The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Essays Of Arthur Schopenhauer: The Wisdom of ife!

by Arthur Schopenhauer This eBook is for the use of anyone any"here at no cost and "ith a#most no restrictions "hatsoe$er% &ou may copy it! gi$e it a"ay or re'use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg icense inc#uded "ith this eBook or on#ine at """%gutenberg%net Tit#e: The Essays Of Arthur Schopenhauer: The Wisdom of Author: Arthur Schopenhauer (e#ease )ate: *anuary +,! -../ 0EBook 1+.2/+3 anguage: Eng#ish 4haracter set encoding: 5SO',,67'+ 888 STA(T O9 T:5S P(O*E4T G;TE<BE(G EBOO= ESSA&S O9 S4:OPE<:A;E( 888 ife

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5<T(O);4T5O<% 5n these pages 5 sha## speak of CThe Wisdom of ifeC in the common meaning of the term! as the art! name#y! of ordering our #i$es so as to obtain the greatest possib#e amount of p#easure and successD an art the theory of "hich may be ca##ed CEudaemono#ogyC! for it teaches us ho" to #ead a happy eEistence% Such an eEistence might perhaps be defined as one "hich! #ooked at from a pure#y objecti$e point of $ie"! or! rather! after coo# and mature ref#ection''for the Fuestion necessari#y in$o#$es subjecti$e considerations!''"ou#d be decided#y preferab#e to non'eEistenceD imp#ying that "e shou#d c#ing to it for its o"n sake! and not mere#y from the fear of deathD and further! that "e shou#d ne$er #ike it to come to an end% <o" "hether human #ife corresponds! or cou#d possib#y correspond! to this conception of eEistence! is a Fuestion to "hich! as is "e##'kno"n! my phi#osophica# system returns a negati$e ans"er% On the eudaemonistic hypothesis! ho"e$er! the Fuestion must be ans"ered in the affirmati$eD and 5 ha$e sho"n! in the second $o#ume of my chief "ork Gch% /7H! that this hypothesis is based upon a fundamenta# mistake% According#y! in e#aborating the scheme of a happy eEistence! 5 ha$e had to make a comp#ete surrender of the higher metaphysica# and ethica# standpoint to "hich my o"n theories #eadD and e$erything 5 sha## say here "i## to some eEtent rest upon a compromiseD in so far! that is! as 5 take the common standpoint of e$ery day! and embrace the error "hich is at the bottom of it% >y remarks! therefore! "i## possess on#y a Fua#ified $a#ue! for the $ery "ord Ceudaemono#ogyC is a euphemism% 9urther! 5 make no c#aims to comp#etenessD part#y because the subject is ineEhaustib#e! and part#y because 5 shou#d other"ise ha$e to say o$er again "hat has been a#ready said by others% The on#y book composed! as far as 5 remember! "ith a #ike purpose to that "hich animates this co##ection of aphorisms! is 4ardan@s C)e uti#itate eE ad$ersis capiendaC! "hich is "e## "orth reading! and may be used to supp#ement the present "ork% Aristot#e! it is true! has a fe" "ords on eudaemono#ogy in the fifth chapter of the first book of his C(hetoricCD but "hat he says does not come to $ery much% As compi#ation is not my business! 5 ha$e made no use of these predecessorsD more especia##y because in the process of compi#ing! indi$idua#ity of $ie" is #ost! and indi$idua#ity of $ie" is the kerne# of "orks of this kind% 5n genera#! indeed! the "ise in a## ages ha$e a#"ays said the same thing! and the foo#s! "ho at a## times form the immense majority! ha$e in their "ay too acted a#ike! and done just the oppositeD and so it "i## continue% 9or! as ?o#taire says! C"e sha## #ea$e this "or#d as foo#ish and as "icked as "e found it on our arri$a#C%

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)5?5S5O< O9 T:E S;B*E4T% Aristot#e0+3 di$ides the b#essings of #ife into three c#asses''those "hich come to us from "ithout! those of the sou#! and those of the body% =eeping nothing of this di$ision but the number! 5 obser$e that the fundamenta# differences in human #ot may be reduced to three distinct c#asses: 09ootnote +: CEth% <ichomC%! 5% ,%3 G+H What a man is: that is to say! persona#ity! in the "idest sense of the "ordD under "hich are inc#uded hea#th! strength! beauty! temperament! mora# character! inte##igence! and education% G-H What a man has: that is! property and possessions of e$ery kind% GBH :o" a man stands in the estimation of others: by "hich is to be understood! as e$erybody kno"s! "hat a man is in the eyes of his fe##o"men! or! more strict#y! the #ight in "hich they regard him% This is sho"n by their opinion of himD and their opinion is in its turn manifested by the honor in "hich he is he#d! and by his rank and reputation% The differences "hich come under the first head are those "hich <ature herse#f has set bet"een man and manD and from this fact a#one "e may at once infer that they inf#uence the happiness or unhappiness of mankind in a much more $ita# and radica# "ay than those contained under the t"o fo##o"ing heads! "hich are mere#y the effect of human arrangements% 4ompared "ith Cgenuine persona# ad$antagesC! such as a great mind or a great heart! a## the pri$i#eges of rank or birth! e$en of roya# birth! are but as kings on the stage! to kings in rea# #ife% The same thing "as said #ong ago by >etrodorus! the ear#iest discip#e of Epicurus! "ho "rote as the tit#e of one of his chapters! CThe happiness "e recei$e from ourse#$es is greater than that "hich "e obtain from our surroundingsC0+3 And it is an ob$ious fact! "hich cannot be ca##ed in Fuestion! that the principa# e#ement in a man@s "e##'being!''indeed! in the "ho#e tenor of his eEistence!''is "hat he is made of! his inner constitution% 9or this is the immediate source of that in"ard satisfaction or dissatisfaction resu#ting from the sum tota# of his sensations! desires and thoughtsD "hi#st his surroundings! on the other hand! eEert on#y a mediate or indirect inf#uence upon him% This is "hy the same eEterna# e$ents or circumstances affect no t"o peop#e a#ikeD e$en "ith perfect#y simi#ar surroundings e$ery one #i$es in a "or#d of his o"n% 9or a man has immediate apprehension on#y of his o"n ideas! fee#ings and $o#itionsD the outer "or#d can inf#uence him on#y in so far as it brings these to #ife% The "or#d in "hich a man #i$es shapes itse#f chief#y by the "ay in "hich he #ooks at it! and so it pro$es different to different menD to one it is barren! du##! and superficia#D to another rich! interesting! and fu## of meaning% On hearing of the interesting e$ents "hich ha$e happened in the course of a man@s eEperience! many peop#e "i## "ish that simi#ar things had happened in their #i$es too! comp#ete#y forgetting that they shou#d be en$ious rather of the menta# aptitude "hich #ent those e$ents the significance they possess "hen he describes themD to a man of genius they "ere interesting ad$enturesD but to the du## perceptions of an ordinary indi$idua# they "ou#d ha$e been sta#e! e$eryday occurrences% This is in the highest degree the case "ith many of Goethe@s and Byron@s poems! "hich are ob$ious#y founded upon actua# factsD "here it is open to a foo#ish reader to

