed to 2e 7accidental7 do, in fact, have thei! o!i"in in #unconscious& (otives. -he!e is no %a!ticula! !eason to 5uestion the illu(inatin" 5uality of /!eud7s

##@0&& insi"hts in such (atte!s. 9ut it (a$es no (o!e sense to clai( that eve!y act o! "estu!e is (otivated - (eanin" that a definite 7(otive7 can 2e attached to it - than it does to t!eat action as involvin" a st!in" of intentions o! !easons. -he!e is a lo"ical fla6 he!e in the si(%lified vie6 of the natu!e of hu(an action. Action, as have said often, cannot satisfacto!ily 2e conce%tuali.ed as an a""!e"ate of acts. Concent!atin" (ainly u%on s%ecific de(a!cated 7se"(ents7 of 2ehaviou! #neu!otic sy(%to(s&, /!eud7s 6!itin"s inevita2ly tend to e8%!ess such a deficient conce%tion of action. 9ut !athe! than su%%osin" that eve!y 7act7 has a co!!es%ondin" 7(otive7, 6e have to unde!stand the te!( 7(otivation7 to 2e a %!ocessual one. <hat this (eans conc!etely is that the unconscious only !a!ely i(%in"es di!ectly u%on the !efle8ive (onito!in" of conduct. 'o! a!e the connections involved solely de%endent u%on %sycholo"ical (echanis(s 6ithin the %e!sonality of the individual acto!A they a!e (ediated 2y the social !elations 6hich individuals sustain in the !outine %!actices of thei! daily lives. *la2o!atin" a little on this %oint %!ovides so(ethin" of a t!ansition 2et6een the discussion so fa! in this cha%te! and that 6hich follo6s late!. -he (ain theo!e(s 6ish to %!o%ose !un as follo6s. C!dina!y day-to-day life - in "!eate! o! less de"!ee acco!din" to conte8t and the va"a!ies of individual %e!sonality -involves an ontological security e8%!essin" an autonomy of bodily control 6ithin predictable routines. -he %sycholo"ical o!i"ins of ontolo"ical secu!ity a!e to 2e found in 2asic an8iety-cont!ollin" (echanis(s #as indicated 2y *!i$son, 6hose ideas discuss in 6hat follo6s&, hie!a!chically o!de!ed as co(%onents of %e!sonality. -he "ene!ation of feelin"s of t!ust in othe!s, as the dee%estlyin" ele(ent of the 2asic secu!ity syste(, de%ends su2stantially u%on %!edicta2le and ca!in" !outines esta2lished 2y %a!ental fi"u!es. -he infant is ve!y ea!ly on 2oth a "ive! as 6ell as a !eceive! of t!ust. As he o! she 2eco(es (o!e autono(ous, ho6eve!, the child lea!ns the i(%o!tance of 6hat a!e in Goff(an7s te!( 7%!otective devices7, 6hich sustain the (utuality i(%lied in t!ust via tact and othe! fo!(ulae that %!ese!ve the face of othe!s. Cntolo"ical secu!ity is %!otected 2y such devices 2ut (aintained in a (o!e funda(ental 6ay 2y the ve!y %!edicta2ility of !outine, so(ethin" 6hich is

!adically dis!u%ted in c!itical situations. -he s6a(%in" of ha2itual (odes of activity 2y an8iety 6hich cannot

##@1&& 2e ade5uately contained 2y the 2asic secu!ity syste( is s%ecifically a featu!e of c!itical situations. C!itici.in" /!eud7s te!(inolo"y of a"ency and self ca!!ies 6ith it seve!al i(%lications. -he 7 7 is an essential featu!e of the !efle8ive (onito!in" of action 2ut should 2e identified neithe! 6ith the a"ent no! 6ith the self. 9y the 7a"ent7 o! 7acto!7 (ean the ove!all hu(an su23ect located 6ithin the co!%o!eal ti(es%ace of the livin" o!"anis(. -he 7 7 has no i(a"e, as the self does. -he self, ho6eve!, is not so(e $ind of (ini-a"ency 6ithin the a"ent. t is the su( of those fo!(s of !ecall 6he!e2y the a"ent !efle8ively cha!acte!i.es 76hat7 is at the o!i"in of his o! he! action. -he self is the a"ent as cha!acte!i.ed 2y the a"ent. Self, 2ody and (e(o!y a!e the!efo!e inti(ately !elated. *!i$son) An8iety and -!ust -heo!ies 6hich "ive %!o(inence to unconscious ele(ents of hu(an 2ehaviou! often tend to "o alon" 6ith o23ectivist %e!s%ectives. t is not too difficult to see 6hy. /o! o23ectivis(, li$e (any accounts of the unconscious, t!eats the !efle8ive (onito!in" of action as (e!e f!oth on the su!face of hu(an activity, 6hose t!ue o!i"ins lie else6he!e. n settin" out an account of #a fe6 featu!es of& the unconscious and social !elations, shall not follo6 those ve!sions of st!uctu!alist %sychoanalysis, associated %a!ticula!ly 6ith Facan, that a!e cu!!ently fashiona2le in so(e 5ua!te!s. Althou"h Facan7s 6!itin"s undenia2ly contain so(e ideas of "!eat inte!est, in (y o%inion they e8%!ess an i(%ove!ished conce%tion of the a"ent si(ila! to that "ene!ated 2y 7st!uctu!alist Ba!8is(7.G Facan has 2een one of the fi"u!es in the fo!ef!ont of the attac$s u%on the 6o!$ of the so-called 7e"o %sycholo"ists7 6ithin %sychoanalysis. -hese %ole(ics have 2een in su2stantial de"!ee successful, since the 6o!$ of Sullivan, >o(ey, *!i$son, Ea!dine! and othe!s no6 lies unde!

so(ethin" of a shado6. conside! that so(e of the cont!i2utions of these autho!s, ho6eve!, !etain a ve!y conside!a2le i(%o!tance and shall d!a6 u%on the( in so(e %a!t he!e. C!iti5ues, 7!evisionis(s7 and self-%!ofessed 7o!thodo8ies7 have 2een as %!olific in %sychoanalytic theo!y since the ea!ly yea!s of this centu!y as they have 2een 6ithin Ba!8is(. -he e"o %sycholo"ists, ho6eve!, have 2een associated 6ith t6o %!inci%al

##@2&& lines of develo%(ent as !e"a!ds the 7classical7 fo!(ulations of %sychoanalysis in /!eud7s 6!itin"s. Cn the one hand, they have ta$en u% the %e!s%ective foste!ed 2y Anna /!eud. -hat is to say, they have a!"ued that /!eud7s %!eoccu%ation 6ith !e%!ession and the unconscious led hi( to unde!%lay the (o!e co"nitive, !ational co(%onents of the a"ent. Cn the othe! hand, they have 2een influenced 2y the 6!itin"s of social analysts, es%ecially anth!o%olo"ists, 6hich de(onst!ate the shee! dive!sity of hu(an (odes of social life. /!eud7s cultu!al 6!itin"s - ho6eve! (uch they (ay !etain thei! i(%o!tance in so(e 6ays - 6e!e essentially 2ound u% 6ith the evolutionis( of nineteenth-centu!y anth!o%olo"y. 9ein" a6a!e of this dive!sity (eans also ac$no6led"in" the va!iety of diffe!ent fo!(s of fa(ily o!"ani.ation, and hence of ea!ly sociali.ation, that e8ist. +eco"nition of these t6o sets of facto!s, ta$en to"ethe!, (eans (a$in" su2stantial de%a!tu!es f!o( (o!e t!aditional vie6s of %sychoanalytic theo!y, althou"h it does not entail ado%tin" a full-2lo6n cultu!al !elativis(A the!e a!e %!ocesses of child develo%(ent and adult %e!sonality co((on to all hu(an societies. *!i$son e8%!esses this in Childhood and Society in the follo6in" 6ay) ;sychoanalysis today is i(%le(entin" the study of the e"o .... t is shiftin" its e(%hasis f!o( the concent!ated study of the conditions 6hich 2lunt and disto!t the individual e"o to the study of the e"o7s !oots in social o!"ani.ation . ... Fon" childhood (a$es a technical and (ental vi!tuoso out of (an, 2ut it also leaves a lifelon" !esidue of e(otional i((atu!ity in hi(.G *!i$son, to"ethe! 6ith Sullivan, a!e %e!ha%s the t6o outstandin" fi"u!es a(on" those 6!ite!s 6ho have %!ese!ved ce!tain unive!sal ele(ents of /!eud7s o!i"inal account of the sta"es of %sychose8ual develo%(ent, 6hile at the sa(e ti(e ado%tin" cont!i2utions f!o( the social sciences. shall d!a6 - althou"h s%a!in"ly and c!itically u%on thei! ideas in 6hat follo6s. Cn the 2asis of 2oth his clinical 6o!$ and the study of a !an"e of cultu!es, *!i$son has distin"uished a se!ies of sta"es of %e!sonality develo%(ent ove! the %e!iod f!o( infancy to adulthood. >is discussion of the natu!e of the (otivational inclinations and (ental ca%acities of the infant is

e8t!e(ely %e!suasive. 9ut do not thin$ he 2!in"s out sufficiently the essential th!eshold in child develo%(ent that de!ives f!o( the %hase of the syntactical (aste!y of lan"ua"e, a

##@3&& t!ansition in the life of the individual, as Cho(s$y has de(onst!ated, 6hose conse5uences can 2e fai!ly !eadily identified 2ut the o!i"ins of 6hich !e(ain tantali.in"ly o2scu!e. n all societies the ea!ly nu!tu!e of the infant is do(inated 2y a sin"le (othe!in" a"ent, nea!ly al6ays the 2iolo"ical (othe! of the child. -he initial %hases of %e!sonality develo%(ent (ay 2e cha!acte!istically associated 6ith !esolutions of needs o! tensions de!ivin" f!o( the %hysical t!aits of the o!"anis(. 9ut it see(s al(ost ce!tain that /!eud s5uee.ed these into too dete!(inistic a sche(e, and a (o!e fle8i2le one is !e5ui!ed to (a$e sense of va!iations 2et6een and 6ithin societies. <e (ay say that the ea!liest inte!action 2et6een infant and (othe! is laye!ed into the develo%(ent of the 7unconscious7) neithe! 72odily (ove(ent7 no! 72odily cont!ol7 is ve!y si(ila! to the senses in 6hich they a!e involved in 7action7 in the case of the adult (e(2e! of society. f 6e follo6 *!i$son, 6e can distin"uish th!ee successive %ola!ities associated 6ith the t!ansfo!(ation of the 2ody into an inst!u(ent of actin"-in-the-6o!ld. -he fi!st, and ea!liest, is that of 72asic t!ust7 ve!sus 72asic (ist!ust7. -he ne6-2o!n infant is a 2undle of i(%ulses, 6hich have ce!tain "enetically "iven ho(eostatic (echanis(s of ad3ust(ent, e8istin" in an alien envi!on(entA the activities of the (othe! %!ovide ca!e and %!otection. 7-!ust7 #he!e conceived of as a t!ait of %e!sonality& is unde!stood as %sycholo"ically 72indin"7 ti(e-s%ace 2y the initial a6a$enin" of a sense that a2sence does not si"nify dese!tion. -he %sycholo"ical dya(ics unde!lyin" the inte!section of %!esence and a2sence have thei! %oint of o!i"in in the 2ody, 2odily needs, thei! (odes of satiation and cont!ol. As *!i$son co((ents, 7-he infant7s fi!st social achieve(ent, then, is his 6illin"ness to let the (othe! out of si"ht 6ithout undue an8iety o! !a"e, 2ecause she has 2eco(e an inne! ce!tainty as 6ell as an oute! %!edicta2ility.7 ;!edicta2ility, continuity, sa(eness, %!ovide 7a !udi(enta!y sense of e"o identity 6hich de%ends... on the

!eco"nition that the!e is an inne! %o%ulation of !e(e(2e!ed and antici%ated sensations and i(a"es 6hich a!e fi!(ly co!!elated 6ith the oute! %o%ulation of fa(ilia! and %!edicta2le thin"s and %eo%le7.G 7-!ust7 he!e e5uals confidence, and ve!y ea!ly on, *!i$son su""ests, it has a definite (utuality to itA the!e is at least an inci%ient feelin" of 72ein" t!ust6o!thy7 associated 6ith the "ene!ali.ed e8tension of t!ust to the othe!.

##@4&& 'ot, of cou!se, that the initial fo!(ation of t!ust occu!s 6ithout conflict o! st!ain. Cn the cont!a!y, it o%e!ates a"ainst the 2ac$"!ound of diffuse an8iety, cont!ol of 6hich su""ests itself as the (ost "ene!ali.ed (otivational o!i"in of hu(an conduct. -he inte!action 2et6een infant and (othe! e(2eds the "!o6in" hu(an individual in a ne8us f!o( 6hich, fo! 2ette! o! fo! 6o!se, the!e is the!eafte! no esca%e. -he (othe! is an a"ent #al!eady a !e%!esentative of the 7"ene!ali.ed othe!7& 6ho, in ca!in" fo! the infant, lays a social clai( u%on it that %!esa"es the no!(ative sanctions associated 6ith the late! fo!(ation of social !elationshi%s. -he an8iety of a2sence is defused th!ou"h the !e6a!ds of co-%!esence, settin" the "!ound fo! the dialectic of en"a"e(ent and disen"a"e(ent on 6hich the dive!sity of encounte!s is 2ased. -he e8%ansion of the autono(y of the infant, ancho!ed in cont!ol of the 2ody as a (ediu( of action #6hich unde!"oes a (assive t!ansfo!(ation 6ith the (aste!y of lan"ua"e&, si(ultaneously 6idens and inte"!ates this dialectic. *ach individual has the !i"ht va!yin" in content in (anifold 6ays in diffe!ent conte8ts - to (aintain a distance f!o( othe!s 2y %!ese!vin" 2odily %!ivacy and an inte"!ity of self. 9ut the self has to su2(it to social en"a"e(ent, "iven that this is done 6ith %!o%e! defe!ence to the tactful !eco"nition of the needs of othe!s. -he infant does not yet $no6 this, no! its connection 6ith face. /ace, as 9ec$e! %uts it, is 7the %ositive feelin" of self-6a!(th tu!ned to the 6o!ld fo! othe!s7 sc!utiny and %otential sa2ota"e7.G As the foundation of a tension-(ana"e(ent syste(, the t!ustH(ist!ust %ola!ity is o!"ani.ed a!ound !elations 2et6een %!o3ection and int!o3ection as (echanis(s of %e!sonality. nfantile int!o3ection, as /!eud holds, assi(ilates oute! "oodness and inne! ce!taintyA %!o3ection t!eats an inne! ha!( as e8te!nal (alevolence.G -he(selves 2ased on identification, these (echanis(s 2eco(e ove!lain 2y a va!iety of (o!e (atu!e %sychic fo!(s. 9ut they co(e to the fo!e a"ain in situations of e8t!e(e th!eat o! c!isis. -he %hysical (atu!ation of the 2ody su2se5uently sets the sta"e fo! the t!ansition to a ne6 %hase of develo%(ent. *!i$son su""ests that this is not 2est unde!stood in te!(s of a shift 2et6een %leasu!e .ones on the su!face of the 2ody, as /!eud holds, althou"h fi8ations (ay 2eco(e cent!ed on these. 7>oldin" on7 and 7lettin" "o7 a!e o2viously

a%%lica2le to cont!ol of the 6aste %!oducts of the 2ody 2ut a!e e8%!essed in a (uch (o!e

##@@&& "ene!ic 6ay th!ou"h the hands and a!(s. >oldin" on and lettin" "o a!e the 2ehaviou!al co!!elates of the (ain %ola!ity on 6hich this sta"e is cent!ed, autono(y ve!sus dou2t o! sha(e. As 6ith the %!io! %hase, 6ith 6hich it can stand in a !elation of "ene!ali.ed tension, the %ola!ity can 2e !esolved in a !elatively 2eni"n o! (o!e dis!u%tive 6ay. -o hold on as a "!eedy (ode of !etention can !e%!esent a c!uel self-a2so!%tion o! can 2e a %atte!n of ca!e e8%!essin" autono(y. Fettin" "o can si(ila!ly 2e a hostile e8%!ession of a""!essive i(%ulses o! a (o!e !ela8ed attitude to 7lettin" thin"s %ass7. t see(s i(%o!tant to e(%hasi.e the si"nificance of the %sychodyna(ics of sha(e as cont!asted 6ith "uilt. Bany %sychoanalysts, follo6in" hints "iven 2y /!eud, have t!eated sha(e as s%ecifically connected to fea! of "enital e8%osu!e. -his ce!tainly hel%s to indicate one as%ect of an8iety, a2out 2odily 7a%%ea!ance7, 6hich #as 6ill sho!tly 2e indicated& Goff(an sho6s to 2e so i(%o!tant. 9ut the %heno(enon of sha(e is su!ely (uch (o!e %e!vasive than /!eud7s co((ents 6ould lead us to 2elieve.G -he %!evalence of feelin"s of sha(e o! self-dou2t is indicated 2y the f!e5uency 6ith 6hich 2ein" 7asha(ed7 and co(%a!a2le te!(s #7(o!tified7, 7hu(iliated7, etc.& a%%ea! in o!dina!y tal$. -he idea, su""ested 2y so(e 6!ite!s, that "uilt is 7%!ivate7 6hile sha(e is 7%u2lic7 see(s difficult to sustain. Sha(e 2ites at the !oots of self-estee( and clea!ly is closely !elated to the !athe! (ilde! e8%e!ience of 7e(2a!!ass(ent7. 9oth sha(e and e(2a!!ass(ent a!e located %sycholo"ically in the inte!section of en"a"e(ent and disen"a"e(ent, the failu!e to 72!in" off7 ce!tain as%ects of %e!fo!(ance th!ou"h 2ein" 7cau"ht out7 in va!ious 6ays. Dnli$e 7"uilt7, 7sha(e7 and 7e(2a!!ass(ent7 ca%tu!e 2oth sides of encounte!s) that is to say, the latte! t6o te!(s can 2e used 2y the individual a2out his o! he! o6n conduct o! that of othe!s. can 2e asha(ed of (yself, of so(ethin" 6hich have done, o! e(2a!!assed a2out it. 9ut can also 2e asha(ed of the conduct of so(eone else, as 6ell as e(2a!!assed fo! hi( o! he!. >e!e 6e see( to detect a diffe!ence 2et6een the t6o e(otions. -o 2e asha(ed of

so(e2ody else7s 2ehaviou! indicates a tie 6ith that othe!, si"nallin" a ce!tain !eco"nition of association 6ith, o! even !es%onsi2ility fo!, the othe!. -o 2e e(2a!!assed fo! so(eone, !athe! than e8%!essin" an alienation f!o( his o! he! conduct, !eveals a ce!tain co(%licity 6ith it, a sy(%athy fo! so(eone 6h ##@0&& has 2een unnecessa!ily Ie8%osed7. t is es%ecially inte!estin", in the li"ht of Goff(an7s %!e-occu%ation 6ith li$e ha%%enin"s, to note that *!i$son lin$s sha(e in the infant #havin" st!on" !esidual t!aces in the secu!ity syste( of the adult& to 2odily %ostu!e and to If!ont7 and I2ac$7 !e"ions of the 2ody. >e!e 6e can see a (ode in 6hich /!eud7s theo!y of anal !etention can 2e e8%!essed in a (uch (o!e sociali.ed fo!(. -he If!ont7 and I2ac$ !e"ions7 in 6hich encounte!s occu!, and in the conte8t of 6hich social occasions a!e sta"ed, %e!ha%s !elate di!ectly to the (o!e %!i(al e8%e!ience of the f!ontH2ac$ !e"ionali.ation of the 2ody. -o sustain If!ont7 in social life is to avoid the an8ieties %!ovo$ed 2y sha(e, and loss of f!ont leads %!ecisely to sha(e o! e(2a!!ass(ent. /o! the infant I2ehind7 (eans Ithe 2ehind7) the s(all 2ein"7s da!$ continent, an a!ea of the 2ody 6hich can 2e (a"ically do(inated and effectively invaded 2y those 6ho 6ould attac$ one7s %o6e! of autono(y . . . -his sta"e, the!efo!e, 2eco(es decisive fo! the !atio of love and hate, co-o%e!ation and 6ilfulness, f!eedo( of self-e8%!ession and its su%%!ession. /!o( a sense of self-cont!ol 6ithout loss of self-estee( co(es a lastin" sense of "ood 6ill and %!ideA f!o( a sense of loss of selfcont!ol and of fo!ei"n ove!cont!ol co(es a lastin" %!o%ensity fo! dou2t and sha(e.G -he thi!d %hase, the one that cul(inates in, and coincides 6ith, the (aste!y of syntactically develo%ed lan"ua"e, focali.es a %ola!ity of initiative ve!sus "uilt. -his is the %hase of Cedi%al t!ansition 6hich, 6hateve! its o2scu!ities and co(%le8ities, a%%ea!s as a unive!sal c!isis %hase in hu(an %sycholo"ical develo%(ent. So fa! as the 2ody is conce!ned, it is (a!$ed 2y the (aste!y of an u%!i"ht stance and a(2ulato!y (ove(ent in that stance, and 2y the (atu!ation of infantile "enitality. -he d!a(atic %otential of this %hase fo! late! %e!sonality develo%(ent is "iven 2y the con3unction of the de(and fo! !e%!ession of ea!ly attach(ent to the (othe! #in 2oth 2oys and "i!ls&, cou%led 6ith the ca%a2ilities that 2eco(e %a!t of this %!ocess as it coincides 6ith a vast lea% fo!6a!d in lin"uistic s$ills. t is a %hase of initiative 2ecause the acco(%lish(ent of the Cedi%al t!ansition allo6s the child the inte!nal cont!ol necessa!y to ventu!e fo!th f!o( the i((ediate confines of the fa(ily into %ee! !elationshi%s.

##@1&& 9ut this is %u!chased at the %!ice of !e%!ession, 6hich in so(e individuals and in so(e ci!cu(stances can have c!i%%lin" costs in fo!(s of an8iety ste((in" f!o( "uilt. /o! he!e the child 2eco(es fo!eve! divided in itself. -he instinct f!a"(ents 6hich 2efo!e had enhanced the "!o6th of his infantile 2ody and (ind no6 2eco(e divided into an infantile set 6hich %e!%etuates the e8u2e!ance of "!o6th %otentials, and a %a!ental set 6hich su%%o!ts and inc!eases selfo2se!vation, self-"uidance, and self-%unish(ent.G ;ut to"ethe!, the th!ee, %hases !e%!esent a %!o"!essive (ove(ent to6a!ds autono(y, 6hich should 2e unde!stood as the foundation of the ca%a2ility fo! the !efle8ive (onito!in" of conduct. 9ut Iautono(y7 does not (ean the sheddin" of the an8iety-%!ovo$in" sti(uli o! the (odes of co%in" 6ith an8iety 6hich co(%!ise the secu!ity syste( of the adult %e!sonality. -he (otivational co(%onents of the infantile and the adult %e!sonality de!ive

f!o( a "ene!ali.ed o!ientation to the avoidance of an8iety and the %!ese!vation of self-estee( a"ainst the Ifloodin" th!ou"h7 of sha(e and "uilt. <e (ay %!esu(e that the (echanis(s of the secu!ity syste( !e(ain on an unconscious level 2ecause they a!e %!e-lin"uistic J althou"h the Cedi%al %hase is the ve!y ti(e at 6hich the child lea!ns to constitute itself as an I 7.

((58)) (odes and %sycholo"ical (echanis(s. f t!acin" out individual diffe!ences 6e!e at issue, it 6ould i(%ly thin$in" th!ou"h the e(%ty 2o8es, 6hich 6ould 2eco(e filled in so fa! as infantile fi8ations o! (odes of !e"!ession e8e!t a %e!vasive influence ove! the (otivation of 2ehaviou!. +esea!ch into child develo%(ent su""ests !athe! st!on"ly that the fo!(ation of ca%a2ilities fo! autono(ous action (eshes closely 6ith unde!standin" othe!s to 2e a"ents. -h!ee (ain ste%s in the fo!(ation of conce%ts of a"ency can 2e distin"uished, coincidin" 6ith the sta"es desc!i2ed 2y *!i$son. Cne is the !eco"nition of 6hat has 2een called Isi(%le a"ency7 J that othe!s can causally inte!vene in a se5uence of events to as to chan"e the(. 2@ -he infant7s a6a!eness that its 2ody is a locus of action "oes alon" 6ith the att!i2ution of li$e 5ualities to the 2odies of othe!s. At 5uite an ea!ly a"e infants !eact diffe!ently in thei! inte!action 6ith Ia"ent-li$e7 othe!s, althou"h the as%ects of the conduct of such fi"u!es to 6hich !es%onse is (ade a!e !elatively si(%le and clea!-cut.20 Cthe! a"ents a!e, ho6eve!, still t!eated inst!u(entally, as a s%ecial ty%e of o23ect in the envi!on(ent, !athe! than as %hysically se%a!ate 2ein"s f!o( the self, 6ho can "o a6ay and !etu!n. -he e(otional co(%etence associated 6ith t!ust see(s closely connected 6ith the co"nitive unde!standin" of a"ency as a %!o%e!ty of distinct 2ein"s. 9ut s%ecifically Ihu(an7 %!o%e!ties, "ene!ali.ed to hu(an a"ents !athe! than att!i2uted to %a!ticula! %a!ental fi"u!es, (a!$ a t!ansition to a thi!d sta"e. :y"ots$y, a(on" othe!s, has de(onst!ated the close !elation 2et6een loco(oto! s$ills #the (aste!y of the 2ody as a locus of action& and the syntactical (aste!y of lan"ua"e. >is 6o!$ sca!cely ans6e!s the ICho(s$yan %!o2le(7 J ho6 does the child, !elatively suddenly, (ana"e successfully to co-o!dinate syntactic st!uctu!es? J 2ut it does elucidate i(%o!tant as%ects of the association of a"ency and s%eech. Fan"ua"e use, in diffe!entiated fo!(, de%ends u%on the e8%ansion of the I%!actical intelli"ence7 of the child J in othe! 6o!ds, u%on definite as%ects of %!actical consciousness. 21 -he develo%(ent of I%!actical intelli"ence7 accele!ates, it can 2e su""ested, f!o( the %e!iod of the !esolution of the thi!d %hase in *!i$son7s sche(e, since it involves the e8%lo!ation of the 2ody as a (ediu( of action. 9ut the initial e(e!"ence of I%!actical intelli"ence7 dates f!o( the fi!st e8%lo!ato!y (ove(ents of the ve!y youn" infantA (aste!y of syntactical s%eech converges 6ith the "!o6th of %!actical (aste!y

((5 )) at the $ey %hase of develo%(ent. t is st!i$in" ho6 closely so(e of :y"ots$y7s o2se!vations a2out 6hat to an adult 6ould a%%ea! to 2e a 7dissociation7 2et6een s%eech and conduct !ese(2le those (ade 2y Be!leau-;onty in !es%ect of 2!ain-da(a"ed %atients #see %%. 0@-1&. /o! instance, a child (ay 2e a2le to ca!!y out a fai!ly co(%le8 tas$ only on condition that it ve!2ally desc!i2es each (ove(ent as it "oes alon". Child!en, li$e (any of the 7(entally ill7, a!e not !eluctant to tal$ to the(selves in %u2lic - a %heno(enon 6hich has to 2e distin"uished f!o( ;ia"et7s identification of 7e"ocent!ic s%eech7. >avin" a%%ealed to *!i$son a "ood deal, should %e!ha%s (a$e it clea! that (y a%%!o%!iation of so(e of his ideas is intended to 2e st!ictly li(ited and 5ualified. conside! the least inte!estin" a!eas of *!i$son7s 6o!$ to 2e those fo! 6hich he is %!o2a2ly (ost fa(ed - to do 6ith the fo!(ation of 7e"o-identity7 and 6ith the i(%o!tance of develo%(ental sta"es in %e!sonality that st!etch u% to adolescence and 2eyond. *!i$son is c!itical of /!eud7s fo!(ulations a2out the 7e"o7 and its !elations to society.G -his is %a!tly 2ecause of thei! sociolo"ical inade5uacies. /!eud d!e6 u%on hi"hly inade5uate sociolo"ical te8ts #such as conte(%o!a!y discussions of c!o6d %sycholo"y& in his 6!itin"s. At the sa(e ti(e, %sychoanalytic (ethod 6as 2ased on individual case histo!ies. 9et6een these the!e is a la!"e "a%. 'o satisfacto!y account of a diffe!entiated society 6as 6o!$ed out 2y /!eud o! (any of his e%i"onesA 7the conce%t of social organi!ation and its 2ea!in" on the individual e"o7 6as 7shunted off 2y %at!oni.in" t!i2utes to the e8istence of Gsocial facto!sG7.G -he conce%t of the e"o 6as thus esta2lished 2y /!eud, *!i$son %oints out, in !elation to its o%%osites in the la6less natu!e of the c!o6d and the %!i(eval instincts of the id. n o!de! to t!y to ta$e account of the e(2attled (o!al sensi2ility of hu(an 2ein"s, /!eud int!oduced the su%e!-e"o o! e"o-ideal - also, ho6eve!, thin$in" of it in te!(s %!i(a!ily of a 2u!den 6hich the e"o has to 2ea!. *!i$son 6ants to co(%ensate fo! this one-sided e(%hasis. +athe! than concent!atin" u%on 6hat is denied to the infant 2y social o!"ani.ation, 6e should 2e conce!ned also 6ith ho6 the child 2enefits f!o( it, and 6e should "ive "!eate! conside!ation to the influence of diffe!entiated ty%es of social o!"ani.ation. *!i$son7s notion of e"o-identity is intended to co(%le(ent the t!aditionally esta2lished %sychoanalytic conce%ts.3K

a( la!"ely in acco!d 6ith *!i$son7s c!itical co((ents on

##00&&

/!eud. 9ut the te!( 7e"o-identity7 is not a satisfacto!y one. -he te!( 7e"o7, as have indicated, does too (uch conce%tual 6o!$ in %sychoanalytic theo!y. -hat of 7e"o-identity7 tends only to co(%ound the confusions that al!eady e8ist. *ven *!i$son ad(its that it has at least fou! connotations. So(eti(es it !efe!s to a 7conscious7 sense of individual identity. t can also (ean 7an unconscious st!ivin" fo! a continuity of %e!sonal cha!acte!7. A thi!d (eanin" is 7a c!ite!ion fo! the silent doin"s of e"o synthesis7. A fou!th sense is 7a (aintenance of an inne! solida!ity 6ith a "!ou%7s ideals and identity7.G 'one of these sin"le uses, it (i"ht 2e !e(a!$ed, is %a!ticula!ly lucid, let alone the conce%t that e(2!aces the( allL

+outini.ation and Botivation +athe! than e(%loyin" the conce%t of e"o-identity, in 6hat follo6s shall (a$e use of *!i$son7s ideas of the o!i"ins and natu!e of 2odily autono(y and of t!ust. A sense of t!ust in the continuity of the o23ect-6o!ld and in the fa2!ic of social activity, shall su""est, de%ends u%on ce!tain s%ecifia2le connections 2et6een the individual a"ent and the social conte8ts th!ou"h 6hich that a"ent (oves in the cou!se of day-to-day life. f the su23ect cannot 2e "!as%ed save th!ou"h the !efle8ive constitution of daily activities in social %!actices, 6e cannot unde!stand the (echanics of %e!sonality a%a!t f!o( the !outines of day-to-day life th!ou"h 6hich the 2ody %asses and 6hich the a"ent %!oduces and !e%!oduces. -he conce%t of routini!ation, as "!ounded in %!actical consciousness, is vital to the theo!y of st!uctu!ation. +outine is inte"!al 2oth to the continuity of the %e!sonality of the a"ent, as he o! she (oves alon" the %aths of daily activities, and to the institutions of society, 6hich are such only th!ou"h thei! continued !e%!oduction. An e8a(ination of !outini.ation, shall clai(, %!ovides us 6ith a (aste! $ey to e8%licatin" the cha!acte!istic fo!(s of !elation 2et6een the 2asic secu!ity syste( on the one hand and the !efle8ively constituted

%!ocesses inhe!ent in the e%isodic cha!acte! of encounte!s on the othe!. <e can %!o2e the %sycholo"ical natu!e of the !outine 2y conside!in" the !esults of situations 6he!e the esta2lished (odes of accusto(ed daily life a!e d!astically unde!(ined o! shatte!ed - 2y studyin" 6hat (ay 2e called 7c!itical situations7. -he!e is a ##01&&

sense in 6hich c!itical situations, fo! s%ecific individuals o! cluste!s of individuals, a!e the(selves 2uilt into the !e"ula!ity of social life 2y the ve!y natu!e of the inte!section 2et6een the life %!ocess o! 7cycle7 of the individual, the dure of activity on the one hand and the ion gue dure of institutions on the othe!. -hese a!e the c!ises ty%ically (a!$ed 2y !ites of %assa"e, 2e"innin" fo! the individual 6ith 2i!th and te!(inatin" in death. >o6eve!, fo!(in" as they do an int!insic %a!t of the continuity of social life, even thou"h they a!e discontinuities fo! individuals, such situations tend the(selves to have a definitely !outini.ed cha!acte!. 9y 7c!itical situations7 (ean ci!cu(stances of !adical dis3unctu!e of an un%!edicta2le $ind 6hich affect su2stantial nu(2e!s of individuals, situations that th!eaten o! dest!oy the ce!titudes of institutionali.ed !outines. a( conce!ned at this %oint not 6ith analysin" the social o!i"ins of such ci!cu(stances 2ut 6ith thei! %sycholo"ical conse5uences, and 6ith 6hat those conse5uences indicate a2out the "ene!ality of !outine social life. Since have discussed c!itical situations in a ce!tain a(ount of detail else6he!e,G shall (ention he!e only one - a fa(ous %o!t!ayal of a 6holly infa(ous e%isode in !ecent histo!y. -his is 9ettelhei(7s discussion in "he In #eart, a desc!i%tion and analysis of the e8%e!iences of the autho! and othe!s in Dachau and 9uchen6ald. n the ca(%s, he 6!ites, 7 ... sa6 fast chan"es ta$in" %lace, and not only in 2ehaviou! 2ut %e!sonality alsoA inc!edi2ly faste! and often (uch (o!e !adical chan"es than any that 6e!e %ossi2le 2y %sychoanalytic t!eat(ent.G7 -he concent!ation-ca(% e8%e!ience 6as (a!$ed not only 2y confine(ent 2ut also 2y e8t!e(e dis!u%tion of accusto(ed fo!(s of daily life, de!ivin" f!o( the 2!utali.ed conditions of e8istence, eve!-%!esent th!eat o! actuality of violence f!o( the ca(% "ua!ds,

sca!city of food and othe! ele(enta!y %!ovisions fo! the sustenance of life. -he chan"es in %e!sonality desc!i2ed 2y 9ettelhei( -e8%e!ienced 2y all %!isone!s 6ho 6e!e inte!ned in the ca(% ove! a %e!iod of yea!s - follo6ed a ce!tain se5uence of sta"es. -he se5uence 6as 5uite evidently a !e"!essive one. -he ve!y %!ocess of initial i(%!ison(ent 6as t!au(atic fo! (ost of the in(ates. -o!n a6ay f!o( fa(ily and f!iends, usually 6ith little o! no %!io! 6a!nin", (any %!isone!s 6e!e su23ected to to!tu!e du!in" thei! t!ans%o!tation to the ca(%s. -hose f!o( (iddle-class o! %!ofessional 2ac$"!ounds, 6ho (ostly had had no %!evious

##02&& contact 6ith the %olice o! the %!ison syste(, e8%e!ienced the "!eatest dislocation in the initial sta"es of t!ans%o!tation and 7initiation7 into ca(% life. Acco!din" to 9etteihei(, the suicides that too$ %lace in %!ison and t!ans%o!tation 6e!e confined (ainly to this "!ou%. -he vast (a3o!ity of ne6 %!isone!s, ho6eve!, sou"ht to distance the(selves %sycholo"ically f!o( the d!eadful %!essu!es of ca(% life and t!ied to (aintain the (odes of conduct associated 6ith thei! %!evious lives. 9ut this %!oved i(%ossi2le to do. -he 7initiative7 of 6hich *!i$son 6!ites as lyin" at the co!e of hu(an autono(y of action 6as ve!y !a%idly co!!odedA the Gesta%o in so(e de"!ee deli2e!ately fo!ced the %!isone!s to ado%t childli$e 2ehaviou!. -he vast (a3o!ity of %!isone!s 6ent th!ou"h the ca(% 6ithout a %u2lic flo""in", 2ut the sc!ea(ed th!eat that they 6e!e "oin" to "et t6enty-five on the 2ehind !an" in thei! ea!s seve!al ti(es daily. -h!eats li$e these, and also the cu!ses th!o6n at %!isone!s 2y 2oth the SS and %!isone! fo!e(en, 6e!e al(ost e8clusively connected 6ith the anal s%he!e. 7Shit7 and 7asshole7 6e!e so standa!d that it 6as !a!e 6hen a %!isone! 6as add!essed othe!6ise. 34 -he "ua!ds e8e!ted st!ict 2ut 6ilfully e!!atic cont!ol ove! toilet, in the sense 2oth of eli(ination and of "ene!al cleanliness. All these activities 6e!e ca!!ied on in %u2lic. -he ca(%s dest!oyed vi!tually all diffe!entiation 2et6een 7f!ont7 and 72ac$ !e"ions7, (a$in" the latte! %hysically and socially a cent!al %!eoccu%ation of ca(% life. 9etteihei( %laces %a!ticula! e(%hasis u%on the "ene!al un%!edicta2ility of events in the ca(%s. -he feelin" of autono(y of action that individuals have in the o!dina!y !outines of day-today life in o!thodo8 social settin"s 6as al(ost co(%letely dissolved. -he 7futu!al7 sense in 6hich the dure of social life o!dina!ily occu!s 6as dest!oyed 2y the (anifestly contin"ent cha!acte! of even the ho%e that the ne8t day 6ould a!!ive. -he %!isone!s, in othe! 6o!ds, lived in ci!cu(stances of !adical ontolo"ical insecu!ity) 7it 6as the

senseless tas$s, the lac$ of al(ost any ti(e to oneself, the ina2ility to %lan ahead 2ecause of sudden chan"es in ca(% %olicies, that 6as so dee%ly dest!uctive.G7 So(e %!isone!s 2eca(e 76al$in" co!%ses7 ($uselm%nner, socalled) because they surrendered fatalistically to &hatever the future might hold. "hey no longer behaved as though they &ere

##03&& hu(an a"ents, avoidin" eye contact 6ith othe!s, (a$in" only "!oss (ove(ents of the 2ody and shufflin" thei! le"s 6hen they 6al$ed. -hese (en and 6o(en soon died. Cnly %!isone!s 6ho (ana"ed to (aintain so(e s(all s%he!e of cont!ol in thei! daily lives, 6hich they still !e"a!ded as thei! 7o6n7, 6e!e a2le to su!vive. -hey %!ese!ved, as 9ettelhei( says, 7the (ainstay of a !adically !educed 2ut still %!esent hu(anity7. 'one the less, they 6e!e una2le to avoid a !an"e of childli$e attitudes, a ve!y (a!$ed di(inution in ti(e sense, in the ca%acity to 7thin$ ahead7, and volatile (ood s6in"s in !es%onse to enti!ely t!ivial ha%%enin"s. All these thin"s !efe! to the 2ehaviou! of %!isone!s 6ho had 2een in the ca(%s fo! no (o!e than a yea! #6hich included 9ettelhei(&. -he 7old %!isone!s7, those 6ho had su!vived in the ca(%s fo! seve!al yea!s, 2ehaved diffe!ently. -hey had lost alto"ethe! any o!ientation to the 6o!ld outside and had, as it 6e!e, !econstituted the(selves as a"ents 2y inte"!atin" the(selves into ca(% life as %a!tici%ants in the ve!y !ituals of de"!adation 6hich, as ne6 %!isone!s, they had found so offensive. -hey 6e!e often una2le to !ecall na(es, %laces and events in thei! %!evious lives. -he end !esult, found in (ost 2ut not all old %!isone!s, 6as a !econst!ucted %e!sonality 2ased u%on identification 6ith the o%%!esso!s the(selves, the ca(% "ua!ds. Cld %!isone!s a%ed the activities of thei! ca%to!s, not (e!ely to cu!!y favou! 6ith the( 2ut also, 9ettelhei( su""ests, 2ecause of an int!o3ection of the no!(ative values of the SS. >o6 should 6e inte!%!et these events? -he se5uence of sta"es see(s fai!ly clea! #althou"h not set out in this 6ay 2y 9ettelhei( hi(self&. -he dis!u%tion and the deli2e!ately sustained attac$ u%on the o!dina!y !outines of life %!oduce a hi"h de"!ee of an8iety, a 7st!i%%in" a6ay7 of the sociali.ed !es%onses associated 6ith the

secu!ity of the (ana"e(ent of the 2ody and a %!edicta2le f!a(e6o!$ of social life. Such an u%su!"e of an8iety is e8%!essed in !e"!essive (odes of 2ehaviou!, attac$in" the foundation of the 2asic secu!ity syste( "!ounded in t!ust (anifested to6a!ds othe!s. -hose 6ho a!e ill-e5ui%%ed to face these %!essu!es succu(2 and "o unde!. So(e a!e a2le to sustain a (ini(al s%he!e of cont!ol and self-estee( that allo6s the( to su!vive fo! a lon"e! %e!iod. 9ut eventually, in (ost of the old %!isone!s at least, a %!ocess of 7!esociali.ation7 ta$es %lace in 6hich an attitude of t!ust #li(ited and hi"hly a(2ivalent&,G involvin" identification 6ith autho!ity

##04&& fi"u!es, is !e-esta2lished. Such a se5uence of hei"htened an8iety, !e"!ession, follo6ed 2y a !econst!uction of ty%ical %atte!ns of action, a%%ea!s in a !an"e of c!itical situations in othe!6ise ve!y diffe!ent conte8ts, such as !es%onses to 2ein" unde! fi!e on the 2attlefield fo! %!olon"ed %e!iods of ti(e, fo!ced inte!!o"ation and to!tu!e in %!isons and othe! conditions of e8t!e(e st!ess.G C!dina!y day-to-day social life, 2y cont!ast - in "!eate! o! lesse! de"!ee, acco!din" to conte8t and the va"a!ies of individual %e!sonality - involves an ontolo"ical secu!ity founded on an autono(y of 2odily cont!ol 6ithin %!edicta2le !outines and encounte!s. -he !outini.ed cha!acte! of the %aths alon" 6hich individuals (ove in the !eve!si2le ti(e of daily life does not 3ust 7ha%%en7. t is 7(ade to ha%%en7 2y the (odes of !efle8ive (onito!in" of action 6hich individuals sustain in ci!cu(stances of co-%!esence. -he 7s6a(%in"7 of ha2itual (odes of activity 2y an8iety that cannot 2e ade5uately contained 2y the 2asic secu!ity syste( is s%ecifically a featu!e of c!itical situations. n o!dina!y social life acto!s have a (otivated inte!est in sustainin" the fo!(s of tact and 7!e%ai!7 6hich Goff(an analyses so acutely. >o6eve!, this is not 2ecause social life is a $ind of (utually %!otective cont!act into 6hich individuals volunta!ily ente!, as Goff(an on occasion su""ests. -act is a (echanis( 6he!e2y a"ents a!e a2le to !e%!oduce the conditions of 7t!ust7 o! ontolo"ical secu!ity 6ithin 6hich (o!e %!i(al tensions can 2e canali.ed and (ana"ed. -his is 6hy one can say that (any of the s%ecific featu!es of dayto-day encounte! a!e not di!ectly (otivated. +athe!, the!e is a "ene!ali.ed (otivational co((it(ent to the inte"!ation of ha2itual %!actices ac!oss ti(e and s%ace.

;!esence, Co-;!esence and Social nte"!ation -he !outines of day-to-day life a!e funda(ental to even the (ost ela2o!ate fo!(s of societal o!"ani.ation. n the cou!se of thei! daily activities individuals encounte! each othe! in situated conte8ts of inte!action - inte!action 6ith othe!s 6ho a!e %hysically co-%!esent.