en$y the poet because so many de#ightfu# things happened to him! instead of en$ying that mighty po"er of phantasy "hich "as capab#e of turning a fair#y common eEperience into something so great and beautifu#% 09ootnote +: 4f% 4#emens A#eE% Strom% 55%! -+%3 5n the same "ay! a person of me#ancho#y temperament "i## make a scene in a tragedy out of "hat appears to the sanguine man on#y in the #ight of an interesting conf#ict! and to a ph#egmatic sou# as something "ithout any meaningD''a## of "hich rests upon the fact that e$ery e$ent! in order to be rea#iIed and appreciated! reFuires the co'operation of t"o factors! name#y! a subject and an object! a#though these are as c#ose#y and necessari#y connected as oEygen and hydrogen in "ater% When therefore the objecti$e or eEterna# factor in an eEperience is actua##y the same! but the subjecti$e or persona# appreciation of it $aries! the e$ent is just as much a different one in the eyes of different persons as if the objecti$e factors had not been a#ikeD for to a b#unt inte##igence the fairest and best object in the "or#d presents on#y a poor rea#ity! and is therefore on#y poor#y appreciated!''#ike a fine #andscape in du## "eather! or in the ref#ection of a bad Ccamera obscuraC% 5n p#ain #anguage! e$ery man is pent up "ithin the #imits of his o"n consciousness! and cannot direct#y get beyond those #imits any more than he can get beyond his o"n skinD so eEterna# aid is not of much use to him% On the stage! one man is a prince! another a minister! a third a ser$ant or a so#dier or a genera#! and so on!''mere eEterna# differences: the inner rea#ity! the kerne# of a## these appearances is the same''a poor p#ayer! "ith a## the anEieties of his #ot% 5n #ife it is just the same% )ifferences of rank and "ea#th gi$e e$ery man his part to p#ay! but this by no means imp#ies a difference of in"ard happiness and p#easureD here! too! there is the same being in a##''a poor morta#! "ith his hardships and troub#es% Though these may! indeed! in e$ery case proceed from dissimi#ar causes! they are in their essentia# nature much the same in a## their forms! "ith degrees of intensity "hich $ary! no doubt! but in no "ise correspond to the part a man has to p#ay! to the presence or absence of position and "ea#th% Since e$erything "hich eEists or happens for a man eEists on#y in his consciousness and happens for it a#one! the most essentia# thing for a man is the constitution of this consciousness! "hich is in most cases far more important than the circumstances "hich go to form its contents% A## the pride and p#easure of the "or#d! mirrored in the du## consciousness of a foo#! are poor indeed compared "ith the imagination of 4er$antes "riting his C)on JuiEoteC in a miserab#e prison% The objecti$e ha#f of #ife and rea#ity is in the hand of fate! and according#y takes $arious forms in different cases: the subjecti$e ha#f is ourse#f! and in essentia#s is a#"ays remains the same% :ence the #ife of e$ery man is stamped "ith the same character throughout! ho"e$er much his eEterna# circumstances may a#terD it is #ike a series of $ariations on a sing#e theme% <o one can get beyond his o"n indi$idua#ity% An anima#! under "hate$er circumstances it is p#aced! remains "ithin the narro" #imits to "hich nature has irre$ocab#y consigned itD so that our endea$ors to make a pet happy must a#"ays keep "ithin the compass of its nature! and be restricted to "hat it can fee#% So it is "ith manD the measure of the happiness he can attain is determined beforehand by his indi$idua#ity% >ore especia##y is this the case "ith the menta# po"ers! "hich fiE once for a## his capacity for the higher kinds of p#easure% 5f these po"ers are sma##! no efforts from "ithout! nothing that his fe##o"men or that fortune can do for him! "i## suffice to raise him abo$e the ordinary

degree of human happiness and p#easure! ha#f anima# though it beD his on#y resources are his sensua# appetite!''a coIy and cheerfu# fami#y #ife at the most!''#o" company and $u#gar pastimeD e$en education! on the "ho#e! can a$ai# #itt#e! if anything! for the en#argement of his horiIon% 9or the highest! most $aried and #asting p#easures are those of the mind! ho"e$er much our youth may decei$e us on this pointD and the p#easures of the mind turn chief#y on the po"ers of the mind% 5t is c#ear! then! that our happiness depends in a great degree upon "hat "e CareC! upon our indi$idua#ity! "hi#st #ot or destiny is genera##y taken to mean on#y "hat "e Cha$eC! or our CreputationC% Our #ot! in this sense! may impro$eD but "e do not ask much of it if "e are in"ard#y rich: on the other hand! a foo# remains a foo#! a du## b#ockhead! to his #ast hour! e$en though he "ere surrounded by houris in paradise% This is "hy Goethe! in the CWest'Kst#ic#ien )i$anC! says that e$ery man! "hether he occupies a #o" position in #ife! or emerges as its $ictor! testifies to persona#ity as the greatest factor in happiness:'' C?o#k und =necht und ;ber"inder Sie gestehen! Iu jeder Leit! :Kchtes G#Mck der Erdenkinder Sei nur die PersKn#ichkeitC% E$erything confirms the fact that the subjecti$e e#ement in #ife is incomparab#y more important for our happiness and p#easure than the objecti$e! from such sayings as C:unger is the best sauceC! and C&outh and Age cannot #i$e togetherC! up to the #ife of the Genius and the Saint% :ea#th out"eighs a## other b#essings so much that one may rea##y say that a hea#thy beggar is happier than an ai#ing king% A Fuiet and cheerfu# temperament! happy in the enjoyment of a perfect#y sound physiFue! an inte##ect c#ear! #i$e#y! penetrating and seeing things as they are! a moderate and gent#e "i##! and therefore a good conscience''these are pri$i#eges "hich no rank or "ea#th can make up for or rep#ace% 9or "hat a man is in himse#f! "hat accompanies him "hen he is a#one! "hat no one can gi$e or take a"ay! is ob$ious#y more essentia# to him than e$erything he has in the "ay of possessions! or e$en "hat he may be in the eyes of the "or#d% An inte##ectua# man in comp#ete so#itude has eEce##ent entertainment in his o"n thoughts and fancies! "hi#e no amount of di$ersity or socia# p#easure! theatres! eEcursions and amusements! can "ard off boredom from a du##ard% A good! temperate! gent#e character can be happy in needy circumstances! "hi#st a co$etous! en$ious and ma#icious man! e$en if he be the richest in the "or#d! goes miserab#e% <ay moreD to one "ho has the constant de#ight of a specia# indi$idua#ity! "ith a high degree of inte##ect! most of the p#easures "hich are run after by mankind are simp#y superf#uousD they are e$en a troub#e and a burden% And so :orace says of himse#f! that! ho"e$er many are depri$ed of the fancy'goods of #ife! there is one at #east "ho can #i$e "ithout them:'' CGemmas! marmor! ebur! Tyrrhena sigi##a! tabe##as! Argentum! $estes! Gaetu#o murice tinctas Sunt Fui non habeant! est Fui non curat habereCD and "hen Socrates sa" $arious artic#es of #uEury spread out for sa#e! he eEc#aimed: C:o" much there is in the "or#d 5 do not "antC% So the first and most essentia# e#ement in our #ife@s happiness is "hat "e are!''our persona#ity! if for no other reason than that it is a constant factor coming into p#ay under a## circumstances: besides! un#ike the b#essings "hich are described under the other t"o heads! it