-he social cha!acte!istics of co-%!esence a!e ancho!ed in the s%atiality of the 2ody, in o!ientation to othe!s and to the e8%e!iencin" self. Goff(an has devoted conside!a2le ca!e to analysin" this %heno(enon, %a!ticula!ly 6ith !e"a!d to 7face7, 2ut

##0@&& %e!ha%s the (ost tellin" !eflections on the (atte! a!e to 2e found in Be!leau-;onty. shall 2e"in 2y conside!in" theseA they lead us di!ectly into Goff(an7s o2se!vations. -he 2ody, Be!leau-;onty %oints out, does not 7occu%y7 ti(e-s%ace in e8actly the sa(e sense as (ate!ial o23ects do. As he %uts it, 7-he outline of (y 2ody is a f!ontie! 6hich o!dina!y s%atial !elations do not c!oss.7 38 -his is 2ecause the 2ody, and the e8%e!ience of 2odily (ove(ent, is the cent!e of fo!(s of action and a6a!eness 6hich !eally define its unity. -he ti(e-s%ace !elations of %!esence, cent!ed u%on the 2ody, a!e "ea!ed into not a 7s%atiality of %osition7, in Be!leau;onty7s 6o!ds, 2ut a 7s%atiality of situation7. -he 7he!e7 of the 2ody !efe!s not to a dete!(inate se!ies of coo!dinates 2ut to the situation of the active 2ody o!iented to6a!ds its tas$s. Buch as >eide""e! says) 7if (y 2ody can 2e a Gfo!(G and if the!e can 2e, in f!ont of it, i(%o!tant fi"u!es a"ainst indiffe!ent 2ac$"!ounds, this occu!s in vi!tue of its 2ein" %ola!i.ed 2y its tas$s, of its e'istence to&ards the(, of its collectin" to"ethe! of itself in %u!suit of its ai(sA the 2ody i(a"e is finally a 6ay of statin" that (y 2ody is in-the-6o!ld.73, -he o2se!vations of Goldstein and othe!s on 2!ain-da(a"ed %atients %!ovide "!a%hic illust!ation of ho6 this is so.4K -hus so(e such individuals a!e not a2le to ca!!y out (ove(ents 6hich a2st!act f!o( the visually %!esent milieu. A %e!son can %oint to a %a!t of the 2ody only if he o! she is a2le to 6atch the (ove(ent ca!!ied out and actually touch that %a!t of the 2ody. /!o( o2se!vations such as these it 2eco(es a%%a!ent that, 6hile 2oth a!e see(in"ly 7%ositional7 %heno(ena, 7touchin"7 is not the sa(e as 7%ointin"7. -he diffe!ence indicates the i(%o!tance of 2odily s%ace as an e8t!ao!dina!ily co(%le8 field of (at!ices of ha2itual action. -he 2!ain-da(a"ed %atient, as$ed to %e!fo!( a "iven (ove(ent of the 2ody, assu(es a "ene!al %osition of the 6hole 2ody to ca!!y out the tas$. t is not cut do6n, as in the no!(al individual, to a (ini(al "estu!e. -hus, as$ed to salute, the %atient ta$es u% a fo!(al stance of the 6hole 2ody -

the individual (ana"es to (a$e the "estu!e only 2y ado%tin" the "ene!ali.ed situation to 6hich the (ove(ent co!!es%onds. -he no!(al individual, 2y cont!ast, sees the situation as a test o! as %lay. >e o! she is, as Be!leau-;onty says, 7usin" the 2ody as a (eans to %lay actin"7.G t is the dile((a of the %atient 6hich %!ovides (ost insi"ht into the o!dina!y inte"!ation of the 2ody into the

(((()) dure of activity. /o! the 2ody o%e!ates, and is unde!stood as a 72ody7 2y its o6ne!, only in the conte8tualities of action. <itt"enstein7s 5uestion, 7<hat is the diffe!ence 2et6een (y !aisin" (y a!( and (y a!( "oin" u%?7, has he!e c!eated (any difficulties, 6hateve! he (ay have 6anted the in5ui!y to d!a6 ou! attention to. /o! it see(s to t!eat as ty%ical 3ust that case of a test o! a %layful co((andA and the theo!y of action then can 2e ta$en, (isleadin"ly, to hin"e on cont!asts 2et6een 7(ove(ents7 and 7actions7, as disc!ete o%e!ations, !athe! than on the ti(es%ace conte8tuality of 2odily activity in the flo6 of daily conduct. Such activity of the 2ody, in the flo6 of action, is i((ediately involved in the ontolo"ical secu!ity o! attitude of 7t!ust7 to6a!ds the continuity of the 6o!ld and of self i(%licated in the dure of day-to-day life. /o! the 2!ain-da(a"ed %atient a tho!ou"h %hysical e8a(ination of an o23ect is !e5ui!ed 2efo!e it can 2e identified as, say, a 7$ey7. 'o!(al individuals 6ould en"a"e in such a sc!utiny of an o23ect only in unusual ci!cu(stances - 6he!e, fo! e8a(%le, they 6e!e %layin" a %a!ty "a(e in 6hich the!e 6e!e definite !easons to su%%ose that o23ects (i"ht not 2e as they a%%ea!. -he continuity of o!dina!y life 6ould 2e i(%ossi2le 6e!e 6e to atte(%t to su2(it all o23ects to such detailed ins%ection. /!o( this 6e see that Ga!fin$el7s 7etcete!a clause7 a%%lies not 3ust to lan"ua"e o! conve!sation 2ut also to 2odily activities in %hysical !elation to the e8te!nal 6o!ld. All this is in tu!n int!insically involved 6ith ti(e and ti(e-sense. Fet (e 5uote a"ain f!o( Be!leau-;onty) <he!eas in the no!(al %e!son eve!y event !elated to (ove(ent o! sense of touch causes consciousness to %ut u% a host of intentions 6hich !un f!o( the 2ody as the cent!e of %otential action eithe! to6a!ds the 2ody itself o! to6a!ds the o23ect, in the case of the %atient, on the othe! hand, the tactile i(%!ession !e(ains o%a5ue and sealed up .... -he no!(al %e!son rec)ons &ith the %ossi2le, 6hich thus, 6ithout shiftin" f!o( its %osition as a %ossi2ility, ac5ui!es a so!t of actuality. n the %atient7s case, ho6eve!, the field of actuality is li(ited to 6hat is (et 6ith in the sha%e of a !eal contact o! is !elated to these data 2y so(e e8%licit %!ocess of deduction. 42

-he 2ody, of cou!se, is not an undiffe!entiated unity. <hat Gehien calls the 7eccent!ic7 %ostu!e of hu(an 2ein"s - standin" u%!i"ht and 7out6a!d7 to6a!ds the 6o!ld - is no dou2t the !esult

(((*)) of 2iolo"ical evolution. <e need not t!ans%ose 2iolo"ical into a %!esu(%tively %a!allel fo!( of social evolution to see the i(%lications of this fo! hu(an social %!ocesses in ci!cu(stances of co-%!esence. n hu(an 2ein"s the face is not si(%ly the %!o8i(ate %hysical o!i"in of s%eech 2ut the do(inant a!ea of the 2ody ac!oss 6hich the int!icacies of e8%e!ience, feelin" and intention a!e 6!itten. n 2anal 2ut ve!y si"nificant 6ays the face in hu(an social !elationshi%s influences the s%acin" of individuals in ci!cu(stances of co-%!esence. ;ositionin" 7facin"7 the othe! o! othe!s 6ho a!e 2ein" add!essed assu(es a distinctive i(%o!tance as co(%a!ed 6ith %ositionin" in (ost ani(al societies. -he nu(2e!s of %eo%le 6ho can di!ectly %a!tici%ate in face-to-face encounte!s is inhe!ently st!ictly li(ited, save in those ty%es of situation 6he!e one o! a fe6 individuals add!ess a c!o6d o! an audience facin" the(. 9ut such ci!cu(stances, of cou!se, de(and that those in the c!o6d o! audience sac!ifice continuous face-toface contact 6ith one anothe!. -he %!i(acy of the face as a (ediu( of e8%!ession and of co((unication has (o!al i(%lications, (any of 6hich a!e ve!y acutely teased out 2y Goff(an. -o tu!n one7s 2ac$ on anothe! 6hile the othe! is s%ea$in" is in (ost #%e!ha%s all?& societies a "estu!e of indiffe!ence o! conte(%t. Bo!eove!, (ost #all?& societies tend to !eco"ni.e a lin"uistic si(ila!ity 2et6een the face as a te!( !efe!!in" to %hysio"no(y and face as conce!nin" the (aintenance of selfestee(. 'o dou2t the!e a!e a !an"e of cultu!es, such as t!aditional Chinese cultu!e o! secto!s of it, 6hich %lace an es%ecial e(%hasis u%on the %!ese!vation of face in (ost settin"s. 'o dou2t also this (ay have so(ethin" to do 6ith the fa(ous diffe!entiation (ade 2y 9enedict and othe!s 2et6een 7sha(e7 and 7"uilt7 cultu!es, even if this diffe!entiation see(s to have 2een d!a6n (uch too c!udely. 9ut as%ects of the %!ese!vation and 7savin"7 of face a!e al(ost ce!tainly "ene!ic to a 6hole dive!sity of t!anscultu!al conte8ts of social encounte!s. -he t6in the(es of the cont!ol of the 2ody in fields of action in co-%!esence and the %e!vasive influence of face a!e essential to the

6hole of Goff(an7s 6!itin"s. >o6 should 6e unde!stand the te!( 7co-%!esence7? As Goff(an uses it, and as e(%loy it he!e also, co-%!esence is ancho!ed in the %e!ce%tual and co((unicative (odalities of the 2ody. <hat Goff(an calls 7the full conditions of co-%!esence7 a!e found 6heneve! a"ents 7sense that

##08&&

they a!e close enou"h to 2e %e!ceived in 6hateve! they a!e doin", includin" thei! e8%e!iencin" of othe!s, and close enou"h to 2e %e!ceived in this sensin" of 2ein" %e!ceived7.G Althou"h the 7full conditions of co-%!esence7 e8ist only in un(ediated contact 2et6een those 6ho a!e %hysically %!esent, (ediated contacts that %e!(it so(e of the inti(acies of co-%!esence a!e (ade %ossi2le in the (ode!n e!a 2y elect!onic co((unications, (ost nota2ly the tele%hone.44 n conte(%o!a!y societies, and in diffe!in" fo!(ats in othe! cultu!es, the s%ace contained in a !oo( - 6ith e8ce%tions, such as %a!ties, in 6hich the 6hole house (ay 2e 7o%ened u%7 - o!dina!ily defines e8%ected 2ounda!ies of co%!esence. Cf cou!se, the!e a!e (any 7%u2lic %laces7, in 3ostlin" c!o6ds on the st!eets and so on, in 6hich the!e is no clea! %hysical ci!cu(sc!i2in" of the conditions of co-%!esence. Goff(an) *ncounte!s and +outines 9ecause Goff(an has so %e!sistently devoted hi(self to analysin" the !outines of day-to-day life, his 6!itin"s offe! (any illu(inations a2out the cha!acte! of social inte"!ation. Seve!al (isunde!standin"s a2out Goff(an7s 6!itin"s need to 2e counte!ed 2efo!e these insi"hts can (ost %!ofita2ly 2e develo%ed. >e has to 2e !escued he!e f!o( the i(%o!tunate e(2!ace of his ad(i!e!s. Goff(an is often thou"ht of as an idiosync!atic o2se!ve! of social life, 6hose sensitivity to the su2tleties of 6hat have called %!actical and discu!sive consciousness de!ives (o!e f!o( a co(2ination of an acute intelli"ence and a %layful style than f!o( a co-o!dinated a%%!oach to social analysis.G -his is ve!y (isleadin" and one !eason 6hy Goff(an has not "ene!ally 2een !eco"ni.ed as a social theo!ist of conside!a2le statu!e. 6ant to say, in any case, that Goff(an7s 6!itin"s have a hi"hly syste(atic cha!acte!, and this is in no s(all de"!ee 6hat "ives the( thei! intellectual %o6e!. Anothe! (isunde!standin", 6hich Goff(an hi(self has ha!dly 2een conce!ned to fo!estall, is that his 6!itin"s a!e !elevant only to a fo!( of 7(ic!osociolo"y7, 6hich can 2e cleanly seve!ed f!o( 7(ac!osociolo"ical7 issues. A (uch (o!e inte!estin" 6ay to

a%%!oach Goff(an7s 6o!$s is t!eat the( as 2ein" conce!ned to (a% out the inte!sections of %!esence and a2sence in social inte!action. -he (echanis(s of social and syste( inte"!ation, to !e%eat, necessa!ily inte!lace 6ith one

##0,&&

anothe!. Goff(an7s 6!itin"s a!e ce!tainly !elevant to 2oth, even if he has had a "ua!ded stance to6a!ds %!o2le(s of lon"-te!( institutional %!ocess o! develo%(ent. /inally, it is f!e5uently su%%osed that not only a!e Goff(an7s 6!itin"s confined in thei! !elevance to conte(%o!a!y societies 2ut they di!ectly e8%!ess featu!es of conduct 6hich a!e %eculia!ly (ode!n, even distinctively A(e!ican. -hus Gouldne!, co((entin" u%on Goff(an7s 6o!$, says) it d6ells u%on the e%isodic and sees life only as it is lived in a na!!o6 inte!%e!sonal ci!cu(fe!ence, ahisto!ical and non-institutional, an e8istence 2eyond histo!y and society .... l ti !eflects the ne6 6o!ld, in 6hich a st!atu( of the ne6 (iddle class no lon"e! 2elieves that ha!d 6o!$ is useful o! that success de%ends u%on dili"ent a%%lication. n this ne6 6o!ld the!e is a $een sense of the i!!ationality of the !elationshi% 2et6een individual achieve(ent and the (a"nitude of !e6a!d, 2et6een actual cont!i2ution and social !e"ulation. t is the 6o!ld of the hi"h-%!iced >olly6ood sta! and of the (a!$et fo! stoc$s, 6hose %!ices 2ea! little !elation to thei! ea!nin"s. 40 Gouldne! e8%licitly cont!asts this stand%oint 6ith 6hat he calls a 7st!uctu!al7 a%%!oach, to the det!i(ent of the fo!(e!. -he social 6o!ld Goff(an %o!t!ays is not si(%ly hi"hly cultu!ally s%ecific 2ut deals only 6ith the t!ansient, not 6ith the endu!in" institutional fo!(s that (ould %eo%le7s lives. Cne could not say that such an indict(ent of Goff(an - in so fa! as it is an indict(ent - is 6holly un3ustified. 9ut Gouldne!7s c!iti5ue also !eveals once (o!e 3ust that dualis( 6hich have %!eviously su""ested is so %e!vasive in the social sciences. -he fi8ity of institutional fo!(s does not e8ist in

s%ite of, o! outside, the encounte!s of day-to-day life 2ut is implicated in those very encounters. -he evanescence of encounte!s e8%!esses the te(%o!ality of the dure of daily life and the contin"ent cha!acte! of all st!uctu!ation. 9ut Goff(an (a$es a ve!y %e!suasive case fo! a!"uin" that the 7fadin" a6ay7 inhe!ent in the synta"(atic o!de!in" of social inte!action is consistent 6ith a ve!y (a!$ed fi8ity of fo!( in social !e%!oduction. Althou"h he does not, to (y $no6led"e, any6he!e clai( this, thin$ that his 6!itin"s disclose featu!es of co-%!esence that a!e found in all societies, ho6eve!

##10&& !elevant those sa(e 6!itin"s indeed (ay 2e to identifyin" novel cha!acte!istics of the conte(%o!a!y e!a. Goff(an7s 6o!$ holds u% a (i!!o! to (any 6o!lds, not 3ust to one. n usin" ideas fo!(ulated the!ein, neve!theless, do not 6ant to endo!se all of Goff(an7s o6n e(%hases. Goff(an7s 6!itin"s co(%!ise a (a3o! cont!i2ution to an e8%lo!ation of the !elations 2et6een discu!sive and %!actical consciousness in the conte8ts of encounte!s. >o6eve!, he has little to say a2out the unconscious and (ay, indeed, !e3ect the idea that such a %heno(enon has any i(%o!tance at all in social life. Bo!eove!, Goff(an7s analyses of encounte!s %!esu(e (otivated a"ents !athe! than investi"atin" the sou!ces of hu(an (otivation, as (any of his c!itics have co(%lained. -he lac$ is a se!ious one and one of the (ain !easons #the othe! 2ein" a disinte!est in lon"-te!( %!ocesses of institutional t!ansfo!(ation& 6hy Goff(an7s 6o!$ has so(ethin" of an 7e(%ty7 feel to it. /o! 6hy do the a"ents 6hose !eflective (onito!in" of conduct is desc!i2ed 6ith so (uch su2tlety follo6 the !outines that they do? -he 5uestion could 2e ans6e!ed, u% to a %oint, if it 6e!e the case that the individuals %o!t!ayed 2y Goff(an 6e!e !e%!esented in a volunta!istic fashion as cynical a"ents 6ho ada%t to "iven social ci!cu(stances in a %u!ely calculated and tactical 6ay. 9ut althou"h (any have inte!%!eted Goff(an in such a fashion, this is not the (ain i(%lication 6hich 6ish to d!a6 f!o( the te!!ain of study 6hich he has o%ened u%. A st!ess u%on the %!evalence of tact in social encounte!s, the !e%ai! of st!ains in the social fa2!ic and the sustainin" of 7t!ust7 su""est, !athe!, a %!edo(inant conce!n 6ith the %!otection of social continuity, 6ith the inti(ate (echanics of social !e%!oduction. Goff(an develo%s a ty%olo"y of the contou!s of inte!action, and shall e(%loy seve!al of his conce%ts, (odifyin" the( so(e6hat, in 6hat follo6s. -he !an"e of conce%ts can 2e set out as follo6s) #co-%!esenceM "athe!in"s social occasions

unfocused inte!action focused inte!action) encounte!s #face en"a"e(ents& !outines #e%isodes&

##11&& Gathe!in"s !efe! to asse(2la"es of %eo%le co(%!isin" t6o o! (o!e %e!sons in conte8ts of co-%!esence. 9y the te!( 7conte8t7 #Goff(an %!efe!s that of 7situation7& (ean those 72ands7 o! 7st!i%s7 of ti(e-s%ace 6ithin 6hich "athe!in"s ta$e %lace. Anyone ente!in" such a 2and of ti(e-s%ace (a$es hi(self o! he!self 7availa2le7 fo! (ovin" into that "athe!in" o! (ay actually fo!( it if it is dyadic in cha!acte!. Gathe!in"s %!esu(e the (utual !eflective (onito!in" of conduct in and th!ou"h co-%!esence. -he conte8tuality of "athe!in"s is vital, in a ve!y inti(ate and inte"!al fashion, to such %!ocesses of (onito!in". Conte8t includes the %hysical envi!on(ent of inte!action 2ut is not so(ethin" (e!ely 7in 6hich7 inte!action occu!s #see %%. 118&. As%ects of conte8t, includin" the te(%o!al o!de! of "estu!es and tal$, a!e !outinely d!a6n u%on 2y acto!s in constitutin" co((unication. -he i(%o!tance of this fo! the fo!(ulation of 7(eanin"7 in "estu!es and in tal$, as Ga!fin$el has done (o!e than anyone else to elucidate, can sca!cely 2e e8a""e!ated .41 -hus lin"uists have ve!y often sou"ht to analyse se(antic %!o2le(s eithe! in te!(s of the 7inte!nal7 lin"uistic co(%etence of individual s%ea$e!s o! 2y e8a(inin" the %!o%e!ties of isolated s%eech acts. 9ut the 7closu!e of (eanin"7 of the %olyvalent te!(inolo"ies of eve!yday lan"ua"e achieved in discou!se can 2e "!as%ed only 2y studyin" the conte8tual o!de!in" of 6hole conve!sations. Gathe!in"s (ay have a ve!y loose and t!ansito!y fo!(, such as that of a fleetin" e8chan"e of 7f!iendly "lances7 o! "!eetin"s in a hall6ay. Bo!e fo!(ali.ed conte8ts in 6hich "athe!in"s occu! can 2e called social occasions. Social occasions a!e "athe!in"s 6hich involve a %lu!ality of individuals. -hey a!e ty%ically !athe! clea!ly

2ounded in ti(e and s%ace and often e(%loy s%ecial fo!(s of fi8ed e5ui%(ent - fo!(ali.ed a!!an"e(ents of ta2les and chai!s and so on. A social occasion %!ovides the 7st!uctu!in" social conte8t7 #Goff(an7s te!(& in 6hich (any "athe!in"s 7a!e li$ely to fo!(, dissolve and !e-fo!(, 6hile a %atte!n of conduct tends to 2e !eco"ni.ed as the a%%!o%!iate and #often& official o! intended one7.G A 6hole va!iety of !outini.ed as%ects of daily life, such as the 6o!$ day in a facto!y o! office, a!e of this so!t. 9ut the!e a!e also (any (o!e i!!e"ula! social occasions, includin" %a!ties, dances, s%o!ts events and a dive!sity of othe! e8a(%les. Cf cou!se, a secto! of %hysical s%ace (ay si(ultaneously 2e the site o! locale of seve!al social occasions, each involvin" (ulti%le "athe!in"s. 9ut (o!e often than not the!e is a no!(atively sanctioned

##12&& ove!!idin" social occasion7 to 6hich othe!s a!e su%%osedly su2o!dinated in a %a!ticula! secto! of ti(e-s%ace. -he conte8tual cha!acte!istics of "athe!in"s, 6hethe! o! not these occu! on social occasions, can 2e divided into t6o (ain fo!(s. Dnfocused inte!action !elates to all those "estu!es and si"nals 6hich can 2e co((unicated 2et6een individuals si(%ly 2ecause of thei! co-%!esence 6ithin a s%ecific conte8t. -he %hysical %!o%e!ties of the 2ody and the li(ited sco%e of the %ositionin" of the face a!e (a3o! const!aints he!e. Acto!s7 "ene!ali.ed a6a!eness of the %!esence of othe!s (ay !an"e su2tly ove! a 6ide s%atial e8tension, even includin" those standin" 2ehind the(. 9ut such 7cuein"s of the 2ody7 a!e ve!y diffuse co(%a!ed 6ith those that a!e %ossi2le, and a!e ch!onically utili.ed, in face-to-face inte!action. /ocused inte!action occu!s 6he!e t6o o! (o!e individuals co-o!dinate thei! activities th!ou"h a continued inte!section of facial e8%!ession and voice. >o6eve! (uch the %a!tici%ants (i"ht (onito! 6hateve! else is "oin" on in the 6ide! "athe!in", focused inte!action in so(e %a!t int!oduces an enclosu!e of those involved f!o( othe!s 6ho a!e co-%!esent. A unit of focused inte!action is a face en"a"e(ent o! an encounte!. *ncounte!s a!e the "uidin" th!ead of social inte!action, the succession of en"a"e(ents 6ith othe!s o!de!ed 6ithin the daily cycle of activity. Althou"h Goff(an does not include this fo!(ally 6ithin his sche(a of conce%ts, thin$ it hi"hly i(%o!tant to e(%hasi.e the fact that encounte!s ty%ically occu! as !outines. -hat is, 6hat f!o( the an"le of the fleetin" (o(ent (i"ht a%%ea! 2!ief and t!ivial inte!chan"es ta$e on (uch (o!e su2stance 6hen seen as inhe!ent in the ite!ative natu!e of social life. -he !outini.ation of encounte!s is of (a3o! si"nificance in 2indin" the fleetin" encounte! to social !e%!oduction and thus to the see(in" 7fi8ity7 of institutions. have defined social inte"!ation as syste(ness in ci!cu(stances of co-%!esence. Seve!al %heno(ena su""est the(selves as 2ein" (ost i((ediately !elevant to the constitution of social inte"!ation thus defined. /i!st, in o!de! to "!as% the connection of encounte!s 6ith social !e%!oduction st!etchin" a6ay ove! ti(e and s%ace, 6e (ust e(%hasi.e ho6 encounte!s a!e fo!(ed and !efo!(ed in the dure of daily e8istence. Second, 6e should see$ to identify the

(ain (echanis(s of the duality of st!uctu!e 6he!e2y encounte!s a!e o!"ani.ed in and th!ou"h the inte!sections of %!actical and discu!sive consciousness. -his in tu!n has to 2e e8%licated in te!(s 2oth of the cont!ol of the 2ody and of the sustainin" o! !ules o! conventions. -hi!d, encounte!s a!e sustained a2ove all th!ou"h tal$, th!ou"h eve!yday conve!sation. n analysin" the co((unication of (eanin" in inte!action via the use of inte!%!etative sche(es, the %heno(enon of tal$ has to 2e ta$en ve!y se!iously, as constitutively involved in encounte!s. /inally, the conte8tual o!"ani.ation of encounte!s (ust 2e e8a(ined, since the (o2ili.ation of ti(e-s%ace is the 7"!oundin"7 of all the a2ove ele(ents. shall unde!ta$e this latte! tas$ in te!(s of seve!al 2asic notions, those of 7%!esence-availa2ility7, 7locale7 and the !elation of 7enclosu!eHdisclosu!e7. +athe! than discussin" these latte! th!ee conce%ts in this cha%te!, ho6eve!, shall defe! the( until late!. Se!iality *ncounte!s a!e se5uenced %heno(ena, inte!%olated 6ithin, yet "ivin" fo!( to, the se!iality of day-to-day life. -he syste(atic %!o%e!ties of encounte!s can 2e t!aced to t6o %!inci%al cha!acte!istics) o%enin" and closin", and tu!n-ta$in". Fet (e loo$ 2!iefly at each of these. -he dure of daily life, as lived 2y each individual, is a continuous flo6 of activity, 2!o$en only #2ut !e"ula!ly& 2y the !elative %assivity of slee%. -he dure of activity can 2e 72!ac$eted7 o! 7conce%tually se"(ented7, as Schut. says, 2y a !efle8ive (o(ent of attention on the %a!t of the su23ect. -his is 6hat ha%%ens 6hen so(eone is as$ed 2y anothe! to su%%ly 7a !eason7 o! 7!eason7 fo!, o! othe!6ise to e8%licate, ce!tain featu!es of his o! he! activity. 9ut the dure of daily life is also 72!ac$eted7 2y the o%enin" and closin" of encounte!s. n Goff(an7s 6o!ds, 7Cne (ay s%ea$, then, of o%enin" and closin" te(%o!al 2!ac$ets and 2oundin" s%atial 2!ac$ets.G7 /ond as he is of d!a(atu!"ical (eta%ho!s and analo"ies, Goff(an "ives as an e8a(%le the devices 6hich a!e e(%loyed in the o%enin" and closin" of theat!ical s%ectacles. -o si"nal the o%enin" of a %lay, a 2ell !in"s, the li"hts "o do6n and the cu!tain is !aised. At the conclusion the audito!iu( li"hts "o on a"ain as the cu!tain falls. Bost social occasions use so(e ty%e of fo!(al cuein" devices fo! o%enin" and closin" a

cha!acte!istic of !itual occasions as (uch in t!aditional cultu!es as in the va!iety of (o!e secula!

##14&& social occasions cha!acte!istic of conte(%o!a!y societies. -he 2!ac$etin" of initiation ce!e(onies, fo! e8a(%le, ty%ically cues a d!a(atic chan"e in the (anne! of conduct 6ithin the f!a(e of the occasion - (a!$e!s indicatin", as it 6e!e, a shift f!o( the %!ofane to the sac!ed. Caillois has de(onst!ated in this !e"a!d the %a!allels 2et6een, as 6ell as the di!ectly histo!ical influences u%on, the s%he!es of !eli"ion and 7%lay7.G Cne (i"ht ha.a!d the "uess that 2!ac$etin" (a!$e!s tend to 2e !e"a!ded 2y eve!yday acto!s as %a!ticula!ly i(%o!tant 6hen the activities that occu! du!in" the encounte!, o! u%on a social occasion, a!e t!eated 2y the %a!ties involved as %a!ticula!ly dive!"ent f!o( the no!(al e8%ectations of eve!yday life. Goff(an "ives this e8a(%le. n a (edical e8a(ination of the na$ed 2ody, o! in the d!a6in" of the sa(e o23ect in an a!t class, the individual does not usually shed his o! he! clothes in the %!esence of the othe! o! othe!s, o! d!ess a"ain in thei! %!esence at the conclusion of the encounte!. Dnd!essin" and d!essin" in %!ivate allo6 the 2ody to 2e suddenly e8%osed and hidden, 2oth (a!$in" the 2ounda!ies of the e%isode and conveyin" that the actions stand se%a!ate f!o( se8ual o! othe! connotations that (i"ht othe!6ise 2e !ead into the(. -his is %a!t of 6hat Goff(an calls the 7$eyin"7 of encounte!s and su""ests a close connection 6ith <itt"enstein7s discussions of the inte!6eavin" of fo!(s of life. -he occu!!ence of encounte!s, (a!$ed and "iven a definite social 7hue7 o! 7ethos7, allo6s fo! t!ansfo!(ations of a (ulti%licity of e%isodes into dive!"ent 7ty%es7. <e #and a conside!a2le nu(2e! of theys& have the ca%acity and inclination to use conc!ete, actual activity - activity that is (eanin"ful in its o6n !i"ht - as a (odel u%on 6hich to (a!$ t!ansfo!(ations fo! fun, dece%tion, e8%e!i(ent, !ehea!sal, d!ea(, fantasy, !itual, de(onst!ation, analysis and cha!ity. -hese lively shado6s of events a!e "ea!ed into the on"oin" 6o!ld 2ut not in 5uite the close 6ay that is t!ue of o!dina!y, lite!al activity.G Bost of the encounte!s that co(%!ise the se!iality of social life ta$e %lace eithe! outside #in ti(e-s%ace& o! a"ainst the 2ac$d!o% of the "athe!in"s found on social occasions. /ace en"a"e(ents in

(any of these conte8ts do not involve clea! enclosu!es 6hich cut off the inte!action f!o( non-%a!tici%ants. n such ci!cu(stances the !efle8ive (onito!in" of the 2ody, of "estu!e and %ositionin",

##1@&& a!e cha!acte!istically used to %!oduce a 7conventional en"a"e(ent closu!e7.G -hat is to say, a no!(atively sanctioned 72a!!ie!7 se%a!ates those en"a"ed in the encounte! f!o( othe!s 6ho a!e co%!esent. -his is a colla2o!ative 6o!$, in 6hich %a!tici%ants in the face en"a"e(ent and 2ystande!s - often, of cou!se, involved in thei! o6n en"a"e(ents 6ith othe! %a!ties - sustain a so!t of 7civil inattention7 to6a!ds one anothe!. Goff(an indicates va!ious 6ays in 6hich this (ay 2e achieved and ho6 it (ay 2e dislocated. As in all a!eas of the (utual (onito!in" of inte!action, the!e a!e e8t!ao!dina!ily co(%le8 featu!es even to the (anifestation of 7inattention7. -hus 2ystande!s a!e usually e8%ected not only not to e8%loit a situation of %!o8i(ity of %!esence, 6he!e2y they could follo6 6hat is "oin" on in othe! face en"a"e(ents, 2ut also actively to de(onst!ate inattention. -his can 2e %!o2le(atic. /o! if inattention is too studied, the effect (ay 2e to su""est that the individual is in fact eavesd!o%%in". All so!ts of co(%lications of these %heno(ena a!e %ossi2le. -he!e (ay 2e (any ci!cu(stances in 6hich an individual (ay 2e inte!ested in ove!hea!in" the content of an encounte! and (ay ve!y deli2e!ately si(ulate inattention. >o6eve!, this !uns the !is$ of 2ein" noticed 2ecause of an a!tificiality of %ostu!e o! 2ecause of a host of othe! t!aits that can "ive a6ay 6hat is "oin" on. -he %oint of this should not 2e ta$en to su""est, as (any inte!%!ete!s of Goff(an have tended to do, that (ost of the (a!velously su2tle int!icacies of inte!action a!e studied o! cynically (ani%ulative. -he o%%osite is the case. <hat is st!i$in" a2out the inte!action s$ills that acto!s dis%lay in the %!oduction and !e%!oduction of encounte!s is thei! ancho!in" in %!actical consciousness. -act !athe! than cynicis( is inhe!ent in the st!uctu!ation of encounte!s. <hile the content of 6hat counts as 72ein" tactful7 (ay va!y 6idely, the si"nificance of tact in othe!6ise ve!y diffe!ent societies o! cultu!es is i(%ossi2le to dis%ute. -act - a latent conce%tual a"!ee(ent a(on" %a!tici%ants in inte!action conte8ts - see(s to 2e the (ain (echanis( that sustains 7t!ust7 o! ontolo"ical secu!ity ove! lon"

ti(e-s%ace s%ans. -act in the sustainin" of conventional en"a"e(ent enclosu!e 2eco(es clea!ly %ointed u% in ci!cu(stances 6hich th!eaten to f!actu!e such closu!e. -hus in ve!y const!icted s%aces, such as lifts, it is vi!tually i(%ossi2le to sustain a %ostu!e of not listenin". n An"lo-A(e!ican society, at least, the tendency in such a situation is to sus%end

##10&& co((unication, 6ith %e!ha%s only the occasional co((ent that indicates that an encounte! is sus%ended !athe! than 2!o$en off. Si(ila!ly, if th!ee %eo%le a!e tal$in" and one is inte!!u%ted to ta$e a %hone call, the othe!s cannot fei"n co(%lete inattention and (ay ca!!y on a so!t of hesitant, li(% conve!sation.@3 Conte8ts of encounte!s such as these (ay di!ectly e8%!ess asy((et!ies of %o6e!. -hus if, say, t6o individuals in a lift continue to ca!!y on thei! tal$ !e"a!dless of thei! su!!oundin"s of ove!ly close %!o8i(ity to othe!s, it (ay ve!y 6ell 2e that they the!e2y de(onst!ate to those 6ho a!e thei! su2o!dinates o! infe!io!s thei! indiffe!ence to the sustainin" of civil inattention in such a conte8t. >o6eve!, they (ay neve!theless 2et!ay a ce!tain conce!n a2out deviatin" f!o( a no!( that o!dina!ily 6ould 2e o2se!ved, and hence they (ay tal$ even (o!e loudly than they 6ould in othe! ci!cu(stances. *ncounte!s involve 7s%acin"7, as !e"a!ds 2oth the %osition of 2odies in !elation to one anothe!, inside and outside the !e"ion of face en"a"e(ent, and the se!ial s%acin" of cont!i2utions to the encounte! in te!(s of se!iality o! tu!n-ta$in". Colla2o!ative s%acin" 6ithin locales is o2viously !elevant to the 2!ac$etin" of encounte!s #and, shall t!y to indicate late!, is su23ect to 6hat >a"e!st!and calls 7cou%lin" const!aints7 and 7%ac$in" const!aints7&. -he "ene!ali.ed no!(ative sanctions influencin" acce%ta2le %!o8i(ity of individuals in %u2lic %laces does va!y c!oss-cultu!ally, as do sanctions affectin" the li(its of acce%ta2le 2odily contact 2et6een %e!sons in va!yin" conte8ts. @4 9ut s%acin" can 2e effectively o!"ani.ed only 6ithin the li(its of 7easy tal$7 - not so fa! a%a!t that %a!tici%ants have to shout and not so close that the o!dina!y cues of facial e8%!ession, 6hich hel% to (onito! the since!ity and authenticity of 6hat is said, cannot 2e o2se!ved. /ace en"a"e(ents, 6hen othe!s a!e co-%!esent, a!e al(ost al6ays ca!!ied on 6ith so(e tu!nin" of the 2ody a6ay f!o( those 6ho a!e not %a!ty to the en"a"e(ent, and the a!!an"e(ent of 2odies is such that the!e is no %hysical 2a!!ie! to the f!ee e8chan"e of "lances o! visual contact. -his (ay 2e difficult to achieve in c!o6ded situations in 6hich the!e is 5uite a lot of (ove(ent - at a %a!ty, fo! instance, o! in a c!o6ded t!ain. n such conte8ts the!e (ay 2e so(e t!ansito!y !ela8ation of the sanctions 6hich o!dina!ily cont!ol e8cessive (o2ility of the li(2s. A %e!son (ay 5uite acce%ta2ly s6ay the 2ody a2out in this situation, if at the

##11&& sa(e ti(e it is (ade clea! to othe!s that this is in o!de! to sustain eye contact in an en"a"e(ent 6he!e the %ositionin" of othe!s th!eatens to 2loc$ the vie6. Such (ove(ents (ay 2e ca!!ied on in an e8a""e!ated fashion, in fact, thus indicatin" to othe!s that the acto! (a$in" the( is a6a!e that such 2ody (otion 6ould usually 2e loo$ed u%on as odd. -u!n-ta$in" in encounte!s has 2een (uch studied 2y 6!ite!s of an ethno(ethodolo"ical 2ent.G -hei! 6o!$ is often dec!ied as t!ivial. 9ut this is a sho!t-si"hted assess(ent indeed. /o! tu!nta$in" is !ooted in the (ost "ene!al %!o%e!ties of the hu(an 2ody and hence e8%!esses funda(ental as%ects of the natu!e of inte!action. Bo!eove!, tu!n-ta$in" is one (a3o! featu!e of the se!ial cha!acte! of social life, hence connectin" 6ith the ove!all cha!acte! of social !e%!oduction. -u!n-ta$in" is one fo!( of 7cou%lin" const!aint7, de!ivin" f!o( the si(%le 2ut ele(ental fact that the (ain co((unicative (ediu( of hu(an 2ein"s in situations of co-%!esence - tal$ - is a 7sin"le-o!de!7 (ediu(. -al$ unfolds synta"(atically in the flo6 of the dure of inte!action, and since only one %e!son can s%ea$ at one ti(e if co((unicative intent is to 2e !eali.ed, cont!i2utions to encounte!s a!e inevita2ly se!ial. t should 2e said that the e(%i!ical study of conve!sations sho6s that they have a (uch less sy((et!ical fo!( than (i"ht 2e su%%osed. -he (ana"in" of tu!n-ta$in" !a!ely ha%%ens in such a 6ay that %a!tici%ants finish sentences. -he!e is a %letho!a of hesitation %heno(enaA s%ea$e!s 2!ea$ into 6hat anothe! is sayin", such that the!e a!e no clea! divisions in the ta$in" of tu!ns and so on.G -u!n-ta$in" (ay a%%ly to the se!iality of encounte!s as 6ell as to the inte!action 2et6een a"ents 6ithin encounte!s and (ay 2e a"ain closely 2ound u% 6ith diffe!entials of %o6e!. All o!"ani.ations involve the co-o!dination of inte!action in flo6s of ti(es%ace !elations 7channelled7 th!ou"h !e"ula!i.ed conte8ts and locales #see %%. 11,ff&. -hus the %!ocess of o!"ani.in" t!ials in the daily life of the cou!t!oo( has a fo!(ali.ed se!ial cha!acte!, in 6hich one case is hea!d, and 2!ac$eted as a definite social occasion, 6hile the %a!ties involved in the ne8t a!e lined u% in the ad3oinin" 6aitin" !oo(.

-he!e a!e ve!y (any si(ila! e8a(%les in societies of 2!oad ti(e-s%ace distanciation. Sa!t!e7s discussion of se!iality he!e has a di!ect connection 6ith the see(in" t!iviata of conve!sational tu!n-ta$in". Sa!t!e %oints out that a 2anal e8a(%le

((*8))

of se!iality, a 5ueue fo! a 2us, can 2e used to de(onst!ate the (utual cou%lin" of ti(e-s%ace !elations of %!esence and a2sence) these se%a!ate %eo%le fo!( a "!ou%, in so far as they a!e all standin" on the sa(e %ave(ent, 6hich %!otects the( f!o( the t!affic c!ossin" the s5ua!e, in so far as they a!e "!ou%ed a!ound the sa(e 2us sto%, etc . . . . -hey a!e all, o! nea!ly all, 6o!$e!s, and !e"ula! use!s of the 2us se!viceA they $no6 the ti(eta2le and f!e5uency of the 2usesA and conse5uently they all 6ait fo! the same bus+ say, the *., . "his ob-ect in so far as they are dependent upon it #2!ea$do6ns, failu!es, accidents& is in their present interest. 9ut this %!esent inte!est - since they all live in the dist!ict - !efe!s 2ac$ to fulle! and dee%e! st!uctu!es of thei! "ene!al inte!est) i(%!ove(ent of %u2lic t!ans%o!t, f!ee.in" of fa!es, etc. -he 2us they 6ait fo! unites the(, 2ein" thei! inte!est as individuals 6ho this (o!nin" have 2usiness on the rive droite. 2ut, as the 1.4,, it is their interest as commuters. eve!ythin" is te(%o!ali.ed) the t!avelle! !eco"ni.es hi(self as a resident #that is to say, he is !efe!!ed to the five o! ten %!evious yea!s&, and then the 2us 2eco(es cha!acte!i.ed 2y its daily ete!nal !etu!n #it is actually the very same 2us, 6ith the sa(e d!ive! and conducto!&. -he o23ect ta$es on a st!uctu!e 6hich ove!flo6s its %u!e ine!t e8istenceA as such it is %!ovided 6ith a %assive futu!e and %ast, and these (a$e it a%%ea! to the %assen"e!s as a f!a"(ent #an insi"nificant one& of thei! destiny.G

-al$, +efle8ivity Goff(an7s (ost tellin" cont!i2utions to unde!standin" the sustainin" and !e%!oduction of encounte!s a!e to do 6ith the !elation 2et6een the !efle8ive cont!ol of the 2ody - that is to say, the !efle8ive self-(onito!in" of "estu!e, 2odily (ove(ent and %ostu!e - and the (utual co-o!dination of inte!action th!ou"h tact

and !es%ect fo! the needs and de(ands of othe!s. -he %!evalence of tact, t!ust o! ontolo"ical secu!ity is achieved and sustained 2y a 2e6ilde!in" !an"e of s$ills 6hich a"ents de%loy in the %!oduction and !e%!oduction of inte!action. Such s$ills a!e founded fi!st and fo!e(ost in the no!(atively !e"ulated cont!ol of 6hat (i"ht see(, even (o!e than tu n-ta!in", to #e the tiniest, $ost insi"nificant details of 2odily (ove(ent o! e8%!ession. -his is !eadily de(onst!ated 6hen these a!e lac$in" o! a!e co!n-

((* )) %!o(ised, in a "ene!ic 6ay a(on" the 7(entally ill7 and t!ansito!ily in 2odily and ve!2al la%ses o! sli%s. /o! Goff(an 7(ental illness7, even the (ost se!ious fo!(s of 7%sychotic distu!2ance7, a!e e8e(%lified a2ove all in ina2ility, o! un6illin"ness, to acce%t the dive!sity of (inute #althou"h 6holly unt!ivial& fo!(s of (onito!in" of 2odily (ove(ent and "estu!e 6hich a!e the no!(ative co!e of day-to-day inte!action. Badness is a cluste! of 7situational i(%!o%!ieties7.G ;sychotic 2ehaviou! dive!"es f!o(, o! actively clashes 6ith, the %u2lic o!de!in" of ti(e-s%ace !elations, via the 2ody and its (edia, 6he!e2y hu(an 2ein"s 7"et on 6ith one anothe!7 in ci!cu(stances of co-%!esence. -he 7(entally ill7 do not confo!( to the e8t!e(ely ti"ht #and continuous& 2odily cont!ol de(anded of 7no!(al individuals7A they do not !es%ect the int!icacies of the fo!(ulae "ove!nin" the fo!(ation, (aintenance, 2!ea$in" off o! sus%ension of encounte!sA and they fail to cont!i2ute the (anifold fo!(s of tact that sustain 7t!ust7.G ndividuals a!e ve!y !a!ely e8%ected 73ust7 to 2e co-%!esent in "athe!in"s and neve! a!e %e!(itted to act thus in encounte!s. -he !efle8ive (onito!in" of action, in conte8ts of co-%!esence, de(ands a so!t of 7cont!olled ale!tness7) as Goff(an e8%!esses it, acto!s have to 7e8hi2it %!esence7. -his is e8actly 6hat (any 7(ental %atients7 f!o( those in a state of a%%a!ent catatonic stu%o! to those 6ho (ove only (echanically, as if d!iven 2y so(e fo!ce, !athe! than 2ein" o!dina!y hu(an a"ents - do not do.G -he e8hi2itin" of %!esence ta$es 5uite a!tfully deli2e!ate fo!(s 2ut is undenia2ly e8e(%lified fi!st and fo!e(ost in %!actical consciousness. Conside! %e!sonal a%%ea!ance and the visi2le (a!$s

of d!ess and 2odily ado!n(ent. Conce!n 6ith a%%ea!ance is (anifest, fo! e8a(%le, in the ca!e 6ith 6hich an individual selects and a!!an"es ty%es of clothin" o! ado!n(ent in !elation to %a!tici%ation in %a!ticula! conte8ts of activity. 9ut it 6ould 2e ve!y (isleadin" to su%%ose that such ca!e is the %!ototy%ical (ode of sustainin" 2odily idio(. Bo!e 2asic, (o!e co(%le8, is the ch!onic (onito!in" of the a!!an"e(ent of clothin", in !elation to 2odily %ostu!e, in the %!esence of othe!s. -hus 7(ental %atients7 (ay sit slac$ly, thei! clothin" disa!!an"ed o! c!u(%ledA 6o(en (ay not o2se!ve the usual e8%ectation in <este!n societies, to $ee% the le"s closely to"ethe! 6hen 6ea!in" s$i!ts, and so on. -he!e is a funda(ental diffe!ence 2et6een 2ohe(ians o! ho2os, 6ho flout the conventions of the 6ide! society in thei! (odes of

##80&& d!ess and othe! (odes of conduct, and the 7(entally ill7. /o! the no!(ative e8%ectations in 6hich 2odily cont!ol and a%%ea!ance a!e "!ounded conce!n not (e!ely the t!a%%in"s of ado!n(ent o! "!oss %a!a(ete!s of (oto! 2ehaviou! 2ut %!ecisely the $ind of 7sustained cont!ol7 6hich si(ultaneously 7ca!!ies7 and de(onst!ates a"ency. -hat such ch!onic self-(onito!in" is not unde(andin" is indicated 2y the %e!vasive i(%o!tance of 72ac$ !e"ions7 - found in va!yin" conte8ts in all societies - in 6hich cont!ol of 2odily %ostu!e, "estu!e and a%%a!el can 2e in so(e de"!ee !ela8ed. 9ut even 6hen alone an individual (ay (aintain %!esenta2ility. /o! so(eone 6ho is discove!ed inadve!tently 7unasse(2led7 cedes to othe!s as%ects of self that a!e %e!ha%s only visi2le at such (o(ents.G -he %oint is that the sustainin" of 72ein" seen as a ca%a2le a"ent7 is int!insic to 6hat a"ency is, and that the (otives 6hich %!o(%t and !einfo!ce this connection as inhe!ent in the !e%!oduction of social %!actices a!e the sa(e as those 6hich o!de! such !e%!oduction itself. -he st!on"ly sanctioned cha!acte! of these %heno(ena is 6ell 2!ou"ht out in the follo6in" o2se!vations) 9odily idio(, then, is conventionali.ed discou!se. <e (ust see that it is, in addition, a no!(ative one. -hat is, the!e is ty%ically an o2li"ation to convey ce!tain info!(ation 6hen in the %!esence of othe!s and an o2li"ation not to convey othe! i(%!essions Althou"h an individual can sto% tal$in", he cannot sto% co((unicatin" th!ou"h 2ody idio(... ;a!ado8ically, the 6ay in 6hich he can "ive least info!(ation a2out hi(self - althou"h this is still a%%!ecia2le - is to fit in and act as %e!sons of his $ind a!e e8%ected to act.02 Bany 7(ental %atients7 have difficulty 6ith, o! flout, the no!(s associated 6ith the o%enin" and closin" of encounte!s. -hus a %e!son on the 6a!d of an asylu( (ay hold one of the staff in an encounte! no (atte! ho6 (any indications the staff (e(2e! (ay "ive that he o! she 6ishes to (ove on. -he %atient (ay %u!sue the othe! closely, !e"a!dless of ho6 !a%idly the %e!son 6al$s, and

(i"ht then t!y to acco(%any the o!de!ly th!ou"h the doo! at the end of the 6a!d, even if it is a loc$ed 6a!d. At such a %oint the staff (e(2e! (ay have %hysically to !est!ain the %atient f!o( follo6in", %e!ha%s tea!in" hi(self o! he!self a6ay f!o( the othe!7s

##81&& "!as%. Such events, 6hich a!e cha!acte!istic featu!es of daily life on the 6a!ds, tend to !un counte! to the %!esu(%tion of "ene!al co((unality of inte!est 6hich staff o!dina!ily 6ish to foste!. -he final %!eci%itous de%a!tu!e of the staff (e(2e! e8e(%lifies ci!cu(stances 6hich, in the 6o!ld outside, a!e li$ely to occu! only 6he!e the individual atte(%tin" to leave in such a (anne! is de(onst!atin" !e3ection of a st!on" (o!al tie - e.". a love !elationshi% - to 6hich the %u!sue! lays clai(. Such an i(%lication, of cou!se, is not necessa!ily lost u%on the 7(ental %atient7 on the 6a!d of a hos%ital. ndeed, (any a%%a!ently 2i.a!!e ele(ents of encounte!s 2et6een the sane and the (ad see( to !e%!esent 7e8%e!i(ents7 6hich the latte! ca!!y out u%on the usual f!a(e6o!$s of encounte!s. 7Schi.o%h!enics7, as Fain" says, a!e %e!ha%s a%tly !e"a!ded as ta$in" se!iously, on the level of %!actical consciousness and in thei! actual conduct, so(e of the 5uestions that %hiloso%he!s %ose hy%othetically in the solitude of thei! studies. -hey !eally 6o!!y a2out, and 2uild thei! activities a!ound, hete!odo8 solutions to 5uestions such as 7 n 6hat sense a( a %e!son?7, 7Does the 6o!ld only e8ist in so fa! as %e!ceive it?7 and so on.G 9ut (ost of the 7e8%e!i(ental activities7 of the (ad, si"nificantly, a!e to do 6ith the cuein"s and the no!(ative sanctions associated 6ith the co(%le8ities of 2odily cont!ol 6ithin the i((ediacies of encounte!s. Ga!fin$el7s 7e8%e!i(ents 6ith t!ust7 du%licate so(e of the 3a!!in" feelin"s of dis5uietude 6hich 7no!(al7 individuals e8%e!ience 6hen the !outines of daily life a!e called in 5uestion.04 Bany of these conside!ations a%%ly to tal$ as the discu!sive (ediu( of co((unicative intent in conte8ts of co-%!esence. Discussion of 7!es%onse c!ies7 #fo!(s of utte!ance that a!e not tal$& can %!ovide an a%%!o%!iate t!ansition to the study of tal$. Such c!ies de(onst!ate once (o!e that 6hat (ay see( enti!ely t!ivial and 6holly 7s%ontaneous7 cha!acte!istics of hu(an conduct a!e ti"htly o!de!ed no!(atively. +es%onse c!ies t!ans"!ess the no!(ative

sanctions a"ainst not tal$in" to oneself in %u2lic. Conside! loo%s& 101 7Co%sL7 (i"ht 2e thou"ht of as a %u!e !efle8, a (echanical !es%onse li$e 2lin$in" the eyes 6hen so(eone (oves a hand sha!%ly to6a!ds anothe!7s face. 9ut this see(in"ly involunta!y !eaction lends itself to detailed analysis in te!(s of a"ency and the 2ody. <hen so(eone e8clai(s 7Co%sL7 on d!o%%in" so(ethin" o! $noc$in" so(ethin" ove! it (i"ht a%%ea!