is not the sport of destiny and cannot be "rested from usD''and! so far! it is endo"ed "ith an abso#ute $a#ue in contrast to the mere#y re#ati$e "orth of the other t"o% The conseFuence of this is that it is much more difficu#t than peop#e common#y suppose to get a ho#d on a man from "ithout% But here the a##'po"erfu# agent! Time! comes in and c#aims its rights! and before its inf#uence physica# and menta# ad$antages gradua##y "aste a"ay% >ora# character a#one remains inaccessib#e to it% 5n $ie" of the destructi$e effect of time! it seems! indeed! as if the b#essings named under the other t"o heads! of "hich time cannot direct#y rob us! "ere superior to those of the first% Another ad$antage might be c#aimed for them! name#y! that being in their $ery nature objecti$e and eEterna#! they are attainab#e! and e$ery one is presented "ith the possibi#ity! at #east! of coming into possession of themD "hi#st "hat is subjecti$e is not open to us to acFuire! but making its entry by a kind of Cdi$ine rightC! it remains for #ife! immutab#e! ina#ienab#e! an ineEorab#e doom% et me Fuote those #ines in "hich Goethe describes ho" an una#terab#e destiny is assigned to e$ery man at the hour of his birth! so that he can de$e#op on#y in the #ines #aid do"n for him! as it "ere! by the conjunctions of the stars: and ho" the Sybi# and the prophets dec#are that Chimse#fC a man can ne$er escape! nor any po"er of time a$ai# to change the path on "hich his #ife is cast:'' CWie an dem Tag! der dich der We#t $er#iehen! )Ne Sonne stand Ium Grusse der P#aneten! Bist a#soba#d und fort und fort gediehen! <ach dem GesetI! "onach du angetreten% So musst du sein! dir kannst du nicht entf#iehen! So tagten schon Sybi##en und ProphetenD ;nd keine Leit! und keine >acht IerstMcke#t GeprOgte 9orm! die #ebend sich ent"icke#tC% The on#y thing that stands in our po"er to achie$e! is to make the most ad$antageous use possib#e of the persona# Fua#ities "e possess! and according#y to fo##o" such pursuits on#y as "i## ca## them into p#ay! to stri$e after the kind of perfection of "hich they admit and to a$oid e$ery otherD conseFuent#y! to choose the position! occupation and manner of #ife "hich are most suitab#e for their de$e#opment% 5magine a man endo"ed "ith hercu#ean strength "ho is compe##ed by circumstances to fo##o" a sedentary occupation! some minute eEFuisite "ork of the hands! for eEamp#e! or to engage in study and menta# #abor demanding Fuite other po"ers! and just those "hich he has not got!''compe##ed! that is! to #ea$e unused the po"ers in "hich he is pre'eminent#y strongD a man p#aced #ike this "i## ne$er fee# happy a## his #ife through% E$en more miserab#e "i## be the #ot of the man "ith inte##ectua# po"ers of a $ery high order! "ho has to #ea$e them unde$e#oped and unemp#oyed! in the pursuit of a ca##ing "hich does not reFuire them! some bodi#y #abor! perhaps! for "hich his strength is insufficient% Sti##! in a case of this kind! it shou#d be our care! especia##y in youth! to a$oid the precipice of presumption! and not ascribe to ourse#$es a superf#uity of po"er "hich is not there% Since the b#essings described under the first head decided#y out"eigh those contained under the other t"o! it is manifest#y a "iser course to aim at the maintenance of our hea#th and the cu#ti$ation of our facu#ties! than at the amassing of "ea#thD but this must not be mistaken as meaning that "e shou#d neg#ect to acFuire an adeFuate supp#y of the necessaries of #ife% Wea#th! in the strict sense of the "ord! that is! great superf#uity! can do #itt#e for our happinessD and many rich peop#e fee# unhappy just because they are "ithout any true