##82&& at fi!st si"ht as if the sound adve!tises a loss of cont!ol, thus d!a6in" attention to an infe!ence 6hich the %e!son 6ould 6ish to avoid, a dislocation in the !outine fo!(s of cont!ol that indicate !efle8ively (onito!ed a"ency. 9ut the e8cla(ation in fact sho6s to othe!s that the occu!!ence in 5uestion is a (e!e accident, fo! 6hich the individual cannot 2e held !es%onsi2le. 7Co%sL7 is used 2y the a"ent to dis%lay that the la%se is only that, a (o(enta!y and contin"ent event, !athe! than a (anifestation of eithe! a (o!e "ene!ali.ed inco(%etence o! so(e o%a5ue intent. 9ut this also hides a !an"e of othe! su2tle shadin"s and %ossi2ilities. -hus, fo! e8a(%le, 7Co%sL7 is used - and is $no6n to 2e used - only in situations of (ino! failu!e !athe! than in those of (a3o! cala(ity. >ence 7Co%sL7, s%ontaneous and i((ediate thou"h it (ay 2e, de(onst!ates ca!e and attention to the i(%lications of the sudden occu!!ence and the!efo!e indicates ove!all co(%etence 6hich ove!!ides 6hat is the!e2y e8hi2ited to 2e only a (ino! sli%. -he!e is (o!e. 7Co%sL7 can 2e const!ued as a 6a!nin" to othe!s. A ha.a!d e8ists in the (ilieu of co-%!esence, and othe!s in the vicinity 6ould do 6ell to ta$e ca!e. <hen so(eone has a (ino! (isha% the e8cla(ation 7Co%sL7 (ay so(eti(es 2e offe!ed 2y a %a!tici%ant !athe! than 2y the individual e8%e!iencin" it. -he 7Co%sL7 %e!ha%s sounds a 6a!nin" to the othe! at the sa(e ti(e as conveyin" the assu!ance that the sli% 6ill not 2e t!eated 2y the o2se!ve! as co(%!o(isin" the othe!7s co(%etence as a !es%onsi2le a"ent. 7Co%sL7 is no!(ally a cu!t sound. 9ut the 7oo7 in it (ay 2e (o!e %!olon"ed in so(e situations. -hus so(eone (ay e8tend the sound to cove! a %a!t of a tas$ o! ente!%!ise in 6hich a %a!ticula! ha.a!dous (o(ent has to 2e ove!co(e fo! its successful e8ecution. C! a %a!ent (ay utte! an e8tended 7Co%sL7 o! 7Co%sadaisyL7 6hen %layfully tossin" a child in the ai!, the sound cove!in" the %hase 6hen the child (ay feel a loss of cont!ol, !eassu!in" it and %e!ha%s at the sa(e ti(e hel%in" to facilitate a develo%in" unde!standin" of the natu!e of !es%onse c!ies.G 7Co%sL7 thus tu!ns out to 2e not as distant f!o( tal$ as (i"ht initially 2e su%%osed, since it %a!tici%ates in that ve!y %u2lic cha!acte! of co((unication, inte!sectin" 6ith %!actices, 6hich <itt"enstein identifies as the foundation of lan"ua"e use. n the

li"ht of the %!ecedin" discussion in this cha%te!, it should 2e clea! that the inde8icality of o!dina!y lan"ua"e is a 7%!o2le(7 neithe! fo! lay s%ea$e!s no! fo! %hiloso%hical analysis. 7 nde8icality7 (eans

##83&& 7conte8tuality7) the conte8tuality of tal$, li$e the conte8tuality of 2odily %ostu!e, "estu!e and (ove(ent, is the 2asis u%on 6hich such %heno(ena a!e co-o!dinated as encounte!s e8tendin" in ti(e-s%ace. -al$ is an int!insic featu!e of nea!ly all encounte!s and also dis%lays si(ila!ities of syste(ic fo!(. -al$ o!dina!ily (anifests itself as conve!sation. 7Conve!sation7 ad(its of a %lu!al, 6hich indicates that conve!sations a!e e%isodes havin" 2e"innin"s and endin"s in ti(e-s%ace. 'o!(s of tal$ %e!tain not only to 6hat is said, the syntactical and se(antic fo!( of utte!ances, 2ut also to the !outini.ed occasions of tal$. Conve!sations, o! units of tal$, involve standa!di.ed o%enin" and closin" devices, as 6ell as devices fo! ensu!in" and dis%layin" the c!edentials of s%ea$e!s as havin" the !i"ht to cont!i2ute to the dialo"ue. -he ve!y te!( 72!ac$etin"7 !e%!esents a styli.ed inse!tion of 2ounda!ies in 6!itin". Fet (e "ive Goff(an the last 6o!d in the 2!ac$etin" that constitutes this section. <hat is tal$, vie6ed inte!actionally? 7 t is an e8a(%le of that a!!an"e(ent 2y 6hich individuals co(e to"ethe! and sustain (atte!s havin" a !atified, 3oint, cu!!ent, and !unnin" clai( u%on attention, a clai( 6hich lod"es the( to"ethe! in so(e so!t of inte!su23ective, (ental 6o!ld.G7 ;ositionin" Social syste(s, have e(%hasi.ed, a!e o!"ani.ed as !e"ula!i.ed social %!actices, sustained in encounte!s dis%e!sed ac!oss ti(es%ace. -he acto!s 6hose conduct constitutes such %!actices a!e 7%ositioned7, ho6eve!. All acto!s a!e %ositioned o! 7situated7 in ti(e-s%ace, livin" alon" 6hat >a"e!st!and calls thei! ti(e-s%ace %aths, and they a!e also %ositioned !elationally, as the ve!y te!( 7social %osition7 su""ests. Social syste(s only e8ist in and th!ou"h the continuity of social %!actices, fadin" a6ay in ti(e. 9ut so(e of thei! st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties a!e 2est cha!acte!i.ed as 7%osition%!actice7 !elations.G

Social %ositions a!e constituted st!uctu!ally as s%ecific inte!sections of si"nification, do(ination and le"iti(ation 6hich !elates to the ty%ification of a"ents. A social %osition involves the s%ecification of a definite 7identity7 6ithin a net6o!$ of social !elations, that identity, ho6eve!, 2ein" a 7cate"o!y7 to 6hich a %a!ticula! !an"e of no!(ative sanctions is !elevant. Since Finton the conce%t of social %osition has o!dina!ily 2een associated 6ith that of !ole, and the latte! has !eceived fa! (o!e

##84&& discussion and analysis than the fo!(e!.G do not intend to su!vey this discussion, only to e(%hasi.e so(e !ese!vations a2out the notion of !ole. -he conce%t is connected 6ith t6o a%%a!ently o%%osed vie6s, a2out each of 6hich have so(e unease. Cne is that of ;a!sons, in 6hose theo!y !ole is funda(ental as the %oint of connection 2et6een (otivation, no!(ative e8%ectations and 7values7. -his ve!sion of the !ole conce%t is (uch too closely 2ound u% 6ith the ;a!sonian theo!e( of the de%endence of societal inte"!ation u%on 7value consensus7 to 2e acce%ta2le. -he othe! is the d!a(atu!"ical vie6%oint foste!ed 2y Goff(an, a2out 6hich (o!e 6ill 2e said in the ne8t cha%te!, fo! he!e 6e !each the li(its of his vie6s. -he t6o conce%tions (i"ht see( to 2e cont!a!y to one anothe! 2ut actually have a definite affinity. *ach tends to e(%hasi.e the 7"iven7 cha!acte! of !oles, the!e2y se!vin" to e8%!ess the dualis( of action and st!uctu!e cha!acte!istic of so (any a!eas of social theo!y. -he sc!i%t is 6!itten, the sta"e set, and acto!s do the 2est they can 6ith the %a!ts %!e%a!ed fo! the(. +e3ectin" such stand%oints does not (ean dis%ensin" 6ith the conce%t of !ole enti!ely, 2ut it does i(%ly !e"a!din" the 7%ositionin"7 of acto!s as a (o!e i(%o!tant idea. /o! definitional %u!%oses shall ado%t the fo!(ulation have offe!ed in a %!evious 6o!$. A social %osition can 2e !e"a!ded as 7a social identity that ca!!ies 6ith it a ce!tain !an"e #ho6eve! diffusely s%ecified& of %!e!o"atives and o2li"ations that an acto! 6ho is acco!ded that identity #o! is an Gincu(2entG of that %osition& (ay activate o! ca!!y out) these %!e!o"atives and o2li"ations constitute the !ole%!esc!i%tions associated 6ith that %osition.71K 7;osition7 is 2est unde!stood as 7%ositionin"7, allo6in" the second of these te!(s to (ine a !ich vein of (eanin"s. Acto!s a!e al6ays %ositioned in !es%ect of the th!ee as%ects of te(%o!ality a!ound 6hich the theo!y of st!uctu!ation is 2uilt. -he %ositionin" of a"ents in ci!cu(stances of co-%!esence is an ele(ental featu!e of the st!uctu!ation of encounte!s. ;ositionin" he!e involves (any su2tle (odalities of 2odily (ove(ent and "estu!e, as 6ell as the (o!e "ene!al (otion of the 2ody th!ou"h the !e"ional secto!s of daily !outines. -he %ositionin" of acto!s in the !e"ions of thei! daily ti(e-s%ace %aths, of cou!se, is thei! si(ultaneous %ositionin" 6ithin the 2!oade! !e"ionali.ation of societal totalities and 6ithin

inte!societal syste(s 6hose 2!oadcast s%an is conve!"ent 6ith the "eo%olitical dist!i2ution of social syste(s on a "lo2al scale. -he

##8@&& si"nificance of %ositionin" in this (ost !udi(enta!y sense is o2viously closely 2ound u% 6ith the level of ti(e-s%ace distanciation of societal totalities. n those societies in 6hich social and syste( inte"!ation a!e (o!e o! less e5uivalent, %ositionin" is only thinly 7laye!ed7. 9ut in conte(%o!a!y societies individuals a!e %ositioned 6ithin a 6idenin" !an"e of .ones, in ho(e, 6o!$%lace, nei"h2ou!hood, city, nation-state and a 6o!ld6ide syste(, all dis%layin" featu!es of syste( inte"!ation 6hich inc!easin"ly !elates the (ino! details of daily life to social %heno(ena of (assive ti(e-s%ace e8tension. ;ositionin" in the ti(e-s%ace %aths of day-to-day life, fo! eve!y individual, is also %ositionin" 6ithin the 7life cycle7 o! life %ath. -he fo!(ation of an 7 7 is %e!ha%s founded on the o!i"inal na!cissis( of a 7(i!!o! %hase7 in %e!sonality develo%(ent. -he child fo!(s the ca%a2ility of 2eco(in" a !efle8ive a"ent th!ou"h the %ositionin" of the 2ody in !elation to its i(a"e. -he ve!y connotation of 7 7 as a shifte! necessa!ily !elates self to %ositionin" 6ithin the se!iality of discou!se and action. ;ositionin" alon" the life %ath, of cou!se, is al6ays closely !elated to the cate"o!i.in" of social identity. 7Childhood7 and 7adulthood7, a(on" a nu(2e! of othe! %ossi2le fo!(s of a"e "!adin", al6ays (in"le 2iolo"ical and social c!ite!ia of a"ein". Diffe!ential %ositionin" on the life %ath is the (a3o! const!ainin" condition influencin" the funda(ental si"nificance of the fa(ily in con3oinin" %hysical and social !e%!oduction. A hu(an society in 6hich all (e(2e!s 6e!e 2o!n as a sin"le a"e coho!t 6ould 2e i(%ossi2le, since the hu(an infant has such a lon" %e!iod of (o!e o! less co(%lete de%endency u%on the (inist!ations of its elde!s.G 9ut it is the inte!section 2et6een these fo!(s of %ositionin" and that 6ithin the tongue dure of institutions 6hich c!eates the ove!all f!a(e6o!$ of social %ositionin". Cnly in the conte8t of such inte!section 6ithin institutionali.ed %!actices can (odes of ti(e-s%ace %ositionin", in !elation to the duality of st!uctu!e, 2e

%!o%e!ly "!as%ed. n all societies it see(s to 2e the case that a"e #o! a"e "!ade& and "ende! a!e the (ost all-e(2!acin" c!ite!ia of att!i2utes of social identity. 9ut althou"h it is co((on in the sociolo"ical lite!atu!e to s%ea$ of a"e !oles, "ende! !oles and so on in a "ene!ic 6ay, shall not follo6 such usa"e. Social identity confe!!ed 2y a"e o! "ende! - and othe! su%%osedly 7asc!i%tive7 cha!acte!istics, such as s$in %i"(entation - tend to 2e the focus

##81&& t is of the fi!st i(%o!tance to e(%hasi.e that a theo!y of !outine is not to 2e e5uated 6ith a theo!y of social sta2ility. -he conce!n of st!uctu!ation theo!y is 6ith 7o!de!7 as the t!anscendin" of ti(e and s%ace in hu(an social !elationshi%sA !outini.ation has a $ey !ole in the e8%lication of ho6 this co(es a2out. +outine %e!sists th!ou"h social chan"e of even the (ost d!a(atic ty%e, even if, of cou!se, so(e as%ects of ta$en-fo!-"!anted !outines (ay 2e co(%!o(ised. ;!ocesses of !evolution, fo! e8a(%le, no dou2t usually dislocate the daily activities of (ultitudes of %eo%le 6ho eithe! a!e cau"ht u% in the fe!vou! of !evolt o! a!e the luc$less victi(s of social events 6hich they have had no %a!t in initiatin". 9ut it is in ci!cu(stances in 6hich the te8tu!e of dayto-day life is attac$ed f!ontally and syste(atically defo!(ed - as in the concent!ation ca(%s - that the hold of !outine is (o!e su2stantively 2!o$en. *ven he!e, as 9etteihei( de(onst!ates so 6ell, !outines, includin" those of an o2no8ious so!t, a!e !eesta2lished. t is inst!uctive to see the !ules i(%licated in encounte!s, as Goff(an su""ests, as 2ein" cluste!ed in f!a(e6o!$s o! 7f!a(es7. /!a(in" (ay 2e !e"a!ded as %!ovidin" the o!de!in" of activities and (eanin"s 6he!e2y ontolo"ical secu!ity is sustained in the enact(ent of daily !outines. /!a(es a!e cluste!s of !ules 6hich hel% to constitute and !e"ulate activities, definin" the( as activities of a ce!tain so!t and as su23ect to a "iven !an"e of sanctions. <heneve! individuals co(e to"ethe! in a s%ecific conte8t they conf!ont #2ut, in the vast (a3o!ity of ci!cu(stances, ans6e! 6ithout any difficulty 6hatsoeve!& the 5uestion 7<hat is "oin" on he!e?7 7<hat is "oin" on?7 is unli$ely to ad(it of a si(%le ans6e! 2ecause in all social situations the!e (ay 2e (any thin"s 7"oin" on7 si(ultaneously. 9ut %a!tici%ants in inte!action add!ess this 5uestion cha!acte!istically on the level of %!actice, "ea!in" thei! conduct to that of othe!s. C!, if they %ose such an 5uestion discu!sively, it is in !elation to one %a!ticula! as%ect of the situation that a%%ea!s %u..lin" o! distu!2in". /!a(in" as constitutive of, and const!icted 2y, encounte!s 7(a$es sense7 of the activities in 6hich %a!tici%ants en"a"e, 2oth fo! the(selves and fo! othe!s. -his includes the 7lite!al7 unde!standin" of events 2ut also the c!ite!ia 2y 6hich it is (ade %lain that 6hat is "oin" on is hu(ou!, %lay, theat!e and so on. ;!i(a!y f!a(e6o!$s of daily activity can 2e seen as those

##88&& "ene!atin" 7lite!al7 lan"ua"es of desc!i%tion 2oth fo! lay %a!tici%ants in encounte!s and fo! social o2se!ve!s. ;!i(a!y f!a(e6o!$s va!y 6idely in thei! %!ecision and closu!e. <hateve! its level of o!"ani.ation, a %!i(a!y f!a(e6o!$ allo6s individuals to cate"o!i.e an indefinite %lu!ality of ci!cu(stances o! situations so as to 2e a2le to !es%ond in an a%%!o%!iate fashion to 6hateve! is 7"oin" on7. So(eone 6ho finds that 6hat is "oin" on at a %a!ticula! ti(e and %lace is, say, a %a!ty, (ay 2e a2le to 2!in" into %lay conduct of an a%%osite $ind even if so(e as%ects of the conte8ts a!e unfa(ilia!. Bost of Goff(an7s 6o!$ is to do 6ith !ules 6hich allo6 fo! t!ansitions to 2e (ade 2et6een %!i(a!y and seconda!y f!a(e6o!$s. -hus the 7$eys7 in t!ansfo!(ations a!e the fo!(ulae 6he!e2y an activity that is al!eady (eanin"ful in a %!i(a!y f!a(e6o!$ is "iven a (eanin" in a seconda!y one 14 /o! e8a(%le, a fi"ht can 2e 7%lay7, an a%%a!ently se!ious co((ent a 3o$e. 9ut e8actly the sa(e $ind of analysis could 2e ca!!ied out to indicate the !ules involved in t!ansitions 2et6een diffe!ent %!i(a!y f!a(e6o!$s. t 6ould not 2e !elevant to %u!sue the detail of Goff(an7s analysis of f!a(in" any fu!the! in this conte8t. Fet (e instead 2!iefly conside! the si"nificance 6hich the discu!sive fo!(ulation of !ules can have 2y ta$in" a diffe!ent %iece of 6o!$, that of <iede! on 7tellin" the code7 .11 <iede!7s !esea!ch !e%o!ts the !esults of a %a!tici%ant o2se!vation study in a !esidential unit fo! !eha2ilitatin" %a!oled %!isone!s. -he in(ates s%o$e of the e8istence of !ules of conduct 6hich they called the 7code7. -he code 6as e8%licitly ve!2ali.ed 2ut not, of cou!se, fo!(ali.ed in 6!itten fo!( as it 6as esta2lished and co-o!dinated 2y in(ates, not the staff. 'o in(ate could a%%a!ently !ecite all the (a8i(s (a$in" u% the code, 2ut all could (ention so(e, and the code 6as f!e5uently discussed. t 6as (ade u% of such !ules as) do not 7snitch7 #info!( a2out othe! in(ates to staff&A do not 7co% out7 #i.e., ad(it "uilt o! !es%onsi2ility fo! an act defined 2y staff as ille"iti(ate&A do not steal f!o( othe! in(atesA sha!e 6ith othe!s any une8%ected "ifts o! 2enefits 6hich (i"ht 2e !eceivedA and so on. Staff $ne6 the code too and (ade use of it in thei! dealin"s 6ith in(ates. As <iede! says, 7 t 6as used as a 6ide-!eachin" sche(e of inte!%!etation 6hich Gst!uctu!edG thei! envi!on(ent.G7 9ut, as he also %oints out, its ve!2ali.ation (eant

that it 6as invo$ed in 6ays that i(%licitly fo!(ulated !ules cannot 2e. t

##8,&& fo!(ed a 7voca2ula!y of (otive7 6he!e2y 2oth staff and in(ates inte!%!eted actions, es%ecially deviant o! %!o2le(atic ones. t 6as not t!eated si(%ly as a desc!i%tion of 6hat 6as tacitly ac$no6led"edA !athe!, the ci!cu(stances in 6hich the code 6as called u%on could 2e alte!ed 2y the fact of invo$in" it. 7-ellin" the code7 (eant, as the %h!ase sounds, not only !e%o!tin" u%on 6hat the code is 2ut !e%!i(andin" those 6ho cont!avened itA it e8hi2ited the code as a cont!ol device, that e8hi2itin" 2ein" %a!t of ho6 it in fact o%e!ated as such. 6ould su""est that this is cha!acte!istic of 7!ule inte!%!etations7 discu!sively offe!ed in (any social conte8ts. +ules a%%lied !efle8ively in ci!cu(stances of co-%!esence a!e neve! li(ited in thei! i(%lications to s%ecific encounte!s 2ut a%%ly to the !e%!oduction of the %atte!nin" of encounte!s ac!oss ti(e and s%ace. -he !ules of lan"ua"e, of %!i(a!y and seconda!y f!a(in", of the conduct of inte!%e!sonal inte!action all a%%ly ove! la!"e a!enas of social life, althou"h they cannot 2e ta$en as necessa!ily coe8tensive 6ith any "iven 7society7. >e!e 6e have to "ive so(e attention to conce%tually diffe!entiatin" 2et6een 7social inte!action7 and 7social !elations7 #althou"h shall not al6ays 2e %a!ticula!ly ca!eful to se%a!ate the( su2se5uently&. Social inte!action !efe!s to encounte!s in 6hich individuals en"a"e in situations of co-%!esence, and hence to social inte"!ation as a level of the 72uildin" 2loc$s7 6he!e2y the institutions of social syste(s a!e a!ticulated. Social !elations a!e ce!tainly involved in the st!uctu!in" of inte!action 2ut a!e also the (ain 72uildin" 2loc$s7 a!ound 6hich institutions a!e a!ticulated in syste( inte"!ation. nte!action de%ends u%on the 7%ositionin"7 of individuals in the ti(e-s%ace conte8ts of activity. Social !elations conce!n the 7%ositionin"7 of individuals 6ithin a 7social s%ace7 of sy(2olic cate"o!ies and ties. +ules involved in social %ositions a!e no!(ally to do 6ith the s%ecification of !i"hts and o2li"ations !elevant to %e!sons havin" a %a!ticula! social identity, o! 2elon"in" in a %a!ticula! social cate"o!y. -he no!(ative as%ects of such !ules, in othe! 6o!ds, a!e %a!ticula!ly %!onounced, 2ut all the %!eviously stated cha!acte!istics of !ules a%%ly to the(

too. -hey (ay, fo! e8a(%le, 2e tacitly follo6ed !athe! than discu!sively fo!(ulated. -he!e a!e (any such cases in the anth!o%olo"ical lite!atu!e. An instance is cultu!es in 6hich the!e is unilate!al c!oss-cousin (a!!ia"e. Althou"h the (e(2e!s of these cultu!es

##,0&& o2viously have so(e ideas 6hich they %ut into effect a2out 6ho (a!!ies 6ho, the !ules of eli"i2ility that they a!e in fact follo6in" in thei! 2ehaviou! a!e tacit !athe! than e8%licit. Goff(an de(onst!ates that social inte"!ation de%ends u%on the !efle8ively a%%lied %!ocedu!es of $no6led"ea2le a"ents, 2ut he does not indicate in any effective 6ay 6hat a!e the li(its o! the 2ounds of such $no6led"ea2ility, no! does he indicate the fo!(s 6hich such $no6led"ea2ility ta$es. 6ant to %ose such a 5uestion he!e) in 6hat sense a!e a"ents 7$no6led"ea2le7 a2out the cha!acte!istics of the social syste(s they %!oduce and !e%!oduce in thei! action? Fet us %!esu(e that 7$no6led"e7 e5uals accu!ate o! valid a6a!eness - do not say 72elief7, 2ecause 2eliefs a!e only one as%ect of $no6led"ea2ility. t does not (a$e sense to t!eat %!actical consciousness as e8haustively constituted 2y %!o%ositional 2eliefs, althou"h so(e ele(ents could in %!inci%le 2e thus fo!(ulated. ;!actical consciousness consists of $no6in" the !ules and the tactics 6he!e2y daily social life is constituted and !econstituted ac!oss ti(e and s%ace. Social acto!s can 2e 6!on" so(e of the ti(e a2out 6hat these !ules and tactics (i"ht 2e - in 6hich cases thei! e!!o!s (ay e(e!"e as 7situational i(%!o%!ieties7. 9ut if the!e is any continuity to social life at all, (ost acto!s (ust 2e !i"ht (ost of the ti(eA that is to say, they $no6 6hat they a!e doin", and they successfully co((unicate thei! $no6led"e to othe!s. -he $no6led"ea2ility inco!%o!ated in the %!actical activities 6hich (a$e u% the 2ul$ of daily life is a constitutive featu!e #to"ethe! 6ith %o6e!& of the social 6o!ld. <hat is $no6n a2out the social 6o!ld 2y its constituent acto!s is not se%a!ate f!o( thei! 6o!ld, as in the case of $no6led"e of events o! o23ects in natu!e. -estin" out 3ust 6hat it is that acto!s $no6, and ho6 they a%%ly that $no6led"e in thei! %!actical conduct #6hich lay acto!s en"a"e in as 6ell as social o2se!ve!s&, de%ends u%on usin" the sa(e (ate!ials - an unde!standin" of !ecu!sively o!"ani.ed %!actices - f!o( 6hich hy%otheses a2out that $no6led"e a!e de!ived. -he (easu!e of thei! 7validity7 is su%%lied 2y ho6 fa! acto!s a!e a2le to co-o!dinate thei! activities 6ith othe!s in such a 6ay as to %u!sue the %u!%oses en"a"ed 2y thei! 2ehaviou!.

-he!e a!e, of cou!se, %otential diffe!ences 2et6een $no6led"e of the !ules and tactics of %!actical conduct in the (ilieu8 in 6hich the a"ent (oves and $no6led"e a2out those 6hich a%%ly

##,1&& in conte8ts !e(ote f!o( his o! he! e8%e!ience. >o6 fa! the a"ent7s social s$ills allo6 i((ediate ease in cultu!ally alien conte8ts is o2viously va!ia2le - as, of cou!se, is the (eshin" of diffe!ent fo!(s of convention e8%!essin" dive!"ent 2ounda!ies 2et6een cultu!es o! societies. t is not 3ust in $no6led"e - o! 2elief clai(s - 6hich a"ents a!e a2le to fo!(ulate discu!sively that they dis%lay a6a!eness of 2!oade! conditions of social life ove! and a2ove those in 6hich thei! o6n activities ta$e %lace. t is often in the (anne! in 6hich !outine activities a!e ca!!ied on, fo! e8a(%le, that acto!s in ci!cu(stances of (a!$ed social infe!io!ity (a$e (anifest thei! a6a!eness of thei! o%%!ession. Goff(an7s 6!itin"s a!e !e%lete 6ith co((enta!ies on this ty%e of %heno(enon. 9ut in othe! !es%ects 6hen 6e s%ea$ of 7the $no6led"e acto!s have of the societies of 6hich they a!e (e(2e!s7 #and othe!s of 6hich they a!e not&, the !efe!ence is to discu!sive consciousness. >e!e the!e is no lo"ical diffe!ence 2et6een the c!ite!ia of validity in te!(s of 6hich 2elief-clai(s #hy%otheses, theo!ies& a!e to 2e 3ud"ed in !es%ect of lay (e(2e!s of society and social o2se!ve!s. <hat - on a "ene!al %lane, at any !ate - a!e the ty%es of ci!cu(stance that tend to influence the level and natu!e of the 7%enet!ation7 acto!s have of the conditions of syste( !e%!oduction? -hey include the follo6in" facto!s) #1& #2& #3& #4& the (eans of access acto!s have to $no6led"e in vi!tue of thei! social locationA the (odes of a!ticulation of $no6led"eA ci!cu(stances !elatin" to the validity of the 2elief-clai(s ta$en as 7$no6led"e7A facto!s to do 6ith the (eans of disse(ination of availa2le $no6led"e.

Cf cou!se, the fact that all acto!s (ove in situated conte8ts 6ithin la!"e! totalities li(its the $no6led"e they have of othe! conte8ts 6hich they do not di!ectly e8%e!ience. All social acto!s $no6 a "!eat deal (o!e than they eve! di!ectly live th!ou"h, as a !esult of the sedi(entation of e8%e!ience in lan"ua"e. 9ut a"ents 6hose lives a!e s%ent in one ty%e of (ilieu (ay 2e (o!e o! less i"no!ant of 6hat "oes on in othe!s. -his a%%lies not only in a 7late!al7 sense - in the sense of s%atial se%a!ation - 2ut also in a 7ve!tical7 one in la!"e! societies. -hus those in elite "!ou%s (ay

##,2&& $no6 ve!y little a2out ho6 othe!s in less %!ivile"ed secto!s live, and vice ve!sa. >o6eve!, it is 6o!th (entionin" that ve!tical se"!e"ation of milieu' is nea!ly al6ays also a s%atial se"!e"ation. n cate"o!y #2& a2ove (ean to !efe! 2oth to ho6 fa! 2elief clai(s a!e o!de!ed in te!(s of ove!all 7discou!ses7 and to the natu!e of diffe!ent discou!ses. Cha!acte!istic of (ost co((onsense, eve!yday clai(s to $no6led"e is that they a!e fo!(ulated in a f!a"(enta!y, dislocated 6ay. t is not only the 7%!i(itive7 6ho is a bricoleur+ (uch day-to-day tal$ a(on" lay (e(2e!s of all societies is %!edicated u%on clai(s to $no6led"e that a!e dis%a!ate o! left une8a(ined. -he e(e!"ence of discou!ses of social science, ho6eve!, clea!ly influences all levels of social inte!%!etation in societies 6he!e it has 2eco(e influential. Goff(an has a la!"e audience, not li(ited to his %!ofessional sociolo"ical collea"ues. So fa! as #3& is conce!ned, it is enou"h to %oint out that individuals (ay o%e!ate 6ith false theo!ies, desc!i%tions o! accounts 2oth of the conte8ts of thei! o6n action and of the cha!acte!istics of (o!e enco(%assin" social syste(s. -he!e a!e o2vious sou!ces of %ossi2le tension he!e 2et6een %!actical and discu!sive consciousness. -hese can have %sychodyna(ic o!i"ins, in !e%!essions 6hich se%a!ate off o! (uddle the !easons 6hy %eo%le act as they do and 6hat they a!e inclined o! a2le to say a2out those !easons. 9ut o2viously the!e can 2e (o!e syste(atic social %!essu!es that can influence ho6 fa! false 2eliefs a!e held 2y the (e(2e!s of a society a2out featu!es of that society. ;a!ticula!ly influential in !es%ect of #4&, it is al(ost needless to say, a!e the !elations, histo!ically and s%atially, 2et6een o!al cultu!e and the (edia of 6!itin", %!intin" and elect!onic co((unication. All of the latte! have (ade a diffe!ence not only to stoc$s of availa2le $no6led"e 2ut also to ty%es of $no6led"e %!oduced. C!itical 'otes) /!eud on Sli%s of the -on"ue

As an e8a(%le of so(e of the notions analysed in this cha%te! %!o%ose to conside! inte!%!etations of sli%s of the ton"ue in discou!se. <hat /!eud calls 7%a!a%!a8es7 (/ehileistun gen) !efe! not

3ust to ve!2al infelicities 2ut to (is6!itin", (is!eadin", (ishea!in" and to the te(%o!a!y fo!"ettin" of na(es and othe! ite(s. /!eud t!eats these as 2elon"in" to"ethe! in so(e %a!t 2ecause the te!(s desi"natin" the( have a si(ila! !oot in Ge!(an, all 2e"innin" 6ith the sylla2le 0er1 (0ersprechen, 0erlesen, 0erh2ren, 0ergessen). 3ll %a!a%!a8es involve e!!o!s, 2ut (ost !efe! to see(in"ly uni(%o!tant ones 6hich a!e 6ithout lastin" si"nificance in the activities of the individuals 6ho co((it the(. 7Cnly !a!ely7, /!eud 6!ites, 7does one of the(, such as losin" an o23ect, attain so(e de"!ee of %!actical i(%o!tance. /o! that !eason, too, they att!act little attention, "ive !ise to no (o!e than fee2le e(otions, and so on.G n fact, he t!ies to de(onst!ate, these (ino! inf!actions su%%ly clues to $ey cha!acte!istics of the %sychodyna(ics of %e!sonality. <hethe! o! not %a!a%!a8es do actually fo!( a sin"le class of e!!o!s shall not 2e conce!ned to discuss he!e. shall concent!ate only u%on sli%s of the ton"ue. *(%loyin" a classification esta2lished 2y the lin"uist Be!in"e! and 2y Baye!, a %sychiat!ist #6ith 6hose vie6s he othe!6ise disa"!ees&, /!eud (entions the follo6in" ty%es of ve!2al e!!o!) transpositions #the 7Bilo of :enus7 instead of the 7:enus of Bilo7&A pre1sonances o! anticipations #7es 6a! (i! auf de! Sch6est... auf de! 9!ust so sch6e!7 - 7Sch6est7 is a none8istent 6o!d&A post1sonances o! perseverations #7ich fo!de!e Sie au f, auf das <ohl unse!es Chefs auf.utossen7, !athe! than 7an.ustossen7&A contaminations #7e! set.t sich auf den >inte!$o%f7, a co(2ination of 7e! set.t sich einen Eo%f auf7 and 7e! stellt sich auf die >inte!2eine7&A and substitutions #7ich "e2e die ;!a%a!ate in den 9!ief$asten7, instead of 79!Nt$asten7&.2 Be!in"e! t!ied to e8%lain these in te!(s of %hases of neut!al ##footnote&& =+efe!ences (ay 2e found on %. 10,.

##,4&& e8citation. <hen a s%ea$e! utte!s the fi!st 6o!d of a sentence, a %!ocess of e8citation, connected 6ith antici%atin" the fo!( of the utte!ance, is set in 2ein". -his %!ocess so(eti(es has the effect of distu!2in" late! sounds in the utte!ance. So(e sounds a!e %hysically (o!e intense than othe!s, and these can affect othe! sounds o! 6o!ds. -o discove! the sou!ce of sli%s of the ton"ue 6e the!efo!e have to loo$ fo! those sounds o! ve!2ali.ations 6hich have the hi"hest %hysical valence. Cne 6ay of doin" this, acco!din" to Be!in"e!, is to conside! 6hat is involved in sea!chin" fo! a fo!"otten 6o!d, such as so(eone7s na(e. -he fi!st sound to co(e 2ac$ into consciousness is al6ays the one of "!eatest intensity 2efo!e the 6o!d 6as fo!"otten. -his is often, fo! e8a(%le, the initial sound in the 6o!d o! the vo6el 6hich is %a!ticula!ly accentuated. /!eud 6ill have little of this. n the case of fo!"otten 6o!ds it is ve!y !a!ely t!ue that eithe! the initial sound o! the accentuated vo6el is the fi!st to 2e !ecalled. S%ea$e!s (ay so(eti(es 2elieve this to 2e the case 2ut in fact a!e usually 6!on"A /!eud asse!ts that in the vast (a3o!ity of instances the initial sound 6hich the s%ea$e! utte!s in atte(%ted !ecall is the 6!on" one. As an instance of the latte! %heno(enon /!eud7s fa(ous discussion of his o6n la%se of (e(o!y a2out the na(e of the %ainte! Si"no!elli can 2e (entioned. -al$in" a2out the f!escoes of the 7/ou! Fast -hin"s7, Death, Oud"e(ent, >ell and >eaven, in C!vieto Cathed!al, /!eud found hi(self una2le to !ecall the na(e of the a!tist. +athe! than findin" the na(e he 6as t!yin" to !e(e(2e!, he could thin$ only of the na(es 79otticelli7 and 79olt!affio7. Cn 2ein" told the co!!ect na(e 2y anothe! %e!son, he !eco"ni.ed it 6ithout any hesitation. -he fo!"ettin" is not to 2e e8%lained in te!(s of anythin" distinctive a2out the %ainte!7s na(e itself o! any definite %sycholo"ical as%ect of the conte8t in 6hich /!eud 6as t!yin" to !ecall it. /!eud 6as as fa(ilia! 6ith one of the su2stitute na(es, 79otticelli7, as 6ith 7Si"no!elli7, and (o!e fa(ilia! 6ith 7Si"no!elli7 than 6ith the othe! (ista$en na(e that occu!!ed to hi(, 79olt!affio7. /!eud7s ina2ility to !ecall the 6o!d ha%%ened in the cou!se of a casual conve!sation 6ith a st!an"e! 6hile d!ivin" f!o( +a"usa in Dal(atia to a %lace in >e!.e"ovina.

/!eud offe!s the follo6in" analysis of the %heno(enon. -he fo!"ettin" of the na(e 6as connected 6ith the %!ecedin" to%ic 6hich had 2een discussed in the conve!sation. Oust %!io! to

##,@&& (entionin" C!vieto, /!eud and his t!avellin" co(%anion had 2een tal$in" a2out the custo(s of the -u!$ish %eo%le livin" in 9osnia and >e!.e"ovina. /!eud 6as tellin" the othe! of the fatalistic attitude 6ith 6hich the -u!$s a%%!oach sic$ness and death. f a docto! tells the( nothin" can 2e done to save so(eone 6ho is ill, thei! !es%onse is 7>e!! PSi! , 6hat is the!e to 2e said? f he could 2e saved, $no6 you 6ould have saved hi(.G -he 6o!ds 79osnia7, 7>e!.e"ovina7 and 7>e!!7 have an unconsciously cha!"ed association 6ith 7Si"no!elli7, 79otticelli7 and 79olt!affio7. A second anecdote lay close to the fi!st in /!eud7s (ind. n cont!ast to thei! 5uiescence in the face of death, the -u!$ish %eo%le in 5uestion dis%lay "!eat a"itation 6hen afflicted 2y se8ual diso!de!s. -hus one said) 7>e!!, you (ust $no6 that if that co(es to an end, then life is of no value.7 /!eud had su%%!essed this anecdote f!o( his account, since he 6as tal$in" to a st!an"e!. >e the!e2y dive!ted his attention f!o( thou"hts 6hich (i"ht have 2een %!ovo$ed in his (ind 2y the the(es of death and se8uality. >e had !ecently !eceived an unfo!tunate %iece of ne6s 6hile stayin" at -!afoi, a s(all villa"e in the -y!ol. Cne of his %atients, to 6ho( /!eud had devoted conside!a2le attention and 6ho 6as suffe!in" f!o( 6hat /!eud !efe!s to as an 7incu!a2le se8ual diso!de!7 ,4 had co((itted suicide. -he si(ila!ity of the 6o!ds 7-!afoi7 and 79olt!affio7 indicated that this event had (ade itself felt %sycholo"ically in s%ite of /!eud7s decision not to (ention it. >avin" esta2lished this !ese(2lance, /!eud asse!ts, it is no lon"e! %ossi2le to !e"a!d the fo!"ettin" of 7Si"no!elli7 as a chance eventA it 6as so(ethin" that 6as #unconsciously& (otivated. -he ite( 6hich /!eud deli2e!ately chose not to (ention 2eca(e dis%laced on to anothe! ele(ent, the %ainte!7s na(e. -he connections esta2lished he!e7 indicate that the na(e 7Si"no!elli7 2eca(e divided in t6o. Cne of the %ai!s of sylla2les, 7elli7 occu!s in unalte!ed fo!( in one of the t6o na(es 6hich ca(e

to /!eud7s (ind. -he othe! has 2eco(e involved in a net6o!$ of connections 2y (eans of the t!anslation of 7Si"no!7 into 7>e!!7. A dis%lace(ent has occu!!ed 2et6een the na(es 7>e!.e"ovina and 9osnia - t6o %laces often s%o$en of to"ethe! in the sa(e %h!ase. Bost of the connections 6hich %!oduced the fo!"ettin" have 2een fo!"ed 2elo6 the level of consciousness. -he su%%!essed to%ic and the facto!s that have 2!ou"ht to (ind the su2stitute na(es do not have any (anifest connections. -he

##,0&&

/i"u!e 4 si(ila!ities involved do de%end %a!tly u%on co((on sounds 6hich the 6o!ds %ossess, 2ut these can 2e %ieced to"ethe! only 6hen 6e unde!stand that the fo!"ettin" is a !esult of !e%!ession. 'ot all instances of the fo!"ettin" of na(es, of cou!se, a!e of this so!t) 79y the side of si(%le cases 6he!e %!o%e! na(es a!e fo!"otten the!e is a ty%e of fo!"ettin" 6hich is (otivated 2y !e%!ession.G A (echanis( si(ila! to his, /!eud "oes on to a!"ue, e8ists in instances of sli%s of the ton"ue. :e!2al e!!o!s (ay 2e of the ty%e analysed 2y Be!in"e! and Baye!, 6he!e one co(%onent of an utte!ance influences anothe!, o! they (ay 2e li$e the 7Si"no!elli7 e8a(%le, 6he!e the influences that %!oduce the e!!o! co(e f!o( outside the utte!ance and the i((ediate ci!cu(stances in 6hich it is (ade. 9oth have thei! o!i"ins in a $ind of 7e8citation7, 2ut in the one case this is inte!nal to the utte!ance o! to the situation in 6hich the 6o!ds a!e saidA in the othe! it is e8te!nal to the(. Cnly in the fi!st ty%e is the!e any %ossi2ility of e8%lainin" sli%s of the ton"ue in te!(s of a (echanis( lin$in" sounds and 6o!ds to one anothe! so that they influence a!ticulation. Bo!eove!, su23ected to fu!the! sc!utiny, the fi!st ty%e in fact eva%o!ates. Sli%s of the ton"ue that see( at fi!st 2lush to 2e si(%ly the !esult of a 7contact effect of sounds7 actually tu!n out on fu!the! investi"ation to de%end u%on outside #that is, (otivated& influences. /!eud lists (any e8a(%les of sli%s of the ton"ue, includin" the follo6in") #1& Cn the %a!t of a 6o(an %atient) 7 shut u% li$e a

##,1&&

"assenmescher Pa none8istent 6o!dM - (ean "aschen messer #%oc$et-$nife&.7 /!eud !eco"ni.es that the!e a!e difficulties of a!ticulation 6ith the 6o!d, 2ut he %oints out the e!!o! to the %atient and associates it 6ith a na(e that i(%in"es on unconscious an8ieties. Anothe! 6o(an %atient, as$ed ho6 he! uncle is, ans6e!s) 7 don7t $no6. 'o6adays only see hi( in flagrante.4 -he %h!ase she (eant to use is en passant. -he te!( said in e!!o! is sho6n to !elate to an e%isode in the %atient7s %ast. A youn" (an add!esses a 6o(an in the st!eet 6ith the 6o!ds) 7 f you 6ill %e!(it (e, (ada(, should li$e to begleit1digen you.7 >e 6ants to acco(%any (begleiten) he! 2ut fea!s his offe! 6ould insult (beleidigen) he!. As in the 7Si"no!elli7 case, a concealed intention - the !e5uest not 2ein" a 6holly innocent one on the (an7s %a!t - leads to an unconsciously (otivated sli% of the ton"ue. Du!in" a dis%utatious (eetin" the chai!(an says) 7<e shall no6 streiten #5ua!!el, instead of schreiten, %!oceed& to %oint fou! on the a"enda.7 -he s%ea$e!7s t!ue vie6, 6hich he intends to su%%!ess, (anifests itself in his ve!2al (ista$e. So(eone is as$ed, 7<hat !e"i(ent is you! son 6ith?7 -he ans6e! "iven is) 7<ith the 42nd Bu!de!e!s7 ($order, instead of $5rser, 7Bo!ta!s7&. A "uest at a social occasion advances the o%inion) 7Qes a 6o(an (ust 2e %!etty if she is to %lease (en. A (an is (uch 2ette! offA as lon" as he has his five st!ai"ht li(2s he needs nothin" (o!eL7 -his is one of nu(e!ous e8a(%les of 6hat Be!in"e! and Baye! called conta(inations 2ut 6hich /!eud !e"a!ds as instances of the %sycholo"ical %!ocess of condensation. -he utte!ance is a fusion of t6o tu!ns of %h!ase !ese(2lin" each othe! in (eanin") 7as lon" as he has his fou! st!ai"ht li(2s7 and 7as lon" as he has his five 6its a2out hi(7. /!eud notes that, as in (any sli%s of the ton"ue, the !e(a!$ could %ass as a 3o$e. -he diffe!ence lies si(%ly in 6hethe! o!

not the s%ea$e! consciously intended the 6o!ds to co(e out as they did. #1& +eanalysis of one of the Be!in"e! and Baye! e8a(%les) 7*s 6a! (i! auf de! Sch6est ... auf de! 9!ust so sch6e!.7 -his cannot 2e ade5uately e8%lained 2y the antici%ation of sounds. -he sli% of the ton"ue is %!o2a2ly to 2e inte!%!eted

##,8&& in te!(s of an unconscious association 2et6een 7Sch6este!7 #siste!&, 79!ude!7 #2!othe!& and %e!ha%s 79!ust de! Sch6este!7 #siste!7s 2!east&. /!eud concludes) 7-he!e (ust 2e a !eason fo! eve!y (ista$e in s%ea$in".G -his includes othe! fo!(s of s%eech distu!2ance 2esides sli%s of the ton"ue, such as sta((e!in" o! stutte!in". -hese %heno(ena a!e all sy(%to(s of inte!nal conflict 6hich (anifests itself as defo!(ations of s%eech. S%eech distu!2ances, /!eud clai(s, do not a%%ea! in ci!cu(stances in 6hich an individual is heavily en"a"ed, such as a 6ell-%!e%a!ed add!ess o! a decla!ation of love. Ce 5u7on conRoit 2ien S7Snonce clai!e(ent *t les (ots %ou! le di!e A!!ivent aisS(ent.8 Does unconscious (otivation e8ist in all cases of sli%s of the ton"ue? /!eud 2elieves such to 2e the case, fo! 7eve!y ti(e one investi"ates an instance of a sli% of the ton"ue an e8%lanation of this $ind is fo!thco(in".G Fet (e no6 co(%a!e /!eud on sli%s of the ton"ue 6ith Goff(an on !adio tal$G - a co(%a!ison 6hich (i"ht see( un%!o(isin" 2ut is actually ve!y inst!uctive fo! st!uctu!ation theo!y. Goff(an7s conce!ns in his discussion a!e 5uite dive!"ent f!o( those of /!eud, and !athe! than follo6in" the the(es of his o6n a!"u(ent shall t!y to tease out its i(%lications fo! assessin" /!eud7s vie6s on e!!o!s of s%eech. +adio and -: announcin" is su2stantially diffe!ent f!o( o!dina!y conve!sation 2ut 3ust fo! that !eason allo6s conside!a2le insi"ht into those ci!cu(stances. Announce!s a!e not the autho!s of the sc!i%ts they !ead out. -hei! tal$ occu!s as %a!t of %!e-%lanned se5uences, f!o( 6hich they a!e not f!ee to de%a!t in anythin" save (ino! 6ays. At the sa(e ti(e announce!s a!e e8%ected to convey an i(%!ession of 7f!esh tal$7 and to $ee% alive a sense of s%ontaneity in 6hat they do. Beetin" these inconsistent !e5ui!e(ents is difficult, since they have to delive! thei! lines in a technically

e!!o!-f!ee 6ay. -he 2!oadcaste!7s tas$ is 7the %!oduction of see(in"ly faultless f!esh tal$7.G Qet announce!s do, of cou!se, (a$e sli%s of the ton"ue. A(on" the e8a(%les "iven 2y Goff(an it is easy to find instances of the e!!o!s listed 2y Be!in"e! and Baye!) #1& 7 n closin" ou! -: Chu!ch of the Ai!, let (e !e(ind all of (( )) ou! listene!s that ti(e 6ounds all heals7 #t!ans%osition o! S%oone!is(&. #2& #3& #4& #@& 7Qou a!e listenin" to the (ucous of Clyde Fucas7 #%!esonance&. 7And no6 co(in" into the 2all "a(e fo! the +eds is nu(2e! fo!ty-fou!, /!an$ /ulle!, futility infielde!7 #%e!seve!ation&. 7-his is the Do(inion net6o!$ of the Canadian 9!oad Co!%in" Cast!ation7 #conta(ination&. 7<o!d has 3ust !eached us that a ho(e-(ade 2londe e8%loded in the +o8y -heat!e this (o!nin"7 #su2stitution&.