menta# cu#ture or kno"#edge! and conseFuent#y ha$e no objecti$e interests "hich "ou#d Fua#ify them for inte##ectua# occupations% 9or beyond the satisfaction of some rea# and natura# necessities! a## that the possession of "ea#th can achie$e has a $ery sma## inf#uence upon our happiness! in the proper sense of the "ordD indeed! "ea#th rather disturbs it! because the preser$ation of property entai#s a great many una$oidab#e anEieties% And sti## men are a thousand times more intent on becoming rich than on acFuiring cu#ture! though it is Fuite certain that "hat a man CisC contributes much more to his happiness than "hat he ChasC% So you may see many a man! as industrious as an ant! cease#ess#y occupied from morning to night in the endea$or to increase his heap of go#d% Beyond the narro" horiIon of means to this end! he kno"s nothingD his mind is a b#ank! and conseFuent#y unsusceptib#e to any other inf#uence% The highest p#easures! those of the inte##ect! are to him inaccessib#e! and he tries in $ain to rep#ace them by the f#eeting p#easures of sense in "hich he indu#ges! #asting but a brief hour and at tremendous cost% And if he is #ucky! his strugg#es resu#t in his ha$ing a rea##y great pi#e of go#d! "hich he #ea$es to his heir! either to make it sti## #arger! or to sFuander it in eEtra$agance% A #ife #ike this! though pursued "ith a sense of earnestness and an air of importance! is just as si##y as many another "hich has a foo#@s cap for its symbo#% CWhat a man has in himse#fC is! then! the chief e#ement in his happiness% Because this is! as a ru#e! so $ery #itt#e! most of those "ho are p#aced beyond the strugg#e "ith penury fee# at bottom Fuite as unhappy as those "ho are sti## engaged in it% Their minds are $acant! their imagination du##! their spirits poor! and so they are dri$en to the company of those #ike them''for Csimi#is simi#i gaudetC''"here they make common pursuit of pastime and entertainment! consisting for the most part in sensua# p#easure! amusement of e$ery kind! and fina##y! in eEcess and #ibertinism% A young man of rich fami#y enters upon #ife "ith a #arge patrimony! and often runs through it in an incredib#y short space of time! in $icious eEtra$aganceD and "hyP Simp#y because! here too! the mind is empty and $oid! and so the man is bored "ith eEistence% :e "as sent forth into the "or#d out"ard#y rich but in"ard#y poor! and his $ain endea$or "as to make his eEterna# "ea#th compensate for his inner po$erty! by trying to obtain e$erything Cfrom "ithoutC! #ike an o#d man "ho seeks to strengthen himse#f as =ing )a$id or >arQcha# de (eE tried to do% And so in the end one "ho is in"ard#y poor comes to be a#so poor out"ard#y% 5 need not insist upon the importance of the other t"o kinds of b#essings "hich make up the happiness of human #ifeD no"'a'days the $a#ue of possessing them is too "e## kno"n to reFuire ad$ertisement% The third c#ass! it is true! may seem! compared "ith the second! of a $ery etherea# character! as it consists on#y of other peop#e@s opinions% Sti## e$ery one has to stri$e for reputation! that is to say! a good name% (ank! on the other hand! shou#d be aspired to on#y by those "ho ser$e the state! and fame by $ery fe" indeed% 5n any case! reputation is #ooked upon as a price#ess treasure! and fame as the most precious of a## the b#essings a man can attain!''the Go#den 9#eece! as it "ere! of the e#ect: "hi#st on#y foo#s "i## prefer rank to property% The second and third c#asses! moreo$er! are reciproca##y cause and effectD so far! that is! as Petronius@ maEim! Chabes habeberisC! is trueD and con$erse#y! the fa$or of others! in a## its forms! often puts us in the "ay of getting "hat "e "ant%

4:APTE( 55% PE(SO<A 5T&! O( W:AT A >A< 5S% We ha$e a#ready seen! in genera#! that "hat a man CisC contributes much more to his happiness than "hat he ChasC! or ho" he is regarded by others% What a man is! and so "hat he has in his o"n person! is a#"ays the chief thing to considerD for his indi$idua#ity accompanies him a#"ays and e$ery"here! and gi$es its co#or to a## his eEperiences% 5n e$ery kind of enjoyment! for instance! the p#easure depends principa##y upon the man himse#f% E$ery one admits this in regard to physica#! and ho" much truer it is of inte##ectua#! p#easure% When "e use that Eng#ish eEpression! Ato enjoy one@s se#f!A "e are emp#oying a $ery striking and appropriate phraseD for obser$e''one says! not Ahe enjoys Paris!A but Ahe enjoys himse#f in Paris%A To a man possessed of an i##'conditioned indi$idua#ity! a## p#easure is #ike de#icate "ine in a mouth made bitter "ith ga##% Therefore! in the b#essings as "e## as in the i##s of #ife! #ess depends upon "hat befa##s us than upon the "ay in "hich it is met! that is! upon the kind and degree of our genera# susceptibi#ity% What a man is and has in himse#f!''in a "ord persona#ity! "ith a## it entai#s! is the on#y immediate and direct factor in his happiness and "e#fare% A## e#se is mediate and indirect! and its inf#uence can be neutra#iIed and frustratedD but the inf#uence of persona#ity ne$er% This is "hy the en$y "hich persona# Fua#ities eEcite is the most imp#acab#e of a##!''as it is a#so the most carefu##y dissemb#ed% 9urther! the constitution of our consciousness is the e$er present and #asting e#ement in a## "e do or sufferD our indi$idua#ity is persistent#y at "ork! more or #ess! at e$ery moment of our #ife: a## other inf#uences are tempora#! incidenta#! f#eeting! and subject to e$ery kind of chance and change% This is "hy Aristot#e says: C5t is not "ea#th but character that #astsC%0+3 0Greek: ''hae gar phusis bebion ou ta chraemata3 09ootnote +: Eth% Eud%! $ii% -% B2:3 And just for the same reason "e can more easi#y bear a misfortune "hich comes to us entire#y from "ithout! than one "hich "e ha$e dra"n upon ourse#$esD for fortune may a#"ays change! but not character% Therefore! subjecti$e b#essings!''a nob#e nature! a capab#e head! a joyfu# temperament! bright spirits! a "e##'constituted! perfect#y sound physiFue! in a "ord! Cmens sana in corpore sanoC! are the first and most important e#ements in happinessD so that "e shou#d be more intent on promoting and preser$ing such Fua#ities than on the possession of eEterna# "ea#th and eEterna# honor% And of a## these! the one "hich makes us the most direct#y happy is a genia# f#o" of good spiritsD for this eEce##ent Fua#ity is its o"n immediate re"ard% The man "ho is cheerfu# and merry has a#"ays a good reason for being so!''the fact! name#y! that he is so% There is nothing "hich! #ike this Fua#ity! can so comp#ete#y rep#ace the #oss of e$ery other b#essing% 5f you kno" anyone "ho is young! handsome! rich and esteemed! and you "ant to kno"! further! if he is happy! ask! 5s he cheerfu# and genia#P''and if he is! "hat does it matter "hether he is young or o#d! straight or humpbacked! poor or richP''he is happy% 5n my ear#y days 5 once opened an o#d book and found these "ords: C5f you #augh a great dea#! you are happyD if you cry a great dea#! you are unhappyCD''a $ery simp#e remark! no doubtD but just