-he!e a!e also nu(e!ous e8a(%les close to those listed 2y /!eud, such as) #1& #2& 79eat the e"" yol$ and then add the (il$, then slo6ly 2lend in the sifted flou!. As you do you can see ho6 the (i8tu!e is sic$enin".7 #3& 7And no6, audience, he!e is ou! s%ecial -: Batinee "uest that 6e7ve all 2een 6aitin" fo! - 6o!ld-fa(ous autho!, lectu!e! and 7:ice!oys - if you 6ant a "ood cho$e.7

6o!ld t!avelle!, a (an a2out to6n. B!, e!, B!.... ChL <hat the hell is his na(e?7 #4& 7So, f!iends, 2e su!e to visit /!an$ie7s !estau!ant fo! ele%hant food and dinin".7

Bost of these sli%s a!e hu(o!ous 12 and a%tly !einfo!ce /!eud7s %oint that 3o$in" and sli%s of the ton"ue have a close affinity. Althou"h it is not %ossi2le to de(onst!ate this di!ectly, such e8a(%les fit 5uite closely 6ith /!eud7s inte!%!etation of ve!2al %a!a%!a8es. -he (is%!onounced o! su2stituted 6o!ds do not loo$ si(%ly li$e non-s%ecific alte!natives to those 6hich should have 2een utte!ed. -hey a!e e(2a!!assin" in !es%ect of the vie6 that the 2!oadcaste! is su%%osed to conveyA so(e have the 7only too t!ue7 connotations to the( to 6hich /!eud calls attentionA and othe!s have a self-evidently se8ual cha!acte!. 9ut conside! t6o othe! fo!(s of sli%s in !adio tal$) #1& #2& #3& 7Fadies 6ho ca!e to d!ive 2y and d!o% off thei! clothes 6ill !eceive %!o(%t attention.7 7/ol$s, t!y ou! co(fo!ta2le 2eds. %e!sonally stand 2ehind eve!y 2ed 6e sell.7 7-he loot and the ca! 6e!e listed as stolen 2y the Fos An"eles ;olice De%a!t(ent.7

##100&& '4( )And he e in *olly+ood it is u$ou ed that the fo $e $ovie sta let is e,%ectin" he fifth child in a $onth.) '1( )-u ns +ill "ive you instant elief and assu e you no indi"estion o dist ess du in" the ni"ht .... So t y -u ns and "o to slee% +ith a # oad ... .tu ns %a"e/ s$ile.) '2( )0t)s ti$e no+, ladies and "entle$en, fo ou featu ed "uest, the % o$inent lectu e and social leade , 1 s 2l$a Dod"e... /Su%e $an cut-in/ +ho is a#le to lea% #uildin"s in a sin"le #ound.) '3( A local -3 station sho+in" a #o,in" $atch f o$ 1adison S4ua e Ga den inte u%ted the % o" a$$e to e%o t the death of a local %olitician. 5n cuttin" #ac! to the fi"ht, the announce +as sayin"6 )-hat +asn)t $uch of a #lo+, fol!s&) 0n these cases no sli% of the ton"ue is involved, #ut they do othe +ise ta!e the fo $ of %a a% a,es. So$ethin" has "one a+ y +ith +hat the s%ea!e intended to convey. -he second set of e,a$%les is inte estin" #ecause if +e did not !no+ the ci cu$stances in +hich they occu ed, it +ould see$ as thou"h they contain ty%ical )only too t ue) utte ances. 7o $otive fo the$ can #e i$%uted, unless the % oduce s es%onsi#le fo cuttin" f o$ one % o" a$$e to the othe so$eho+ 'consciously o othe +ise( o "ani8ed the se4uencin" to have the effects noted. -he fi st cate"o y of sli%s a e $o e difficult to inte % et. 0t $ay #e the case that these a e unconsciously $otivated a$#i"uities. 9ut this see$s unli!ely. 0t is $o e % o#a#le that thei a$#i"uous cha acte +ould %ass unnoticed #y s%ea!e s and listene s ali!e if they +e e utte ed +ithin o dina y, eve yday conve sations. -he %oint is not :ust that thei a$#i"uous $eanin"s a e not i$$ediately a%%a ent #ut also that in eve yday tal! $eanin"s othe than those intended #y s%ea!e s tend to #e uled out #y conte,tual featu es of the conve sation. S%ea!e s a e a#le to add ess the$selves to the

s%ecific %eo%le +ith +ho$ they a e en"a"ed, % e-selectin" +o ds and %h ases so that %ossi#le alte native eadin"s a e e,cluded. ;adio o -3 announce s cannot do this #ecause they s%ea! to a "ene ali8ed audience, that audience not #ein" co-% esent +ith the$. 7o+, it +ould clea ly #e $ista!en to e"a d adio tal! as ty%ical of tal! in "ene al. -he e a e t+o easons +hy sli%s of the

##101&& ton"ue stand out $uch $o e % o$inently in adio tal! than in day-to-day conve sations. <i st, the discou se does not ta!e %lace #et+een co-% esent co$$unicants. Disentan"led f o$ othe cues, +hat is said #eco$es a $o e )+itnessa#le) %heno$enon than it is +hen e$#edded in eve yday activities. -his is also t ue of $any of < eud)s e,a$%les of sli%s of the ton"ue, culled as they a e f o$ the the a%eutic situation. -he the a%eutic encounte , afte all, ha dly e,e$%lifies o dina y tal! any $o e than # oadcastin" does. -he +o ds of the %atient a e t eated as havin" a s%ecial si"nificance, to #e ca efully sc utini8ed. Second, announce s a e s%ecialists in the % oduction of fla+less s%eech and a e e,%ected to #e such #y the natu e of thei % ofession. -he $ain tas! of the %e fo $e is to % esent the sc i%t fluidly and clea ly. 0t is only +hen +e eco"ni8e ho+ distinctive and unusual this elatively fla+less s%eech $ode is that +e can #e"in to a%% eciate the contin"encies of o dina y day-to-day tal!. 9oth lay %a tici%ants and lin"uists usually e"a d eve yday tal! as $uch $o e )%e fected) and )o de ed) than in fact it is. Su$$a i8in" ecent +o ! on the e$%i ical study of conve sations, 9oo$e and =ave co$$ent6 t is i(%o!tant to !eco"ni.e that in s%eech 7no!(al7 does not $ean )%e fect). -he no $ fo s%ontaneous s%eech is de$onst a#ly i$%e fect. Conve!sation is cha!acte!i.ed 2y f!e5uent %auses, hesitation sounds, false sta!ts, (isa!ticulations and co!!ections .... n eve!yday ci!cu(stances 6e si(%ly do not hea! (any of ou o+n ton"ue-sli%s no those $ade #y

othe s. -hey can 2e disce ned in unnin" s%eech only #y ado%tin" a s%eciali8ed )% oof- eade ) (ode of listenin".G 0n $ost ci cu$stances of day-to-day conve sations it is, in fact, ve y difficult indeed to distin"uish sli%s of the ton"ue f o$ the f a"$ented natu e of vi tually all the tal! that "oes on. As Goff$an %oints out, fo a %a ticula utte ance to #e tested as a sli% o as )faulty), it has to #e of a so t +hich the s%ea!e +ould alte +e e he o she to #e"in the utte ance a"ain 'o , of cou se, one that actually is alte ed o ) e$edied)(. 0t +ill not do to identify sli%s of the ton"ue #y efe ence to an ideali8ed $odel of enunciation o discou se. 1o eove , to unde stand the cha acte of day-to-day tal!, +e have to loo! at the othe ty%es of fault that $ay int ude. >hat a e the i$%lications of this?

##102&& /i!st, as !e"a!ds sli%s of the ton"ue, it (ay 2e a!"ued that Be!in"e! and Baye! 6e!e not as fa! off the (a!$ as /!eud tended to a!"ue. /!o($in has de(onst!ated that (is%!onunciation of 6o!ds (anifests %!o%e!ties si(ila! to those cha!acte!istic of 7co!!ect7 6o!d %!oduction. 14 -his does not sho6 that such faults a!e not 2!ou"ht a2out 2y unconscious %!o(%tin"s, 2ut it does su""est that the!e is usually no 7inte!!u%tion7 in the !efle8ive (onito!in" of s%eech %!oduction that necessa!ily needs to 2e invo$ed to e8%lain sli%s of the ton"ue. -he %heno(ena of %!esonances and %e!seve!ations a!e also %!esu(a2ly di!ectly 2ound u% 6ith the !efle8ive (onito!in" of s%eech. <o!ds (ust cha!acte!istically 2e t!ansfe!!ed f!o( the 2!ain to s%eech as synta"(atically o!de!ed "!ou%in"s, o! else such s%eech distu!2ances 6ould not occu! at all. A second la!"e cate"o!y of faults conce!ns not individual s%eech %!oduction as such 2ut tu!n-ta$in". A s%ea$e! (ay 2e"in to tal$ 2efo!e the utte!ance of anothe! is concluded, eithe! 7ove!la%%in"7 6ith o! di!ectly inte!!u%tin" the othe!A t6o %a!tici%ants (i"ht 2e"in s%ea$in" si(ultaneouslyA each (ay 72ac$ off7 f!o( s%ea$in", %!oducin" an un6anted "a% in the conve!sational flo6. Oust as in the case of individual s%eech faults, (ost such dis3unctions %ass co(%letely unnoticed 2y s%ea$e!s en"a"ed in o!dina!y conve!sation. -hey a!e 7hea!d7 only 6hen, fo! e8a(%le, a st!i% of s%eech is !eco!ded so that they can 2e deli2e!ately attended to. >e!e a"ain day-to-day tal$ is not li$e !adio tal$, 6he!e ove!la%s, dou2le u%ta$es, etc., a!e ve!y noticea2le. t is (o!e often than not the case in conve!sations that ove!la% occu!s, so that one s%ea$e! is 2e"innin" an utte!ance 6hile anothe! is finishin". 9ut %a!tici%ants filte! these out so that cont!i2utions to the conve!sation a!e hea!d as se%a!ate st!i%s of tal$. -hi!d, faulty tal$ 6hich is !eco"ni.ed as such usually involves !e(edial %!ocedu!es initiated eithe! 2y the s%ea$e! o! 2y the listene!s. Co!!ection 2y othe!s see(s !elatively !a!e, %a!tly 2ecause (any i(%e!fections 6hich a!e %honolo"ical o! syntactical sli%s 6hen 3ud"ed a"ainst an ideali.ed "!a((atical (odel a!e not hea!d as such, 2ut %a!tly also 2ecause tact is e8e!cised in !es%ect of 6hat (i"ht 2e ta$en to 2e the inco(%etencies of s%ea$e!s. +e(edial

6o!$ done 2y s%ea$e!s nea!ly al6ays conce!ns tu!nta$in" difficulties !athe! than sli%s of the ton"ue. -hese o2se!vations tell us a "ood deal a2out 6hat eve!yday

##103&& s%eech is li$e and confi!( that ve!2al %a!a%!a8es cannot 2e inte!%!eted a"ainst an ideali.ed conce%tion of 7co!!ect7 s%eech. Announce!s7 tal$ diffe!s f!o( the day-to-day use of lan"ua"e in so fa! as it does a%%!o8i(ate to such a conce%tion. -he tal$ and the activities of announce!s 6hen they a!e on set in fact co(es close to ho6 hu(an social life 6ould 2e if it 6e!e actually li$e the %o!t!ayals "iven 2y o23ectivist social scientists. Bost of 6hat is said is %!o"!a((ed %!io! to t!ans(ission o! sc!eenin" and can 2e (odified only in (a!"inal 6ays 2y the a"ent follo6in" the sc!i%t. -he acto! he!e does a%%ea! (e!ely as a 72ea!e!7 of %!e-"iven %atte!ns of social o!"ani.ation - o!, as Goff(an %uts it, an 7ani(ato!7, a 7soundin" 2o8 f!o( 6hich utte!ances co(e7.G -he vast (a3o!ity of situations of tal$ #and of inte!action& a!e si(%ly not li$e this. -he 7loose7 o! fla6ed cha!acte! of day-to-day tal$, o! 6hat a%%ea!s as such 6hen co(%a!ed 6ith an ideali.ed (odel, is actually "ene!ic to its cha!acte! as en(eshed in hu(an %!a8is. <hat is !e(a!$a2le, to %ut it anothe! 6ay, is not lac$ of technical %olish in tal$ 2ut the fact that conve!sations and the #al6ays contin"ent& !e%!oduction of social life have any sy((et!y of fo!( at all. n day-to-day inte!action the no!(ative ele(ents involved in co((unication in tal$ as the %!oduction of 7"ood s%eech7 a!e ha!dly eve! the (ain i(%ellin" inte!est of %a!tici%ants. +athe!, tal$ is satu!ated 6ith the %!actical de(ands of the !outine enact(ent of social life. Acce%tin" this (eans !ecastin" /!eud7s vie6. Acco!din" to /!eud, eve!y sli% of the ton"ue has a (otivated o!i"in and could in %!inci%le 2e e8%lained if sufficient $no6led"e of the %sycholo"ical (a$e-u% of the individual in 5uestion 6e!e availa2le. >e!e 6e clea!ly disce!n an i(%lied %ictu!e of 6ell-o!de!ed s%eech, f!o( 6hich sli%s of the ton"ue lead the s%ea$e! to de%a!t. -he stand%oint a( advocatin" in effect tu!ns this a!ound. 7<ello!de!ed7 s%eech, in the conte8t of day-to-day conve!sations at least, is "ea!ed to the ove!all (otivational involve(ents 6hich s%ea$e!s have in the

cou!se of %u!suin" thei! %!actical activities. 7Co!!ect s%eech7, in co((on 6ith (any othe! as%ects of such activities, is not usually di!ectly (otivated - unless one is an announce!. t should 2e %ointed out in %a!enthesis that on occasion distu!2ed s%eech (ay 2e so (otivated. -hus in ci!cu(stances of (ou!nin", a 2e!eaved %e!son 6ho (aintained o!dina!y standa!ds of s%eech %!oduction (i"ht 2e thou"ht ha!d

((67,))

hea ted and unfeelin". >he e the e a e sanctions i$%lyin" that %eo%le should $anifest e$otional a"itation, s%eech distu #ances, o alte ations in no $al $odes of s%eech, $ay #e one +ay of )# in"in" off) such states.@ 0f $ost %a ticula fo $s of lan"ua"e use a e not di ectly $otivated, then it follo+s that $ost sli%s of the ton"ue cannot #e t aced to unconscious $otivation. >he e does this leave us, then, as e"a ds < eud)s theo y of ve #al %a a% a,es? 0 +ould $a!e the follo+in" su""estion. < eud)s inte % etation % o#a#ly a%%lies only in ci cu$stances athe diffe ent f o$ those he had in $ind +hen fo $ulatin" it. 0n < eud)s vie+, sli%s of the ton"ue tend to #e $ade a#ove all in casual o outine situations, +he e nothin" $uch han"s on +hat is said. 5n such occasions, the unconscious is li!ely to )# ea! th ou"h), as it +e e, and distu # the utte ances that a s%ea!e % oduces. 0 +ould hold that on these occasions -+hich $a!e u% $ost of social life unconscious ele$ents a e actually least % one to influencin" di ectly +hat is said. ;outini8ation, involvin" the continual ) e" oovin") of the fa$ilia in ci cu$stances of su#stantial ontolo"ical secu ity, is the $ain condition of the effective efle,ive $onito in" #y hu$an #ein"s of thei activities. An,iety conce nin" the actual fo $ of s%eech +ill #e hei"htened only +hen the acto has a s%ecific inte est in "ettin" +hat he o she says )e,actly i"ht). -his is +hat adio and -3 announce s have to do. 0t is li!ely to #e the case in a decla ation of love, cont a y to < eud)s su%%osition. >e can also eadily $a!e sense of the )Si"no elli) e,a$%le and the fo "ettin" of % o%e na$es "ene ally as a $otivated %heno$enon. A o%e na$es have a s%ecial si"nificance +hich othe +o ds do not. -o $is% onounce so$eone)s na$e o to call so$eone #y the + on" na$e causes %e sonal aff ont in a +ay that othe va"a ies of % onunciation do not. -he e is thus a s%ecial % e$iu$ on "ettin" na$es i"ht, +hich %e ha%s $eans that the ecall of na$es i$%in"es $o e i$$ediately on sou ces of an,iety than do othe lin"uistic ite$s. As 0 have %ointed out, so$ethin" si$ila a%%lies to the the a%eutic encounte as +ell.

((675))

;efe ences6 Consciousness, Self and Social 2ncounte s

((())

((*))

((68))

((6,)) A %a!ticula!ly useful discussion of these difficulties is to 2e found in !vin" -hal2e!", 7/!eud7s anato(ies of the self7, in +icha!d <ollhei(, /reud, 3 Collection of Critical 9ssays #'e6 Qo!$) Dou2leday, 6 *,). A !evised ve!sion of this essay a%%ea!s in +icha!d <olihei( and Oa(es >o%$ins, :hilosophical 9ssays on /reud #Ca(2!id"e) Ca(2!id"e Dnive!sity ;!ess, 6 88). 2 ; Tuoted in -hal2e!", /!eud7s Anato(ies of the self7, %. 65(. /!eud, 3n 5utline of :sychoanalysis #Fondon, >o"a!th, 6 ( ), pp. 5(1*.

, pp. 6(81*7. G. *. B. Ansco(2e, 7-he fi!st %e!son7, in Sa(uel Gutten%lan, $ind and =anguage #C8fo!d) 9lac$6ell, 6 *8). O. F. Bac$ie, 7-he t!anscendental G G, in Ua$ :an St!aaten, :hilosophical Sub-ects #C8fo!d) Cla!endon ;!ess, 6 87). 5 Seco!d, 9'plaining #uman <ehaviour #9eve!ly >ills) Sa"e, 6 88), pp. 5*18. 2id., %%. (716. See O. S. 9!une!, <eyond the Information >iven #'e6 Qo!$) 'o!ton, 6 *;). 8 #9oston) 6 * ). >ou"hton Bifflin,

:. /. St!a6son, "he <ounds of Sense #Fondon) Bethuen, 6 ((),

Ste%hen -oul(in, 7-he "enealo"y of GconsciousnessG, in ;aul /.

O. S. Gi2son, "he 9cological 3pproach to 0isual :erception

Dl!ic 'eisse!, Cognition and ?eality #San /!ancisco) /!ee(an, 6 *(), p. 88. See also ide(, $emory 5bserved #San /!ancisco) /!ee(an, 6 88). Oohn Shotte!, GDuality of st!uctu!eG and GintentionalityG in an ecolo"ical %sycholo"y7, @ournal for the "heory of Social <ehaviour, vol. 6;, 6 8;. 10 B. <e!thei(e!, 7;sycho(oto! coo!dination of audito!y and visual s%ace at 2i!th7, Science, vol. 6;,, 6 (8. 'eisse!, Cognition and ?eality, p. *8. 6; 6ith one and t6o ea!s7, @ournal of the 3coustical Society of 3merica, *. C. Che!!y, 7So(e e8%e!i(ents on the !eco"nition of s%eech, 'eisse!, Cognition and ?eality, p. 8 .

vol. 85, 6 5;. A. B. -!eis(an, 7St!ate"ies and (odels of selective attention7, :sychological ?evie&, vol. *(, 6 ( . 65 conside!ations7, :sychological ?evie&, vol. *7, 6 (;. 6( 'eisse!, Cognition and ?eality, pp. 8,15. O. A. Deutsch and D. Deutsch, GAttentionG) so(e theo!etical

##100&&

11 C;S-, %%. 120-3. 18 *!i$ >. *!i$son, Childhood and Society #'e6 Qo!$) 'o!ton, 1,03&, %%. 1B-1C. 1, 2id., %. 241.

20 *!nest 9ec$e!, "he <irth and Aeath of $eaning #'e6 Qo!$) /!ee ;!ess, 1,02&, %. ,@. 21 See also *!i$son, Childhood and Society, p. 24,A >a!!y Stac$ Sullivan, "he Interpersonal "heory of :sychiatry #Fondon) -avistoc$, 1,@@&, cha%te! 4. do not acce%t *!i$son7s clai( that these %sycholo"ical %heno(ena can 2e di!ectly !elated to the fo!( of social institutions. 22 G. ;ie!s and B. 9. Sin"e!, Shame and >uilt #S%!in"field) Addison, 1,03&. >e!e !e%eat so(e o2se!vations o!i"inally (ade in !elation to the theo!y of suicideA cf. SS;-, %. 3,3, footnote 32. 23 *!i$son, Childhood and Society, p. 2@1. 24 2id., %. 2@0.

2@ Dennie <olf, 7Dnde!standin" othe!s) a lon"itudinal case study of the conce%t of inde%endent a"ency7, in Geo!"e *. /o!(an, 3ction and "hought #'e6 Qo!$) Acade(ic ;!ess, 1,82&. 20 -. 9. 9!a.elton et al., 7-he o!i"ins of !eci%!ocity7, in B. Fe6is and F. +osen2lu(, "he Infant4s 9ffects on the Caregiver #'e6 Qo!$) <iley, 1,14&. 21 F. S. :y"ots$y, $ind in Society #Ca(2!id"e) >a!va!d Dnive!sity

;!ess, 1,18&, %%. 20ff. 28 *!i$ >. *!i$son, Identity, Bouth and Crisis #Fondon) /a2e! V /a2e!, 1,08&, cha%te! @A ide(, Identity and the =ife Cycle #'e6 Qo!$) nte!national Dnive!sities ;!ess, 1,01&. 2, *!i$son, Identity and the =ife Cycle, p. 1,. 30 See i2id., cha%te! 3, 7-he %!o2le( of e"o-identity7. 31 2id., %. 102.

32 See C;S-, %%. 123-8. 33 9!uno 9ettelhei(, "he Informed #eart #Glencoe) /!ee ;!ess, 1,00&, %. 14. Goff(an7s 6o!$ on 7total institutions7 ove!la%s at (any %oints 6ith the analysis "iven 2y 9ethelhei() Goff(an, 3sylums (#armonds&orth+ :enguin, 6 (6). 34 9ettelhei(, "he Informed #eart, p. 132. 3@ 2id., %. 148.

30 7Since old %!isone!s had acce%ted, o! 2een fo!ced to acce%t, a childli$e de%endency on the SS, (any of the( see(ed to 6ant to feel that at least so(e of the %eo%le they 6e!e acce%tin" as all%o6e!ful fathe! i(a"es 6e!e 3ust and $ind7, i2id., %. 112. 31 See the e8a(%les collected in <illia( Sa!"ant, <attle for the $ind #Fondon) ;an, 1,@,&.

##101&&

3, 40 38 B. Be!leau-;onty, :henomenology of :erception #Fondon) +outled"e, 1,14&.

2id., %. 101. F. Goldstein, =anguage and =anguage Aisturbances #'e6 Qo!$) G!une and St!atton, 1,48&. 41 42 43 *!vin" Goff(an, <ehaviour in :ublic :laces #'e6 Qo!$) /!ee ;!ess, 1,03&, %. 11A ide(, Interaction ?itual #Fondon) Allen Fane, 1,12&, %. 1. 44 #Ca(2!id"e, Bass.A B - ;!ess, 1,81&. 4@ -his see(s to 2e the %!evalent notion, fo! instance, in (ost of the cont!i2utions to Oason Ditton, "he 0ie& from >offman #Fondon) Bac(illan, 1,80&. See also Alasdai! Baclnty!e, 3fter 0irtue (=ondon+ Auc)&orth, 6 86), pp. 6781 . Cf. ?. #arr and :. /. Seco!d, "he 9'planation of Social <ehaviour #C8fo!d) 9lac$6ell, 1,12&, cha%te! 10. 40 #Fondon) >eine(ann, 1,11&, %%. 31,-81. 41 48 4, 2@2. @0 >udson, 1,02&A see also the fa(ous 6o!$ 2y Oan >ui.in"a, #omo =udens #Fondon) +outled"e, 1,@2&. C;S-, %%. 83-4, and passim. Goff(an, <ehaviour in :ublic :laces, p. 18. *!vin" Goff(an, /rame 3nalysis #'e6 Qo!$) >a!%e!, 1,14&, %. +o"e! Caillois, $an, :lay and >ames #Fondon) -ha(es V Alvin <. Gouldne!, "he Coming Crisis of Cestern Sociology Cf. thiel De Sola ;ool, "he Social Impact of the "elephone Be!leau-;onty, :henomenology of :erception, p. 104. 2id., %. 10,.

@1 Goff(an, /rame 3nalysis, p. @00. shall not discuss he!e the e%iste(olo"ical 5uestions 6hich a!e 2!oached, 2ut ha!dly !esolved, in Goff(an7s discussion in this 2oo$. -hey sha!e a "ood deal in co((on 6ith Schut.7s %onde!in"s ove! the natu!e of 7(ulti%le !ealities7, and 6ith (any othe! cu!!ents in (ode!n %hiloso%hy conce!ned 6ith the a%%a!ently !elativistic i(%lications of the (ediation of f!a(es of (eanin". See D?S$, cha%te! 4. @2 @3 @4 -his the(e, of cou!se, has 2een (uch e8%lo!ed. -he 2est-$no6n 6o!$ is *d6a!d -. >all, "he Silent =anguage #'e6 Qo!$) Dou2leday, 1,@,&A see also the sa(e autho!7s "he #idden Aimension (=ondon+ <odley #ead, 6 ((). @@ syste(atics fo! the o!"anisation of tu!n-ta$in" in conve!sation7, =anguage, vol. @0, 1,14. >a!vey Sac$s and *((anuel A. Sche"loff, 7A si(%lest Goff(an, <ehaviour in :ublic :laces, pp. 1@0ff. 2id.

##108&&

@0 Cf. Geo!"e ;sathas, 9veryday =anguage+ Studies in 9thnometho1 dology #'e6 Qo!$) !vin"ton, 1,1,&. @1 Oean-;aul Sa!t!e, CritiEue of Aialectical ?eason #Fondon) 'e6 Feft 9oo$s, %. 2@,&. @8 Goff(an, Interaction ?itual, pp. 141ff. @, >a2e!(as, "heorie des )ommuni)ativen #an delns #/!an$fu!t) Suh!$a(%, 1,81&, vol. , section 3. 00 Goff(an, <ehaviour in :ublic :laces, p. 2@. 01 Cf. the "ene!al discussion of %oliteness in ;enelo%e 9!o6n and Ste%hen Fevinson, 7Dnive!sals in lan"ua"e use) %oliteness %heno(ena7, in *sthe! '. Goody, Fuestions and :oliteness #Ca(2!id"e) Ca(2!id"e Dnive!sity ;!ess, 1,18&. 02 Goff(an, <ehaviour in :ublic :laces, p. 3@. cf. Oohn 9lac$in", "he 3nthropology of the <ody. #Fondon) Acade(ic ;!ess, 1,11&. 03 7 ta$e (any 2odily feelin"s to 2e %!ivate. f have a 2u!n on (y a!(, ta$e the %ain to 2e %!ivate, the si"ht to 2e %u2lic. -his is not al6ays so. So(e %eo%le feel that they can actually feel anothe! %e!son7s %ain, o! thin$ di!ectly anothe!7s thou"hts, and (ay feel that othe! %eo%le can feel thei! 2odily feelin"s, o! actually 2e thin$in" thei! thou"hts7, +. D. Fain", Self and 5thers #Fondon) ;en"uin, 1,11&, %. 34. 04 >a!old Ga!fin$el, 7A conce%tion of, and e8%e!i(ents 6ith, Gt!ustG as a condition of sta2le conce!ted actions7, in 0. O. >a!vey, $otivation and Social Interaction #'e6 Qo!$) +onald ;!ess, 1,03&. 0@ *!vin" Goff(an, /orms of "al) #C8fo!d) 9lac$6ell, 1,81&, %%. 101ff.

00 01 08 0, 10 11

2id., %. 103. 2id., %%. 10-1. +oy 9has$a!, "he :ossibility of Daturalism #9!i"hton) >a!veste!, 1,1,&, %%. @1-2. /o! a !ecent e8a(%le - a(on" ve!y (any othe!s - see 9!uce O. 9iddle, ?ole "heory #'e6 Qo!$) Acade(ic ;!ess, 1,1,&. C;S-, %. 111. 2id.

12 A %oint often (ade in the cont!ove!sy ove! !ole theo!y in Ge!(any so(e t6o decades a"o. A cont!i2ution that !etains its inte!est is /. >. -en2!u$) 7Uu! deutschen +e.e%tion de! +ollenanalyse7, EWlne! Ueitsch!ift fu! So.iolo"ie, vol. 3, 1,02. 13 Cf. 'i"el -h!ift, 7/lies and "e!(s) a "eo"!a%hy of $no6led"e7, in

De!e$ G!e"o!y and Oohn D!!y, Social ?elations and Spatial Structures #Fondon) Bac(illan, 1,84&. 14 Cf. <illia( Fa2ov, 7+ules fo! !itual insults7, in David Sudno6, Studies in Social Interaction #'e6 Qo!$) /!ee ;!ess, 1,12&.

((67 ))

1@ 10 Critical Dotes+ !reud on Slips of the "ongue

D. Fa6!ence <iede!, 7-ellin" the code7, in +oy -u!ne!, 9thnomethodology #>a!(onds6o!th) ;en"uin, 1,14&. 2id., %. 14,.

i #>a!(onds6o!th) ;en"uin, 1,14&, %. @1. 2 3 4 @ of fo!"etfulness7 #18,0&A see the Standa!d *dition, vol. 3. /!eud, "he :sychopathology of 9veryday =ife, p. 44. 2id., %. 13@. 9oileau, 3rt potiEue, 5uoted in i2id., %. 148. /!eud, Introductory =ectures on :sychoanalysis, p. 11. *!vin" Goff(an, 7+adio tal$) a study of the 6ays of ou! e!!o!s7, in /orms of "al) #C8fo!d) 9lac$6ell, 1,81&. 2id., %. 242. -hey 6e!e no dou2t selected fo! this !eason. Bost of Goff(an7s (ate!ial co(es f!o( collections of 72loo%e!s7 edited 2y Ee!(it Schafe!, such as :ri!e <loopers #G!een6ich) /a6cett, 1,0@&. Donald S. 9oo(e! and Oohn D. B. Fave!, 7Sli%s of the ton"ue7, <ritish @ournal of Aisorders of Communication, vol. 3, 1,08, %. 2. :icto!ia A. /!o($in, 7-he non-ano(alous natu!e of ano(alous utte!ances7, =anguage, vol. 41, 1,11. Goff(an, /orms of "al), p. 220. As indicated 2y Goff(an. i2id., %%. 223ff. ##110&&

Si"(und /!eud, Introductory =ectures on :sychoanalysis

+. Be!in"e! and C. Baye!, 0ersprechen und 0erlesen #:ienna, 18,@&. /!eud, "he :sychopathology of 9veryday =ife #>a!(onds6o!th) ;en"uin, 1,1@&, %. 3,. 2id., %. 40. C!i"inally %u2lished in /!eud7s a!ticle, 7-he %hysical (echanis(

3. "ime, Space and #egionali$ation

-i(e-Geo"!a%hy have concent!ated in the %!ecedin" cha%te! u%on s%ecifyin" ce!tain %sycholo"ical 5ualities of the a"ent and u%on analysin" inte!action in situations of co-%!esence. -he %ositionin" of acto!s in conte8ts of inte!action, and the inte!lacin" of those conte8ts the(selves, is ele(ental to such conce!ns. 9ut to sho6 ho6 these (atte!s !elate to 2!oade! as%ects of social syste(s it is necessa!y to conside! ho6 social theo!y should conf!ont - in a conc!ete !athe! than an a2st!actly %hiloso%hical 6ay - the 7situatedness7 of inte!action in ti(e and s%ace. Bost social analysts t!eat ti(e and s%ace as (e!e envi!on(ents of action and acce%t unthin$in"ly the conce%tion of ti(e, as (ensu!a2le cloc$ ti(e, cha!acte!istic of (ode!n <este!n cultu!e. <ith the e8ce%tion of the !ecent 6o!$s of "eo"!a%he!s - of 6hich (o!e in a (o(ent - social scientists have failed to const!uct thei! thin$in" a!ound the (odes in 6hich social syste(s a!e constituted ac!oss ti(e-s%ace. As have indicated ea!lie!, investi"ation of this issue is one (ain tas$ i(%osed 2y the 7%!o2le( of o!de!7 as conce%tuali.ed in the theo!y of st!uctu!ation. t is not a s%ecific ty%e o! 7a!ea7 of social science 6hich can 2e %u!sued o! disca!ded at 6ill. t is at the ve!y hea!t of social theo!y, as inte!%!eted th!ou"h the notion of st!uctu!ation, and should hence also 2e !e"a!ded as of ve!y conside!a2le i(%o!tance fo! the conduct of e(%i!ical !esea!ch in the social sciences. /o!tunately, 6e do not need to tac$le these issues de novo. Cve! the %ast fe6 yea!s the!e has ta$en %lace a !e(a!$a2le conve!"ence 2et6een "eo"!a%hy and the othe! social sciences, as a !esult of 6hich "eo"!a%he!s, d!a6in" u%on the va!ious

##111&& esta2lished t!aditions of social theo!y, have (ade cont!i2utions to social thou"ht of so(e si"nificance. Bost such 6!itin"s, thin$ it 6ould 2e t!ue to say, !e(ain un$no6n to the (a3o!ity of those 6o!$in" in the !est of the social sciences, althou"h they contain ideas of ve!y "ene!al a%%lication. So(e of these cont!i2utions a!e to 2e found in the 6o!$ of >a"e!st!and, 2ut they a!e 2y no (eans confined to his 6!itin"s and those of his i((ediate collea"ues.7= n %!evious analyses of the theo!y of st!uctu!ation have (entioned the si"nificance of this a%%!oach 6ithout conf!ontin" it di!ectly o! t!yin" to %oint out its li(itations. 9ut in this e8%anded e8%osition shall do so. -i(e-"eo"!a%hy, as fo!(ulated 2y >a"e!st!and, ta$es as its sta!tin"-%oint the ve!y %heno(enon 6hich have (uch st!essed the !outini.ed cha!acte! of daily life. -his is in tu!n connected 6ith featu!es of the hu(an 2ody, its (eans of (o2ility and co((unication, and its %ath th!ou"h the 7life-cycle7 - and the!efo!e 6ith the hu(an 2ein" as a 72io"!a%hical %!o3ect7. As have (entioned 2efo!e, >a"e!st!and7s a%%!oach is 2ased (ainly u%on identifyin" sou!ces of const!aint ove! hu(an activity "iven 2y the natu!e of the 2ody and the %hysical conte8ts in 6hich activity occu!s. Such const!aints %!ovide the ove!all 72ounda!ies7 li(itin" 2ehaviou! ac!oss ti(e-s%ace. >a"e!st!and has fo!(ulated these in va!ious diffe!ent 6ays, 2ut his cha!acte!istic e(%hasis is u%on the follo6in" facto!s.7 #2& -he indivisi2ility of the hu(an 2ody, and of othe! livin" and ino!"anic entities in the milieu' of hu(an e8istence. Co!%o!eality i(%oses st!ict li(itations u%on the ca%a2ilities of (ove(ent and %e!ce%tion of the hu(an a"ent. -he finitude of the life s%an of the hu(an a"ent as a 72ein" to6a!ds death7. -his essential ele(ent of the hu(an condition "ives !ise to ce!tain inesca%a2le de(o"!a%hic %a!a(ete!s of

inte!action ac!oss ti(e-s%ace. /o! this !eason if no othe!, ti(e is a sca!ce !esou!ce fo! the individual acto!. #3& -he li(ited ca%a2ility of hu(an 2ein"s to %a!tici%ate in (o!e than one tas$ at once, cou%led 6ith the fact that eve!y tas$ has a du!ation. -u!n-ta$in" e8e(%lifies the i(%lications of this so!t of const!aint. ##footnote&& +efe!ences (ay 2e found on %%. 1@8-01.

##112&&

#4& -he fact that (ove(ent in s%ace is also (ove(ent in ti(e. #@& -he li(ited 7%ac$in" ca%acity7 of ti(e-s%ace. 'o t6o hu(an 2odies can occu%y the sa(e s%ace at the sa(e ti(eA %hysical o23ects have the sa(e cha!acte!istic. -he!efo!e any .one of ti(e-s%ace can 2e analysed in te!(s of const!aints ove! the t6o ty%es of o23ects 6hich can 2e acco((odated 6ithin it. -hese five facets of 7ti(e-"eo"!a%hic !eality7, acco!din" to >a"e!st!and, e8%!ess the (ate!ial a8es of hu(an e8istence and unde!lie all conte8ts of association in conditions of co-%!esence.7 *8a(ined as !esou!ces #and thus, 6ould say, i(%licated in 2oth the "ene!ation and the dist!i2ution of %o6e!&, such facto!s condition the 6e2s of inte!action fo!(ed 2y the t!a3ecto!ies of the daily, 6ee$ly, (onthly and ove!all life %aths of individuals in thei! inte!actions 6ith one anothe!. -he t!a3ecto!ies of a"ents, as >a"e!st!and %uts it, 7have to acco((odate the(selves unde! the %!essu!es and the o%%o!tunities 6hich follo6 f!o( thei! co((on e8istence in te!!est!ial s%ace and ti(e 1.4 >a"e!st!and7s "ene!ali.ed conce%tion of ti(e-"eo"!a%hy o!i"inated in a lon"-te!( se!ies of studies of a local %a!ish in S6eden. -he a!ea in 5uestion 2oasted co(%!ehensive %o%ulation statistics, ena2lin" hi( to t!ace all the individuals 6ho had lived the!e, and had (oved in and out of the a!ea, fo! a %e!iod of so(ethin" li$e a hund!ed yea!s. C!de!in" these data as lifeti(e 2io"!a%hies, he sou"ht to analyse the( as co(%osin" life %aths in ti(e-s%ace that could 2e cha!ted usin" a %a!ticula! fo!( of notation. -he ty%ical %atte!ns of (ove(ent of individuals, in othe! 6o!ds, can 2e !e%!esented as the !e%etition of !outine activities ac!oss days o! lon"e! s%ans of ti(e-s%ace. A"ents (ove in %hysical conte8ts 6hose %!o%e!ties inte!act 6ith thei! ca%a2ilities, "iven the a2ove const!aints, at the sa(e ti(e as those a"ents inte!act 6ith one anothe!. nte!actions of individuals (ovin" in ti(e-s%ace co(%ose 72undles7 #encounte!s o! social occasions in Goff(an7s te!(inolo"y& (eetin" at 7stations7 o! definite ti(e-s%ace locations 6ithin 2ounded !e"ions #e.". ho(es, st!eets, cities, states, the oute! li(it of te!!est!ial s%ace 2ein" the ea!th as a 6hole - save fo! the odd s%ace t!avelle! o! t6o in the cu!!ent a"e of hi"h technolo"y&.

>a"e!st!and7s dyna(ic 7ti(e-s%ace (a%s7 a!e of definite inte!est and %!ovide a "!a%hic fo!( that has !elevance to situations 6ell 2eyond those fo! 6hich they have 2een used so fa!.

##113&&

/i"u!e @a /i"u!e @2 /i"u!es Sa and S2 sho6 this in its si(%lest "uise. -6o individuals, say, live a (ile a%a!t in a nei"h2ou!hoodA thei! ti(es%ace %aths ac!oss the cou!se of the day 2!in" the( into contact in an encounte! of sho!t du!ation in, say, a coffee house o! !estau!ant, follo6in" 6hich thei! activities a"ain dive!"e. f the daily activities of a s%ecific individual a!e !eco!ded, it is easy to 2uild u% a "!oss cha!acte!i.ation of his o! he! !outine activities, in so fa! as these co(%!ise t!a3ecto!ies in ti(e and s%ace. As a %o!t!ayal of a life %ath, this 6ould involve "ene!ali.ed %atte!ns of ti(e-s%ace (ove(ent 6ithin the 7life-cycle7. A %e!son (ay live in the house of his o! he! %a!ents, fo! e8a(%le, until esta2lishin" a ne6 !esidence on (a!!ia"e. -his (ay 2e associated 6ith a chan"e of 3o2, such that 2oth ho(e and 6o!$%lace, as 7stations7 alon" the daily t!a3ecto!y, 2eco(e alte!ed. Bo2ility 6ithin the housin" (a!$et, (a!ital se%a!ation o! ca!ee! %!o"!ession, a(id a host of othe! %ossi2le facto!s, (ay influence ty%ical life %aths. -he encounte!s into 6hich individuals ente! in the t!a3ecto!ies of daily life a!e su23ect to const!aints de!ivin" f!o( the list indicated a2ove. >a"e!st!and ac$no6led"es, of cou!se, that a"ents a!e not (e!ely (o2ile 2odies 2ut intentional 2ein"s 6ith %u!%oses, o! 6hat he calls 7%!o3ects7. -he %!o3ects 6hich individuals see$ to !eali.e, if they a!e to 2e actuali.ed, have to utili.e the inhe!ently li(ited !esou!ces of ti(e and s%ace to ove!co(e const!aints 6hich they conf!ont. 7Ca%a2ility const!aints7 a!e those of the so!t listed a2ove. So(e affect %!i(a!ily ti(e dist!i2ution) fo! e8a(%le, the need fo! slee% o! fo! food at !e"ula! inte!vals ensu!es ce!tain li(its to the st!uctu!ation of daily

##114&& activities. 7Cou%lin" const!aints7 !efe! to those that condition activities unde!ta$en 3ointly 6ith othe!s. -he volu(e of ti(es%ace availa2le to an individual in a day is a %!is( 2oundin" the %u!suance of %!o3ects. ;!is(s of daily conduct a!e not 3ust "eo"!a%hical o! %hysical 2ounda!ies 2ut have 7ti(e-s%ace 6alls on all sides7. -he si.e of such %!is(s, of cou!se, is also ve!y st!on"ly influenced 2y the de"!ee of ti(e-s%ace conve!"ence in the (eans of co((unication and t!ansfo!(ation availa2le to a"ents. -he notion of ti(e-s%ace conve!"ence 6as int!oduced 2y anothe! "eo"!a%he!, Oanelle, to !efe! to the 7sh!in$in"7 of distance in te!(s of the ti(e needed to (ove 2et6een diffe!ent locations.0 -hus the ti(e ta$en to t!avel f!o( the *ast Coast to the <est Coast of the Dnited States, in te!(s of availa2le (edia, can 2e calculated as follo6s. Cn foot the 3ou!ney 6ould ta$e (o!e than t6o yea!sA on ho!se2ac$ ei"ht (onthsA 2y sta"ecoach o! 6a"on, fou! (onthsA 2y !ail in 1,10, fou! daysA 2y !e"ula! ai! se!vices today, five hou!sA 2y the fastest 3et t!ans%o!t, 3ust ove! t6o hou!s. -i(e-s%ace conve!"ence can 2e %lotted to desc!i2e the oute! 2ounds of daily %!is(s. >o6eve!, it is o2vious that the!e a!e (a3o! disc!e%ancies 2et6een and 6ithin social co((unities in te!(s of the const!aints on (o2ility and co((unication affectin" diffe!ent "!ou%s and individuals. Se!iality and tu!n-ta$in" a!e 2uilt into (ost fo!(s of t!ans%o!tation. -hus, fo! instance, an e8%!ess t!ain (ay connect t6o cities in a ti(e of th!ee hou!s. 9ut the availa2ility of seats (ay 2e li(ited, even fo! those a2le and 6illin" to %ay. Bo!eove!, if a %e!son (isses the t!ain, the!e (ay 2e only local t!ains fo! seve!al hou!s until the ne8t e8%!ess, "ivin" ti(e-s%ace conve!"ence a 7%al%itatin"7 cha!acte!.7 /inally, fo! those in (ost societies, and fo! (ost of the days in an individual7s life, (o2ility ta$es %lace 6ithin !elatively const!icted ti(e-s%ace %!is(s. ;al( and ;!ed %!ovide one e8a(%le, a(on" (any that e8ist in the lite!atu!e, of an a%%lication of >a"e!st!and7s ideas) to the daily %!is( of 7Oane7, an un(a!!ied (othe!.8 /i"u!e 0 offe!s a !e%!esentation of the %!is( of Oane7s day-to-day activities. Oane cannot leave ho(e fo! 6o!$ 2efo!e a ce!tain hou! of the day 2ecause of he! child7s de%endence on he! fo! feedin" and othe!

needs, and 2ecause the sole accessi2le nu!se!y is not yet o%en. Oane has no ca! and hence is faced 6ith seve!e ca%a2ility and

##11@&&

ti(e cou%lin" const!aints in !eachin" the t6o 7stations7 of the nu!se!y #'i&, and he! %lace of 6o!$ #<i&. >e! choice of 3o2s is !est!icted 2y these const!aints, and !eci%!ocally the fact that she has little chance of ac5ui!in" o! holdin" do6n a 6ell-%aid occu%ation !einfo!ces the othe! const!aints she faces in the t!a3ecto!y of he! %ath th!ou"h the day. She has to collect he! child in (idafte!noon, 2efo!e the nu!se!y closes, and is thus effectively !est!icted to %a!t-ti(e e(%loy(ent. Su%%ose she has a choice of t6o 3o2s, one 2ette!-%aid and offe!in" the chance to !un a ca! #<2&, (a$in" it %ossi2le fo! he! to ta$e he! child to a nu!se!y #'2& fu!the! a6ay f!o( he! ho(e. Cn ta$in" the (o!e !e(une!ative 3o2, she finds that the ti(e e8%ended in d!ivin" to the nu!se!y, to and f!o( 6o!$ and then 2ac$ ho(e #>& a"ain does not allo6 he! ti(e to do othe! necessa!y tas$s, such as sho%%in", coo$in" and house6o!$. She (ay the!efo!e feel he!self 7fo!ced7 to leave the 3o2 fo! a lo6-%aid, %a!t-ti(e alte!native nea!e! ho(e #<i&. >a"e!st!and has (ade a %a!ticula! effo!t to e(%loy ti(e"eo"!a%hy to "!as% the se!iality of the life %aths o! 7life 2io"!a%hies7 of individuals. A life 2io"!a%hy, he says, is (ade u% of 7inte!nal (ental e8%e!iences and events7, 7!elated to the inte!%lay 2et6een 2ody and envi!on(ental %heno(ena7.7 -he conduct of an individual7s day-to-day life entails that he o! she successively associates 6ith sets of entities e(anatin" f!o( the settin"s of inte!action. -hese entities a!e) othe! a"ents, indivisi2le o23ects #solid (ate!ial 5ualities of the (ilieu of action&, divisi2le (ate!ials #ai!, 6ate!, (ine!als, foodstuffs& and do(ains. Do(ains

##110&& !efe! to 6hat %!efe! to call the !e"ionali.ation of ti(e-s%ace) the (ove(ent of life %aths th!ou"h settin"s of inte!action that have va!ious fo!(s of s%atial de(a!cation. 9ut the %!o%e!ties of do(ains can 2e su23ected to di!ect study in te!(s of the cou%lin" const!aints 6hich a "iven dist!i2ution of 7stations7 and 7activity 2undles7 c!eates fo! the ove!all %o%ulation 6hose activities a!e concent!ated 6ithin those do(ains. -hus the natu!e of inte!actin" social %atte!ns 6ithin do(ains of ti(e-s%ace is li(ited 2y the ove!all o!"ani.ation of ca%a2ility and cou%lin" const!aints. -he!e a!e 7ecolo"ical7 const!aints 6hich, as Ca!lstein has t!ied to sho6 in detail, de!ive f!o( th!ee (odes of 7%ac$in"7) #1& #2& the %ac$in" of (ate!ials, a!tefacts, o!"anis(s and hu(an %o%ulations in settle(ent s%ace-ti(eA the %ac$in" of ti(e-consu(in" activities in %o%ulation ti(e2ud"etsA