because it is so simp#e 5 ha$e ne$er been ab#e to forget it! e$en though it is in the #ast degree a truism% So if cheerfu#ness knocks at our door! "e shou#d thro" it "ide open! for it ne$er comes inopportune#yD instead of that! "e often make scrup#es about #etting it in% We "ant to be Fuite sure that "e ha$e e$ery reason to be contentedD then "e are afraid that cheerfu#ness of spirits may interfere "ith serious ref#ections or "eighty cares% 4heerfu#ness is a direct and immediate gain!''the $ery coin! as it "ere! of happiness! and not! #ike a## e#se! mere#y a cheFue upon the bankD for it a#one makes us immediate#y happy in the present moment! and that is the highest b#essing for beings #ike us! "hose eEistence is but an infinitesima# moment bet"een t"o eternities% To secure and promote this fee#ing of cheerfu#ness shou#d be the supreme aim of a## our endea$ors after happiness% <o" it is certain that nothing contributes so #itt#e to cheerfu#ness as riches! or so much! as hea#th% 5s it not in the #o"er c#asses! the so'ca##ed "orking c#asses! more especia##y those of them "ho #i$e in the country! that "e see cheerfu# and contented facesP and is it not amongst the rich! the upper c#asses! that "e find faces fu## of i##'humor and $eEationP 4onseFuent#y "e shou#d try as much as possib#e to maintain a high degree of hea#thD for cheerfu#ness is the $ery f#o"er of it% 5 need hard#y say "hat one must do to be hea#thy''a$oid e$ery kind of eEcess! a## $io#ent and unp#easant emotion! a## menta# o$erstrain! take dai#y eEercise in the open air! co#d baths and such #ike hygienic measures% 9or "ithout a proper amount of dai#y eEercise no one can remain hea#thyD a## the processes of #ife demand eEercise for the due performance of their functions! eEercise not on#y of the parts more immediate#y concerned! but a#so of the "ho#e body% 9or! as Aristot#e right#y says! C ife is mo$ementCD it is its $ery essence% 4ease#ess and rapid motion goes on in e$ery part of the organism% The heart! "ith its comp#icated doub#e systo#e and diasto#e! beats strong#y and untiring#yD "ith t"enty'eight beats it has to dri$e the "ho#e of the b#ood through arteries! $eins and capi##ariesD the #ungs pump #ike a steam'engine! "ithout intermissionD the intestines are a#"ays in perista#tic actionD the g#ands are a## constant#y absorbing and secretingD e$en the brain has a doub#e motion of its o"n! "ith e$ery beat of the pu#se and e$ery breath "e dra"% When peop#e can get no eEercise at a##! as is the case "ith the count#ess numbers "ho are condemned to a sedentary #ife! there is a g#aring and fata# disproportion bet"een out"ard inacti$ity and inner tumu#t% 9or this cease#ess interna# motion reFuires some eEterna# counterpart! and the "ant of it produces effects #ike those of emotion "hich "e are ob#iged to suppress% E$en trees must be shaken by the "ind! if they are to thri$e% The ru#e "hich finds its app#ication here may be most brief#y eEpressed in atin: Comnis motus! Fuo ce#erior! eo magis motusC% :o" much our happiness depends upon our spirits! and these again upon our state of hea#th! may be seen by comparing the inf#uence "hich the same eEterna# circumstances or e$ents ha$e upon us "hen "e are "e## and strong "ith the effects "hich they ha$e "hen "e are depressed and troub#ed "ith i##'hea#th% 5t is not "hat things are objecti$e#y and in themse#$es! but "hat they are for us! in our "ay of #ooking at them! that makes us happy or the re$erse% As Epictetus says! C>en are not inf#uenced by things! but by their thoughts about thingsC% And! in genera#! nine'tenths of our happiness depends upon hea#th a#one% With hea#th! e$erything is a source of p#easureD "ithout it! nothing e#se! "hate$er it may be! is enjoyab#eD e$en the other persona# b#essings!''a great mind! a happy temperament''are degraded and d"arfed for "ant of it% So it is rea##y "ith good reason that! "hen t"o peop#e meet! the first thing they do is to inFuire after each

other@s hea#th! and to eEpress the hope that it is goodD for good hea#th is by far the most important e#ement in human happiness% 5t fo##o"s from a## this that the greatest of fo##ies is to sacrifice hea#th for any other kind of happiness! "hate$er it may be! for gain! ad$ancement! #earning or fame! #et a#one! then! for f#eeting sensua# p#easures% E$erything e#se shou#d rather be postponed to it% But ho"e$er much hea#th may contribute to that f#o" of good spirits "hich is so essentia# to our happiness! good spirits do not entire#y depend upon hea#thD for a man may be perfect#y sound in his physiFue and sti## possess a me#ancho#y temperament and be genera##y gi$en up to sad thoughts% The u#timate cause of this is undoubted#y to be found in innate! and therefore una#terab#e! physica# constitution! especia##y in the more or #ess norma# re#ation of a man@s sensiti$eness to his muscu#ar and $ita# energy% Abnorma# sensiti$eness produces ineFua#ity of spirits! a predominating me#ancho#y! "ith periodica# fits of unrestrained #i$e#iness% A genius is one "hose ner$ous po"er or sensiti$eness is #arge#y in eEcessD as Aristot#e0+3 has $ery correct#y obser$ed! C>en distinguished in phi#osophy! po#itics! poetry or art appear to be a## of a me#ancho#y temperamentC% This is doubt#ess the passage "hich 4icero has in his mind "hen he says! as he often does! CAristote#es ait omnes ingeniosos me#ancho#icos esseC%0-3 Shakespeare has $ery neat#y eEpressed this radica# and innate di$ersity of temperament in those #ines in CThe >erchant of ?eniceC: 09ootnote +: Prob#% EEE%! ep% +3 09ootnote -: Tusc% i%! BB%3 C<ature has framed strange fe##o"s in her timeD Some that "i## e$ermore peep through their eyes! And #augh! #ike parrots at a bag'piperD And others of such $inegar aspect! That they@## not sho" their teeth in "ay of smi#e! Though <estor s"ear the jest be #aughab#eC% This is the difference "hich P#ato dra"s bet"een 0Greek: euko#os3 and 0Greek: dysko#os3''the man of CeasyC! and the man of Cdifficu#tC disposition''in proof of "hich he refers to the $arying degrees of susceptibi#ity "hich different peop#e sho" to p#easurab#e and painfu# impressionsD so that one man "i## #augh at "hat makes another despair% As a ru#e! the stronger the susceptibi#ity to unp#easant impressions! the "eaker is the susceptibi#ity to p#easant ones! and C$ice $ersaC% 5f it is eFua##y possib#e for an e$ent to turn out "e## or i##! the 0Greek: dysko#os3 "i## be annoyed or grie$ed if the issue is unfa$orab#e! and "i## not rejoice! shou#d it be happy% On the other hand! the 0Greek: euko#os3 "i## neither "orry nor fret o$er an unfa$orab#e issue! but rejoice if it turns out "e##% 5f the one is successfu# in nine out of ten undertakings! he "i## not be p#eased! but rather annoyed that one has miscarriedD "hi#st the other! if on#y a sing#e one succeeds! "i## manage to find conso#ation in the fact and remain cheerfu#% But here is another instance of the truth! that hard#y any e$i# is entire#y "ithout its compensationD for the misfortunes and sufferings "hich the 0Greek: ausko#oi3! that is! peop#e of g#oomy and anEious character! ha$e to o$ercome! are! on the "ho#e! more imaginary and therefore #ess rea# than those "hich befa## the gay and care#essD for a man "ho paints e$erything b#ack! "ho constant#y fears the "orst and takes measures according#y! "i## not be disappointed so often in this "or#d! as one "ho a#"ays #ooks upon the bright side of things% And "hen a morbid affection of the ner$es! or a

derangement of the digesti$e organs! p#ays into the hands of an innate tendency to g#oom! this tendency may reach such a height that permanent discomfort produces a "eariness of #ife% So arises an inc#ination to suicide! "hich e$en the most tri$ia# unp#easantness may actua##y bring aboutD nay! "hen the tendency attains its "orst form! it may be occasioned by nothing in particu#ar! but a man may reso#$e to put an end to his eEistence! simp#y because he is permanent#y unhappy! and then coo##y and firm#y carry out his determinationD as may be seen by the "ay in "hich the sufferer! "hen p#aced under super$ision! as he usua##y is! eager#y "aits to seiIe the first unguarded moment! "hen! "ithout a shudder! "ithout a strugg#e or recoi#! he may use the no" natura# and "e#come means of effecting his re#ease%0+3 E$en the hea#thiest! perhaps e$en the most cheerfu# man! may reso#$e upon death under certain circumstancesD "hen! for instance! his sufferings! or his fears of some ine$itab#e misfortune! reach such a pitch as to out"eigh the terrors of death% The on#y difference #ies in the degree of suffering necessary to bring about the fata# act! a degree "hich "i## be high in the case of a cheerfu#! and #o" in that of a g#oomy man% The greater the me#ancho#y! the #o"er need the degree beD in the end! it may e$en sink to Iero% But if a man is cheerfu#! and his spirits are supported by good hea#th! it reFuires a high degree of suffering to make him #ay hands upon himse#f% There are count#ess steps in the sca#e bet"een the t"o eEtremes of suicide! the suicide "hich springs mere#y from a morbid intensification of innate g#oom! and the suicide of the hea#thy and cheerfu# man! "ho has entire#y objecti$e grounds for putting an end to his eEistence% 09ootnote +: 9or a detai#ed description of this condition of mind C4fC EsFuiro#! C)es ma#adies menta#esC%3 Beauty is part#y an affair of hea#th% 5t may be reckoned as a persona# ad$antageD though it does not! proper#y speaking! contribute direct#y to our happiness% 5t does so indirect#y! by impressing other peop#eD and it is no unimportant ad$antage! e$en in man% Beauty is an open #etter of recommendation! predisposing the heart to fa$or the person "ho presents it% As is "e## said in these #ines of :omer! the gift of beauty is not #ight#y to be thro"n a"ay! that g#orious gift "hich none can besto" sa$e the gods a#one'' 0Greek: outoi hapob#aet erti theon erikuoea dora! ossa ken autoi dosin! ekon douk an tis e#oito3%0+3 09ootnote +: C5#iadC B! R6%3 The most genera# sur$ey sho"s us that the t"o foes of human happiness are pain and boredom% We may go further! and say that in the degree in "hich "e are fortunate enough to get a"ay from the one! "e approach the other% ife presents! in fact! a more or #ess $io#ent osci##ation bet"een the t"o% The reason of this is that each of these t"o po#es stands in a doub#e antagonism to the other! eEterna# or objecti$e! and inner or subjecti$e% <eedy surroundings and po$erty produce painD "hi#e! if a man is more than "e## off! he is bored% According#y! "hi#e the #o"er c#asses are engaged in a cease#ess strugg#e "ith need! in other "ords! "ith pain! the upper carry on a constant and often desperate batt#e "ith boredom%0+3 The inner or subjecti$e antagonism arises from the fact that! in the indi$idua#! susceptibi#ity to pain $aries in$erse#y "ith susceptibi#ity to boredom! because susceptibi#ity is direct#y proportionate to menta# po"er% et me eEp#ain% A du## mind is! as a ru#e! associated "ith du## sensibi#ities! ner$es "hich no stimu#us can affect! a temperament! in short! "hich does not fee# pain or anEiety $ery much! ho"e$er great