#3& the %ac$in" of 2undles of va!ious si.es, nu(2e!s and du!ations in the %o%ulation syste(, i.e. "!ou% fo!(ation 2ecause of the indivisi2ility and continuity const!aints of individuals.G7 C!itical Co((ents -he inte!est of ti(e-"eo"!a%hy to the theo!y of st!uctu!ation is su!ely evident.G -i(e-"eo"!a%hy is conce!ned 6ith the const!aints that sha%e the !outines of day-to-day life and sha!es 6ith st!uctu!ation theo!y an e(%hasis u%on the si"nificance of the %!actical cha!acte! of daily activities, in ci!cu(stances of co%!esence, fo! the constitution of social conduct. <e a!e a2le to 2e"in to flesh out the ti(e-s%ace st!uctu!in" of the settin"s of inte!action 6hich, ho6eve! i(%o!tant Goff(an7s 6!itin"s (ay 2e, tend to a%%ea! in those 6!itin"s as "iven (ilieu8 of social life. >a"e!st!and7s concent!ation u%on eve!yday social %!actices is ve!y %!onounced and clea!A he 6ishes to use ti(e-"eo"!a%hy, he insists, to unde!stand 7the i(%act of the o!dina!y day of the o!dina!y %e!son7

u%on the ove!all o!"ani.ation of social syste(s.G 9ut ti(e-"eo"!a%hy has so(e ve!y distinct sho!tco(in"s, so(e of 6hich, ho%e, a!e a%%a!ent f!o( the %!ecedin" discussion in this 2oo$. -he (ain !ese!vations one (ust have a2out ti(e-"eo"!a%hy a!e the follo6in". /i!st, it o%e!ates 6ith a naive and defective conce%tion of the hu(an a"ent. n st!essin" the co!%o!eality of

##111&& the hu(an 2ein" in st!uctu!ed ti(e-s%ace conte8ts, >a"e!st!and7s ideas acco!d closely 6ith those have sou"ht to ela2o!ate %!eviously. 9ut he tends to t!eat 7individuals7 as constituted inde%endently of the social settin"s 6hich they conf!ont in thei! day-to-day lives. A"ents a!e !e"a!ded as %u!%osive 2ein"s in the sense that thei! activities a!e "uided 2y 7%!o3ects7 6hich they %u!sue. 9ut the natu!e and o!i"in of %!o3ects is left une8%licated. Second, >a"e!st!and7s analyses the!efo!e tend to !eca%itulate the dualis( of action and st!uctu!e, al2eit in !athe! novel fo!( 2ecause of his %!e-e(inent conce!n 6ith ti(e and s%ace. 7Stations7, 7do(ains7, etc., a!e the(selves ta$en as "ivens, the outco(e of uninte!%!eted %!ocesses of institutional fo!(ation and chan"e. Dnsu!%!isin"ly, in this ty%e of vie6%oint little e(%hasis is %laced on the essentially t!ansfo!(ational cha!acte! of all hu(an action, even in its (ost utte!ly !outini.ed fo!(s. -hi!d, concent!ation solely u%on const!ainin" %!o%e!ties of the 2ody, in its (ove(ent th!ou"h ti(e-s%ace, is un6a!!anted. All ty%es of const!aint, as have said, a!e also ty%es of o%%o!tunity, (edia fo! the ena2le(ent of action. -he s%ecific 6ay in 6hich >a"e!st!and tends to conce%tuali.e 7const!aint7, (o!eove!, 2et!ays a ce!tain cultu!e-2ound ele(ent in his vie6s. /o! ca%a2ility const!aints, cou%lin" const!aints and so on a!e ty%ically discussed 2y hi( in te!(s of thei! o%e!ation as sca!ce !esou!ces. t is not difficult to see he!e once (o!e a %ossi2le lin$ 6ith a ve!sion of histo!ical (ate!ialis(. -he!e is (o!e than a hint in >a"e!st!and7s 6!itin"s of the notion that allocation of sca!ce !esou!ces of the 2ody and its (edia has so(e so!t of dete!(inin" effect u%on the o!"ani.ation of social institutions in all ty%es of society. Such is a feasi2le %!o%osition, thin$, only in the case of conte(%o!a!y societies, in 6hich a %!e(iu( is %laced u%on the

7efficient7 use of !esou!ces.G /inally, ti(e-"eo"!a%hy involves only a 6ea$ly develo%ed theo!y of %o6e!. >a"e!st!and does tal$ of 7autho!ity const!aints7, 6hich he lin$s to ca%a2ility and cou%lin" const!aints. 9ut these a!e 2oth va"uely fo!(ulated and invo$e a .e!o-su( conce%tion of %o6e! as a sou!ce of li(itations u%on action. f %o6e! is conceived of as "ene!ative, on the othe! hand, the 7const!aints7 of 6hich >a"e!st!and s%ea$s a!e all (odalities fo! the en"ende!in" and sustainin" of st!uctu!es of do(ination. n o!de! to develo% such ideas (o!e ade5uately in !es%ect of conside!ations e8%lo!ed ea!lie! in this 2oo$ 6e have to loo$ a"ain

##118&& at the notion of 7%lace7 as o!dina!ily used 2y "eo"!a%he!s. >a"e!st!and7s ti(e-"eo"!a%hy su""ests a ve!y effective c!iti5ue of 7%lace7 in !es%ect of de(onst!atin" the si"nificance, in studyin" hu(an social conduct, of analysin" the o!"ani.ation of ti(es%ace. 9ut his e(%hasis is ve!y (uch u%on inte"!atin" te(%o!ality into social theo!y. >e does not su23ect the notions of %lace o! location to a close conce%tual sc!utiny and uses such te!(s in a !elatively une8a(ined fashion. -he te!( 7%lace7 cannot 2e used in social theo!y si(%ly to desi"nate 7%oint in s%ace7, any (o!e than 6e can s%ea$ of %oints in ti(e as a succession of 7no6s7. <hat this (eans is that the conce%t of %!esence - o!, !athe!, of the (utuality of %!esence and a2sence - has to 2e e8%licated in te!(s of its s%atiality as 6ell as its te(%o!ality. n develo%in" the theo!y of st!uctu!ation have int!oduced t6o notions that a!e of so(e !elevance he!e) the conce%ts of locale and of presence availability as involved in the !elations 2et6een social and syste( inte"!ation. 14 Focales !efe! to the use of s%ace to %!ovide the settings of inte!action, the settin"s of inte!action in tu!n 2ein" essential to s%ecifyin" its conte'tuality. -he constitution of locales ce!tainly de%ends u%on the %heno(ena "iven %!ide of %lace 2y >a"e!st!and) the 2ody, its (edia of (o2ility and co((unication, in !elation to %hysical %!o%e!ties of the su!!oundin" 6o!ld. Focales %!ovide fo! a "ood deal of the 7fi8ity7 unde!lyin" institutions, althou"h the!e is no clea! sense in 6hich they 7dete!(ine7 such 7fi8ity7. t is usually %ossi2le to desi"nate locales in te!(s of thei! %hysical %!o%e!ties, eithe! as featu!es of the (ate!ial 6o!ld o!, (o!e co((only, as co(2inations of those featu!es and hu(an a!tefacts. 9ut it is an e!!o! to su%%ose that locales can 2e desc!i2ed in those te!(s alone the sa(e fo!( of e!!o! (ade 2y 2ehaviou!is( 6ith !e"a!d to the desc!i%tion of hu(an action. A 7house7 is "!as%ed as such only if the o2se!ve! !eco"ni.es that it is a 7d6ellin"7 6ith a !an"e of othe! %!o%e!ties s%ecified 2y the (odes of its utili.ation in hu(an activity. Focales (ay !an"e f!o( a !oo( in a house, a st!eet co!ne!, the sho% floo! of a facto!y, to6ns and cities, to the te!!ito!ially de(a!cated a!eas occu%ied 2y nation-states. 9ut locales a!e ty%ically inte!nally regio nali!ed, and the !e"ions 6ithin the( a!e

of c!itical i(%o!tance in constitutin" conte8ts of inte!action. Fet (e develo% a little fu!the! the notion of conte8t. Cne of the

##11,&& !easons fo! usin" the te!( 7locale7 !athe! than 7%lace7 is that %!o%e!ties of settin"s a!e e(%loyed in a ch!onic 6ay 2y a"ents in the constitution of encounte!s ac!oss s%ace and ti(e. An o2vious ele(ent of this is the %hysical as%ect of 6hat >a"e!st!and calls 7stations7 - i.e. 7sto%%in" %laces7, in 6hich the %hysical (o2ility of a"ents7 t!a3ecto!ies is a!!ested o! cu!tailed fo! the du!ation of encounte!s o! social occasions - as locales in 6hich the !outine activities of diffe!ent individuals inte!sect. 9ut the featu!es of settin"s a!e also used, in a !outine (anne!, to constitute the (eanin"ful content of inte!action) de(onst!ation of the (anifold 6ays in 6hich this occu!s !an$s a(on" the (a3o! cont!i2utions of Ga!fin$el and of Goff(an. Conte8t thus connects the (ost inti(ate and detailed co(%onents of inte!action to (uch 2!oade! %!o%e!ties of the institutionali.ation of social life. Bodes of +e"ionali.ation 7+e"ionali.ation7 should 2e unde!stood not (e!ely as locali.ation in s%ace 2ut as !efe!!in" to the .onin" of ti(e-s%ace in !elation to !outini.ed social %!actices. -hus a %!ivate house is a locale 6hich is a 7station7 fo! a la!"e cluste! of inte!actions in the cou!se of a ty%ical day. >ouses in conte(%o!a!y societies a!e !e"ionali.ed into floo!s, halls and !oo(s. 9ut the va!ious !oo(s of the house a!e .oned diffe!ently in ti(e as 6ell as s%ace. -he !oo(s do6nstai!s a!e cha!acte!istically used (ost in dayli"ht hou!s, 6hile 2ed!oo(s a!e 6he!e individuals 7!eti!e to7 at ni"ht. -he division 2et6een day and ni"ht in all societies used to 2e %e!ha%s the (ost funda(ental .onin" de(a!cation 2et6een the intensity of social life and its !ela8ation - o!de!ed also, o2viously, 2y the need of the hu(an o!"anis( fo! !e"ula! %e!iods of slee%. 'i"ht ti(e 6as a 7f!ontie!7 of social activity as (a!$ed as any s%atial f!ontie!s have eve! 2een. t !e(ains a f!ontie!, as it 6e!e, that is only s%a!sely settled. 9ut the invention of %o6e!ful, !e"ula!i.ed (odes of a!tificial li"htin" has d!a(atically e8%anded the %otentialities of inte!action settin"s in ni"ht hou!s. As one o2se!ve! has !e(a!$ed)

-he last "!eat f!ontie! of hu(an i((i"!ation is occu!!in" in ti(e) a s%!eadin" of 6a$eful activity th!ou"hout the t6enty-fou! hou!s of the day. -he!e is (o!e (ulti%le shift facto!y 6o!$, (o!e %olice

##120&& cove!a"e, (o!e use of the tele%hone at all hou!s. -he!e a!e (o!e hos%itals, %ha!(acies, ae!o%lane fli"hts, hostels, al6ays-o%en !estau!ants, ca! !ental and "asoline and auto !e%ai! stations, 2o6lin" alleys, and !adio stations, al6ays active. -he!e a!e (o!e e(e!"ency se!vices such as auto-to6in", loc$s(iths, 2ail 2onds(en, d!u" and %oison and suicide, "a(2lin" 7hot lines7 availa2le incessantly. Althou"h diffe!ent individuals %a!tici%ate in these events in shifts, the o!"ani.ations involved a!e continually active.G Ue!u2avel7s study of the te(%o!al o!"ani.ation of a (ode!n hos%ital, 6he!e .onin" is ve!y ti"htly cont!olled, is !elevant he!e. Bost of the se!vices of (edical ca!e in the hos%ital he studied a!e %!ovided 2y !otatin" nu!sin" staff. -he (a3o!ity of nu!ses 6o!$ fo! set %e!iods on diffe!ent 6a!ds, (ovin" a!ound the diffe!ent secto!s of the hos%ital, and they also a!e called u%on to alte!nate day and ni"ht shift 6o!$. -he cycle of (ove(ent 2et6een 6a!ds coincides 6ith that 2et6een day and ni"ht 6o!$, so that 6hen so(eone 7"oes to days7 he o! she also chan"es to anothe! secto!. -he schedulin" of these activities is co(%le8 and detailed. <hile nu!ses7 6o!$ is !e"ulated in standa!di.ed fou!-6ee$ly %e!iods, the !otation of inte!ns and !esidents is va!ia2le. 'u!ses7 !otations al6ays 2e"in on the sa(e day of the 6ee$, and since they a!e of t6enty-ei"ht days, they do not coincide 6ith calenda! (onths. -he activities of house staff, on the othe! hand, a!e o!"ani.ed in te!(s of calenda! (onths and hence 2e"in on diffe!ent days of the 6ee$. <ee$ly and daily .ones a!e also %unctiliously cate"o!i.ed. Bany !outines occu! at %!ecise, seven-day inte!vals, es%ecially those involvin" nu!ses. 'u!ses7 7ti(e off7 is also counted a"ainst a 6ee$ly schedule. -i(e off can 2e s%lit into a nu(2e! of se"(ents ta$en se%a!ately, 2ut each se"(ent has to 2e a (ulti%le of seven days, and each has to 2e"in on Sunday and to end on Satu!day to co-o!dinate 6ith the !otations of 6o!$ activities. 7<ee$days7 a!e not identical to 76ee$end7 days, ho6eve!, 2ecause althou"h o%e!atin" u%on a continuous 2asis, va!ious $inds of se!vices a!e !est!icted in the hos%ital du!in" the 6ee$end. As la2o!ato!ies a!e closed, fo! e8a(%le, the hos%ital staff $no6 that they cannot "et ce!tain so!ts of

tests ca!!ied out. -hey t!y to ad(it as fe6 ne6 %atients as %ossi2le at 6ee$ends and to avoid initiatin" ne6 t!eat(ent %!o"!a((es fo! e8istin" in(ates. Satu!days and Sundays a!e usually 75uiet7 daysA Bonday is the 2usiest day of the

##121&& 6ee$. n day-to-day life in the hos%ital the alte!nation of 7day7 and 7ni"ht7 !ese(2les the division of the 6ee$ into 6ee$days and 6ee$ends. As the autho! notes, the fact that 6o!$in" at ni"hts is still conside!ed unusual, and unusually de(andin", is indicated 2y the te!( used to !efe! to it) 7ni"ht duty7. -he!e is no co!!es%ondin" te!( 7day duty7.G A useful classification of (odes of !e"ionali.ation (i"ht 2e offe!ed 2y fi"u!e 1. 9y the 7fo!(7 of !e"ionali.ation (ean the

fo!( of the 2ounda!ies that define the !e"ion. n (ost locales the 2ounda!ies se%a!atin" !e"ions have %hysical o! sy(2olic (a!$e!s. n conte8ts of co-%!esence these (ay allo6 a "!eate! o! lesse! nu(2e! of the featu!es of 7%!esencin"7 to %e!(eate ad3oinin" !e"ions. As has 2een (entioned, in social "athe!in"s the !e"ionali.ation of encounte!s is usually indicated only 2y 2ody %ostu!e and %ositionin", tone of voice and so on. n (any such "athe!in"s, as !e"ionally 2ounded e%isodes, encounte!s (ay 2e nea!ly all of ve!y sho!t du!ation. <alls 2et6een !oo(s, on the othe! hand, (ay de(a!cate !e"ionali.ation in such a 6ay that none of the o!dina!y (edia of co-%!esence can %enet!ate. Cf cou!se, 6he!e 6alls a!e thin va!ious $inds of inte!!u%tions o! e(2a!!ass(ents to the closu!e of encounte!s can occu!. A!ies, *lias and othe!s have %ointed to the 6ays in 6hich the inte!nal diffe!entiation of the houses of the (ass of the %o%ulation since the ei"hteenth centu!y has 2een inte!!elated 6ith chan"in" as%ects

##122&& of fa(ily life and se8uality.G ;!io! to the ei"hteenth centu!y in <este!n *u!o%e the ho(es of the %oo! f!e5uently had only one o! t6o !oo(s, in 6hich va!ious co((unal livin" and slee%in" a!!an"e(ents 6e!e found. -he "!ande! houses of the a!istoc!acy had (any !oo(s, 2ut these usually connected di!ectly 6ith one anothe!, 6ithout the hall6ays 6hich in (ode!n houses %e!(it ty%es of %!ivacy that 6e!e fo!(e!ly difficult to achieve fo! all classes of society. +e"ionali.ation (ay inco!%o!ate .ones of "!eat va!iation in s%an o! scale. +e"ions of 2!oad s%ans a!e those 6hich e8tend 6idely in s%ace and dee%ly in ti(e. Cf cou!se, the inte!section of 7s%ans7 of s%ace and ti(e (ay va!y, 2ut !e"ions of conside!a2le s%an necessa!ily tend to de%end u%on a hi"h de"!ee of institutionali.ation. All !e"ions, as defined he!e, involve e8tension in ti(e as 6ell as s%ace. 7+e"ion7 (ay so(eti(es 2e used in "eo"!a%hy to !efe! to a %hysically de(a!cated a!ea on a (a% of the %hysical featu!es of the (ate!ial envi!on(ent. -his is not 6hat (ean 2y the te!(, 6hich as used he!e al6ays ca!!ies the connotation of the st!uctu!ation of social conduct ac!oss ti(es%ace. -hus the!e is a st!on" de"!ee of !e"ional diffe!entiation, in te!(s of class !elationshi%s and a va!iety of othe! social c!ite!ia, 2et6een the 'o!th and the South in 9!itain. 7-he 'o!th7 is not 3ust a "eo"!a%hically deli(ited a!ea 2ut one 6ith lon"-esta2lished, distinctive social t!aits. 9y the 7cha!acte!7 of !e"ionali.ation !efe! to the (odes in 6hich the ti(e-s%ace o!"ani.ation of locales is o!de!ed 6ithin (o!e e(2!acin" social syste(s. -hus in (any societies the 7ho(e7, the d6ellin", has 2een the %hysical focus of fa(ily !elationshi%s and also of %!oduction, ca!!ied on eithe! in %a!ts of the d6ellin" itself o! in closely ad3oinin" "a!dens o! %lots of land. -he develo%(ent of (ode!n ca%italis(, ho6eve!, 2!in"s a2out a diffe!entiation 2et6een the ho(e and the 6o!$%lace, this diffe!entiation havin" conside!a2le i(%lications fo! the ove!all o!"ani.ation of %!oduction syste(s and othe! (a3o! institutional featu!es of conte(%o!a!y societies.

/!ont +e"ions, 9ac$ +e"ions

Cne as%ect of the cha!acte! of !e"ionali.ation is the level of %!esence-availa2ility associated 6ith s%ecific fo!(s of locale. -he notion of 7%!esence-availa2ility7 is an essential ad3unct to that of

##123&& co-%!esence. -he 72ein" to"ethe!7 of co-%!esence de(ands (eans 6he!e2y acto!s a!e a2le to 7co(e to"ethe!7. >a"e!st!and7s ti(e"eo"!a%hy d!a6s ou! attention to so(e of the facto!s ty%ically involved he!e. Co((unities of hi"h %!esence-availa2ility in all cultu!es, %!io! to only so(e hund!ed yea!s a"o, 6e!e "!ou%in"s of individuals in close %hysical %!o8i(ity to one anothe!. -he co!%o!eality of the a"ent, the li(itations u%on the (o2ility of the 2ody in the t!a3ecto!ies of the dure of daily activity, to"ethe! 6ith the %hysical %!o%e!ties of s%ace, ensu!ed that this 6as so. -he (edia of co((unication 6e!e al6ays identical to those of t!ans%o!tation. *ven 6ith the use of fast ho!ses, shi%s, fo!ced (a!ches, etc., lon" distance in s%ace al6ays (eant lon" distance in ti(e. -he (echani.ation of t!ans%o!t has 2een the (ain facto! leadin" to the d!a(atic fo!(s of ti(e-s%ace conve!"ence noted %!eviously as cha!acte!istic of the (ode!n a"e. 9ut the (ost !adical dis3unctu!e of !elevance in (ode!n histo!y #6hose i(%lications today a!e ve!y fa! f!o( 2ein" e8hausted& is the se%a!ation of (edia of co((unication, 2y the develo%(ent of elect!onic si"nallin", f!o( the (edia of t!ans%o!tation, the latte! al6ays havin" involved, 2y so(e (eans o! anothe!, the (o2ility of the hu(an 2ody. Bo!se7s invention of the elect!o(a"netic tele"!a%h (a!$s as distinctive a t!ansition in hu(an cultu!al develo%(ent as the 6heel o! any othe! technical innovation eve! did. -he diffe!ent as%ects of the !e"ionali.ation of locales indicated a2ove sha%e the natu!e of %!esence-availa2ility in va!yin" 6ays. -hus the !oo(s of a d6ellin" (ay ensu!e that encounte!s can 2e sustained in diffe!ent %a!ts of the 2uildin" 6ithout int!udin" u%on one anothe!, %!ovidin" a %a!ticula! sy((et!y, %e!ha%s, 6ith the !outines of the day fo! its incu(2ents. 9ut livin" in close %!o8i(ity 6ithin the house also (eans, of cou!se, hi"h %!esence-availa2ility) co-%!esence is ve!y easily secu!ed and sustained. ;!isons and

asylu(s a!e often associated 6ith enfo!ced continuity of co%!esence a(on" individuals 6ho a!e not o!dina!ily accusto(ed to such !outines of daily life. ;!isone!s 6ho sha!e the sa(e cell (ay !a!ely 2e out of each othe!7s %!esence fo! the 6hole of the day and ni"ht. Cn the othe! hand, the 7disci%lina!y %o6e!7 of %!isons, asylu(s and othe! ty%es of 7total institution7 is 2ased u%on dis!u%tin" the "ea!in" of %!esence-availa2ility into the !outines of daily t!a3ecto!ies 7outside7. -hus the ve!y sa(e in(ates ##124&&

6ho a!e fo!ced into continuous co-%!esence a!e denied the avila2ility of easy encounte!s 6ith othe! "!ou%s in the %!ison, even thou"h those othe!s (ay 2e %hysically only on the othe! side of the 6alls of the cell. -he enfo!ced Ise5uest!ation7 of %!isone!s f!o( the Ioutside 6o!ld7, li(itin" the %ossi2ilities of co-%!esence to those 6ithin a sin"le locale, is, of cou!se, a definin" featu!e of a Itotal institution7. <e can fu!the! d!a6 out the !elevance of !e"ionali.ation to the st!uctu!ation of social syste(s 2y conside!in" ho6 .onin" is acco(%lished in diffe!ent settin"s. I/ace7 and If!ont7 a!e !elated fi!st of all to the %ositionin" of the 2ody in encounte!s. -he !e"ionali.ation of the 2ody, so i(%o!tant to %sychoanalysis J 6hich, in Facan7s %h!ase, e8%lo!es Io%enin"s on the su!face7 of the 2ody J has a s%atial counte!%a!t in the !e"ionali.ation of the conte8ts of inte!action. +e"ionali.ation encloses .ones of ti(e-s%ace, enclosu!e %e!(ittin" the sustainin" of distinctive !elations 2et6een If!ont7 and I2ac$7 !e"ions, 6hich acto!s e(%loy in o!"anisin" the conte8tuality of action and the sustainin" of ontolo"ical secu!ity. -he te!( Ifacade7 in so(e %a!t hel%s to desi"nate the connections 2et6een face and f!ont !e"ions.18 t hints, ho6eve!, that f!ontal as%ects of !e"ionali.ation a!e inhe!ently inauthentic, and that 6hateve! is !eal o! su2stantial is hidden 2ehind. Goff(an7s discussion of f!ont and 2ac$ !e"ions also tends to have the sa(e i(%lication) that 6hateve! is Ihidden

##12@&& a6ay7 e8%!esses the !eal feelin"s of those 6ho enact !ole %e!fo!(ances 7u% f!ont7. <hile o2viously this (ay often 2e the case, thin$ he!e 6e co(e u% a"ainst the li(itations of the d!a(atu!"ical (odel that Goff(an e(%loys, es%ecially in his ea!lie! 6!itin"s, and 6e see a"ain the conse5uences of the lac$ of a "ene!al inte!%!etation of the (otivation of the !outines of daily life. f a"ents a!e only %laye!s on a sta"e, hidin" thei! t!ue selves 2ehind the (as$s they assu(e fo! the occasion, the social 6o!ld 6ould indeed 2e la!"ely e(%ty of su2stance. <hy, in fact, should they 2othe! to devote the attention they do to such %e!fo!(ances at all? ;laye!s in "enuine theat!e, afte! all, have a (otivation to i(%!ess the audience 6ith the 5uality of thei! %e!fo!(ances, since they a!e s%ecialists in those ve!y %e!fo!(ances as %!ofessionals. 9ut this is a ve!y %a!ticula! situation, not in fact one "ene!ic to social life. -o !e"a!d it as such is to (a$e so(ethin" of the sa(e (ista$e 6hich Goff(an hi(self identifies in analysin" tal$. -he 7faultless s%eech7 of the ne6scaste! is e8ce%tional, and 2ound u% 6ith the %!esu(ed e8%e!tise of one 6ho is a s%ecialist in the %!oduction of s(ooth tal$A in (ost conte8ts of day-to-day life a"ents a!e not (otivated to %!oduce this $ind of s%eech. -he sustainin" of ontolo"ical secu!ity could not 2e achieved if f!ont !e"ions 6e!e no (o!e than faRades. -he 6hole of social life 6ould 2e, in Sullivan7s %h!ase, a des%e!ate sea!ch to %ut on 7secu!ity o%e!ations7 to salva"e a sense of self-estee( in the sta"in" of !outines. -hose 6ho do feel this 6ay cha!acte!istically dis%lay (odes of an8iety of an e8t!e(e $ind. t is %!ecisely 2ecause the!e is "ene!ally a dee%, althou"h "ene!ali.ed, affective involve(ent in the !outines of daily life that acto!s #a"ents& do not o!dina!ily feel the(selves to 2e acto!s #%laye!s&, 6hateve! the te!(inolo"ical si(ila!ity 2et6een these te!(s. -heat!e can challen"e social life 2y its ve!y (i(ic!y in %anto(i(e. -his is %!esu(a2ly 6hat A!taud (eans in sayin", 7-he t!ue theat!e has al6ays see(ed to (e the e8e!cise of a te!!i2le and dan"e!ous act, in 6hich, (o!eove! the idea of theat!e and %e!fo!(ance is e!adicated.. .711 Conside! also Fain"7s discussion of the hyste!ic)

Dnless one is de%!essed, it is the othe!s 6ho co(%lain of self7s lac$ of "enuiness o! since!ity. t is !e"a!ded as %atho"no(ic of the hyste!ic7s cha!acte!istic st!ate"y that his o! he! actions should 2e

##120&&

false, that they should 2e hist!ionic, d!a(ati.ed. -he hyste!ic, on the othe! hand, often insists that his feelin"s a!e !eal and "enuine. t is 6e 6ho feel they a!e un!eal. t is the hyste!ic 6ho insists on the se!iousness of his intention of co((ittin" suicide 6hile 6e s%ea$ of a (e!e 7"estu!e7 to6a!ds suicide. -he hyste!ic co(%lains that he is "oin" to %ieces. t is 3ust in so fa! as 6e feel that he is not "oin" to %ieces, e8ce%t in that he is %!etendin" o! (a$in" 2elieve that he is, that 6e call hi( an hyste!ic. -hus the diffe!entiation 2et6een f!ont and 2ac$ !e"ions 2y no (eans coincides 6ith a division 2et6een the enclosu!e #cove!in" u%, hidin"& of as%ects of the self and thei! disclosu!e #!evelation, divul"ence&. -hese t6o a8es of !e"ionali.ation o%e!ate in a co(%licated ne8us of %ossi2le !elations 2et6een (eanin", no!(s and %o6e!. 9ac$ !e"ions clea!ly often do fo!( a si"nificant !esou!ce 6hich 2oth the %o6e!ful and the less %o6e!ful can utili.e !efle8ively to sustain a %sycholo"ical distancin" 2et6een thei! o6n inte!%!etations of social %!ocesses and those en3oined 2y 7official7 no!(s. Such ci!cu(stances a!e li$ely to a%%!o8i(ate (ost closely to those in 6hich individuals feel the(selves to 2e %layin" %a!ts in 6hich they do not !eally 72elieve7. 9ut it is i(%o!tant to se%a!ate out t6o ty%es of situation in 6hich this (ay hold, 2ecause only one a%%!o8i(ates at all closely to the d!a(atu!"ical (eta%ho!. n all societies the!e a!e social occasions 6hich involve !itual fo!(s of conduct and utte!ance, in 6hich the no!(ative sanctions !e"ulatin" 7co!!ect %e!fo!(ance7 a!e st!on". Such e%isodes a!e usually set a%a!t !e"ionally f!o( the !est of social life and diffe! f!o( it s%ecifically in !e5ui!in" ho(olo"y of %e!fo!(ance f!o( occasion to occasion. t see(s es%ecially in these ci!cu(stances that individuals a!e li$ely to feel they a!e 7%layin" !oles7 in 6hich the self is only (a!"inally involved. >e!e the!e is li$ely to 2e tension in the style and continuity of %e!fo!(ance, and style (ay 2e accentuated (uch (o!e than in (ost day-to-day social activity. Disclosu!e and Self

9ac$ !e"ions involved in !ituali.ed social occasions %!o2a2ly often do 5uite closely !ese(2le the 72ac$sta"e7 of a theat!e o! the 7off-ca(e!a7 activities of fil(in" and television %!oductions. 9ut this 2ac$sta"e (ay ve!y 6ell 2e 7on sta"e7 so fa! as the o!dina!y

##121&&

!outines of social life, and the o!dina!y %!o%!ieties, "o. /o! these so!ts of occasion do involve fi8ed %e!fo!(ances fo! audiences, thou"h the!e is no necessa!y i(%lication that those in the 2ac$ !e"ions a!e a2le to !ela8 the usual cou!tesies of tact o! 7!e%ai!7. -he level of enclosu!e 2et6een f!ont and 2ac$ !e"ions is neve!theless li$ely to 2e ve!y hi"h, since it often holds that the (o!e !ituali.ed the occasion, the (o!e it has to 2e %!esented as an autono(ous set of events, in 6hich the 2ac$sta"e %!o%s a!e $e%t enti!ely out of vie6 of audiences o! o2se!ve!s. t is 6o!th %ointin" out that the!e is (uch (o!e to the distinction 2et6een 7%u2lic7 and 7%!ivate7 activities than (i"ht a%%ea! f!o( the see(in"ly (utually e8clusive natu!e of these cate"o!ies. Ce!e(onial occasions a!e distinctively, %!ototy%ically %u2lic events, often involvin" 7%u2lic fi"u!es7. 9ut the 2ac$sta"e of such occasions is not a 7%!ivate s%he!e7) the chief fi"u!es in the d!a(a (ay 2e a2le to !ela8 even less 6hen, leavin" the ce!e(onial a!ena, they (ove a(on" thei! infe!io!s, the individuals 6ho a!e (e!ely 72ehind the scenes7. +itual occasions see( fo! the (ost %a!t distinctively diffe!ent f!o( the !an"e of ci!cu(stances in 6hich 2ac$ !e"ions a!e .ones 6ithin 6hich a"ents !ecove! fo!(s of autono(y 6hich a!e co(%!o(ised o! th!eatened in f!ontal conte8ts. -hese a!e often situations in 6hich sanctions a!e i(%osed u%on acto!s 6hose co((it(ent to those no!(s is (a!"inal o! none8istent. -he fo!(s of enclosu!e and disclosu!e 6hich allo6 a"ents to deviate f!o(, o! flout, those no!(s a!e i(%o!tant featu!es of the dialectic of cont!ol in situations involvin" su!veillance. Su!veillance, as have %ointed out else6he!e, connects t6o !elated %heno(ena) the collation of info!(ation used to co-o!dinate social activities of su2o!dinates, and the di!ect su%e!vision of the conduct of those su2o!dinates. n each

!es%ect the advent of the (ode!n state, 6ith its ca%italist-indust!ial inf!ast!uctu!e, has 2een distin"uished 2y a vast e8%ansion of su!veillance.G 'o6 7su!veillance7, 2y its ve!y natu!e, involves disclosu!e, (a$in" visi2le. -he "a!ne!in" of info!(ation discloses the %atte!ns of activity of those to 6ho( that info!(ation !efe!s, and di!ect su%e!vision o%enly $ee%s such activity unde! o2se!vation in o!de! to cont!ol it. -he (ini(i.ation o! (ani%ulation of conditions of disclosu!e is thus o!dina!ily in the inte!ests of those 6hose 2ehaviou! is su23ect to su!veillance - the (o!e so acco!din" to ho6 fa! 6hat

##128&& they a!e called u%on to do in such settin"s is !e"a!ded as uninte!estin" o! no8ious. 9ac$ !e"ions in, say, settin"s of the sho% floo! include 7odd co!ne!s7 of the floo!, tea !oo(s, toilets and so on, as 6ell as the int!icate .onin"s of dis%lace(ent of contact 6ith su%e!viso!s 6hich 6o!$e!s can achieve th!ou"h 2odily (ove(ent and %ostu!e. Desc!i%tions of the use of such .onin" in o!de! to cont!ol %!o%e!ties of the settin" #and the!e2y to sustain (odes of autono(y in %o6e! !elationshi%s& a!e le"ion in the lite!atu!e of indust!ial sociolo"y. /o! instance, he!e is a 6o!$e! tal$in" a2out a cha!acte!istic incident on the floo! of a ca! facto!y) 6as 6o!$in" on one side of the ca! and the 2oot lid d!o%%ed. t 3ust "!a.ed the head of the fella 6o!$in" o%%osite (e. can see it no6. >e sto%%ed 6o!$in", had a loo$ !ound to see if anyone 6as 6atchin". 6as %!etendin" not to loo$ at hi( and then he held his head. >e7d had enou"h li$e. Qou could see hi( thin$in", 7 7( "ettin" out of this fo! a 2it.7 >e sta""e!ed, could see hi( loo$in" !ound. Qou $no6 6hat it 6as li$e in the!e. ;aint eve!y6he!e. >e 6asn7t "oin" to fall in the %aint... so he sta""e!ed a2out ten ya!ds and fell do6n 6ith a (oan on so(e %allets. t 6as 2loody funny. Cne of the lads sa6 hi( the!e and sto%%ed the line. -he su%e!viso! ca(e chasin" ac!oss. 7Sta!t the line... sta!t the line .. . .7 >e sta!ted the line and 6e had to 6o!$. <e 6e!e 6o!$in" one sho!t as 6ell. t too$ the( a"es to "et hi( out of the!e. -hey couldn7t "et the st!etche! in. t (ust have 2een half an hou! 2efo!e they "ot hi(. >i( lyin" the!e, y7$no6, 6ith his one eye occasionally o%enin" fo! a 5uic$ loo$ !ound) 7<hat7s ha%%enin"? 122 De!o"ation of those in autho!ity is o2viously e8t!e(ely co((on in such situations. -he incident desc!i2ed he!e, ho6eve!, e(%hasi.es the fact that defa(ato!y action of this so!t is not al6ays $e%t confined to the 2ac$ !e"ion, to activities closed off f!o( the %!esence of those 6ho a!e the ta!"ets.

-he !e"ional .onin" of activities in (any conte8ts of this so!t connects closely, of cou!se, 6ith the se!iality of encounte!s in ti(e-s%ace. 9ut a"ain it does not clea!ly conve!"e 6ith a division 2et6een %u2lic and %!ivate activity. -he 6o!$e! (a$es no atte(%t to dis"uise to his 6o!$(ate that the act of (alin"e!in" is di!ected to6a!ds te(%o!a!ily esca%in" f!o( the %!essu!es of the asse(2ly line. Such f!ontH2ac$ diffe!entiations - o!dina!ily occu!!in" in ci!cu(stances of (a!$ed i(2alances of %o6e! - can in a "ene!al

##12,&& 6ay 2e distin"uished f o$ those in 6hich the situational %!o%!ieties of inte!action a!e 6ea$ened o! allo6ed to la%se. -hese a!e situations in 6hich f!ont, the details of 2odily cont!ol and so(e 7!e%ai!7 %!ocedu!es of ca!e fo! othe!s can all 2e !ela8ed. At least one connotation of 7%!ivacy7 is the !e"ional isolation of an individual - o! of individuals, fo! %!ivacy does not see( inevita2ly to i(%ly solitude - f!o( the o!dina!y de(ands of the (onito!in" of action and "estu!e, 6he!e2y 7infantile7 ty%es of conduct a!e %e!(itted e8%!ession. -he .onin" of the 2ody see(s in (ost #all?& societies to 2e associated 6ith the .onin" of activities in ti(e-s%ace in the t!a3ecto!ies of the day 6ithin locales. -hus eatin" usually occu!s in definite settin"s at definite ti(es, and is usually also 7%u2lic7 in the !est!icted sense of involvin" "athe!in"s of fa(ily (e(2e!s, f!iends, collea"ues and so on. -he d!essin" o! ado!n(ent of the 2ody (ay not 2e unive!sally t!eated as 7%!ivate7 2ut at least in (ost cultu!es see(s to 2e so !e"a!ded. n s%ite of *lias7s clai(s that se8ual activity 6as ca!!ied on in an unconcealed 6ay in (edieval *u!o%e,G "enital se8uality see(s eve!y6he!e to 2e .oned as a 2ac$-!e"ion %heno(enon, 6ith (any va!iations, of cou!se, in inte!sectin" (odes of %u2lic and %!ivate 2ehaviou!. t see(s %lausi2le. to su%%ose that the inte!sections 2et6een !e"ionali.ation and the e8%!essions of 2odily ca!e a!e int!icately 2ound u% 6ith the sustainin" of the 2asic secu!ity syste(. 9ac$ !e"ions 6hich allo6 the individual co(%lete solitude f!o( the %!esence of othe!s (ay 2e less i(%o!tant than those 6hich allo6 the e8%!ession of 7!e"!essive 2ehaviou!7 in situations of co%!esence. Such !e"ions (ay %e!(it

%!ofanity, o%en se8ual !e(a!$s, ela2o!ate "!i%in" . . . !ou"h info!(al d!ess, 7slo%%y7 sittin" and standin" %ostu!e, use of dialect o! su2standa!d s%eech, (u(2lin" and shoutin", %layful a""!essivity and 7$iddin"7, inconside!ateness fo! the othe! in (ino! 2ut %otentially sy(2olic acts, (ino! %hysical self-involve(ents such as hu((in", 6histlin", che6in", ni22lin", 2elchin" and flatulence.G /a! f!o( !e%!esentin" a di(inution of t!ust, these ty%es of 2ehaviou! (i"ht hel% to !einfo!ce the 2asic t!ust in the %!esence of inti(ates o!i"inally 2uilt u% in !elation to the %a!ental fi"u!es. -hey a!e (a!$ed not 2y the so!t of u%su!"e of an8iety 2!ou"ht a2out 2y c!itical situations 2ut the !eve!se a dissi%ation of tensions de!ivin" f!o( the de(ands of ti"ht 2odily and "estu!al cont!ol in othe! settin"s of day-to-day life.

##130&& +e"ionali.ation as Gene!ic -he diffe!entiations 2et6een enclosu!e, disclosu!e, 2ac$ and f!ont !e"ions, a%%ly ac!oss la!"e s%ans of ti(e-s%ace, not only in the conte8ts of co-%!esence. -hese a!e, of cou!se, unli$ely to 2e as di!ectly (onito!ed !efle8ively 2y those 6ho( they affect, althou"h such (ay 2e the case. +e"ionali.ation 6ithin u!2an a!eas in conte(%o!a!y societies has 2een (uch studied since the ea!ly 6o!$ of the Chica"o sociolo"ists ;a!$ and 9u!"ess. n (ost <este!n societies, the .onin" of cities into nei"h2ou!hoods 6ith (a!$edly diffe!ent social cha!acte!istics is st!on"ly influenced 2y the o%e!ation of housin" (a!$ets, and 2y se%a!ations 2et6een individually o6ned ho(es and state-o%e!ated housin" secto!s. 'ei"h2ou!hoods (ay not 2e .oned as sy((et!ically as so(e of the 7ecolo"ical7 u!2an analysts su""ested, 2ut thei! dist!i2ution has the conse5uence of c!eatin" va!ious so!ts of f!ontH2ac$ cont!asts. ndust!ial a!eas in no!the!n to6ns and cities in *n"land 6e!e once the (ost visi2le featu!es of the 2uilt envi!on(ent -facto!ies and (ills, as it 6e!e, %!oudly dis%layed. 9ut the tendency in u!2an %lannin" in !ecent yea!s has 2een to t!eat such a!eas as unsi"htly, as 2ac$ !e"ions to 2e hidden a6ay in enclosed enclaves, o! t!ansfe!!ed to the ed"e of to6n. *8a(%les can easily 2e (ulti%lied. -he access of those in (o!e affluent secto!s of housin" (a!$ets to !elatively easy t!ansfe! of %!o%e!ty unde!lies the 7fli"ht to the su2u!2s7, chan"in" city cent!es f!o( !e"ions of f!ontal dis%lay to 2ac$ !e"ions of u!2an decay, 6hich the 7!es%ecta2le classes7 avoid. Ghetto a!eas (ay 2e !ende!ed 7invisi2le7 2y thei! !e"ional enclosu!e in nei"h2ou!hoods havin" ve!y lo6 !ates 2oth of %!o%e!ty t!ansfe! and of daily (o2ility in and out of those nei"h2ou!hoods. As al6ays, va!ious ty%es of ti(e-se!ies %heno(ena unde!lie such s%atial !e"ionali.ation. +e"ionali.ation ac!oss lon" s%ans of ti(e-s%ace has 2een analysed 2y (any 6!ite!s in te!(s of fa(ilia! notions such as 7uneven develo%(ent7 and distinctions 2et6een 7cent!e7 #o! 7co!e7& and 7%e!i%he!y7. -hese notions, ho6eve!, can 2e a%%lied ac!oss the

6hole !an"e of the settin"s of locales, f!o( la!"e to s(all. +athe! than discussin" the the(e of uneven develo%(ent he!e, shall develo% the diffe!entiation of cent!e and %e!i%he!y 2y !elatin" it to e(2eddedness in ti(e. f the 6o!ld econo(y has its

##131&& cent!es, and cities have thei! cent!es, so too do the daily t!a3ecto!ies of individual acto!s. n (ode!n societies, fo! the (a3o!ity of (ales at least, the ho(e and 6o!$%lace fo!( the t6o (ain cent!es in 6hich the day7s activities tend to 2e concent!ated. Focales also tend to 2e cent!ed !e"ionally. So(e !oo(s in a house, such as s%a!e 2ed!oo(s, fo! e8a(%le, (ay 2e used only 7%e!i%he!ally7. Cent!eH%e!i%he!y distinctions tend f!e5uently to 2e associated 6ith endu!ance ove! ti(e.G -hose 6ho occu%y cent!es 7esta2lish7 the(selves as havin" cont!ol ove! !esou!ces 6hich allo6 the( to (aintain diffe!entiations 2et6een the(selves and those in %e!i%he!al !e"ions. -he esta2lished (ay e(%loy a va!iety of fo!(s of social closu!eG to sustain distance f!o( othe!s 6ho a!e effectively t!eated as infe!io!s o! outside!s.

esta2lished outside!s /i"u!e , %e!i%he!al ons

-he 7esta2lished7 indust!ial nations of the <este!n 7co!e7 (aintain a cent!al %osition in the 6o!ld econo(y on the 2asis of thei! te(%o!al %!ecedence ove! the 7less develo%ed7 societies. -he "eo%olitical !e"ionali.ation of the 6o!ld syste( (ay 2e chan"in" 6ith, fo! e8a(%le, shifts in cent!es of (anufactu!in" %!oduction to e!st6hile %e!i%he!al .ones in the *ast - 2ut the facto! of %!io!ity in ti(e has so fa! decisively influenced %!ee(inence in s%ace. <ithin nation-states cent!eH%e!i%he!y !e"ionali.ation see(s eve!y6he!e to 2e associated 6ith the e8istence of 7esta2lish(ents7 that lie at the co!e of the st!uctu!ation of

((6;8)) do(inant classes. 11 Cf cou!se, the!e a!e a va!iety of co(%le8 !elations involved in these %heno(ena, and offe! these e8a(%les as %u!ely illust!ative. -i(e, S%ace, Conte8t Fet (e at this %oint offe! a su((a!y of the (ain %oints in this cha%te! so fa!. -he discussion has 2een conce!ned 6ith the conte'tuality of social life and social institutions. All social life occu!s in, and is constituted 2y, inte!sections of %!esence and a2sence in the 7fadin" a6ay7 of ti(e and the 7shadin" off7 of s%ace. -he %hysical %!o%e!ties of the 2ody and the milieu' in 6hich it (oves inevita2ly "ive social life a se!ial cha!acte!, and li(it (odes of access to 7a2sent7 othe!s ac!oss s%ace. -i(e-"eo"!a%hy %!ovides an i(%o!tant (ode of notation of the inte!section of ti(e-s%ace t!a3ecto!ies in day-to-day activity. 9ut it has to 2e inse!ted 6ithin a (o!e ade5uate theo!i.ation 2oth of the a"ent and of the o!"ani.ation of the settin"s of inte!action. n %!o%osin" the ideas of locale and of !e"ionali.ation 6ant to fo!(ulate a sche(e of conce%ts 6hich hel% to cate"o!i.e conte8tuality as inhe!ently involved in the connection of social and syste( inte"!ation.G

daily ti(e-s%ace %aths dist!i2ution of encounte!s !e"ionali.ation of locales conte8tuality of !e"ions inte!section of locales -he "!a%hic techni5ues develo%ed in ti(e-"eo"!a%hy have al!eady %!oved thei! f!uitfulness in seve!al a!eas of !esea!ch. -he!e

is no !eason at all 6hy those 6o!$in" in a !an"e of fields in the social sciences should not ado%t, and ada%t, >a"e!st!and7s (ethod of notation. 9ut the li(itations of ti(e-"eo"!a%hy, as indicated a2ove, (ust ce!tainly also 2e 2o!ne in (ind. Bo!eove!, 7cloc$ ti(e7 should not 2e acce%ted si(%ly as an un5uestioned di(ension of the const!uction of to%o"!a%hical (odels, 2ut (ust 2e !e"a!ded as itself a socially conditioned influence u%on the

((6;;)) natu!e of the ti(e-s%ace %aths t!aced out 2y acto!s in (ode!n societies. -he %oint (ay, on the face of thin"s, a%%ea! to 2e a 2anality 2ut is actually ve!y fa! f!o( 2ein" so. <hat is at issue is not 3ust diffe!ent (eans of !ec$onin" ti(e, 2ut dive!"ent fo!(s of the st!uctu!ation of daily activities. Conside!, fo! instance, 9ou!dieu7s 6ell-$no6n discussion of ti(e and ti(e-!ec$onin" in Ea2ylia. >e!e the yea! is conside!ed to !un f!o( autu(n to6a!ds su((e! and the day f!o( evenin" to6a!ds noon. -his sche(e e8%!esses, ho6eve!, a conce%tion of ti(e as ete!nal !ecu!!ence, 6hich is in tu!n %a!t of the 2asic co(%osition of day-to-day activities. 'i"ht is sy(2olically a ti(e of death, (a!$ed 2y !e"ula! ta2oos - a"ainst 2athin", co(in" into contact 6ith st!etches of 6ate!, loo$in" in a (i!!o!, anointin" the hai! o! touchin" ashes .2G -he (o!nin" is not 3ust 7day2!ea$7 2ut a t!iu(%h in the st!u""le 2et6een day and ni"ht) to 2e 7in the (o!nin"7 is to 2e o%en to the li"ht, to the 2eneficence that is associated 6ith it. -he 7o%enin"7 of the day is thus a ti(e fo! "oin" out, 6hen %eo%le %ou! f!o( thei! houses to thei! 6o!$ in the fields. Gettin" u% ea!ly (eans %uttin" oneself unde! favou!a2le aus%ices, to 7do honou! to the an"els7. t is not 3ust a t!ansition in ti(e 2ut a $eyin" of events and %!actices. 'eve!theless, the c!eative %otential of the day (ust 2e foste!ed 2y (a"ic o! othe! (ali"nant fo!ces can inte!vene, %a!ticula!ly follo6in" the .enith of the sun7s !ise. /o! afte! this the day "oes into decline, si"nallin" the i((inent !etu!n of the decadence and decay of ni"ht, 7the %a!adi"( of all fo!(s of decline7.G 9ea!in" this e8a(%le in (ind, let (e develo% so(e of the (ain notions conside!ed in this cha%te!, ta$in" as an illust!ation schoolin"

in conte(%o!a!y societies. -he!e is no dou2t that (a%%in" the ti(e-s%ace %atte!ns follo6ed 2y %u%ils, teache!s and othe! staff in a school is a useful to%olo"ical device 6ith 6hich to 2e"in to study that school. +athe! than usin" the e8act fo!(s of !e%!esentation fo!(ulated 2y >a"e!st!and and his co-6o!$e!s, ho6eve!, %!o%ose to e(%hasi.e the 7!eve!si2le ti(e7 of day-today !outine conduct. >a"e!st!and usually %o!t!ays ti(e-s%ace %aths as havin" a 7linea!7 (ove(ent th!ou"h the day. 9ut a (o!e accu!ate !e%!esentation of the !e%etitive cha!acte! of day-to-day social life is "iven if 6e see that (ost daily ti(e-s%ace %aths involve a 7!etu!n7. nstead of ado%tin" the fo!( of fi"u!e lCa 6e (i"ht ta$e as e8a(%la!y that of fi"u!e lC2.