or terrib#e it may be% <o"! inte##ectua# du##ness is at the bottom of that C$acuity of sou#C "hich is stamped on so many faces! a state of mind "hich betrays itse#f by a constant and #i$e#y attention to a## the tri$ia# circumstances in the eEterna# "or#d% This is the true source of boredom''a continua# panting after eEcitement! in order to ha$e a preteEt for gi$ing the mind and spirits something to occupy them% The kind of things peop#e choose for this purpose sho"s that they are not $ery particu#ar! as "itness the miserab#e pastimes they ha$e recourse to! and their ideas of socia# p#easure and con$ersation: or again! the number of peop#e "ho gossip on the doorstep or gape out of the "indo"% 5t is main#y because of this inner $acuity of sou# that peop#e go in Fuest of society! di$ersion! amusement! #uEury of e$ery sort! "hich #ead many to eEtra$agance and misery% <othing is so good a protection against such misery as in"ard "ea#th! the "ea#th of the mind! because the greater it gro"s! the #ess room it #ea$es for boredom% The ineEhaustib#e acti$ity of thoughtS 9inding e$er ne" materia# to "ork upon in the mu#tifarious phenomena of se#f and nature! and ab#e and ready to form ne" combinations of them!''there you ha$e something that in$igorates the mind! and apart from moments of re#aEation! sets it far abo$e the reach of boredom% 09ootnote +: And the eEtremes meetD for the #o"est state of ci$i#iIation! a nomad or "andering #ife! finds its counterpart in the highest! "here e$eryone is at times a tourist% The ear#ier stage "as a case of necessityD the #atter is a remedy for boredom%3 But! on the other hand! this high degree of inte##igence is rooted in a high degree of susceptibi#ity! greater strength of "i##! greater passionatenessD and from the union of these Fua#ities comes an increased capacity for emotion! an enhanced sensibi#ity to a## menta# and e$en bodi#y pain! greater impatience of obstac#es! greater resentment of interruptionD''a## of "hich tendencies are augmented by the po"er of the imagination! the $i$id character of the "ho#e range of thought! inc#uding "hat is disagreeab#e% This app#ies! in $arious degrees! to e$ery step in the #ong sca#e of menta# po"er! from the $eriest dunce to the greatest genius that e$er #i$ed% Therefore the nearer anyone is! either from a subjecti$e or from an objecti$e point of $ie"! to one of those sources of suffering in human #ife! the farther he is from the other% And so a man@s natura# bent "i## #ead him to make his objecti$e "or#d conform to his subjecti$e as much as possib#eD that is to say! he "i## take the greatest measures against that form of suffering to "hich he is most #iab#e% The "ise man "i##! abo$e a##! stri$e after freedom from pain and annoyance! Fuiet and #eisure! conseFuent#y a tranFui#! modest #ife! "ith as fe" encounters as may beD and so! after a #itt#e eEperience of his so'ca##ed fe##o"men! he "i## e#ect to #i$e in retirement! or e$en! if he is a man of great inte##ect! in so#itude% 9or the more a man has in himse#f! the #ess he "i## "ant from other peop#e!''the #ess! indeed! other peop#e can be to him% This is "hy a high degree of inte##ect tends to make a man unsocia#% True! if CFua#ityC of inte##ect cou#d be made up for by Fuantity! it might be "orth "hi#e to #i$e e$en in the great "or#dD but unfortunate#y! a hundred foo#s together "i## not make one "ise man% But the indi$idua# "ho stands at the other end of the sca#e is no sooner free from the pangs of need than he endea$ors to get pastime and society at any cost! taking up "ith the first person he meets! and a$oiding nothing so much as himse#f% 9or in so#itude! "here e$ery one is thro"n upon his o"n resources! "hat a man has in himse#f comes to #ightD the foo# in fine raiment groans under the burden of his miserab#e persona#ity! a burden "hich he can ne$er thro" off! "hi#st

the man of ta#ent peop#es the "aste p#aces "ith his animating thoughts% Seneca dec#ares that fo##y is its o"n burden!''Comnis stu#titia #aborat fastidio suiC!''a $ery true saying! "ith "hich may be compared the "ords of *esus! the son of Sirach! CThe #ife of a foo# is "orse than deathC0+3% And! as a ru#e! it "i## be found that a man is sociab#e just in the degree in "hich he is inte##ectua##y poor and genera##y $u#gar% 9or one@s choice in this "or#d does not go much beyond so#itude on one side and $u#garity on the other% 5t is said that the most sociab#e of a## peop#e are the negroesD and they are at the bottom of the sca#e in inte##ect% 5 remember reading once in a 9rench paper0-3 that the b#acks in <orth America! "hether free or ens#a$ed! are fond of shutting themse#$es up in #arge numbers in the sma##est space! because they cannot ha$e too much of one another@s snub'nosed company% 09ootnote +: Ecc#esiasticus! EEii% ++%3 09ootnote -: C e 4ommerceC! Oct% +7th! +,B2%3 The brain may be regarded as a kind of parasite of the organism! a pensioner! as it "ere! "ho d"e##s "ith the body: and #eisure! that is! the time one has for the free enjoyment of one@s consciousness or indi$idua#ity! is the fruit or produce of the rest of eEistence! "hich is in genera# on#y #abor and effort% But "hat does most peop#e@s #eisure yie#dP''boredom and du##nessD eEcept! of course! "hen it is occupied "ith sensua# p#easure or fo##y% :o" #itt#e such #eisure is "orth may be seen in the "ay in "hich it is spent: and! as Ariosto obser$es! ho" miserab#e are the id#e hours of ignorant menS''CoIio #ungo d@uomini ignorantiC% Ordinary peop#e think mere#y ho" they sha## CspendC their timeD a man of any ta#ent tries to CuseC it% The reason "hy peop#e of #imited inte##ect are apt to be bored is that their inte##ect is abso#ute#y nothing more than the means by "hich the moti$e po"er of the "i## is put into force: and "hene$er there is nothing particu#ar to set the "i## in motion! it rests! and their inte##ect takes a ho#iday! because! eFua##y "ith the "i##! it reFuires something eEterna# to bring it into p#ay% The resu#t is an a"fu# stagnation of "hate$er po"er a man has''in a "ord! boredom% To counteract this miserab#e fee#ing! men run to tri$ia#ities "hich p#ease for the moment they are taken up! hoping thus to engage the "i## in order to rouse it to action! and so set the inte##ect in motionD for it is the #atter "hich has to gi$e effect to these moti$es of the "i##% 4ompared "ith rea# and natura# moti$es! these are but as paper money to coinD for their $a#ue is on#y arbitrary''card games and the #ike! "hich ha$e been in$ented for this $ery purpose% And if there is nothing e#se to be done! a man "i## t"ir# his thumbs or beat the de$i#@s tattooD or a cigar may be a "e#come substitute for eEercising his brains% :ence! in a## countries the chief occupation of society is card'p#aying!0+3 and it is the gauge of its $a#ue! and an out"ard sign that it is bankrupt in thought% Because peop#e ha$e no thoughts to dea# in! they dea# cards! and try and "in one another@s money% 5diotsS But 5 do not "ish to be unjustD so #et me remark that it may certain#y be said in defence of card'p#aying that it is a preparation for the "or#d and for business #ife! because one #earns thereby ho" to make a c#e$er use of fortuitous but una#terab#e circumstances Gcards! in this caseH! and to get as much out of them as one can: and to do this a man must #earn a #itt#e dissimu#ation! and ho" to put a good face upon a bad business% But! on the other hand! it is eEact#y for this reason that card'p#aying is so demora#iIing! since the "ho#e object of it is to emp#oy e$ery kind of trick and machination in order to "in "hat be#ongs to another% And a habit of this sort! #earnt at the card'tab#e! strikes root and pushes its "ay into practica# #ifeD and