##134&&

/i"u!e lC2 /i"u!e lCa is of the so!t favou!ed 2y >a"e!st!and, in 6hich 6e loo$ at ti(e-s%ace 7late!ally7 and the 7ti(e7 a!!o6 (a$es out a s%ecific te(%o!al se5uence #usually e5uivalent to the 6o!$in" day&. %!o%ose not to a2andon this ty%e of notation 2ut to su%%le(ent it ce!tainly conce%tually, if not fi"u!atively - 6ith fi"u!e lC2, in 6hich 6e a!e loo$in" 7do6n7, as it 6e!e, !athe! than late!ally. -he lines (a!$ed 6ith the a!!o6s !e%!esent %aths of ti(e-s%ace (ove(ent. -he len"th of the lines !efe!s to the a(ount of ti(e, (easu!ed ch!onolo"ically, s%ent (ovin" 2et6een 7stations7 in the cou!se of a %a!ticula! day 2y a %a!ticula! o! ty%ical individualA the de"!ee of elon"ation of the 2o8es indicates ho6 lon" is s%ent 6ithin a s%ecific locale. -hus a child7s day in school te!( loo$s so(ethin" li$e the sche(e indicated in the dia"!a(. -he child (ay s%end th!ee disc!ete %e!iods in the ho(e #>& %e! day - slee%in" the!e f!o( the (iddle of the evenin" until the ea!ly (o!nin", !etu!nin" the!e f!o( school #S& in the late afte!noon and co(in" 2ac$ a"ain afte! havin" 2een out to the cine(a #C& in the evenin". So(e as%ects of the child7s day a!e no dou2t st!on"ly !outini.ed #the 3ou!ney to school and 2ac$&, 6he!eas othe!s #"oin" out to the cine(a& (ay 2e less so. -he (ost !outini.ed ty%es of activity can 2e !e%!esented as a %!ofile of ti(e-s%ace %aths e(2edded in !eve!si2le ti(e. A school, in >a"e!st!and7s te!(s, is a 7station7 alon" the conve!"in" %aths t!aced 2y cluste!s of individuals in the cou!se of the day. >e is !i"ht to %oint out that the conditions 6hich (a$e it %ossi2le fo! individuals to co(e to"ethe! 6ithin a sin"le locale cannot 2e ta$en fo! "!anted 2ut have to 2e e8a(ined di!ectly. 9ut a locale is, of cou!se, (o!e than a (e!e sto%%in"-%oint. S%ace

##13@&&

7Stations7 tend to 2e 2lac$ 2o8es, as it 6e!e, in ti(e-"eo"!a%hy, 2ecause the (ain focus is u%on (ove(ent 2et6een the(. As a ty%e of social o!"ani.ation, concent!ated u%on a locale havin" definite %hysical cha!acte!istics, the cha!acte!istics of a school can 2e unde!stood in te!(s of th!ee featu!es) the dist!i2ution of encounte!s ac!oss ti(e and s%ace occu!!in" 6ithin it, the inte!nal !e"ionali.ation that it dis%lays, and the conte8tuality of the !e"ions thus identified. Bode!n schools a!e disci%lina!y o!"ani.ations, and thei! 2u!eauc!atic t!aits clea!ly 2oth influence and a!e influenced 2y the !e"ions they contain. Fi$e all fo!(s of disci%lina!y o!"ani.ation, the school o%e!ates 6ithin closed 2ounda!ies, its %hysical 2o!de!s 2ein" cut off !athe! clea!ly f!o( day-to-day inte!action outside. A school is a 7containe!7, "ene!atin" disci%lina!y %o6e!. -he enclosed natu!e of school life (a$es %ossi2le a st!ict co-o!dination of the se!ial encounte!s in 6hich in(ates a!e involved. -he se"(ents of child!en7s ti(e that a!e s%ent in school a!e s%atially and te(%o!ally sealed off f!o( %otentially int!usive encounte!s outside. 9ut this is also t!ue, usually at least, of the divisions 2et6een diffe!ent classes. Schools a!e inte!nally %a!titioned. -he!e (ay 2e so(e a!eas in a school, and so(e ti(es, 6hen hete!o"eneous o! unfocused fo!(s of inte!action tend to occu! - e.". at the 2e"innin" and end of classes. 9ut fo! the (ost %a!t the dist!i2ution of encounte!s 6ithin a school cont!asts d!a(atically 6ith secto!s of social life in 6hich the no!(ative !e"ulation of activity is loose!. Disci%lina!y s%acin" is %a!t of the a!chitectu!al cha!acte! of schools, 2oth in the se%a!ation of class!oo(s and in the !e"ulated s%acin" of des$s that is often found inside the(. -he!e is no dou2t that s%atial divisions of this so!t facilitate the !outini.ed s%ecification and allocation of tas$s. -he school ti(eta2le is funda(ental to the (o2ili.ation of s%ace as co-o!dinated ti(e-s%ace %aths. School ad(inist!ato!s no!(ally do not face the sa(e %!o2le(s of 7%ac$in"7 as thei! counte!%a!ts in hos%itals do. 9ut, li$e all disci%lina!y o!"ani.ations, schools o%e!ate 6ith a %!ecise econo(y of ti(e. t is su!ely !i"ht to t!ace the o!i"ins of school disci%line in so(e %a!t to the !e"ulation of ti(e and s%ace 6hich a "ene!ali.ed t!ansition to 7cloc$ ti(e7 (a$es %ossi2le. -he %oint is not that the 6ides%!ead use of cloc$s (a$es fo! e8act divisions of the dayA it is that ti(e ente!s into the calculative a%%lication of ad(inist!ative autho!ity.

##130&& -he conte8tual featu!es of class!oo(s, as the (ain 7a!eas of a%%lication7 of disci%lina!y %o6e!, o2viously va!y 6idely. 9ut in (o!e seve!e fo!(s of class!oo( s%acin" the s%ecification of 2odily %ositionin", (ove(ent and "estu!e is usually ti"htly o!"ani.ed. -he s%atial %ositionin" of teache! and %u%ils in the conte8t of a class is 5uite diffe!ent f!o( that of (ost othe! situations in 6hich face en"a"e(ents a!e ca!!ied on. ndeed, it usually si"nals a colla%se of the teache!7s cont!ol if such situations co(e into 2ein". -he see(in" (inutiae of 2odily %ostu!e and (o2ility to 6hich Goff(an d!a6s attention a!e once (o!e fa! f!o( incidental he!e. -he class!oo(, li$e the school, is a 7%o6e! containe!7. 9ut it is not one that (e!ely chu!ns out 7docile 2odies7. Conte8ts of co%!esence, as have e(%hasi.ed, can 2e desc!i2ed as settin"s, and settin"s have to 2e !efle8ively activated 2y autho!ity fi"u!es in the cou!se of (a$in" that autho!ity count. Disci%line th!ou"h su!veillance is a %otent (ediu( of "ene!atin" %o6e!, 2ut it none the less de%ends u%on the (o!e o! less continuous co(%liance of those 6ho a!e its 7su23ects7. -he achieve(ent of such co(%liance is itself a f!a"ile and contin"ent acco(%lish(ent, as eve!y teache! $no6s. -he disci%lina!y conte8t of the class!oo( is not 3ust a 72ac$d!o%7 to 6hat "oes on in the school classA it is (o2ili.ed 6ithin the dialectic of cont!ol. A school class is a face en"a"e(ent 6hich has to 2e !efle8ively (ana"ed, li$e any othe!. Conside! the follo6in" st!i% of inte!action, desc!i2ed and discussed 2y ;olla!d) 9ell fo! ,. 0 a.(. "oes, a2out half class in, (ostly !eadin" 2oo$s. -eache! ente!s 2!ee.ily) 7Bo!nin" - ah, that7s "ood, "ettin" those 2oo$s out.7 -eache! sits at des$, tidies u%, "ets !e"iste! out. Bean6hile (ost of the othe! child!en have co(e into the class!oo(. -he late! a!!ivals tal$, s6a% so(e foot2all ca!ds, occasionally "lance at the teache!.

-*AC>*+) +i"ht, let7s do the !e"iste!, then, hu!!y u% and sit do6n you foot2all (aniacs - see that Bancheste! Dnited lost a"ain. BA'C>*S-*+ D' -*D SD;;C+-*+S) Ch yeah, 6ell they7!e still 2ette! than Five!%ool. -*AC>*+) #Oo$ey sa!cas( in voice& +eally? t (ust 2e all the s%inach they don7t eat. 'o6 then... Ba!tin... Do!een... Alan... Ba!$ #calls !e"iste! and child!en ans6e!&. A child co(es in late, loo$in" shee%ish, and 6al$s to his seat. Cthe! child!en %oint and lau"h. C> FD) >ey, Duncan, 6hat a!e you doin"? -*AC>*+) Duncan, co(e he!e. Qou7!e late a"ain, th!ee (inutes late to 2e e8act. <hy? DD'CA') So!!y, Si!. -*AC>*+) said, 7<hy?7 DD'CA') sle%t in, si!. -*AC>*+) <ell, a!e you a6a$e no6? #Cthe! child!en lau"h.& DD'CA') Qes, Si!. -*AC>*+) <ell you7d 2ette! stay 2ehind fo! th!ee (inutes at 4 o7cloc$ and don7t "o to slee% a"ain afte! that. Bo!e lau"hte!, Duncan sits do6n. -eache! finishes !e"iste!.G <hat is "oin" on he!e? <e have to !eco"ni.e, as the teache! does, that !e"ist!ation has a %a!ticula! si"nificance fo! the o!de!in" of the day7s activities. t is a (a!$e! that si"nals the o%enin" of the 2!ac$ets in an encounte!, and it is the fi!st salvo fi!ed in a 2attle that is 3oined daily 2et6een teache! and %u%ils. -he teache! !eco"ni.es it as the fi!st occasion to test the (ood of the child!en, as the child!en do in !es%ect of the teache!. -he teache!7s (aintenance of di!ective cont!ol de%ends u%on ensu!in" that the child!en assu(e the !outines involved in the class!oo( settin". Cn ent!y to the class!oo( in the (o!nin" the child!en a!e e8%ected to sit in thei! assi"ned %laces, "et out thei! !eadin" 2oo$s and ans6e! to thei! na(es 6hen they a!e called out. ;olla!d inte!%!ets the teache!7s 3o$in" and teasin" as a f!ont %e!fo!(ance, 6hich is intended to set the tone of the day as one of co-o%e!ative 6o!$. >o6eve!, this st!ate"y has its !is$s, as is indicated 2y the !es%onse to a late a!!ival of one of the child!en. Anothe! feels a2le to tease the lateco(e!. -he teache! at once !eco"ni.es this as the fi!st test case of the day, in !es%ect of 6hich his su%e!io! autho!ity (ust 2e de(onst!ated. >is 2ante!in" !e2u$e to

Duncan (i8es a%%eal 6ith fi!(ness, a tactic sho6n to 2e successful 2y the lau"hte! of the child!en. -hus the events of the day (ove on. f the teache! had 2een (o!e ove!tly disci%lina!ian and had sent the (isc!eant to the head, the !es%onse could have 2een 3ud"ed too seve!e 2y the !est of the child!en. -he !esult then (i"ht have 2een an escalation of th!eat and %unish(ent

##131&&

##138&& less effective in sustainin" !outine than the 7effo!t 2a!"ain7 6hich teache! and %u%ils have i(%licitly concluded as %a!t of a (o!e co-o%e!ative at(os%he!e. -he ve!y natu!e of class!oo(s, in 6hich (ost thin"s 2oth teache!s and child!en do a!e visi2le each to the othe!, (eans that 2ac$ !e"ions usually have a st!on" te(%o!al as 6ell as s%atial definition. /o! child!en these lie in so(e %a!t alon" the na!!o6 te(%o!al 2ounda!ies 2et6een classes, 6hethe! o! not they involve %hysical (ove(ent f!o( one class!oo( to anothe!. Althou"h the 6ei"ht of disci%line no!(ally 2ea!s do6n (ost on the child!en, it is so(eti(es felt (o!e o%%!essively 2y teache!s. -eache!s usually have a 2ac$ !e"ion to 6hich they can !et!eat, the staff !oo(, 6hich child!en o!dina!ily do not ente!. -he staff !oo( is no dou2t a %lace fo! un6indin" and !ela8ation. 9ut it is also so(e6he!e in 6hich tactics of co%in" 6ith teachin" tend endlessly to 2e discussed, fo!(ulated and !efo!(ulated. t is in the natu!e of disci%lina!y o!"ani.ations that the intensity of su!veillance inside inhi2its di!ect cont!ol f!o( outside. -his is a %heno(enon 6hich can 2e seen 2oth in the inte!nal !e"ionali.ation of the school and in its situation as a locale 6ithin othe! locales. nside the school the concent!ation of disci%lina!y autho!ity in se%a!ately %a!titioned class!oo(s is the condition of the hi"h level of cont!ol ove! 2odily %ositionin" and activity 6hich can 2e achieved. 9ut this ci!cu(stance also acts a"ainst the di!ect su%e!vision of the su%e!viso!. -he head is 7in autho!ity7 ove! the teachin" staff, 2ut such autho!ity cannot 2e e8e!cised in the sa(e 6ay as teache!s endeavou! to cont!ol the conduct of child!en in thei! classes. Schools the!efo!e tend to have a !athe! sha!%ly o%%osed 7dou2le line7 of autho!ity. -he cont!ol 6hich teache!s see$ to e8e!cise ove! thei! %u%ils is i((ediate, involvin" the teache!7s continuous face-to-face %!esence 6ith the child!en. Su%e!vision of the activity of teache!s, ho6eve!, is necessa!ily indi!ect and %!oceeds 2y othe! (eans. Cne (i"ht ha.a!d a "uess that it is only in o!"ani.ations in 6hich a conside!a2le a(ount of autono(y f!o( di!ect su%e!vision is "iven that a "!aduated line of autho!ity can 2e achieved. -he enclosed natu!e of the school, and its clea! se%a!ation

in ti(e and s%ace f!o( 6hat "oes on in su!!oundin" locales, also inhi2its su%e!viso!y cont!ol f!o( the outside, ho6eve!. -hus ins%ecto!s (ay visit schools !e"ula!ly to chec$ u%on thei! o%e!ationA 2oa!ds of "ove!no!s and %a!ents7

##13,&& associations (ay (a$e thei! %o6e! felt in influencin" %olicies that hel% to sha%e the life of the school. 9ut it is int!insic to disci%lina!y %o6e! that 6hat "oes on in the 7%o6e! containe!7 of the school has a si"nificant de"!ee of autono(y f!o( the ve!y outside a"encies 6hose ethos it e8%!esses. A"ainst 7Bic!o7 and 7Bac!o7) Social and Syste( nte"!ation -he fo!e"oin" conside!ations a!e of so(e i(%o!tance in e8a(inin" the !elations 2et6een social and syste( inte"!ation. do not e(%loy the (o!e fa(ilia! te!(s, 7(ic!o-7 and 7(ac!osociolo"ical7 study, fo! t6o !easons. Cne is that these t6o a!e not inf!e5uently set off a"ainst one anothe!, 6ith the i(%lication that 6e have to choose 2et6een the(, !e"a!din" one as in so(e 6ay (o!e funda(ental than the othe!. n Goff(an7s studied !efusal to 2e conce!ned 6ith issues of la!"e-scale social o!"ani.ation and histo!y, fo! e8a(%le, the!e see(s to lu!$ the idea that in 6hat he so(eti(es calls (ic!osociolo"y is to 2e found the essential !eality of social life. Cn the othe! hand, advocates of (ac!osociolo"ical a%%!oaches a!e %!one to !e"a!d studies of day-to-day social activity as conce!ned 6ith t!ivia - the (ost si"nificant issues a!e those of 2!oade! sco%e. 9ut this so!t of conf!ontation is su!ely a %honey 6a! if eve! the!e 6as one. At any !ate, do not thin$ that the!e can 2e any 5uestion of eithe! havin" %!io!ity ove! the othe!. A second !eason 6hy the (ic!oH(ac!o division tends to con3u!e u% unfo!tunate associations is that, even 6he!e the!e is no conflict 2et6een the t6o %e!s%ectives, an unha%%y division of la2ou! tends to co(e into 2ein" 2et6een the(. Bic!osociolo"y is ta$en to 2e conce!ned 6ith the activities of the 7f!ee a"ent7, 6hich can safely 2e left to theo!etical stand%oints such as those of sy(2olic inte!actionis( o!

ethno(ethodolo"y to elucidateA 6hile the %!ovince of (ac!osociolo"y is %!esu(ed to 2e that of analysin" the st!uctu!al const!aints 6hich set li(its to f!ee activity #see %%. 211&. have (ade it clea! %!eviously that such a division of la2ou! leads to conse5uences that a!e at 2est hi"hly (isleadin". <hy should the issue of the !elation 2et6een 7(ic!o-7 and 7(ac!osociolo"ical7 study 2e seen as so %!o2le(atic 2y (any 6!ite!s? -he conce%tual division of la2ou! 3ust !efe!!ed to is %!esu(a2ly the (ain !eason. +einfo!ced 2y a %hiloso%hical dualis(, it de(ands a (o!e tho!ou"h"oin" !efo!(ulation of social

##140&& theo!y than (ost autho!s a!e a2le, o! 6illin" to conte(%late. t 6ill hel% to develo% this %oint to loo$ 2!iefly at one of the (o!e inte!estin" !ecent discussions of the issue, that offe!ed 2y Collins.G Collins %oints out that the schis( 2et6een (ic!o- and (ac!o-sociolo"ical a%%!oaches, as these te!(s a!e o!dina!ily unde!stood, has 2eco(e accentuated ove! the %ast decade o! so. <hile social theo!y 6as do(inated 2y functionalis( and Ba!8is(, o! so(e co(2ination of the t6o, social !elations in situations of co-%!esence 6e!e ty%ically !e"a!ded as su2stantially dete!(ined 2y 2!oade!, Ist!uctu!al7 facto!s. >o6eve!, as led es%ecially 2y ethno(ethodolo"y, (ic!osociolo"y has 2eco(e a 2u!"eonin" field of inte!est and one in 6hich the %!esu(%tions of the a2ove a%%!oaches have 2een ta$en to tas$ in a fai!ly !adical fashion. n Collins7s vie6, Ithe ne6e!, !adical (ic!osociolo"y is e%iste(o lo"ically and e(%i!ically (uch (o!e tho!ou"h than any %!evious (ethod. . . . 6ould su""est that the effo!t cohe!ently to !econstitute (ac!osociolo"y u%on !adically e(%i!ical (ic!o-foundations is the c!ucial ste% to6a!d a (o!e successful sociolo"ical science.7 33 Acco!din" to Collins, the %!o%e! 6ay fo!6a!d is via a %!o"!a((e of the I(ic!ot!anslation7 of Ist!uctu!al %heno(ena7. Such t!anslation is li$ely to eventuate in theo!ies 6hich have a st!on"e! e(%i!ical 2asis than e8istin" (ac!osociolo"ical theo!ies. -hose 6ho a!e conce!ned 6ith (ac!osociolo"ical issues a!e called u%on not to a2andon thei! endeavou!s 2ut to !eco"ni.e that thei! 6o!$ is theo!etically inco(%lete. -he!e a!e, in Collins7s eyes, only th!ee I%u!e (ac!ova!ia2les7) ti(e, s%ace and nu(2e!. -hus a conce%t such as Icent!ali.ation of autho!ity7 can 2e t!anslated into accounts of (ic!osituations J ho6 situated acto!s actually e8e!t autho!ity in desc!i2a2le conte8ts. >o6eve! the I%u!e (ac!ova!ia2les7 ente! in as the nu(2e! of situations of such a so!t, in ti(e and in s%ace. I>ence st!uctu!al va!ia2les often tu!n out to 2e shee! nu(2e!s of %eo%le in va!ious $inds of (ic!o situations.734 ISocial !eality7, then, is I(ic!o-e8%e!ience7A it is the nu(e!ical te(%o!al and s%atial a""!e"ations of such e8%e!ience 6hich (a$e u% the (ac!osociolo"ical level of analysis. -he Ist!uctu!al7 5ualities of social syste(s a!e the I!esults7, Collins says, of conduct in (ic!osituations, in so fa! as they do not de%end u%on nu(2e!, ti(e and s%ace. Althou"h Collins7s conce%t of Ist!uctu!al va!ia2les7 is so(e6hat

##141&& si(ila! to that advocated 2y 9lau #see %%. 208-10&, Collins 5uite !i"htly 5uestions the so!t of ve!sion of 7st!uctu!al sociolo"y7 6hich 9lau and (any othe!s %!o%ose. 9ut in othe! !es%ects, Collins7s vie6 is 6antin". As have consistently st!essed, to t!eat ti(e and s%ace as 7va!ia2les7 is to !e%eat the cha!acte!istic e!!o! of (ost fo!(s of o!thodo8 social science. Bo!eove!, 6hy should 6e assu(e that 7st!uctu!e7 is !elevant only to (ac!osociolo"ical issues? 9oth in the (o!e %!ecise and in the va"ue! senses of the te!( have distin"uished activity in (ic!oconte8ts has st!on"ly defined st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties. ta$e this, in fact, to 2e one of the (ain clai(s 6hich ethno(ethodolo"ical !esea!ch has successfully sustained. Bo!eove!, 6hy hold that ti(e as a 7va!ia2le7 is !elevant only to (ac!osociolo"ical conce!ns? -e(%o!ality is as inse%a!a2le f!o( a s(all st!i% of inte!action as it is f!o( the lon"est of longues dures. /inally, 6hy %!o%ose that st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties consist only of th!ee di(ensions, ti(e, s%ace and nu(2e!? -he !eason, assu(e, is that Collins still has in (ind that 7st!uctu!e7 (ust !efe! to so(ethin" 7outside7 the activities of social a"ents if it is to have any sense at all in social science. Dis%e!sion in ti(e and s%ace see(s the only %heno(enon left, "iven that Collins acce%ts a "ood deal of the c!iticis(s that have 2een levelled 2y those 6ho( he calls 7!adical (ic!osociolo"ists7 a"ainst the collective conce%ts 6ith 6hich thei! (ac!osociolo"ical anta"onists usually o%e!ate. 9ut the (ost i(%o!tant confusion in Collins7s account is the assu(%tion that 7(ac!o%!ocesses7 a!e the 7!esults7 of inte!action in 7(ic!osituations7. Acco!din" to Collins, the 7(ac!olevel7 consists only of 7a""!e"ations of (ic!o-e8%e!iences7. 'o6, it can 2e a"!eed that "ene!ali.ations in the social sciences al6ays %!esu%%ose -and (a$e at least i(%licit !efe!ence to - the intentional activities of hu(an a"ents. >o6eve!, it does not follo6 f!o( this that 6hat is desc!i2ed as the 7(ac!olevel7 has a !athe! sha( e8istence. -his only ta$es us 2ac$ to the %honey 6a!. Social institutions a!e not e8%lica2le as a""!e"ates of 7(ic!osituations7, no! fully desc!i2a2le in te!(s that !efe! to such situations, if 6e (ean 2y these ci!cu(stances of co-%!esence. Cn the othe! hand, institutionali.ed %atte!ns of 2ehaviou! a!e dee%ly i(%licated in even the (ost fleetin" and li(ited of 7(ic!osituations7.

Fet us %u!sue this thou"ht 2y indicatin" 6hy the (ic!oH(ac!o distinction is not a %a!ticula!ly useful one. <hat is a 7(ic!o

##142&& situation7? -he !es%onse (i"ht 2e) a situation of inte!action confined in s%ace and ti(e - see(in"ly Collins7s vie6. 9ut this is not ve!y hel%ful. /o! not only do encounte!s 7slide a6ay7 in ti(e 2ut also once 6e sta!t 2ein" conce!ned 6ith ho6 encounte!s a!e ca!!ied on 2y thei! %a!tici%atin" acto!s, it 2eco(es clea! that no st!i% of inte!action - even if it is %lainly 2!ac$eted, te(%o!ally and s%atially - can 2e unde!stood on its o6n. Bost as%ects of inte!action a!e sedi(ented in ti(e, and sense can 2e (ade of the( only 2y conside!in" thei! !outini.ed, !e%etitive cha!acte!. Bo!eove!, the s%atial diffe!entiation of the (ic!o and (ac!o 2eco(es i(%!ecise once 6e sta!t to e8a(ine it. /o! the fo!(in" and !efo!(in" of encounte!s necessa!ily occu!s ac!oss t!acts of s%ace 2!oade! than those involved in i((ediate conte8ts of faceto-face inte!action. -he %aths t!aced 2y individuals in the cou!se of the day 2!ea$ off so(e contacts 2y (ovin" s%atially to fo!( othe!s, 6hich a!e then 2!o$en off and so on. <hat is no!(ally tal$ed a2out unde! the headin" of (ic!oH (ac!o %!ocesses is the %ositionin" of the 2ody in ti(e-s%ace, the natu!e of inte!action in situations of co-%!esence, and the connection 2et6een these and 7a2sent7 influences !elevant to the cha!acte!i.ation and e8%lanation of social conduct. -hese %heno(ena - the ancho!in" conce!ns, in fact, of st!uctu!ation theo!y - a!e 2ette! dealt 6ith as conce!nin" the !elations 2et6een social and syste( inte"!ation. 'o6, so(e of the 5uestions at issue in the (ic!oH(ac!o de2ate a!e conce%tual %!o2le(s to do 6ith the lon"-standin" cont!ove!sy ove! (ethodolo"ical individualis(. -hese shall leave aside until the ne8t cha%te!. Cthe! as%ects, ho6eve!, do not !est u%on solely conce%tual conside!ations. -hey can 2e !esolved only 2y di!ectly analysin" %a!ticula! ty%es of society. 9ecause societies diffe! in thei! (odes of institutional a!ticulation, the (odes of inte!section of %!esence and a2sence that ente!s into thei! constitution can 2e e8%ected to va!y. shall indicate this 2!iefly he!e, int!oducin" at the sa(e ti(e (ate!ial to 2e e8%anded u%on in the ne8t cha%te!. Social inte"!ation has to do 6ith inte!action in conte8ts of co%!esence. -he connections 2et6een social and syste( inte"!ation can 2e t!aced 2y e8a(inin" the (odes of !e"ionali.ation 6hich

channel, and a!e channelled 2y, the ti(e-s%ace %aths that the (e(2e!s of a co((unity o! society follo6 in thei! day-to-day activities. Such %aths a!e st!on"ly influenced 2y, and also

##143&& !e%!oduce, 2asic institutional %a!a(ete!s of the social syste(s in 6hich they a!e i(%licated. -!i2al societies #see %%. 182-3& tend to have a heavily se"(ental fo!(, the villa"e co((unity 2ein" ove!6hel(in"ly the (ost i(%o!tant locale 6ithin 6hich encounte!s a!e constituted and !econstituted in ti(e-s%ace. n these societies !elations of co-%!esence tend to do(inate influences of a (o!e !e(ote $ind. t (a$es sense to say that in the( the!e is so(ethin" of a fusion of social and syste( inte"!ation. 9ut o2viously such a fusion is neve! co(%lete) vi!tually all societies, no (atte! ho6 s(all o! see(in"ly isolated, e8ist in at least loose connection 6ith 6ide! 7inte!societal syste(s7. Since 6e no6 live in a 6o!ld 6he!e elect!onic co((unication is ta$en fo! "!anted, it is 6o!th e(%hasi.in" 6hat is othe!6ise a self-evident featu!e of t!aditional societies #of all societies, in fact, u% to a little ove! a centu!y a"o&. -his is si(%ly that all contacts 2et6een (e(2e!s of diffe!ent co((unities o! societies, no (atte! ho6 fa!-flun", involve conte8ts of co-%!esence. A lette! (ay a!!ive f!o( an a2sent othe!, 2ut of cou!se it has to 2e ta$en %hysically f!o( one %lace to anothe!. :e!y lon" 3ou!neys 6e!e (ade 2y s%eciali.ed cate"o!ies of %eo%le - sailo!s, the (ilita!y, (e!chants, (ystics and dive!se adventu!e!s - in the t!aditional 6o!ld. 'o(adic societies 6ould !oa( ac!oss vast t!acts of land. ;o%ulation (i"!ations 6e!e co((on. 9ut none of these %heno(ena alte!s the fact that conte8ts of co-%!esence 6e!e al6ays the (ain 7ca!!yin" conte8ts7 of inte!action. <hat (ade %ossi2le the la!"e! ti(e-s%ace 7st!etch7 involved in 6hat shall call class-divided societies 6as a2ove all the develo%(ent of cities. Cities esta2lish a cent!ali.ation of !esou!ces es%ecially ad(inist!ative !esou!ces - that (a$es fo! "!eate! ti(e-s%ace distanciation than is ty%ically the case in t!i2al o!de!s. -he !e"ionali.ation of class-divided societies, ho6eve! co(%licated

it (ay 2e in detail, is al6ays fo!(ed a!ound the connections, of 2oth inte!de%endence and anta"onis(, 2et6een city and count!yside. <e tend to use the te!( 7city7 in an enco(%assin" fashion to !efe! 2oth to u!2an settle(ents in t!aditional societies and to those conve!"ent 6ith the fo!(ation and s%!ead of ca%italistindust!ialis(. 9ut this is an o2fuscatin" usa"e if it is ta$en to i(%ly that in (ode!n ti(es 6e (e!ely have (o!e of the sa(e -that today7s u!2anis( is only a dense! and (o!e s%!a6lin" ve!sion

##144&&

of 6hat 6ent 2efo!e. -he conte8tualities of t!aditional cities a!e in (any !es%ects diffe!ent f!o( those of (ode!n u!2anis(. +y$6e!t, fo! e8a(%le, %oints out the sy(2olic fo!( that (any cities had, in 6idely !e(oved %a!ts of the 6o!ld, %!io! to (ode!n ti(es) t is difficult Pfo! us todayM to i(a"ine a situation 6he!e the fo!(al o!de! of the unive!se could 2e !educed to a dia"!a( of t6o inte!sectin" coo!dinates in one %lace. Qet this is e8actly 6hat did ha%%en in anti5uity) the +o(an 6ho 6al$ed alon" the cardo $ne6 that his 6al$ 6as the a8is a!ound 6hich the sun tu!ned, and that if he follo6ed the decumanus, he 6as follo6in" the sun7s cou!se. -he 6hole unive!se and its (eanin" could 2e s%elled out of his civic institutions - so he 6as at ho(e in it.3@ Such cities, 6e could say, do not yet e8ist in co((odified ti(e and s%ace .31 -he 2uyin" and sellin" of ti(e, as la2ou! ti(e, is su!ely one of the (ost distinctive featu!es of (ode!n ca%italis(. -he o!i"ins of the %!ecise te(%o!al !e"ulation of the day (ay %e!ha%s 2e found in the chi(e of the (onaste!y 2ell, 2ut it is in the s%he!e of la2ou! that its influence 2eca(e e(2edded in such a 6ay as to s%!ead th!ou"hout society as a 6hole. -he co((odification of ti(e, "ea!ed to the (echanis(s of indust!ial %!oduction, 2!ea$s do6n the diffe!entiation of city and count!yside cha!acte!istic of class-divided societies. Bode!n indust!y is acco(%anied 2y the s%!ead of u!2anis(, 2ut its o%e!ation is not necessa!ily fi8ed in any %a!ticula! ty%e of a!ea. -he t!aditional city, on the othe! hand, is 2oth the (ain locus of disci%lina!y %o6e! in class-divided societies and, as such, set off f!o( the count!yside - ve!y often, %hysically and sy(2olically, 2y the city 6alls. -o"ethe! 6ith the t!ansfo!(ation of ti(e, the co((odification of s%ace esta2lishes a 7c!eated envi!on(ent7 of a ve!y distinctive cha!acte!, e8%!essin" ne6 fo!(s of institutional a!ticulation. Such ne6 fo!(s of institutional o!de! alte! the conditions of social and syste( inte"!ation and the!e2y chan"e the natu!e of the connections 2et6een the %!o8i(ate and !e(ote in ti(e and s%ace.

##14@&&

C itical 7otes6 <oucault on -i$in" and S%acin" /oucault7s va!ious discussions of the o!i"ins of disci%lina!y %o6e! de(onst!ate a %e!sistent conce!n 6ith te(%o!al and s%atial dist!i2ution. Acco!din" to /oucault, disci%lina!y %o6e! has as its focus the (ani%ulation of the 2ody, !e"a!ded essentially as a (achine that can 2e finely tuned. -he fo!(s of ad(inist!ation associated 6ith the disci%lina!y o!"ani.ations 6hich have (ush!oo(ed f!o( the ei"hteenth centu!y on6a!ds a!e diffe!ent f!o( the (ass (o2ili.ation of la2ou! %o6e! found in la!"e-scale %!o3ects in a"!a!ian civili.ations. Such %!o3ects - !oad-2uildin", the const!uction of te(%les, %u2lic (onu(ents and so on -often involved la!"e nu(2e!s of %eo%le. 9ut thei! activities 6e!e co-o!dinated only in a "!oss fashion. -he ne6 fo!(s of disci%line a!e tailo!ed %!ecisely to (ove(ents, "estu!es and attitudes of the individual 2ody. Dnli$e (onastic disci%line, 6hich is one of its (ain histo!ical fo!e!unne!s, the ne6 techni5ues of %o6e! connect disci%line di!ectly 6ith utility. -he cont!ol of the 2ody is %a!t of the novel 7%olitical anato(y7 and as such, /oucault says, inc!eases the out%ut of the 2ody 6hile also !educin" its inde%endence of o!ientation. Disci%line can %!oceed only via the (ani%ulation of ti(e and of s%ace. t o!dina!ily !e5ui!es enclosu!e, a s%he!e of o%e!ations closed off and closed in u%on itself. /oucault (a$es a "!eat deal of the conce%t of 7confine(ent7, the (o!e o! less fo!ci2le se%a!ation of individuals f!o( the !est of the %o%ulation in the ea!ly hos%itals, in (ental asylu(s and in %!isons. >o6eve!, othe! less e(2!acin" disci%lina!y o!"ani.ations also involve enclosu!e. -he facto!s leadin" to the esta2lish(ent of closed a!eas (ay va!y, 2ut the end !esult is si(ila! in all of the(, in so(e de"!ee 2ecause si(ila! (odels 6e!e follo6ed 2y the individuals and autho!ities !es%onsi2le fo! settin" the( u%. *nclosu!e is a "ene!ali.ed 2asis of disci%lina!y %o6e!, 2ut ta$en alone it is not enou"h to %e!(it the detailed (ana"e(ent of the (ove(ents and activities of the 2ody. -his can 2e achieved only th!ou"h inte!nal !e"ional division o! 7%a!titionin"7. *ach individual has his

##140&& o he )% o%e %lace) at any %a ticula ti$e of the day. -he %a titionin" of disci%lina y ti$e-s%ace has at least t+o conse4uences. 0t hel%s to avoid the fo $ation of la "e " ou%s +hich $i"ht #e a sou ce of inde%endent +ill fo $ation o of o%%osition, and it allo+s fo the di ect $ani%ulation of individual activities, avoidin" the flu, and indete $inacy +hich casual encounte s tend to have. >hat is involved he e, acco din" to <oucault, is an )analytical s%ace), in +hich individuals can #e +atched and assessed, thei 4ualities $easu ed. -he %a titionin" of disci%lina y s%ace $ay have #een influenced #y the e,a$%le of the $onastic cell, #ut often o i"inated also in a chitectu al fo $s that +e e esta#lished fo %u ely % actical %u %oses. 0n < ance the naval hos%ital at ;ochefo t se ved as a $odel. 0t +as set u% as %a t of an atte$%t to co%e +ith the conta"ious diso de s ife in a %o t tee$in" +ith nu$e ous dis%a ate " ou%in"s of %eo%le en"a"ed in +a o t ade. Cont ollin" the s% ead of disease involved othe !inds of su%e viso y e"ulation of t ansient %o%ulations -that of the $ilita y ove dese te s and of the local ad$inist ation ove the flo+ of "oods, ations and a+ $ate ials. -his led to % essu e fo the i"o ous cont ol of s%ace, +hich fi st involved ca in" fo valua#le co$$odities athe than o "ani8in" hu$an #ein"s. 9ut the % actice of ta""in" "oods, cate"o i8in" and cont ollin" thei dist i#ution +as late a%%lied to %atients. Case eco ds #e"an to #e !e%t. -he ove all nu$#e of %atients +as ca efully e"ulatedD est ictions +e e %laced on thei $ove$ent and the ti$es at +hich they +e e visited. -he e$e "ence of )the a%eutic s%acin") thus +as develo%ed f o$ )ad$inist ative and %olitical) s%acin".)E -he %a titionin" of s%ace ca$e a#out in athe diffe ent ci cu$stances in facto ies in the late ei"hteenth centu y. *e e the tendency +as also to dist i#ute individuals in de$a cated s%ace, #ut this dist i#ution had to #e di ected to+a ds the coo dination of $achine y. -hus the a an"e$ent of #odies in s%ace had to co es%ond to the technical de$ands of % oduction. 9ut this )a ticulation of % oduction s%ace) can also #e sho+n to have #een infused +ith disci%lina y %o+e . <oucault 4uotes the

5#e !a$%f $anufacto y at Fouy as an e,a$%le. -he $anufacto y +as const ucted of a se ies of +o !sho%s identified acco din" to the ty%e of % oduction o%e ation. -oussaint 9a G desi"ned the

##footnote&& =+efe!ences (ay 2e found on %%. 100-1.

##141&& la "est of the #uildin"s, +hich +as 110 $et es lon", +ith th ee sto eys. 5n the " ound floo #loc! % intin" +as ca ied out. -he e +e e 132 ta#les, set u% in t+o o+s unnin" the len"th of the +o !sho%D t+o e$%loyees +o !ed at each ta#le. Su%e viso s +ould +al! u% and do+n the cent al aisle, #ein" the e#y a#le to su%e vise the la#ou % ocess in "ene al and the activities of each individual +o !e in %a ticula . >o !e s could #e co$%a ed fo thei s%eed and % oductivity and thei activities co elated +ith one anothe . 9y asso tin" +o !e s acco din" to st ict % inci%les of classification, each ele$ent of the la#ou tas! could #e cha acte i8ed and elated to disc ete $otions of the #ody. -he doct ines of < ede ic! -aylo a e not $uch $o e than a late fo $ulation of the disci%lina y %o+e that acco$%anied the ise of la "e-scale indust y ove a centu y ea lie . -he cha acte of disci%lina y s%ace, acco din" to <oucault, de ives % i$a ily not f o$ the association of an o "ani8ation +ith a s%ecific %iece of te ito y #ut f o$ the fa $in" of s%ace. =ines, colu$ns, $easu ed +alled inte vals a e its distin"uishin" featu es. 0t is not any %a ticula %a t of the #uildin" that $atte s, #ut its ove all elational fo $. -he class oo$ e,e$%lifies this %heno$enon. 0n the ei"hteenth centu y, in < ance and else+he e, classes co$e to #e divided inte vally into clea ly deli$ited o+s, e,te nally se%a ated #y a connectin" syste$ of co ido s. -hese a e cu icula as +ell as s%atial

divisions. 0ndividuals $ove th ou"h such %a titions not only in the cou se of the day #ut also du in" thei educational ca ee s. 0n o "ani8in" )cells), )%laces) and ) an!s), the disci%lines c eate co$%le, s%aces that a e at once a chitectu al, functional and hie a chical. t is s%aces that % ovide fi,ed %ositions and %e $it ci culationD they ca!ve out individual se"$ents and esta#lish o%e ational lin!sD they $a ! %laces and indicate valuesD they "ua antee the o#edience of individuals, #ut also a #ette econo$y of ti$e and "estu e.) Disci%line de%ends u%on the calculative division of ti$e as +ell as s%ace. -he $onaste y, afte all, +as one of the fi st %laces in +hich the day +as te$%o ally e"ulated in a % ecise and o de ed fashion. -he eli"ious o de s +e e the $aste s of the $ethodical cont ol of ti$e, and thei influence, diffuse o $o e di ect, +as felt eve y+he e. As in $ost as%ects of disci%lina y %o+e , the

##148&& a!(y %!ovides an a%t illust!ation. Soldie!s had lon" 2een t!ained to (a!ch in !e"ula! fo!(ations. -he Dutch 6e!e the ea!ly %ionee!s of the %!ecise ti(in" of (ilita!y (anoeuv!es.3 9y the end of the si8teenth centu!y a (ethod had 2een develo%ed in the Dutch a!(y 6he!e2y t!oo%s 6e!e t!ained %!o"!a((atically to (anoeuv!e in an o!de!ed 6ay 6hile (aintainin" a steady and continuous !ate of fi!e. -his 6as acco(%lished 2y ti(in" the va!ious (ove(ents of the 2ody. -he (ethod 6as late! a%%lied to the "estu!es involved in loadin", fi!in" and !eloadin" 6ea%ons and to (any othe! as%ects of (ilita!y o!"ani.ation. t 6as in !elation to such develo%(ents, in fact, that the te!( 7disci%line7 unde!6ent a chan"e in (eanin". n its o!i"inal sense it !efe!!ed to a lea!nin" %!ocess and 6as !e"a!ded as a t!ait of the 7disci%lined7. >o6eve!, in the a!(ed fo!ces it ca(e to 2e a%%lied as o!dina!ily it is today, as to do 6ith an ove!all (ode of !e"ulation !athe! than 6ith the %!ocess of inst!uction itself.7 -he ti(in" of activities is (o!e than thei! su2o!dination to (easu!ed te(%o!al inte!vals. t is %e!ha%s the (ost 2asic condition of the 7co-o!dination of the 2ody and the "estu!e7. Disci%lina!y %o6e! does not consist only in the i(%osition of cont!ol ove! s%ecific "estu!es, 2ut is (a8i(i.ed 6he!e "estu!es a!e !elated to the %ositionin" of the 2ody as a 6hole. -he efficient use of the 2ody (eans that nothin" !e(ains idle o! unusedA attention (ust 2e focused 6holly u%on the act 6ith 6hich the individual is conce!ned. A disci%lined 2ody is a t!ained 2ody) in this, one (i"ht say, the t!aditional sense of 7disci%line7 %e!sists. -he %ositionin" of the 2ody is the (ain (ediatin" facto! 2et6een t6o te(%o!ally a!ticulated se5uences. Cne is the disa""!e"ation of the "estu!e into a ti(ed se!ies of (ove(ents, s%ecifyin" the %a!ts of the 2ody to 2e used. -hus Bau!ice of C!an"e 2!o$e do6n the handlin" of the (us$et into a se!ies of fo!ty-th!ee se%a!ate (ove(ents, that of the %i$e into t6enty-th!ee, coo!dinated 6ithin a fo!(ation of soldie!s in a 2attle unit.7 >o6eve!, the %a!ts of the o23ects handled a!e also s%ecified and inte"!ated 6ith the "estu!e. ;!ecise ti(in" is essential fo! this, since 6ea%on!y and (achine!y have inc!easin"ly 2eco(e desi"ned to o%e!ate in a se5uential 6ay, each ste% in its o%e!ation 2ein" a %!e!e5uisite to 6hat is done ne8t. Disci%lina!y %o6e! de%ends u%on

not 3ust the e8%loitation of %!e-"iven (ate!ials 2ut also the esta2lish(ent of a 7coe!cive lin$ 6ith the a%%a!atus of %!oduction7.

##14,&& -i(in" also st!etches ac!oss the %!o"!ession of ca!ee!s. /oucault co(%a!es t6o %hases in the develo%(ent of the (anufacto!y school of the Go2elins. -he (anufacto!y 6as esta2lished 2y !oyal edict in 1001A a school fo! a%%!entices 6as %lanned as %a!t of the sche(e. -he su%e!intendent of !oyal 2uildin"s 6as to select si8ty schola!shi% child!en fo! %a!tici%ation in the school, the educational %!ocess 2ein" o!"ani.ed alon" the ty%ical lines of "uild a%%!enticeshi%. -he %u%ils 6e!e fi!st of all the !es%onsi2ility of a (aste!, late! se!vin" si8 yea!s7 a%%!enticeshi%. /ollo6in" fu!the! se!vice lastin" fou! yea!s and the successful %assin" of an e8a(ination, they 6e!e a2le to set u% thei! o6n 6o!$sho%s. >e!e the!e 6as a diffuse %!ocess of t!ans(ission of $no6led"e, involvin" an e8chan"e of se!vices 2et6een (aste!s and a%%!entices. -he te(%o!al o!"ani.ation of the a%%!entices7 lives - 2y the standa!ds of 6hat 6as to follo6 - 6as la8. So(e seventy yea!s afte! the school 6as set u%, a ne6 ty%e of t!ainin" 6as initiated fo! the a%%!enticesA it 6as fi!st of all co(%le(enta!y to the e8istin" (odes of %!ocedu!e. Dnli$e those (odes of %!ocedu!e, it 6as 2ased on the ca!eful se!ial a!!an"e(ent of ti(e. -he child!en attended the school fo! t6o hou!s a day. Classes 6e!e divided acco!din" to a2ility and %!evious e8%e!ience. Allotted tas$s 6e!e ca!!ied out in a !e"ula! fashion, a%%!aised 2y the teache! and the (ost a2le !e6a!ded. ;!o"!ession 2et6een classes 6as "ove!ned 2y the !esults of tests ad(iniste!ed to all %u%ils. Day-to-day 2ehaviou! 6as !eco!ded in a 2oo$ $e%t 2y teache!s and thei! assistantsA it 6as %e!iodically loo$ed at 2y an ins%ecto!. -he Go2elins school 6as one instance of a "ene!al t!end in ei"hteenth-centu!y education, in /oucault7s 6o!ds an e8%!ession of a 7ne6 techni5ue fo! ta$in" cha!"e of the ti(e of individual e8istences7. Disci%lines 76hich analyse s%ace, 2!ea$ u% and !ea!!an"e activities7 have to 2e concent!ated also in 6ays 6hich (a$e %ossi2le 7addin" u% and ca%itali.in" ti(e7.7 /ou! (ethods can 2e used to effect this.

#1& -he division of lives ch!onolo"ically, such that %hases of develo%(ent a!e s%ecifically ti(ed. -hus the %e!iod of t!ainin" can 2e se%a!ated out in a clea! fashion f!o( a ca!ee! %!o%e!. <ithin the t!ainin" %e!iod ste%s in attain(ent can 2e de(a!cated, and all those !eceivin" inst!uction can 2e

##1@0&& (ade to (ove se5uentially th!ou"h all of the(. #2& -he se%a!ate %hases of t!ainin" and the su2se5uent 7ca!ee!7 - a 6o!d 6hich the!e2y attains only its (ode!n sense -can 2e o!"ani.ed acco!din" to an ove!all %lan. *ducation has to 2e f!eed f!o( the %e!sonali.ed de%endence entailed in the !elation 2et6een (aste! and a%%!entice. -he educational %lan has to 2e set out in i(%e!sonal te!(s, 6he!eve! %ossi2le dis(e(2e!ed into thei! (ost ele(enta!y o%e!ations, 6hich a!e then !eadily lea!ned 2y anyone unde!"oin" inst!uction. #3& *ach of the te(%o!al se"(ents has to 2e concluded 6ith an e8a(ination, 6hich not only "ua!antees that eve!y individual 6ill unde!"o the sa(e %!ocess of inst!uction 2ut also diffe!entiates each in te!(s of his o! he! !elative ca%a2ilities. -he va!ious e8a(inations involved in the %u!suit of a ca!ee! a!e "!aded so that they each have to 2e successfully unde!ta$en 2efo!e the novitiate can (ove on to anothe!. Diffe!ent fo!(s o! levels of t!ainin" can 2e desi"nated fo! the achieve(ent of !an$ed offices. At the conclusion of each se!ies so(e individuals can 2e hi!ed off and allocated to a %a!ticula! "!ade, 6hile othe!s continue to hi"he! "!ades. *ve!y individual is involved in a te(%o!al se!ies 2y (eans of 6hich his o! he! office o! !an$ is defined. -he 7se!iation7 of successive activities (a$es %ossi2le a 6hole invest(ent of du!ation 2y %o6e!) the %ossi2ility of a detailed cont!ol and a !e"ula! inte!vention #of diffe!entiation, co!!ection, %unish(ent, eli(ination& in each (o(ent of ti(eA the %ossi2ility of cha!acte!i.in", and the!efo!e of usin" individuals acco!din" to the level in the se!ies that they a!e (ovin" th!ou"hA the %ossi2ility of accu(ulatin" ti(e and activity, of !ediscove!in" the(, totali.ed and usa2le in a final !esult, 6hich is the ulti(ate ca%acity of an individual. -e(%o!al dis%e!sal is 2!ou"ht to"ethe! to %!oduce a %!ofit, thus (aste!in" a du!ation that 6ould othe!6ise elude one7s

"!as%. ;o6e! is a!ticulated di!ectly on to ti(eA it assu!es its cont!ol and "ua!antees its use.1 -hus disci%lina!y (ethods !eflect a s%ecific unde!standin" of ti(e, one 6hich is an e5ual-inte!val scale. n the se!iation of ti(e, /oucault %!o%oses, the!e is a %!ocedu!e co!!es%ondin" to the (a%%in" of %a!titioned s%ace on to 2odily activities) this is #4&

##1@1&& 7e8e!cise7. *8e!cise is the i(%osition of !e"ula! and "!aduated %hysical t!ainin" of the 2ody, 6ith an end state of fitness in vie6 7fitness7 !efe!!in" to the %!e%a!edness of the 2ody 2ut also to a "ene!ali.ed ca%acity to ca!!y out desi"nated tas$s. -he idea and %!actice of e8e!cise had !eli"ious o!i"ins 2ut 2eca(e a secula! the(e of (ost of the disci%lina!y o!"ani.ations. *8e!cise de(ands !e"ula! %a!tici%ation ove! ti(e and 6o!$s on s%ecific %a!ts of the 2ody. t e8%!esses in a di!ect fashion the si"nificance of cont!ol of the 2ody, in !elation to othe! 2odies, 6hich is essential to disci%line as a 6hole. -he 2ody is t!eated as a (ovin" %a!t in a la!"e! co(%osite. Disci%line, in su(, de(onst!ates the follo6in" (ain cha!acte!istics. t is 7cellula!7 #in te!(s of s%atial dist!i2ution&A it is 7o!"anic7 #codin" activities acco!din" to %!o"!a((ed %!ocedu!es&A it is 7"enetic7 #in !es%ect of se!ial %hases&A and it is 7co(2inato!y7 #unitin" hu(an activities as the %aths of a social (achine&. /oucault 5uotes Gui2e!t) -he state that de%ict 6ill have a sin"le, !elia2le, easily cont!olled ad(inist!ation. t 6ill !ese(2le those la!"e (achines, 6hich 2y 5uite unco(%licated (eans %!oduce "!eat effectsA the st!en"th of this state 6ill s%!in" f!o( its o6n st!en"th, its %!os%e!ity f!o( its o6n %!os%e!ity. t 6ill dis%!ove that vul"a! %!e3udice 2y 6hich 6e a!e (ade to i(a"ine that e(%i!es a!e su23ected to an i(%e!ious la6 of decline and !uin.

-he!e is an o2vious si(ila!ity 2et6een /oucault7s discussion of disci%lina!y %o6e! and Ba8 <e2e!7s analysis of (ode!n 2u!eauc!acy. -o 2e su!e, the focus of thei! !es%ective 6!itin"s is diffe!ent. <e2e! concent!ates u%on the 7hea!tland7 of 2u!eauc!acy - the state and its ad(inist!ative offices. n /oucault7s 6o!$, on the othe! hand, the (echanis(s of the state a!e !a!ely analysed di!ectlyA the state is e8a(ined 7sy(%to(atically7, via see(in"ly (o!e (a!"inal fo!(s of o!"ani.ation, hos%itals, asylu(s and %!isons. >o6eve!, in each autho! the!e is a st!ess u%on the e(e!"ence of novel ty%es of ad(inist!ative %o6e!, "ene!ated 2y the concent!ated o!"ani.ation of hu(an activities th!ou"h thei! %!ecise s%ecification and co-o!dination. At fi!st si"ht the the(e of the t!ansfo!(ation of ti(e and s%ace see(s lac$in" in <e2e!7s 6!itin"s, and it is 6o!th indicatin" ho6 <e2e!7s ideas can 2e sho6n to inco!%o!ate such a the(e. Ad(ittedly, it is latent !athe! than (anifest. Conside! fi!st <e2e!7s t!eat(ent of the natu!e of

##1@2&& (ode!n ca%italist ente!%!ise. <hat diffe!entiates 7!ational ca%italis(7 f!o( %!ecedin" fo!(s? A2ove all, it is its sta2le, !e"ula! cha!acte!. ;!e-e8istin" ty%es of ca%italistic ente!%!ise ta$e %lace in s%o!adic, stutte!in" fashion ac!oss ti(e and s%ace. +ational ca%italis( involves the fo!"in" of !e"ula!i.ed (a!$et !elationshi%s ac!oss s%ace, so(ethin" that can only 2eco(e 6ell-develo%ed 6ith the fo!(ation of a 2u!eauc!atic state, 6hich "ua!antees not only %!o%e!ty !i"hts 2ut also othe! essential institutions, (ost nota2ly a !e"ula!i.ed fo!( of %a%e! (oney e8chan"e. 9ut cont!ol of ti(e is e5ually necessa!y. -he !ational ca%italist ente!%!ise is one that is a2le to o%e!ate in a sta2le, o!de!ly fashion. <e2e!7s e(%hasis u%on the si"nificance of dou2le-ent!y 2oo$-$ee%in" fo! the develo%(ent of (ode!n ca%italis( is !eadily unde!standa2le in these te!(s. Dou2le-ent!y 2oo$-$ee%in" (a$es %ossi2le continuous ca%ital accountin" ove! lon" %e!iods of ti(e. Ca%ital accountin" is the valuation and ve!ification of %!ofit(a$in" o%%o!tunities. -his (eans (a$in" a valuation of total assets at the 2e"innin" of a t!ansaction o! ventu!e and co(%a!in" it 6ith assets at a late! date. ;!ofita2ility de%ends, a(on" othe! facto!s, u%on 2ein" a2le to %!edict futu!e events and su23ect the( to calculation. Dou2le-ent!y 2oo$-$ee%in" is a $ind of ti(e(achine, 2ecause it 2oth e8%!esses and allo6s the 5uantification of units 2y !efe!ence to 6hich the %e!fo!(ance of an ente!%!ise can 2e 3ud"ed in 7o!de!ed ti(e7.7 Cont!ol of ti(e is cha!acte!istic of 2u!eauc!acy in "ene!al, not 3ust of ca%ital ente!%!ises. Dou2le-ent!y 2oo$-$ee%in" is a device 6hich 7stac$s7 %ast events as 6ell as antici%atin" futu!e ones. 9u!eauc!atic !ules a!e also a 6ay of doin" this. Bode!n 2u!eauc!acies, <e2e! asse!ts, could not e8ist 6ithout the collation of docu(ents 6hich a!e 2oth !eco!ds of the %ast and %!esc!i%tions fo! the futu!e - the 7files7. -he files a!e not only docu(ents of 2u!eauc!atic %!ocedu!eA they e8e(%lify that %!ocedu!e and (a$e %ossi2le the continuous and !e"ula! o%e!ation u%on 6hich 2u!eauc!atic disci%line de%ends. /iles a!e usually o!"ani.ed 6ithin definite offices and a!e %a!t of 6hat "ives each office in a 2u!eauc!acy its distinctiveness. An 7office7 is a %hysical settin" as

6ell as a level in an ad(inist!ative hie!a!chy. Althou"h <e2e! 2a!ely touches u%on the %oint, the %hysical dist!i2ution of offices in 2u!eauc!acies is a distinctive featu!e of such o!"ani.ations. -he %hysical se%a!ation of offices insulates each f!o( the othe!

##1@3&& and "ives a (easu!e of autono(y to those 6ithin the(, and also se!ves as a %o6e!ful (a!$e! of hie!a!chy. <e2e! also st!esses the i(%o!tance of the se%a!ation of the office f!o( the do(icile of the 6o!$e!.1K Cne of the (ain cha!acte!istics of 2u!eauc!acy is that the vocational life of the official is se"!e"ated f!o( ho(e and fa(ily life. (%e!sonal fo!(ulae of 2u!eauc!atic disci%line can 2e (uch (o!e effectively a%%lied 6hen co!%o!ate (onies and e5ui%(ent can 2e $e%t se%a!ate f!o( the %!ivate %ossessions of officials, 6hen %e!sonal o! $in ties a!e not the 2asis u%on 6hich decisions a!e concluded o! a%%oint(ents (ade and 6hen (atte!s conce!nin" the household a!e distin"uished f!o( 2usiness affai!s. -he tho!ou"h"oin" se%a!ation of the ho(e f!o( the 6o!$%lace, <e2e! (a$es clea!, is found only in the (ode!n <est. 9ut 6e (i"ht also note the i(%o!tance of diffe!entiation of locales in distin"uishin" 2et6een the s%he!es of o%e!ation of va!yin" ty%es of 2u!eauc!atic o!"ani.ation. Anyone 6ho dou2ts the influence of the diffe!entiation of s%ace and settin" in sha%in" and !eflectin" social %atte!ns should %onde! the %osition of the 7City7 in 9!itain. ts s%atial dist!ictiveness f!o( cent!es of 7indust!y7, and its shee! concent!ation in one a!ea, e8%!ess (a3o! institutional cha!acte!istics of the society of 6hich it is a %a!t #see %%. 31H-2C(. >e!e 6e (i"ht !etu!n to /oucault. n this 2!ief e8cu!sus a( not inte!ested in assessin" the histo!ical !i"hts and 6!on"s of his e8%osition, o! in %!o2in" the theo!etical sho!tco(in"s 6hich (i"ht 2e disce!ned in the "ene!al vie6s u%on 6hich it d!a6s. 6ant only to add a %oint o! t6o to his inte!%!etation of the !elation of disci%lina!y %o6e! to (odalities of ti(e and s%ace. Fet (e 2e"in 6ith the discussion "iven in !efe!ence to <e2e! in the %!ecedin" %a!a"!a%h. /oucault t!eats disci%lina!y o!"ani.ations as e%ito(i.ed 2y the %!ison and the asylu( - 7total institutions7 in Goff(an7s

%h!ase, 7co(%lete and auste!e institutions7 in the cha!acte!i.ation /oucault ado%ts f!o( 9alta!d. 7-he %!ison7, as /oucault !e(a!$s, 7has neithe! e8te!io! no! "a%A it cannot 2e inte!!u%ted, e8ce%t 6hen the tas$ is totally co(%letedA its action on the individual (ust 2e uninte!!u%ted) an inc!easin" disci%line it "ives al(ost total %o6e! ove! the %!isone!sA it has its inte!nal (echanis(s of !e%!ession and %unish(ent) a des%otic disci%line.G /acto!ies, offices, schools, 2a!!ac$s and othe! conte8ts 6he!e su!veillance and disci%lina!y %o6e! a!e 2!ou"ht

##1@4&& into %lay a!e (ostly not li$e this, as /oucault ad(its, 6ithout develo%in" the %oint. t is an o2se!vation of so(e si"nificance, ho6eve!, 2ecause 7co(%lete and auste!e institutions7 a!e the e8ce%tion !athe! than the !ule 6ithin the (ain institutional secto!s of (ode!n societies. t does not follo6 that 2ecause %!isons and asylu(s (a8i(i.e disci%lina!y %o6e!, they e8%!ess its natu!e (o!e clea!ly than the othe!, less all-e(2!acin" o!"ani.ations. -he 3ou!ney to 6o!$ #o! school& %!o2a2ly indicates as (uch a2out the institutional cha!acte! of (ode!n societies as do ca!ce!al o!"ani.ations. -he ti(e-s%ace se%a!ation of diffe!ent secto!s of social life (ay indeed 2e the condition of the la!"escale o%e!ation of disci%lina!y %o6e!. Bost child!en attend schools only fo! %a!t of the day and at ce!tain %e!iods of the yea!. Bo!eove!, 6ithin the school day disci%line is often o2se!ved in its st!icte! fo!(s only 6ithin the definite ti(ed %e!iods that count as 7lessons7. -he!e is no dou2t that disci%lina!y %o6e! can 2e syste(atically "ene!ated only 2y the 7%ac$in"7 of hu(an 2ein"s into s%ecific %hysically de(a!cated settin"s. 9ut <e2e! is su!ely !i"ht to say that ad(inist!ative disci%line is (ost effective %!ecisely 6hen othe! as%ects of individuals7 lives a!e se%a!ated out f!o( it. /o! it involves the !e"ula!i.ed a%%lication of c!ite!ia of conduct that do not acco!d 6ith the enact(ent of activities in othe! s%he!es of life. -his is not solely 2ecause of the facto!s that <e2e! (entions 2ut also 2ecause of the 7(achine-li$e7 natu!e of disci%line. /oucault is led into difficulties in this !e"a!d. -he %oint is not 3ust that hu(an 2ein"s !esist 2ein" t!eated as auto(ata, so(ethin" 6hich /oucault acce%tsA the %!ison is a site of st!u""le and !esistance. +athe!, it is that /oucault7s 72odies7 a!e not a"ents. *ven the (ost !i"o!ous fo!(s of disci%line %!esu(e that those su23ect to the( a!e 7ca%a2le7 hu(an a"ents, 6hich is 6hy they have to 2e 7educated7, 6he!eas (achines a!e (e!ely desi"ned. 9ut, unless su23ected to the (ost e8t!e(e de%!ivation of !esou!ces, ca%a2le a"ents a!e li$ely to su2(it to disci%line only fo! %a!ts of the day - usually as a t!ade-off fo! !e6a!ds that de!ive f!o( 2ein" f!eed f!o( such disci%line at othe! ti(es.

n this !es%ect !eadin" Goff(an on 7total institutions7 can 2e (o!e inst!uctive than !eadin" /oucault. /o! Goff(an st!esses that ent!y to %!isons o! asylu(s is de(onst!atively diffe!ent f!o( (ovin" 2et6een othe! settin"s in 6hich individuals (ay s%end %a!t of thei! day. 7-otal institutions7, 2y vi!tue of thei! all

##1@@&& e(2!acin" cha!acte!, i(%ose a totali.in" disci%line u%on those 6ho a!e %laced 6ithin the(. 7Ad3ust(ent7 to these ci!cu(stances i(%lies, and usually di!ectly leads to, a %!ocess of de"!adation of self, 2y 6hich the in(ate is st!i%%ed of to$ens of self-identity at the sa(e ti(e as the o!dina!y co(%onents of autono(y of action a!e heavily const!icted. 7-otal institutions7, it (ay 2e said, 2oth e8%!ess as%ects of su!veillance and disci%line found in othe! conte8ts in (ode!n societies and yet also stand out in !elief a"ainst those othe! conte8ts. 7-otal institutions7 o!dina!ily involve 6hat Goff(an calls 7civil death7 - the loss of the !i"ht to vote and to en"a"e in othe! fo!(s of %olitical %a!tici%ation, of the !i"ht to 6ill (oney, 6!ite che5ues, contest divo!ce o! ado%t child!en. 9ut in addition in(ates si(%ly do not have se%a!ate s%he!es of activity 6he!e !e6a!ds denied in one secto! can 2e %u!sued in anothe!. Goff(an7s co((ent on such (atte!s is ve!y !elevant) -he!e is an inco(%ati2ility, then, 2et6een total institutions and the 2asic 6o!$-%ay(ent st!uctu!e of ou! society. -otal institutions a!e also inco(%ati2le 6ith anothe! c!ucial ele(ent of ou! society, the fa(ily. /a(ily life is so(eti(es cont!asted 6ith solita!y livin", 2ut in fact the (o!e %e!tinent cont!ast is 6ith 2atch livin", fo! those 6ho eat o! slee% at 6o!$, 6ith a "!ou% of fello6 6o!$e!s, can ha!dly sustain a (eanin"ful do(estic e8istence.G /oucault t!eats the investi"ative %!ocedu!es of c!i(inal la6, %sychiat!y and (edicine as illust!atin" the natu!e of disci%lina!y %o6e! in "ene!al, es%ecially as these a!e a%%lied 6ithin ca!ce!al o!"ani.ations. 9ut a"ain 7total institutions7 stand out in this !es%ect as diffe!ent f!o( the daily life %aths of those outside. <hat Goff(an calls the 7te!!ito!ies of the self7 a!e violated the!e in 6ays

6hich do not a%%ly to those not 6ithin thei! 6alls. /ou! distinctive featu!es of 7total institutions7 can 2e (entioned in this !es%ect. #1& nte!!o"ative %!ocedu!es f!e5uently t!ans"!ess 6hat fo! (ost of the %o%ulation a!e !e"a!ded as le"iti(ate 7info!(ation %!ese!ves7 a2out the self and a2out the 2ody. n othe! 6o!ds, data a2out in(ates7 cha!acte!istics and %ast conduct -6hich 6ould often 2e !e"a!ded as disc!edita2le 2y the( and 2y othe!s and %!otected 2y su%%!ession o! tact - a!e collected in dossie!s availa2le to staff.

##1@0&& #2& -he!e is a dissolution of the 2ounda!ies 2et6een enclosu!e and disclosu!e that o!dina!ily se!ve to %!otect a sense of ontolo"ical secu!ity. -hus it (ay 2e the case that e8c!etion, the (aintenance of hy"iene and a%%ea!ance not only have to 2e ca!!ied out %u2licly 2ut a!e su23ected to !e"i(entation 2y othe!s. #3& -he!e a!e often fo!ced and continual !elations 6ith othe!s. >ence 3ust as the!e a!e no 2ac$ !e"ions fo! toilet activities, the!e a!e no 2ac$ !e"ions in 6hich secto!s of social life can 2e $e%t f!ee f!o( the disci%lina!y de(ands (ade else6he!e. Fi$e 9etteihei(, Goff(an notes that in 7total institutions7 hu(an 2ein"s a!e !educed to states of childli$e de%endence. 13 -he te(%o!al se!iation of activities, in the sho!t and lon" te!(, is s%ecified and cont!olled. n(ates do not have 7f!ee ti(e7 o! 7thei! o6n ti(e7, as 6o!$e!s do. Bo!eove!, those 6ho unde!ta$e se!ial e8a(inations o! %ass th!ou"h se!ial sta"es of a ca!ee! in the outside 6o!ld a!e no!(ally also a2le to counte!%ose these to othe! te(%o!al units 6hich have a diffe!ent %atte!n. -he te(%o!al dist!i2ution of (a!!ia"e and !aisin" child!en, fo! e8a(%le, is initiated se%a!ately f!o( those %e!tainin" in othe! s%he!es of life.

#4&

n ca!ce!al o!"ani.ations the si"nificance of the dialectic of cont!ol is still conside!a2le. -he!e a!e conte8ts in 6hich that autono(y s%ecifically cha!acte!istic of the hu(an a"ent - the ca%a2ility to 7have acted othe!6ise7 - is seve!ely !educed. -he fo!(s of cont!ol 6hich in(ates see$ to e8e!t ove! thei! day-today lives tend to 2e concent!ated a2ove all u%on %!otection a"ainst de"!adation of the self. +esistance is ce!tainly one of these and no dou2t is an i(%o!tant conside!ation that in so(e de"!ee i(%oses itself, 6hateve! %olicies the ad(inist!ative staff (i"ht follo6 in the i(%le(entation of disci%lina!y %!ocedu!es. 9ut va!ious othe! fo!(s of !eaction can 2e !eadily identified. -hese include 6hat Goff(an calls 7coloni.ation7, the const!uction of a tole!a2le 6o!ld 6ithin the inte!stices of (ana"ed ti(e and s%ace, and 7situational 6ithd!a6al7, !efusin", as it 6e!e, any lon"e! to 2ehave as a ca%a2le a"ent is e8%ected to do. 9ut %!o2a2ly the (ost co((on a(on" %!isone!s, as a(on" the 7(entally

ill7, is si(%ly 7%layin" it cool7. -his Goff(an a%tly desc!i2es as 7a so(e6hat o%%o!tunistic co(2ination of seconda!y ad3ust(ents,

##1@1&& conve!sion, coloni.ation, and loyalty to the in(ate "!ou%.. -he!e is no dou2t, as (any sociolo"ical studies have de(onst!ated, that such in(ate "!ou%s can e8e!t conside!a2le cont!ol ove! day-to-day activities even in the (ost st!in"ently disci%lined ca!ce!al o!"ani.ations. 9ut the (odes of cont!ol e8e!ted 2y su2o!dinates in othe! conte8ts, such as that of 6o!$, is li$ely to 2e "!eate! 2ecause of a fu!the! 6ay in 6hich these conte8ts cont!ast 6ith ca!ce!al ones. -his is that su%e!o!dinates have an inte!est in ha!nessin" the activities of those su23ect to thei! autho!ity to the enact(ent of desi"nated tas$s. n %!isons o! asylu(s the 7disci%linin" of 2odies7 co(es close to desc!i2in" 6hat "oes onA the ad(inist!ative staff a!e not conce!ned 6ith %!oducin" a colla2o!ative endeavou! at %!oductive activity. n 6o!$%laces and schools, on the othe! hand, they a!e. Bana"e!s have to coa8 a ce!tain level of %e!fo!(ance f!o( 6o!$e!s. -hey a!e conce!ned not only 6ith the ti(e-s%ace diffe!entiation and %ositionin" of 2odies 2ut also 6ith the co-o!dination of the conduct of a"ents, 6hose 2ehaviou! has to 2e channelled in definite 6ays to %!oduce colla2o!ative outco(es. /oucault7s 2odies do not have faces. n ci!cu(stances of su!veillance in the 6o!$%lace - 6he!e su!veillance (eans di!ect su%e!vision, at any !ate - disci%line involves a "!eat deal of 7face 6o!$7 and the e8e!cise of st!ate"ies of cont!ol that have in so(e %a!t to 2e ela2o!ated 2y a"ents on the s%ot. -he ti(e-s%ace 7%ac$in"7 of "!ou%in"s of individuals in confined locales, 6he!e continuous su%e!vision in ci!cu(stances of co-%!esence can 2e ca!!ied on, is o2viously hi"hly i(%o!tant to the "ene!ation of disci%lina!y %o6e!. 9ut the de(and that a"ents 6o!$ to"ethe! to effect so(e so!t of %!oductive outco(e "ives those a"ents a 2asis of cont!ol ove! the day-to-day o%e!ation of the 6o!$%lace 6hich can 2lunt su%e!viso!y efficacy. Su%e!viso!s and (ana"e!s a!e as a6a!e of this as anyone, and often 2uild that a6a!eness into the ty%e of disci%lina!y %olicies they follo6.G So(e of the fo!(s of cont!ol o%en to 6o!$e!s in a ti"htly inte"!ated disci%lina!y s%ace #e."., the %ossi2ility of

dis!u%tin" o! 2!in"in" to a halt an enti!e %!oduction %!ocess& do not e8ist 6he!e a 6o!$fo!ce is disa""!e"ated in ti(e and s%ace. Fet (e offe! one final co((ent on /oucault and Goff(an. 9oth 6!ite!s have as one of the leadin" the(es in thei! 6o!$ the %ositionin" and disci%linin" of the 2ody. Fi$e /oucault, Goff(an

##1@8&&

has also %u!sued at so(e len"th 5uestions of the natu!e of 7(adness7. -hei! co((on conce!n 6ith ca!ce!al o!"ani.ations (i"ht lead one to ove!loo$ the diffe!ences in thei! !es%ective vie6s of (adness. Goff(an7s %e!s%ective actually %laces that of /oucault !adically in 5uestion in !es%ect of the !elations 2et6een 7insanity7 and 7!eason7. /oucault a!"ues that 6hat 6e call 7(adness7 - o!, follo6in" the t!iu(%h of the (edical (eta%ho!, 7(ental illness7 - has 2een c!eated in !elatively !ecent ti(es. Badness is the su%%!essed, se5ueste!ed, da!$ side of hu(an a6a!eness and %assion, 6hich *nli"hten(ent and (ode!n thou"ht is una2le to conceive of in any othe! 6ay save as 7un!eason7. n t!aditional cultu!es, o! at least in (edieval *u!o%e, follyHfolie enca%sulated its o6n !eason, %e!(ittin" so(ethin" of a di!ect access to God. 9ut 2y the (iddle of the seventeenth centu!y and the!eafte!, 7Badness has ceased to 2e, at the (a!"ins of the 6o!ld, of (an o! death, an eschatolo"ical fi"u!eA the da!$ness on 6hich the eyes of (adness 6e!e t!ained, out of 6hich the fo!(s of the i(%ossi2le 6e!e 2o!n, has eva%o!ated. 9ut %e!ha%s this vie6 invests (adness 6ith a "!andeu! 6hich it does not have and has neve! had? n seein" (adness as the othe! face of !eason it (ay e8%!ess 3ust those *nli"hten(ent clai(s it affects to dis%a!a"e. t (ay ve!y 6ell 2e that the clues to the cha!acte! of (adness o!, in its (ode!n "uise, 7(ental illness7 a!e to 2e found not in the e8t!ava"ance of delusions, visions of othe! 6o!lds, 2ut in (uch (o!e (undane featu!es of 2odily and "estu!al i(%!o%!iety. Social disa2ility, not a (yste!ious access to a lost continent of un!eason, (ay e8%!ess its !eal natu!e.

;efe ences6 -i$e, S%ace and #egionali$ation 1 See -. >a"e!st!and, 7S%ace, ti(e and hu(an conditions7, in A. Ea!l5vist, Aynamic 3llocation of Grban Space #/a!n2o!ou"h) Sa8on >ouse, 1,1@&A De!e$ G!e"o!y, Ideology, Science and #uman >eography #Fondon) >utchinson, 1,18&, and 7Solid

"eo(et!y) notes on the !ecove!y of s%atial st!uctu!e7, in -. Ca!istein et al., "iming Space and Spacing "ime #Fondon) A!nold, 1,18&A -. Ca!lstein, -i(e +esou!ces, Society and *colo"y #Fund) De%a!t(ent of Geo"!a%hy, 1,80&A Allan ;!ed, 7-he cho!eo"!a%hy of e8istence)

##1&&

co((ents on >a"e!st!and7s ti(e-"eo"!a%hy7, 9conomic >eography, vol. 5;, 6 **. Aon :ar)es and Digel "hrift, "imes, Spaces and :laces #Chicheste!) <iley, 1,80&A 'i"el -h!ift, 7Cn the dete!(ination of social action in s%ace and ti(e7, Society and Space, vol. 6, 1,82. 2 ;a!$es 3 >eographical 3nalysis, vol. 10, 1,18. 4 Chica"o Dnive!sity ;!ess, 1,01&, %. 332. Cf. also A(os >. >a6ley, #uman 9cology #'e6 Qo!$) +onald ;!ess, 1,@0&, cha%te!s 13-1@A *. Go!don *!ic$sen, "he "erritorial 9'perience #Austin) Dnive!sity of -e8as ;!ess, 1,80&. @ 0 3nnals Afte! ;a!$es and -h!ift, "imes, Spaces and :laces, %. 24@. D. G. Oanelle, 7S%atial !eo!"anisation) a (odel and conce%t7, -. >a"e!st!and, Innovation as a Spatial :rocess #Chica"o) -. >a"e!st!and) 7S%ace, ti(e and hu(an conditions7, cf. also and -h!ift, "imes, Spaces and :laces, %%. 241-8. Allan ;!ed, 7-he i(%act of technolo"ical and institutional innovations on life content) so(e ti(e-"eo"!a%hic o2se!vations7,

of the 3ssociation of 3merican >eographers, vol. @8, 1,0,, and othe! a!ticles 2y the sa(e autho!. ;. /o!e!, in Ca!lstein et al., "iming Space and Spacing "ime. +. ;al( and A. ;!ed, 7A ti(e-"eo"!a%hic %e!s%ective on %!o2le(s of ine5uality fo! 6o(en7, in D. A. Fane"!an and +. ;al(, 3n Invitation to >eography #'e6 Qo!$) BcG!a6->ill, 1,18&. , individuals in !elation to thei! "eo"!a%hical envi!on(ent7, in Ca!lstein et al., "iming Space and Spacing "ime, vol. 2, %. 123. -. Ca!lstein, 7 nnovation, ti(e-allocation and ti(e-s%ace %ac$in"7, i2id., %. 1@,A Ca!lstein, "ime ?esources, Society and 9cology. 11 s%ace) a ti(e-"eo"!a%hic assess(ent of Giddens7s theo!y7, S&edish >eographical Bearboo) #Fund) Fund Dnive!sity ;!ess, 1,81&. 12 of the ?egional Science 3ssociation, vol. 24, 1,10, %. 8. 13 14 1@ Space and Spacing "ime, vol. 2, %. 100. 10 *vita! Ue!u2avel, :atterns of "ime in #ospital =ife #Chica"o) Dnive!sity of Chica"o ;!ess, 1,1,&, %. 22A cf. also ;. A. Cla!$, CC#$, cha%te! @. 2id., %%. 101ff.A C;S-, %%. 20C-10. B. Bel2in, 7-he colonisation of ti(e7, in Ca!istein et al., "iming -. >a"e!st!and, 7<hat a2out %eo%le in !e"ional science?7, :apers Cf. -. Ca!lstein, 7-he sociolo"y of st!uctu!ation in ti(e and -. >X"e!st!and) 7Su!vival and a!ena) on the life-histo!y of

7A !evie6 of the theo!ies of ti(e and st!uctu!e fo! o!"anisational sociolo"y7, Gniversity of 3ston $anagement Centre Cor)ing :apers, no. 248, 1,82A *. Ue!u2avel, #idden ?ythms #Chica"o) Dnive!sity of Chica"o ;!ess, 1,81&. Cne (i"ht %oint out that 6hile

##100&& the 7yea!7, 7(onth7 and 7day7 have lin$s 6ith natu!al events, the 76ee$7 does notA cl. /. >. Colson, "he Cee) #Ca(2!id"e) Ca(2!id"e Dnive!sity ;!ess, 1,20&. 11 ;. A!ies, Centuries of Childhood #>a!(onds6o!th) ;en"uin, 1,13&A 'o!2e!t *lias, "he Civilising :rocess #C8fo!d) 9lac$6ell, 1,18&. 18 *d6a!d -. >all, "he #idden Aimension #Fondon) 9odley >ead, 1, 20 21 22 1,00&, %. ,8. Antonin A!taud, =e thHtre et la science #;a!is) Seuil, 1,41&, %. ,8. +. D. Fain", Self and 5thers #>a!(onds6o!th) ;en"uin, 1,11&, %. @2. CC#$, p. 10,. >u6 9enyon, Cor)ing for /ord #Fondon) Allen Fane, 1,13&, %. 10.

23 *lias, vol. 1. 24 *!vin" Goff(an, "he :resentation of Self in 9veryday =ife #'e6 Qo!$) Dou2leday, 1,@,&, %. 128. 2@ Cf. '. *lias and O. Scotson, "he 9stablished and the 5utsiders #Feiceste!) Dnive!sity of Feiceste! ;!ess, 1,0@&. 20 Ba8 <e2e!, 9conomy and Society #9e!$eley) Dnive!sity of Califo!nia ;!ess, 1,18&, vol. 1, %%. 341-4. 21 28 2, CS3S, cha%te! ,. CC#$, cha%te! @, and passim. ;ie!!e 9ou!dieu, 5utline of a "heory of :ractice #Ca(2!id"e) Ca(2!id"e Dnive!sity ;!ess, 1,11&, %%. 143-@2.

30 2id., %. 1@3.

31 And!e6 ;olla!d, 7-eache! inte!ests and chan"in" situations of su!vival th!eat in %!i(a!y school class!oo(s7, in ;ete! <oods, "eacher Strategies #Fondon) C!oo( >el(, 1,80&. 32 +andall Collins, 7Bic!o-t!anslation as a theo!y-2uildin" st!ate"y7, in E. Eno!!-Cetina and A. :. Cicou!el, 3dvances in Social "heory and $ethodology #Fondon) +outled"e, 1,81&. See also ide(, 7Cn the (ic!o-foundations of (ac!o-sociolo"y7, 3merican @ournal of Sociolo"y, vol. 80, 1,81. /o! Goff(an7s thou"hts on the (atte! -"iven in a lectu!e 6hich, sadly, he did not live to delive! - see 7-he inte!action o!de!7, 3merican Sociological ?evie&, vol. 48, 1,13. 33 34 3@ 30 2id., %. 82. 2id., %. ,,. Oose%h +y$6e!t, "he Idea of a "o&n #Fondon) /a2e! V /a2e!, 1,10&, %. 202. CC#$, cha%te! @.

Critical Dotes+ !oucault on "iming and Spacing i Bichel /oucault, Aiscipline and :unish #>a!(onds6o!th) ;en"uin, 1,1,&, %%. 143-4.

##101&& 2id., %. 148. Cf. Bau!y D. /eld, "he Structure of 0iolence #9eve!ly >ills) Sa"e, 1,11&, %%. 1ff.

4 @ >ills) 0 1 8 , 10 11 *!vin" Goff(an, 3sylums #>a!(onds6o!th) ;en"uin, 1,01&, %. 22. 12 2id., %. 33. 13 14 Bac(illan,

2id., %. 1. Oac5ues van Doo(, "he Soldier and Social Change #9eve!ly Sa"e, 1,1@&, %. 11. /oucault, Aiscipline and :unish, p. 1@1. 2id., %. 100. Ba8 <e2e!, 9conomy and Society #9e!$eley) Dnive!sity of Califo!nia ;!ess, 1,18&, %%. 80-,4. 2id., %. ,@1. /oucault, Aiscipline and :unish, pp. 23@-0.

2id., %. 04. Cf. And!e6 F. /!ied(an, Industry and =abour #Fondon) 1,11&. 1@/oucault, /olie et draison #;a!is) ;lon, 1,01&, %. @1. /oucault7s

%!eoccu%ation 6ith e8clusion, se5uest!ation, etc., is not acco(%anied 2y a conce!n 6ith the e8cluded the(selves, 6ho a%%ea! only as shado6y fi"u!es. -hus in his analysis of the case of the (u!de!e! ;ie!!e +iviY!e the cha!acte! hi(self 2a!ely e(e!"es f!o( the testi(ony discussed, 6hich is t!eated only as a 7discu!sive e%isode7. Ca!lo Gin.2u!"7s desc!i%tion of the cos(olo"y of Bennochio, a si8teenth-centu!y he!etic, offe!s a tellin" co(%a!ison in this !es%ect. See /oucault et al., $oi, :ierre ?iviIre... #;a!is) ;lon, 1,13&A Ca!lo Gin.2u!", "he Cheese and the Corms #Fondon) +outled"e, 1,80&, %%. 8vii- 8viii, and passim.

##102&& %. Structure, System, Social #eproduction

Fet (e at this %oint t!y to ensu!e that the (ain th!eads of the discussion do not 2eco(e too disa""!e"ated in the !eade!7s (ind 2y su((a!i.in" the ove!all th!ust of the %!ecedin" sections of the 2oo$. n st!uctu!ation theo!y a !an"e of dualis(s o! o%%ositions funda(ental to othe! schools of social thou"ht a!e !econce%tuali.ed as dualities. n %a!ticula!, the dualis( of the 7individual7 and 7society7 is !econce%tuali.ed as the duality of a"ency and st!uctu!e. -hus fa! have concent!ated (ainly u%on develo%in" a se!ies of conce%ts 6hich se!ve to elucidate 6hat the 7individual7 is as a !efle8ive a"ent, connectin" !efle8ivity 6ith %ositionin" and co-%!esence. -he discussion of !e"ionali.ation, ho6eve!, 2e"ins to %oint the 6ay to6a!ds sho6in" ho6 these conce!ns inte!sect 6ith the study of social syste(s st!etched ac!oss la!"e s%ans of ti(e-s%ace. -he ne8t ste%, the!efo!e, is to loo$ in (o!e detail at the conce%t of society, ta$en 2y (any to 2e the (ain unit of analysis in the social sciences. -he te!( needs to 2e e8a(ined ca!efully, and shall %!o%ose that so(e usa"es a!e 2est avoided alto"ethe!. n ce!tain t!aditions of social theo!y the conce%t of society is cha!acte!istically lin$ed in a di!ect 6ay 6ith that of const!aint. -he advocates of st!uctu!al sociolo"y have, in fact, tended to !e"a!d const!aint as in so(e 6ay the definin" cha!acte!istic of social %heno(ena. n !e3ectin" such a vie6, shall t!y to cla!ify the contention that the st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties of social syste(s a!e 2oth ena2lin" and const!ainin", and shall s%ecify ho6 7st!uctu!al const!aint7 should 2e unde!stood. -his in tu!n involves indicatin" ho6 a nu(2e! of conce%ts associated 6ith that of 7st!uctu!e7 (i"ht 2est 2e fo!(ulated. Such a fo!(ulation cannot 2e

##103&&

develo%ed 6holly on a conce%tual level, ho6eve!. Oust as "ave so(e su2stance to the discussion of a"ency and self in the sha%e of an account of (otivation, so shall int!oduce a classification and inte!%!etation of societal ty%es to "ive flesh to the analysis of st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties. -his 6ill in tu!n lead 2ac$ a"ain to 5uestions of 7histo!y7, 6hich 6ill %!e%a!e the 6ay fo! a conside!ation of %!o2le(s of analysin" social chan"e in the follo6in" cha%te!. A 2oo$ has a se5uential fo!(, 6hich can 2e ove!co(e to so(e de"!ee 2y 7ci!culatin" in and out7 of a !an"e of connected issues 2ut 6hich inevita2ly has its o6n %!esentational s%acin". n the li"ht of (y discussion in cha%te! 11 ta$e it that, 6hile the sections on the a"ent and u%on co-%!esence %!ecede in the te8t those on la!"e! social syste(s, it 6ill not 2e %!esu(ed that a( conce%tually 7sta!tin" 6ith the individual7, o! that hold that individuals a!e !eal in so(e 6ay in 6hich societies a!e not. do not acce%t any such vie6s, as the C!itical 'otes a%%ended to this cha%te! should (a$e clea!. Societies, Social Syste(s t is easy to see that in o!dina!y usa"e the te!( 7society7 has t6o (ain senses #a(on" othe!s, such as 7society7 in the sense of 7hi"h society7&. Cne is the "ene!ali.ed connotation of 7social association7 o! inte!actionA the othe! is the sense in 6hich 7a society7 is a unity, havin" 2ounda!ies 6hich (a!$ it off f!o( othe!, su!!oundin" societies. -he a(2i"uity of the te!( in !es%ect of these t6o senses is less unfo!tunate than it loo$s. /o! societal totalities 2y no (eans al6ays have clea!ly de(a!cated 2ounda!ies, althou"h they a!e ty%ically associated 6ith definite fo!(s of locale. -he tendency to su%%ose that societies, as social 6holes, a!e easily defina2le units of study has 2een influenced 2y seve!al no8ious %!esu(%tions in the social sciences. Cne is the tendency to unde!stand 7social syste(s7 in close conce%tual !elation to 2iolo"ical syste(s, the 2odies of 2iolo"ical o!"anis(s. -he!e a!e fe6 today 6ho, as Du!$hei(, S%ence! and (any othe!s in nineteenth-centu!y social thou"ht 6e!e %!one to do, use di!ect o!"anic analo"ies in desc!i2in" social syste(s. 9ut i(%licit %a!allels !e(ain ve!y co((on, even a(on" those, fo! instance, 6ho tal$ of societies as 7o%en syste(s7. A second facto! is the %!evalence of 6hat call 7endo"enous7 o! 7unfoldin" (odels7 in

##104&& the social sciences.7= Such (odels %!esu(e that the (ain st!uctu!al featu!es of a society, "ove!nin" 2oth sta2ility and chan"e, a!e inte!nal to that society. t is fai!ly evident 6hy this is f!e5uently connected to the fi!st ty%e of vie6) societies a!e i(a"ined to have %!o%e!ties analo"ous to those 6hich cont!ol the fo!( and develo%(ent of an o!"anis(. /inally one should (ention the 6ides%!ead %!oclivity to "ene!ali.e to all fo!(s of societal totality featu!es that a!e in fact s%ecific to (ode!n societies as nation-states. 'ation-states have clea!ly and %!ecisely deli(ited te!!ito!ial 2ounda!ies, 2ut othe! ty%es of society, 2y fa! the (o!e nu(e!ous in histo!y, do not.7 +esistin" these %!esu(%tions can 2e facilitated if 6e !eco"ni.e that societal totalities a!e found only 6ithin the conte8t of intersocietal systems dist!i2uted alon" time1space edges #see %%. 244-0&. All societies 2oth a!e social syste(s and at the sa(e ti(e a!e constituted 2y the inte!section of (ulti%le social syste(s. Such (ulti%le syste(s (ay 2e 6holly 7inte!nal7 to societies, o! they (ay c!oss-cut the 7inside7 and the 7outside7, fo!(in" a dive!sity of %ossi2le (odes of connection 2et6een societal totalities and inte!societal syste(s. nte!societal syste(s a!e not cut of 6hole cloth and cha!acte!istically involve fo!(s of !elation 2et6een societies of diffe!in" ty%es. All these can 2e studied as syste(s of do(ination in te!(s of !elations of autono(y and de%endence 6hich %e!tain 2et6een the(. 7-i(e-s%ace ed"es7 !efe! to inte!connections, and diffe!entials of %o6e!, found 2et6een diffe!ent societal ty%es co(%!isin" inte!societal syste(s. 7Societies7 then, in su(, a!e social syste(s 6hich 7stand out7 in 2as-!elief f!o( a 2ac$"!ound of a !an"e of othe! syste(ic !elationshi%s in 6hich they a!e e(2edded. -hey stand out 2ecause definite st!uctu!al %!inci%les se!ve to %!oduce a s%ecifia2le ove!all 7cluste!in" of institutions7 ac!oss ti(e and s%ace. Such a cluste!in" is the fi!st and (ost 2asic identifyin" featu!e of a society, 2ut othe!s also have to 2e noted.7 -hese include) #1& An association 2et6een the social syste( and a s%ecific locale o! te!!ito!y. -he locales occu%ied 2y societies a!e not

necessa!ily fi8ed a!eas. 'o(adic societies !oa( ac!oss ti(es%ace %aths of va!yin" ty%es. ##footnote&& =+efe!ences (ay 2e found on %%. 221-4.

##10@&& #2& -he e8istence of no!(ative ele(ents that involve layin" clai( to the le"iti(ate occu%ation of the locale. -he (odes and styles of such clai(s to le"iti(acy, of cou!se, (ay 2e of (any $inds and (ay 2e contested to "!eate! o! lesse! de"!ee. -he %!evalence, a(on" the (e(2e!s of the society, of feelin"s that they have so(e so!t of co((on identity, ho6eve! that (i"ht 2e e8%!essed o! !evealed. Such feelin"s (ay 2e (anifest in 2oth %!actical and discu!sive consciousness and do not %!esu(e a 7value consensus7. ndividuals (ay 2e a6a!e of 2elon"in" to a definite collectivity 6ithout a"!eein" that this is necessa!ily !i"ht and %!o%e!.

#3&

t is i(%o!tant he!e to !e-e(%hasi.e that the te!( 7social syste(7 should not 2e unde!stood to desi"nate only cluste!s of social !elations 6hose 2ounda!ies a!e clea!ly set off f!o( othe!s. -he de"!ee of 7syste(ness7 is ve!y va!ia2le. 7Social syste(7 has tended to he a favou!ed te!( of functionalists, 6ho have !a!ely a2andoned o!"anic analo"ies alto"ethe!, and of 7syste( theo!ists7, 6ho have had in (ind eithe! %hysical syste(s o!, once (o!e, so(e $inds of 2iolo"ical fo!(ation. ta$e it to 2e one of the (ain featu!es of st!uctu!ation theo!y that the e8tension and 7closu!e7 of societies ac!oss s%ace and ti(e is !e"a!ded as %!o2le(atic. -he tendency to ta$e nation-states as 7ty%ical7 fo!(s of society, 2y !efe!ence to 6hich othe!s can 2e assessed, is so st!on" in the lite!atu!e of social theo!y that it is 6o!th develo%in" the %oint. -he th!ee c!ite!ia (entioned a2ove a%%ly diffe!entially in va!yin" societal conte8ts. Conside!, fo! instance, t!aditional China at a !elatively late date, a2out AD 1100. t is co((on a(on"st Sinolo"ists to s%ea$ of 7Chinese society7 at this %e!iod. Dnde! this la2el

schola!s discuss such %heno(ena as state institutions, the "ent!y, econo(ic units, fa(ily %atte!ns and so on, !e"a!din" these as conve!"ent 6ith a s%ecifia2le ove!all social syste(, 7China7. 9ut 7China7 as desi"nated in this 6ay !efe!s to only a s(all se"(ent of the te!!ito!y that a "ove!n(ent official 6ould have !e"a!ded as the land of the Chinese. Acco!din" to his %e!s%ective, only one society e8isted on ea!th, cent!ed u%on 7China7 as the ca%ital of cultu!al and %olitical life 2ut st!etchin" a6ay to include a dive!sity of 2a!2a!ians on the oute! ed"es. Althou"h the latte! acted as thou"h they 6e!e social "!ou%in"s distinct f!o( the Chinese, they 6e!e !e"a!ded in the official vie6

##100&& as 2elon"in" to China. -he Chinese of 1100 included -i2et, 9u!(a and Eo!ea 6ithin thei! conce%t of 7China7, as these 6e!e in ce!tain 6ays connected 6ith the cent!e. -he!e is so(e 2asis fo! the (o!e !est!icted notion of 7China7 es%oused 2y <este!n histo!ians and social scientists. 9ut even acce%tance that the!e 6as a distinct 7Chinese society7 in 1100, se%a!ate f!o( -i2et, etc., usually (eans includin" unde! that desi"nation seve!al (illion ethnically distinct "!ou%s in South China. -hese t!i2es !e"a!ded the(selves as inde%endent and as havin" thei! o6n o!"ans of "ove!n(ent. -hey 6e!e, ho6eve!, continuously (olested 2y !e%!esentatives of Chinese officialdo(, 6ho t!eated the( as 2elon"in" to the cent!al state. Bode!n <este!n nation-states a!e hi"hly inte!nally co-o!dinated ad(inist!ative unities co(%a!ed 6ith la!"e!-scale a"!a!ian societies. Fet us shift the e8a(%le so(e6hat fu!the! 2ac$, to fifth-centu!y China, and as$ 6hat social ties (i"ht e8ist 2et6een a Chinese %easant fa!(e! in >o-nan %!ovince and the -7o-%a !ulin" class. /!o( the %oint of vie6 of the (e(2e!s of the do(inant class, the fa!(e! 6as at the lo6est level of the hie!a!chical o!de!. 9ut the social !elations of the fa!(e! 6e!e 5uite disc!ete f!o( the social 6o!ld of the Qo-%a. Bost of the fa!(e!7s contacts 6ould 2e 6ith othe!s in the nuclea! and e8tended fa(ily) (any villa"es 6e!e co(%osed only of linea"e (e(2e!s. -he fields 6e!e usually so a!!an"ed that (e(2e!s of linea"e "!ou%s !a!ely (et anyone othe! than $in in the cou!se of the 6o!$in" day. -he fa!(e! 6ould have visited nei"h2ou!in" villa"es only on t6o o! th!ee occasions in the yea!, and %e!ha%s a local to6n as inf!e5uently. n the (a!$et%lace of a nea!2y villa"e o! to6n he 6ould have encounte!ed othe! classes o! !an$s of %eo%le c!afts(en, a!tisans, t!ade!s, and a lo6-!an$in" official of the state ad(inist!ation, to 6ho( he 6ould %ay ta8es. Cve! his lifeti(e he 6ould in all %!o2a2ility neve! see a -7o-%a. Focal officials 6ho visited the villa"e 6ould have to 2e "iven delive!ies of "!ain o! cloth. 9ut the villa"e! 6ould %!o2a2ly avoid any othe! contacts 6ith hi"he! officialdo( if they 6e!e eve! i((inent. /o! they could %otentially (ean 2!ushes 6ith the cou!ts, i(%!ison(ent o! enfo!ced (ilita!y se!vice.

-he 2o!de!s !eco"ni.ed 2y the -7o-%a ad(inist!ation 6ould not have coincided 6ith the s%an of activities of the fa!(e! if he 6e!e in ce!tain a!eas in >o-nan. -h!ou"hout the -7o-%a %e!iod (any fa!(e!s had sustained contacts 6ith (e(2e!s of thei! clan

##101&& "!ou%s livin" on the othe! side of the 2o!de!, in the southe!n states. A fa!(e! 6ho did not have such contacts 6ould none the less have t!eated so(eone f!o( 2eyond the 2o!de! as a (e(2e! of his o6n %eo%le !athe! than as a fo!ei"ne! f!o( anothe! state. Su%%ose, ho6eve!, he encounte!ed so(eone f!o( Ean-su %!ovince, in the no!th-6est of the -7o-%a state. Such a %e!son 6ould have 2een t!eated as a co(%lete st!an"e!, even if that individual 6e!e 6o!$in" alon"side hi( in the fields. -he st!an"e! 6ould have s%o$en a diffe!ent lan"ua"e #%!o2a2ly a Bon"olian o! -i2etan dialect&, d!essed diffe!ently and %!actised diffe!ent custo(s. 'eithe! the fa!(e! no! the visito! (ay have 2een a6a!e that they 6e!e 2oth 7citi.ens7 of the -7o-%a e(%i!e. -he 9uddhist %!iests of the ti(e 6e!e a diffe!ent (atte! a"ain. 9ut 6ith the e8ce%tion of a s(all (ino!ity 6ho 6e!e di!ectly a%%ointed 2y -7o-%a "ent!y to se!ve in thei! official te(%les, they also had little contact 6ith the do(inant class. -hei! locale, in 6hich thei! lives 6e!e concent!ated, 6as the (onaste!y, 2ut they had net6o!$s of social !elationshi%s 6hich !an"ed f!o( Cent!al Asia to the south of China and Eo!ea. -he (onaste!ies contained %eo%le of 5uite diffe!ent ethnic and lin"uistic o!i"in, 2!ou"ht to"ethe! 2y thei! co((on !eli"ious %u!suits. -hei! schola!shi% distin"uished the( f!o( othe! social "!ou%in"s. -hey t!avelled ac!oss state f!ontie!s 6ithout !est!iction, !e"a!dless of those to 6ho( they 6e!e no(inally 7su23ect7. -hey 6e!e not, ho6eve!, !e"a!ded as 7outside7 Chinese society, as 6as the A!a2 co((unity in Canton of the -7an" %e!iod. -he state ad(inist!ation t!eated that co((unity in so(e 6ays as 2elon"in" 6ithin its 3u!isdiction, !e5ui!in" ta8es f!o( the( and settin" u% s%ecial offices to deal 6ith the(. 9ut it 6as also !eco"ni.ed that they 2elon"ed to a se%a!ate social o!de! and the!efo!e 6e!e not on a %a! 6ith othe!s 6ithin the !eal( of the state. Cne final e8a(%le)

n the nineteenth centu!y 6e find in Qun-nan %!ovince a %olitical !ule of a 2u!eauc!acy 6hich 6as cont!olled 2y ;e$in" and !e%!esented the 7Chinese7 "ove!n(entA the!e 6e!e villa"es and cities in the %lains, inha2ited 2y othe! Chinese 6ho inte!acted 6ith the "ove!n(ent !e%!esentatives and to so(e de"!ee identified 6ith that "ove!n(ent. 9ut on the slo%es of the (ountains the!e 6e!e othe! "!ou%s, in theo!y also su23ects of China, yet livin" thei! o6n life, as fa! as they 6e!e allo6ed, and havin" thei! o6n values and institutions, even thei! o6n econo(ic syste(. nte!action 6ith the

((6(8))

valley-livin" Chinese 6as (ini(al and !est!icted to the sale of fi!e6ood and 2uyin" of salt o! te8tiles. /inally, the!e 6as often a thi!d "!ou% on the to% of the (ountains, a"ain 6ith its o6n institutions, lan"ua"e, values, !eli"ion. <e can, if 6e li$e, 2y%ass such conditions 2y callin" these %eo%le 7(ino!ities7. Qet the ea!lie! the %e!iods 6e study, the (o!e such a%%a!ent (ino!ities 6e!e t!uly self-contained societies, lin$ed so(eti(es loosely 2y econo(ic ties, and 2y occasional inte!actionA the !elationshi% of such a society to the !ulin" %o6e! 6as ty%ically that of su23ect to con5ue!o! at the end of a 6a!, 6ith contacts held to a (ini(u( f!o( 2oth sides.7 n thin$in" of units la!"e! than i(%e!ial states, 6e have to avoid the tu(2le into ethnocent!is( 6hich it is so easy to (a$e. <e a!e %!one today to s%ea$ !eadily of 7*u!o%e7 as a distinct socio%olitical entity, fo! e8a(%le, 2ut this is often a !esult of !eadin" histo!y 2ac$6a!ds. As (any histo!ians inte!ested in %e!s%ectives 6ide! than those concent!ated 6ithin nations o! even 7continents7 have %ointed out, if the co(%le8 of societies st!etchin" ac!oss Af!o-*u!asia 6e!e to 2e divided into t6o, a cleava"e 2et6een *u!o%e as one %o!tion #the 7<est7& and the !est as the 7*ast7 6ould not (a$e (uch sense. -he Bedite!!anean 9asin, fo! instance, 6as an histo!ical unity 2oth 2efo!e the +o(an *(%i!e and fo! hund!eds of yea!s su2se5uently. ndia (a!$ed a "!eate! cultu!al dis3unction, t!avellin" east6a!ds, than did the va!ious Bid-*aste!n lands 6ith those 2o!de!in" in 7*u!o%e7A and the!e 6as yet "!eate! discontinuity 6ith China. As one histo!ian has laconically e8%!essed it, 7-he >i(alayas 6e!e (o!e effective even than the >indu-Eush.7@ -he diffe!ences 2et6een (a3o! 7cultu!e a!eas7 6e!e often not (uch less (a!$ed than those 2et6een the units 6e 6ould o!dina!ily !eco"ni.e as 7societies7. +e"ionali.ation of 6ide sco%e should not 2e t!eated as co(%osed si(%ly of a""!e"ate !elations 2et6een 7societies7. Such a vie6 has so(e validity 6hen a%%lied to the (ode!n 6o!ld of inte!nally cent!ali.ed nation-states 2ut not 6hen s%ea$in" of %!evious e!as. -hus, fo! so(e %u!%oses, the 6hole Af!o-*u!asian .one can 2e t!eated as a unity. 7Civili.ation7, f!o( 0000 9C on6a!ds, did not develo% 3ust as the c!eation of dive!"ent cent!esA it 6as in so(e

6ays a continuous e8%ansion 7out6a!ds7 of the Af!o-*u!asian .one as a 6hole.7

((6( ))

St!uctu!e and Const!aint) Du!$hei( and Cthe!s Bost fo!(s of st!uctu!al sociolo"y, f!o( Du!$hei( on6a!ds, have 2een ins%i!ed 2y the idea that st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties of society fo!( const!ainin" influences ove! action. n cont!ast to this vie6, st!uctu!ation theo!y is 2ased on the %!o%osition that st!uctu!e is al6ays 2oth ena2lin" and const!ainin", in vi!tue of the inhe!ent !elation 2et6een st!uctu!e and a"ency #and a"ency and %o6e!&. All 6ell and "ood, a c!itic (ay say - and so(e indeed have said 1 - 2ut does not this conce%tion in fact sac!ifice anythin" a$in to st!uctu!al 7const!aint7 in Du!$hei(7s sense? Does not s%ea$in" of st!uctu!e as 2oth const!ainin" and ena2lin" %ay only li% se!vice to the fo!(e!? /o! in st!uctu!ation theo!y 7st!uctu!e7 is defined as !ules and !esou!ces. t is %e!ha%s easy to see ho6 st!uctu!e in this sense is i(%licated in the "ene!ation of action 2ut not so a%%a!ent 6he!e const!aint ente!s in. /o! the!e see(s to 2e no 6ay in 6hich the 7e8te!nality7 of social %heno(ena to individual activity is sustained. Such a notion (ust 2e defended, it (i"ht 2e su""ested, 6hateve! the fla6s in the 6!itin"s of those (ainly !es%onsi2le fo! advocatin" it. -hus Ca!lstein !e(a!$s) a (a3o! d!a62ac$ in Giddens7s %a!adi"( is that the enabling as%ects of st!uctu!e a!e not sufficiently 2alanced 2y constraining ones. -he!e a!e too fe6 %!inci%les of li(itation, and 2y this do not si(%ly (ean the (o!al-le"al-no!(ative social const!aints e(%hasi.ed 2y Du!$hei( and ;a!sons, i.e. st!uctu!es of le"iti(ation. a( !efe!!in" to basic constraints of mediation and resource limitation !ooted in ce!tain 2iotic-cu(-%hysical !ealities of e8istence. Su!ely, st!uctu!e (ust also i(%ly li(its to va!iation and to contin"ency in social syste(s #socio-envi!on(ental syste(s&. Cf cou!se the!e is !oo( fo! va!iation and hu(an c!eativity. >isto!y has %!oven ove! and ove! a"ain ho6 the a%%lication of ideas and inventions in all

!eal(s of %!actice alte!s the !eceived st!uctu!e. 9ut the latte! is heavily 2iased to6a!ds the %ast, and i(%oses ha!d sc!eenin" on thin"s that a!e %!oduced and !e%!oduced .... a!"ue he!e, ho6eve!, that the theo!y of st!uctu!ation in no 6ay (ini(i.es the si"nificance of the const!ainin" as%ects of st!uctu!e. 9ut 7const!aint7 as discussed in st!uctu!al sociolo"y tends to have seve!al senses #Du!$hei(7s te!(inolo"y, fo! 6hat it shall

##110&& is 6o!th, actually oscillated 2et6een the te!(s 4contrainte4 and 4coercition4). and 7const!aint7 cannot 2e ta$en as a uni5uely definin" 5uality of 7st!uctu!e7. n st!uctu!ation theo!y st!uctu!e has al6ays to 2e conceived of as a %!o%e!ty of social syste(s, 7ca!!ied7 in !e%!oduced %!actices e(2edded in ti(e and s%ace. Social syste(s a!e o!"ani.ed hie!a!chically and late!ally 6ithin societal totalities, the institutions of 6hich fo!( 7a!ticulated ense(2les7. f this %oint is i"no!ed, the notion of 7st!uctu!e7 in the theo!y of st!uctu!ation a%%ea!s (o!e idiosync!atic than it !eally is. Cne of the ci!cu(stances 6hich Du!$hei( usually associates 6ith const!aint #also hinted at in the 5uotation f!o( Ca!lstein& de%ends u%on the o2se!vation that the ion gue dure of institutions 2oth %!e-e8ists and outlasts the lives of individuals 2o!n into a %a!ticula! society. -his is not only 6holly co(%ati2le 6ith st!uctu!ation theo!y 2ut is also inhe!ent in its ve!y fo!(ulation - althou"h the 7sociali.ation7 of the individual into society should 2e unde!stood as involvin" (utual ti(e %!ocess, connectin" the 7life-cycles7 of 2oth infant and %a!ental fi"u!es. n his ea!lie! 6!itin"s Du!$hei( heavily e(%hasi.ed the const!ainin" ele(ents of sociali.ation, 2ut late! he in fact ca(e to see (o!e and (o!e clea!ly that sociali.ation fuses const!aint and ena2le(ent. -his is easily de(onst!ated in the instance of lea!nin" a fi!st lan"ua"e. 'o one 7chooses7 his o! he! native lan"ua"e, althou"h lea!nin" to s%ea$ it involves definite ele(ents of co(%liance. Since any lan"ua"e const!ains thou"ht #and action& in the sense that it %!esu(es a !an"e of f!a(ed, !ule-"ove!ned %!o%e!ties, the %!ocess of lan"ua"e lea!nin" sets ce!tain li(its to co"nition and activity. 9ut 2y the ve!y sa(e to$en the lea!nin" of a lan"ua"e "!eatly e8%ands the co"nitive and %!actical ca%acities of the individual. A second conte8t in 6hich Du!$hei( tends to s%ea$ of const!aint also offe!s no lo"ical difficulties fo! st!uctu!ation theo!y. >o6eve!, 6e have to 2e ca!eful to avoid so(e of the dile((as to 6hich Du!$hei(7s o6n analyses at this %oint "ive !ise. Societal totalities, Du!$hei( %oints out, not only %!e-e8ist and %ost-date the lives of the individuals 6ho !e%!oduce the( in thei! activitiesA they also st!etch ac!oss s%ace and ti(e a6ay f!o( any %a!ticula! a"ent

conside!ed sin"ly. n this sense the st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties of social syste(s a!e ce!tainly e8te!io! to the activities of 7the individual7. n st!uctu!ation theo!y the essentials of this

##111&& %oint can 2e %ut as follo6s. >u(an societies, o! social syste(s, 6ould %lainly not e8ist 6ithout hu(an a"ency. 9ut it is not the case that acto!s c!eate social syste(s) they !e%!oduce o! t!ansfo!( the(, !e(a$in" 6hat is al!eady (ade in the continuity of %!a8is., -he s%an of ti(e-s%ace distanciation is !elevant he!e. n "ene!al #althou"h ce!tainly not unive!sally& it is t!ue that the "!eate! the ti(e-s%ace distanciation of social syste(s - the (o!e thei! institutions 2ite into ti(e and s%ace - the (o!e !esistant they a!e to (ani%ulation o! chan"e 2y any individual a"ent. -his (eanin" of const!aint is also cou%led to ena2le(ent. -i(e-s%ace distanciation closes off so(e %ossi2ilities of hu(an e8%e!ience at the sa(e ti(e as it o%ens u% othe!s. Du!$hei(7s o6n fo!(ulation of this issue, ho6eve!, is 6antin", 2ecause it is couched in the te!(inolo"y of 6hat has co(e to 2e called 2y (any 6!ite!s 7e(e!"ent %!o%e!ties7. -hus Du!$hei( !e(a!$s)

-he ha!dness of 2!on.e lies neithe! in the co%%e!, no! in the tin, no! in the lead 6hich have 2een used to fo!( it, 6hich a!e all soft and (allea2le 2odies. -he ha!dness a!ises f!o( the (i8in" of the(. -he li5uidity of 6ate!, its sustainin" and othe! %!o%e!ties, a!e not in the t6o "ases of 6hich it is co(%osed, 2ut in the co(%le8 su2stance 6hich they fo!( 2y co(in" to"ethe!. Fet us a%%ly this %!inci%le to sociolo"y. f, as is "!anted to us, this synthesis sui generic, 6hich constitutes eve!y society, "ives !ise to ne6 %heno(ena, diffe!ent f!o( those 6hich occu! in consciousnesses in isolation, one is fo!ced to ad(it that these s%ecific facts !eside in the society itself that %!oduces the( and not in its %a!ts -na(ely its (e(2e!s. n this sense the!efo!e they lie outside the consciousness of individuals as such, in the sa(e 6ay as the distinctive featu!es

of life lie outside the che(ical su2stances that (a$e u% a livin" o!"anis(.G have 5uoted this %assa"e at so(e len"th 3ust 2ecause it is so 6ell-$no6n and has 2een !efe!!ed to so often as a %a!ticula!ly %e!suasive fo!(ulation. Social syste(s do have st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties that cannot 2e desc!i2ed in te!(s of conce%ts !efe!!in" to the consciousness of a"ents. 9ut hu(an acto!s, as !eco"ni.a2le 7co(%etent a"ents7, do not e8ist in se%a!ation f!o( one anothe! as co%%e!, tin and lead do. -hey do not co(e to"ethe! e' nihilo to form a ne& entity by their fusion or association. Aur)heim

##112&& he!e confuses a hy%othetical conce%tion of individuals in a state of natu!e #untainted 2y association 6ith othe!s& and !eal %!ocesses of social !e%!oduction. A thi!d ci!cu(stance in 6hich 7const!aint7 a%%ea!s in Du!$hei(7s 6!itin"s is in 3u8ta%osition to the sco%e of action of the a"ent. Du!$hei( "ives the follo6in" a(on" othe! e8a(%les) <hen %e!fo!( (y duties as 2!othe!, hus2and, o! citi.en, and ca!!y out the co((it(ents have ente!ed into, fulfil o2li"ations 6hich a!e defined in la6 and custo( 6hich a!e e8te!nal to (yself and (y actions. *ven if they confo!( to (y o6n senti(ents and feel thei! !eality 6ithin (e, that !eality does not cease to 2e o23ective, fo! it is not 6ho have %!esc!i2ed those duties .... -he %oint he!e is that 7social facts7 have %!o%e!ties that conf!ont each sin"le individual as 7o23ective7 featu!es 6hich li(it that individual7s sco%e of action. -hey a!e not 3ust e8te!nal 2ut also e8te!nally defined, inco!%o!ated in 6hat othe!s do o! in 6hat they conside! !i"ht and %!o%e! to do. -he!e is su!ely so(ethin" co!!ect a2out this clai(, 2ut Du!$hei( 6as %!evented f!o( s%ellin" it out satisfacto!ily 2ecause of a(2i"uities a2out the notion of e8te!nality. n lin$in" e8te!nality and const!aint, es%ecially in his ea!lie! 6!itin"s, he 6anted to !einfo!ce a natu!alistic conce%tion of social science. n othe! 6o!ds, he 6anted to find su%%o!t fo! the idea that the!e a!e disce!ni2le as%ects of social life "ove!ned 2y fo!ces a$in to those o%e!ative in the (ate!ial 6o!ld. Cf cou!se, 7society7 is (anifestly not e8te!nal to individual acto!s in e8actly the sa(e sense as the su!!oundin" envi!on(ent is e8te!nal to the(. -he %a!allel thus tu!ns out to 2e at 2est a loose one, and a conce!n 6ith it !ests uneasily in Du!$hei(7s late! 6o!$ alon"side a !eco"nition that the 7facticity7 of the social 6o!ld is in ce!tain 2asic !es%ects a ve!y diffe!ent %heno(enon f!o( the 7"iveness7 of natu!e.

Du!$hei( concent!ated (ostly u%on social const!aints in his va!ious discussions of the natu!e of sociolo"y. >o6eve!, as Ca!istein 5uite !i"htly %oints out and as have accentuated ea!lie!, d!a6in" u%on the ti(e-"eo"!a%hy of 6hich he hi(self is an e8%osito! - funda(ental const!aints u%on action a!e associated 6ith the causal influences of the 2ody and the (ate!ial 6o!ld. have al!eady indicated that these a!e !e"a!ded as of essential i(%o!tance in st!uctu!ation theo!y. Ca%a2ility and

##113&& cou%lin" const!aints, 6ithin definite (ate!ial settin"s, do indeed 7sc!een7 #as he %uts it& the %ossi2le fo!(s of activity in 6hich hu(an 2ein"s en"a"e. 9ut these %heno(ena a!e also at the sa(e ti(e ena2lin" featu!es of action. Bo!eove!, as have %ointed out, the!e a!e (a3o! sho!tco(in"s in the usual fo!(ulations of ti(e"eo"!a%hy. -he a2ove as%ects of const!aintHena2le(ent a!e not the sa(e as, and a!e not to 2e !educed to, the o%e!ations of %o6e! in social life. Du!$hei(7s sociolo"y, in fact, (ay 2e seen as i!!e(edia2ly fla6ed in !es%ect of the a2sence of a conce%tion of %o6e! distin"uished f!o( the "ene!ali.ed const!ainin" %!o%e!ties of 7social facts7. Conside! one final cele2!ated %assa"e f!o( Du!$hei(. Const!aint, he says, is int!insically a cha!acte!istic of PsocialM facts .... the %!oof of this is that it asse!ts itself as soon as t!y to !esist. f l atte(%t to violate the !ules of la6, they !eact a"ainst (e so as to fo!estall (y action, if the!e is still ti(e. Alte!natively, they annul it o! (a$e (y action confo!( to the no!( if it is al!eady acco(%lished 2ut ca%a2le of 2ein" !eve!sedA o! they cause (e to %ay the %enalty fo! it if it is i!!e%a!a2le . . . . n othe! cases the const!aint is less violentA neve!theless, it does not cease to e8ist. f do not confo!( to o!dina!y conventions, if in (y (ode of d!ess %ay no heed to 6hat is custo(a!y in (y count!y and in (y social class, the lau"hte! %!ovo$e, the social distance at 6hich a( $e%t, %!oduce, althou"h in a (o!e (iti"ated fo!(, the sa(e !esults as any !eal %enalty.G

Const!aint he!e !efe!s to the st!uctu!ation of social syste(s as fo!(s of asy((et!ical %o6e!, in con3unction 6ith 6hich a !an"e of no!(ative sanctions (ay 2e de%loyed a"ainst those 6hose conduct is conde(ned, o! disa%%!oved of, 2y othe!s. As Du!$hei(7s state(ent indicates, the const!aints "ene!ated 2y diffe!ent ty%es of !esou!ce (ay !an"e f!o( na$ed %hysical coe!cion to (uch (o!e su2tle 6ays of %!oducin" co(%liance. 9ut it does no "ood at all to colla%se this (eanin" of const!aint into the othe!s. Bo!eove!, as have st!on"ly unde!lined, %o6e! is neve! (e!ely a const!aint 2ut is at the ve!y o!i"in of the ca%a2ilities of a"ents to 2!in" a2out intended outco(es of action. *ach of the va!ious fo!(s of const!aint a!e thus also, in va!yin" 6ays, fo!(s of ena2le(ent. -hey se!ve to o%en u% ce!tain %ossi2ilities of action at the sa(e ti(e as they !est!ict o! deny

((6*,))

othe!s. t is i(%o!tant to e(%hasi.e this %oint 2ecause it sho6s that those, #includin" Du!$hei( and (any othe!s& 6ho have ho%ed to find a distinctive identity fo! 7sociolo"y7 in the identification of st!uctu!al const!aint a!e e(2a!$ed on a vain ente!%!ise. *8%licitly o! othe!6ise, such autho!s have tended to see in st!uctu!al const!aint a sou!ce of causation (o!e o! less e5uivalent to the o%e!ation of i(%e!sonal causal fo!ces in natu!e. -he !an"e of 7f!ee action7 6hich a"ents have is !est!icted, as it 6e!e, 2y e8te!nal fo!ces that set st!ict li(its to 6hat they can achieve. -he (o!e that st!uctu!al const!aint is associated 6ith a natu!al science (odel, %a!ado8ically, the f!ee! the a"ent a%%ea!s - 6ithin 6hateve! sco%e fo! individual action is left 2y the o%e!ation of const!aint. -he st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties of social syste(s, in othe! 6o!ds, a!e li$e the 6alls of a !oo( f!o( 6hich an individual cannot esca%e 2ut inside 6hich he o! she is a2le to (ove a!ound at 6hi(. St!uctu!ation theo!y !e%laces this vie6 6ith one 6hich holds that st!uctu!e is i(%licated in that ve!y 7f!eedo( of action7 6hich is t!eated as a !esidual and une8%licated cate"o!y in the va!ious fo!(s of 7st!uctu!al sociolo"y7. -h!ee Senses of 7Const!aint7 Fet (e fi!st of all conside! the (eanin" of const!aint in !es%ect of (ate!ial const!aint and const!aint associated 6ith sanctions, then (ove to st!uctu!al const!aint. <hat is const!aint 6hen 6e s%ea$ of the const!ainin" as%ects of the 2ody and its location in conte8ts of the (ate!ial 6o!ld? t evidently !efe!s he!e to li(its 6hich the %hysical ca%acities of the hu(an 2ody, %lus !elevant featu!es of the %hysical envi!on(ent, %lace u%on the feasi2le o%tions o%en to a"ents. -he indivisi2ility of the 2ody, finitude of the life s%an and 7%ac$in"7 difficulties in ti(e-s%ace e(%hasi.ed 2y >a"e!st!and a!e all e8a(%les of such li(its. -he senso!y and co((unicative ca%a2ilities of the hu(an 2ody a!e othe!s. <e a!e so used to t!eatin" these as ena2lin" 5ualities that it is necessa!y to (a$e so(ethin" of a conce%tual s6itch to st!ess that they a!e const!ainin" also. Cf cou!se, these const!aints a!e not 6holly 7"iven7, once and fo! allA the invention of elect!onic co((unication, fo! e8a(%le, has alte!ed the %!e-e8istin" !elation 2et6een %!esence and the senso!y (edia of the

2ody. Alone a(on" the cate"o!ies (entioned a2ove, const!aint in this sense does not

((6*5))

de!ive f!o( the i(%act 6hich the activities o! social ties of acto!s have u%on those of othe! acto!s. ;hysical ca%a2ility and cou%lin" const!aints a!e li(its to the feasi2le social lives that %eo%le can lead. -he ti(e-"eo"!a%hic a%%!oach of 2e"innin" social analysis f!o( identifyin" %hysical const!aints is su!ely useful if ce!tain 5ualifications a!e 2o!ne in (ind. Cne, as have said, is that the %hysical %!o%e!ties of the 2ody and its (ate!ial (ilieu8 of action a!e ena2lin" as 6ell as const!ainin", and these t6o as%ects have to 2e studied to"ethe!. Anothe! is that the identification of %hysical const!aints %!ovides no %a!ticula! fuel to defend a (ate!ialist inte!%!etation of social life. All hu(an 2ein"s have to co%e 6ith the const!aints of the 2ody, its (edia of (o2ility and co((unication. 9ut it does not follo6 that the (odes of co%in" 6ith such const!aints have so(eho6 a (o!e funda(ental influence ove! social activity than do othe! ty%es of const!aint. -u!nin" to %o6e! as a sou!ce of const!aint, a"ain it needs to 2e st!essed that %o6e! is the (eans of "ettin" thin"s done, ve!y definitely ena2le(ent as 6ell as const!aint. -he const!ainin" as%ects of %o6e! a!e e8%e!ienced as sanctions of va!ious $inds, !an"in" f!o( the di!ect a%%lication of fo!ce o! violence, o! the th!eat of such a%%lication, to the (ild e8%!ession of disa%%!oval. Sanctions only ve!y !a!ely ta$e the sha%e of co(%ulsion 6hich those 6ho e8%e!ience the( a!e 6holly inca%a2le of !esistin", and even this can ha%%en only fo! a 2!ief (o(ent, as 6hen one %e!son is %hysically !ende!ed hel%less 2y anothe! o! othe!s. All othe! sanctions, no (atte! ho6 o%%!essive and co(%!ehensive they (ay 2e, de(and so(e $ind of ac5uiescence f!o( those su23ect to the( 6hich is the !eason fo! the (o!e o! less unive!sal %u!vie6 of the dialectic of cont!ol. -his is fa(ilia! enou"h "!ound. *ven the th!eat of death ca!!ies no 6ei"ht unless it is the case that the individual so th!eatened in so(e 6ay values life. -o say that an individual 7had no choice 2ut to act in such and such a 6ay7, in a situation of this

so!t evidently (eans 7Given hisHhe! desi!e not to die, the only alte!native o%en 6as to act in the 6ay he o! she did.7 Cf cou!se, 6he!e the th!eat offe!ed 2y a sanction is not as lethal, co(%liance (ay de%end (o!e on (echanis(s of conscience than on fea! of any sanction -so(ethin", in fact, u%on 6hich Du!$hei( laid conside!a2le e(%hasis in tal$in" of 7(o!al sanctions7. n the case of sanctions

((6*())

the!e a!e o2viously (a3o! asy((et!ies in the const!aintHena2le(ent !elation. Cne %e!son7s const!aint is anothe!7s ena2lin". >o6eve!, as c!iti5ues of .e!o-su( theo!ies of %o6e! have sho6n, such asy((et!ies 2y no (eans e8haust the sco%e of the conce%t of %o6e!. <e should 2ea! in (ind 2oth the !athe! va"ue sense 6hich te!(s li$e 7ac5uiescence7 o! 7co(%liance7 tend to have, and the fact that 2y no (eans all 7ac5uiescence7 in a "iven set of %o6e! !elations is di!ectly (otivated. -o ac5uiesce in a %a!ticula! cou!se of action (i"ht 2e thou"ht to su""est conscious acce%tance of that cou!se of action and even 7volunta!y7 acce%tance of the 2!oade! %o6e! !elations in 6hich it is en(eshed. Dnde!stood in such a fashion, ac5uiescence 6ould cove! only a s(all and !elatively (a!"inal %!o%o!tion of instances in 6hich the conduct of one acto! o! a""!e"ate of acto!s confo!(s to 6hat othe!s 6ant, o! 6hat is in thei! inte!ests. Sanctions a!e usually ve!y 7visi2le7 only 6he!e so(e so!t of desi"nated t!ans"!ession actually occu!s o! is %e!ceived as li$ely to occu!. ;o6e! !elations a!e often (ost %!ofoundly e(2edded in (odes of conduct 6hich a!e ta$en fo! "!anted 2y those 6ho follo6 the(, (ost es%ecially in !outini.ed 2ehaviou!, 6hich is only diffusely (otivated.

$aterial constraint Const!aint de!ivin" f!o( the cha!acte! of the (ate!ial 6o!ld and f!o( the %hysical 5ualities of the 2ody (Degative) sanction

Const!aint de!ivin" f!o( %unitive !es%onses on the %a!t of so(e a"ents to6a!ds othe!s Structural constraint Const!aint de!ivin" f!o( the conte8tuality of action, i.e., f!o( the 7"iven7 cha!acte! of st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties vis-,i-vis situated acto!s <hat, then, of st!uctu!al const!aint? Cnce const!aint de!ivin" f!o( sanctions is se%a!ated off, Du!$hei(7s othe! %oints colla%se into one if sc!utini.ed at all closely. -o say that society %!e-e8ists the lives of each of its individual (e(2e!s at any "iven (o(ent is only to identify a sou!ce of const!aint in so fa! as its %!e-e8istence in so(e 6ay li(its %ossi2ilities o%en to the(. -o e(%hasi.e that individuals a!e conte8tually situated 6ithin social !elations of "!eate! o! lesse! s%an is si(ila!ly only to identify a sou!ce of const!aint if it is sho6n ho6 this li(its thei! ca%a2ilities. n each case const!aint ste(s f!o( the 7o23ective7 e8istence of st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties that the individual a"ent is una2le to chan"e. As 6ith the const!ainin" 5ualities of sanctions, it is 2est desc!i2ed as

((6**))

placing limits upon the range of options open to an actor, or plurality of actors, in a given circumstance or type of circumstance. -a$e the e8a(%le "iven 2y Du!$hei(, that of the enact(ent of cont!actual o2li"ations, o! one %a!ticula! ty%e of cont!act, the la2ou! cont!act. Cont!act, of cou!se, involves st!on"ly defined le"al sanctions, 2ut let us conce%tually filte! the( out. -he cont!actual !elations of (ode!n indust!y face the individual 6ith a set of ci!cu(stances 6hich li(it availa2le o%tions of action. Ba!8 says that 6o!$e!s 7(ust sell the(selves7 - o!, (o!e accu!ately, thei! la2ou! %o6e! - to e(%loye!s. -he 7(ust7 in the %h!ase e8%!esses a const!aint 6hich de!ives f!o( the institutional o!de! of (ode!n ca%italist ente!%!ise that the 6o!$e! faces. -he!e is only one cou!se of action o%en to the 6o!$e! 6ho has 2een !ende!ed %!o%e!tyless to sell his o! he! la2ou! %o6e! to the ca%italist. -hat is to say, the!e is only one feasi2le o%tion, "iven that the 6o!$e! has the (otivation to 6ish to su!vive. -he 7o%tion7 in 5uestion could 2e t!eated as a sin"le one o! as a (ulti%le set of %ossi2ilities. -hat is to say, a 6o!$e! (ay have a choice of (o!e than one 3o2 o%enin" in the la2ou! (a!$et. Ba!87s %oint, ho6eve!, is that these o%tions effectively a!e of a sin"le ty%e. n !es%ect of the !e6a!ds they offe! to the 6o!$e!, and of othe! featu!es of the 6o!$e!-e(%loye! !elationshi%, all 6a"e la2ou! is effectively the sa(e - and su%%osedly 2eco(es even (o!e so 6ith the fu!the! develo%(ent of ca%italis(. All st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties of social syste(s have a si(ila! 7o23ectivity7 vis-cl-vis the individual a"ent. >o6 fa! these a!e const!ainin" 5ualities va!ies acco!din" to the conte8t and natu!e of any "iven se5uence of action o! st!i% of inte!action. n othe! 6o!ds, the feasi2le o%tions o%en to a"ents (ay 2e "!eate! than in the case of the la2ou! cont!act e8a(%le. Fet (e !eaffi!( once (o!e the theo!e( that all st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties of social syste(s a!e ena2lin" as 6ell as const!ainin". -he conditions of the ca%italist la2ou! cont!act (ay heavily favou! e(%loye!s as co(%a!ed 6ith 6o!$e!s. 9ut once they have 2eco(e %!o%e!tyless, 6o!$e!s a!e de%endent u%on the !esou!ces that e(%loye!s %!ovide. 9oth sides de!ive thei! livelihood f!o( the ca%italH6a"ela2ou! !elation, heavily asy((et!ical thou"h it (ay 2e. -his analysis does not invalidate the so!ts of clai( that social scientists o! histo!ians (a$e 6hen they tal$ of 7social fo!ces7 6ithout !efe!ence to a"ents7 !easons o! intentions. n institutional

##118&& analysis it is %e!(issi2le to esta2lish !e"ula!i.ed connections 6hich a!e set out in an 7i(%e!sonal7 (anne!. Su%%ose, 2y 6ay of illust!ation, 6e isolate a !elation 2et6een technolo"ical chan"e and %atte!ns of (ana"e!ial o!"ani.ation in 2usiness fi!(s. -he e8%andin" use of (ic!ochi% technolo"y, let us say, (i"ht 2e sho6n to 2e associated 6ith a %a!tial dissolution of (o!e !i"id fo!(s of hie!a!chical autho!ity. -he 7social fo!ce7 involved he!e is not li$e a fo!ce of natu!e. Causal "ene!ali.ations in the social sciences al6ays %!esu(e a ty%ical 7(i87 of intended and unintended conse5uence of action, on the 2asis of the !ationali.ation of conduct, 6hethe! 7ca!!ied7 on the level of discu!sive o! of %!actical consciousness. -echnolo"ical chan"e is not so(ethin" that occu!s inde%endently of the uses to 6hich a"ents %ut technolo"y, the cha!acte!istic (odes of innovation, etc. t is odd that (any st!uctu!al sociolo"ists 6ho a!e %e!fectly a2le to acce%t this - that technolo"y does not chan"e in and of itself #ho6 could it?& - do not see( to see that e8actly the sa(e a%%lies to the social fo!ces lin$in" technolo"ical chan"e 6ith such a %heno(enon as (ana"e!ial hie!a!chies. So(eho6, 6hethe! (ainly as a !esult of conscious %lannin" o! in a fashion (o!e o! less co(%letely unintended 2y any of those involved, acto!s (odify thei! conduct and that of othe!s in such a 6ay as to !esha%e (odes of autho!ity !elations - %!esu(in" that the connection is indeed a "enuinely causal one. <hy is it that so(e social fo!ces have an a%%a!ently 7inevita2le7 loo$ to the(? t is 2ecause in such instances the!e a!e fe6 o%tions o%en to the acto!s in 5uestion, "iven that they 2ehave !ationally 7!ationally7 in this case (eanin" effectively ali"nin" (otives 6ith the end-!esult of 6hateve! conduct is involved. -hat is to say, the acto!s have 7"ood !easons7 fo! 6hat they do, !easons 6hich the st!uctu!al sociolo"ist is li$ely to assu(e i(%licitly !athe! than e8%licitly att!i2utin" to those acto!s. Since such "ood !easons involve a choice f!o( ve!y li(ited feasi2le alte!natives, thei! conduct (ay a%%ea! to 2e d!iven 2y so(e i(%laca2le fo!ce si(ila! to a %hysical fo!ce. -he!e a!e (any social fo!ces that acto!s, in a (eanin"ful sense of that %h!ase, a!e 7una2le to !esist7. -hat is to say, they cannot do anythin" a2out the(. 9ut 7cannot7 he!e (eans that they a!e una2le to do anythin" othe! than confo!( to 6hateve! the

t!ends in 5uestion a!e, "iven the (otives o! "oals 6hich unde!lie thei! action.

##11,&& ta$e it as one of the (ain i(%lications of the fo!e"oin" %oints that the!e is no such entity as a distinctive ty%e of 7st!uctu!al e8%lanation7 in the social sciencesA all e8%lanations 6ill involve at least i(%licit !efe!ence 2oth to the %u!%osive, !easonin" 2ehaviou! of a"ents and to its inte!section 6ith const!ainin" and ena2lin" featu!es of the social and (ate!ial conte8ts of that 2ehaviou!. -6o 5ualifications !e5ui!e to 2e added to this o2se!vation, one to do 6ith the histo!ically shiftin" cha!acte! of const!aint, the othe! associated 6ith the %heno(enon of !eification. Const!aint and +eification -he natu!e of const!aint is histo!ically va!ia2le, as a!e the ena2lin" 5ualities "ene!ated 2y the conte8tualities of hu(an action. t is va!ia2le in !elation to the (ate!ial and institutional ci!cu(stances of activity, 2ut also in !elation to the fo!(s of $no6led"ea2ility that a"ents %ossess a2out those ci!cu(stances. -o have unde!stood this is one of the (ain achieve(ents of Ba!8ist thou"ht 6he!e it has not !ela%sed into o23ectivis(. <hen it has done so, it has 2eco(e (ethodolo"ically 3ust anothe! ve!sion of a st!uctu!al sociolo"y, insensitive to the (ulti%le (eanin"s 6hich const!aint (ust 2e !eco"ni.ed as havin" in social analysis. <hy should such insensitivity e8ist7? -he ans6e!, thin$, is fai!ly clea!. t is usually associated 6ith those ty%es of social thou"ht 6hich su%%ose that the ai( of the social sciences is to uncove! la6s of social activity 6hich have a status si(ila! to that of natu!al scientific la6s. -o loo$ fo! sou!ces of 7st!uctu!al const!aint7 is %!esu(ed to 2e (o!e o! less the sa(e as loo$in" fo! the la6-"ove!ned conditions that %ut li(its on the 2ounds of f!ee action. -his, fo! (any 6!ite!s, is e8actly 6he!e 7sociolo"y7 finds its !ole as a distinctive endeavou! a(on" the othe! social sciences. 9ut acco!din" to the vie6 su""ested he!e, it

%!oduces a fo!( of !eified discou!se not t!ue to the !eal cha!acte!istics of hu(an a"ents. 7+eification7 has 2een unde!stood in a va!iety of diffe!ent 6ays in lite!atu!e of social theo!y. A(on" those dive!"ent uses th!ee cha!acte!istic senses can 2e (ost co((only disce!ned. Cne is an ani(istic sense, 6he!e social !elations 2eco(e att!i2uted 6ith %e!sonified cha!acte!istics. A ve!sion of this is to 2e found in Ba!87s cele2!ated discussion of the 7fetishis( of co((odities7, in

##180&& 6hich he co(%a!es co((odity !elations to the 7(ist-envelo%ed !e"ions of the !eli"ious 6o!ld7. Oust as in !eli"ion 7the %!oductions of the hu(an 2!ain a%%ea! as inde%endent 2ein"s endo6ed 6ith life, and ente!in" into !elation 2oth 6ith one anothe! and the hu(an !ace7, so it is in the 76o!ld of co((odities7 6ith the 7%!oducts of (en7s hands7.G Anothe! sense in 6hich the te!( !eification is often e(%loyed is to !efe! to ci!cu(stances in 6hich social %heno(ena 2eco(e endo6ed 6ith thin"-li$e %!o%e!ties 6hich they do not in fact have. A"ain the!e is a !e%uta2le ancest!y fo! this coina"e in Ba!8) 7 n e8chan"e value, the social connection 2et6een %e!sons is t!ansfo!(ed into a !elation 2et6een thin"s .... 7 /inally, 7!eification7 is so(eti(es used to desi"nate cha!acte!istics of social theo!ies 6hich t!eat conce%ts as thou"h they 6e!e the o23ects to 6hich they !efe!!ed, as att!i2utin" %!o%e!ties to those conce%ts. -he second of these senses is the one shall ado%t, 2ut it is not acce%ta2le as it stands 2ecause it i(%lies that the 5uality of 2ein" 7thin"-li$e7 does not need fu!the! e8%lication and 2ecause it does not (a$e it clea! that !eification is a discu!sive notion. -he conce%t should not 2e unde!stood si(%ly to !efe! to %!o%e!ties of social syste(s 6hich a!e 7o23ectively "iven7 so fa! as s%ecific, situated acto!s a!e conce!ned. +athe!, it should 2e seen as !efe!!in" to fo!(s of discou!se 6hich t!eat such %!o%e!ties as 7o23ectively "iven7 in the sa(e 6ay as a!e natu!al %heno(ena. -hat is to say, !eified discou!se !efe!s to the 7facticity7 6ith 6hich social %heno(ena conf!ont individual acto!s in such a 6ay as to i"no!e ho6 they a!e %!oduced and !e%!oduced th!ou"h hu(an a"ency.G +eification thus should not 2e inte!%!eted to (ean 7thin"-li$e7 in such a connotationA it conce!ns, !athe!, the conse5uences of thin$in" in this $ind of fashion, 6hethe! such thin$in" is done 2y those 6ho 6ould call the(selves social scientists o! 2y lay (e(2e!s of society. -he 7!eified (ode7 should 2e conside!ed a fo!( o! style of discou!se, in 6hich the %!o%e!ties of social syste(s a!e !e"a!ded as havin" the sa(e fi8ity as that %!esu(ed in la6s of natu!e.

-he Conce%t of St!uctu!al ;!inci%les -he i(%lications of the fo!e"oin" sections of this cha%te! can 2e desc!i2ed as follo6s. St!uctu!al const!aint is not e8%!essed in

##181&& te!(s of the i(%laca2le causal fo!(s 6hich st!uctu!al sociolo"ists have in (ind 6hen they e(%hasi.e so st!on"ly the association of 7st!uctu!e7 6ith 7const!aint7. St!uctu!al const!aints do not o%e!ate inde%endently of the (otives and !easons that a"ents have fo! 6hat they do. -hey cannot 2e co(%a!ed 6ith the effect of, say, an ea!th5ua$e 6hich dest!oys a to6n and its inha2itants 6ithout thei! in any 6ay 2ein" a2le to do anythin" a2out it. -he only (ovin" o23ects in hu(an social !elations a!e individual a"ents, 6ho e(%loy !esou!ces to (a$e thin"s ha%%en, intentionally o! othe!6ise. -he st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties of social syste(s do not act, o! 7act on7, anyone li$e fo!ces of natu!e to 7co(%el7 hi( o! he! to 2ehave in any %a!ticula! 6ay. #/o! fu!the! discussion in !elation to %!o2le(s of e(%i!ical !esea!ch, see %%. 304-10.& >o6eve!, the!e is a !an"e of fu!the! notions !elevant to s%ea$in" of 7st!uctu!e7 in social analysis, and these !e5ui!e s%ecial conside!ation. shall discuss the( in the follo6in" o!de!. /i!st, ho6 should the conce%t of 7st!uctu!al %!inci%le7 2e develo%ed? Second, 6hat levels of a2st!action can 2e distin"uished in studyin" the st!uctu!al %!o%e!ties of social syste(s? -hi!d, ho6 a!e dive!se social syste(s a!ticulated 6ithin societal totalities? n identifyin" st!uctu!al %!inci%les the discussion has to (ove 2ac$ f!o( the fo!(al to the !athe! (o!e su2stantive. Fet (e !ecall, to 2e"in 6ith, a (ain st!and of st!uctu!ation theo!y, int!oduced in the fi!st cha%te!. -he 7%!o2le( of o!de!7 in the theo!y of st!uctu!ation is the %!o2le( of ho6 it co(es a2out that social syste(s 72ind7 ti(e and s%ace, inco!%o!atin" and inte"!atin" %!esence and a2sence. -his in tu!n is closely 2ound u% 6ith the %!o2le(atic of ti(e-s%ace distanciation) the 7st!etchin"7 of social

syste(s ac!oss ti(e-s%ace. St!uctu!al %!inci%les can thus 2e unde!stood as the %!inci%les of o!"ani.ation 6hich allo6 !eco"ni.a2ly consistent fo!(s of ti(e-s%ace distanciation on the 2asis of definite (echanis(s of societal inte"!ation. D!a6in" u%on a !an"e of co(%a!ative and histo!ical studies 710 %!o%ose a th!eefold classification of ty%es of society as 2elo6)

-+ 9AF SCC *-Q #C!al cultu!es& Aominant locale o!"ani.ation -!adition7 #co((unal %!actices& Einshi% G!ou% sanctions 9and "!ou%s o! villa"es #/usion of social and syste( inte"!ation&