in the affairs of e$ery day a man gradua##y comes to regard CmeumC and CtuumC in much the same #ight as cards! and to consider that he may use to the utmost "hate$er ad$antages he possesses! so #ong as he does not come "ithin the arm of the #a"% EEamp#es of "hat 5 mean are of dai#y occurrence in mercanti#e #ife% Since! then! #eisure is the f#o"er! or rather the fruit! of eEistence! as it puts a man into possession of himse#f! those are happy indeed "ho possess something rea# in themse#$es% But "hat do you get from most peop#e@s #eisureP''on#y a good'for'nothing fe##o"! "ho is terrib#y bored and a burden to himse#f% et us! therefore! rejoice! dear brethren! for C"e are not chi#dren of the bond"oman! but of the freeC% 09ootnote +: CTrans#ator@s <oteC%''4ard'p#aying to this eEtent is no"! no doubt! a thing of the past! at any rate amongst the nations of northern Europe% The present fashion is rather in fa$or of a di#ettante interest in art or #iterature%3 9urther! as no #and is so "e## off as that "hich reFuires fe" imports! or none at a##! so the happiest man is one "ho has enough in his o"n inner "ea#th! and reFuires #itt#e or nothing from outside for his maintenance! for imports are eEpensi$e things! re$ea# dependence! entai# danger! occasion troub#e! and "hen a## is said and done! are a poor substitute for home produce% <o man ought to eEpect much from others! or! in genera#! from the eEterna# "or#d% What one human being can be to another is not a $ery great dea#: in the end e$ery one stands a#one! and the important thing is C"hoC it is that stands a#one% :ere! then! is another app#ication of the genera# truth "hich Goethe recogniIes in C)ichtung und WahrheitC GBk% 555%H! that in e$erything a man has u#timate#y to appea# to himse#fD or! as Go#dsmith puts it in CThe Tra$e##erC: CSti## to ourse#$es in e$ery p#ace consign@d Our o"n fe#icity "e make or findC% :imse#f is the source of the best and most a man can be or achie$e% The more this is so''the more a man finds his sources of p#easure in himse#f''the happier he "i## be% Therefore! it is "ith great truth that Aristot#e0+3 says! CTo be happy means to be se#f'sufficientC% 9or a## other sources of happiness are in their nature most uncertain! precarious! f#eeting! the sport of chanceD and so e$en under the most fa$orab#e circumstances they can easi#y be eEhaustedD nay! this is una$oidab#e! because they are not a#"ays "ithin reach% And in o#d age these sources of happiness must necessari#y dry up:''#o$e #ea$es us then! and "it! desire to tra$e#! de#ight in horses! aptitude for socia# intercourseD friends and re#ations! too! are taken from us by death% Then more than e$er! it depends upon "hat a man has in himse#fD for this "i## stick to him #ongestD and at any period of #ife it is the on#y genuine and #asting source of happiness% There is not much to be got any"here in the "or#d% 5t is fi##ed "ith misery and painD and if a man escapes these! boredom #ies in "ait for him at e$ery corner% <ay moreD it is e$i# "hich genera##y has the upper hand! and fo##y makes the most noise% 9ate is crue#! and mankind is pitiab#e% 5n such a "or#d as this! a man "ho is rich in himse#f is #ike a bright! "arm! happy room at 4hristmastide! "hi#e "ithout are the frost and sno" of a )ecember night% Therefore! "ithout doubt! the happiest destiny on earth is to ha$e the rare gift of a rich indi$idua#ity! and! more especia##y to be possessed of a good endo"ment of inte##ectD this is the happiest destiny! though it may not be! after a##! a $ery bri##iant one% 09ootnote +: Eth% Eud! $ii -3

There "as a great "isdom in that remark "hich Jueen 4hristina of S"eden made! in her nineteenth year! about )escartes! "ho had then #i$ed for t"enty years in the deepest so#itude in :o##and! and! apart from report! "as kno"n to her on#y by a sing#e essay: C>% )escartesC! she said! Cis the happiest of men! and his condition seems to me much to be en$ied%0+3C Of course! as "as the case "ith )escartes! eEterna# circumstances must be fa$orab#e enough to a##o" a man to be master of his #ife and happinessD or! as "e read in CEcc#esiastesC0-3''CWisdom is good together "ith an inheritance! and profitab#e unto them that see the sunC% The man to "hom nature and fate ha$e granted the b#essing of "isdom! "i## be most anEious and carefu# to keep open the fountains of happiness "hich he has in himse#fD and for this! independence and #eisure are necessary% To obtain them! he "i## be "i##ing to moderate his desires and harbor his resources! a## the more because he is not! #ike others! restricted to the eEterna# "or#d for his p#easures% So he "i## not be mis#ed by eEpectations of office! or money! or the fa$or and app#ause of his fe##o"men! into surrendering himse#f in order to conform to #o" desires and $u#gar tastesD nay! in such a case he "i## fo##o" the ad$ice that :orace gi$es in his epist#e to >aecenas%0B3 09ootnote +: C?ie de )escartesC! par Bai##et% 09ootnote -: $ii% +-%3 09ootnote B: ib% +%! ep% 2%3 i$% $ii%! ch% +.%3

C<ec somnum p#ebis #audo! satur a#ti#ium! nec Otia di$itiis Arabum #iberrima mutoC% 5t is a great piece of fo##y to sacrifice the inner for the outer man! to gi$e the "ho#e or the greater part of one@s Fuiet! #eisure and independence for sp#endor! rank! pomp! tit#es and honor% This is "hat Goethe did% >y good #uck dre" me Fuite in the other direction% The truth "hich 5 am insisting upon here! the truth! name#y! that the chief source of human happiness is interna#! is confirmed by that most accurate obser$ation of Aristot#e in the C<ichomachean EthicsC0+3 that e$ery p#easure presupposes some sort of acti$ity! the app#ication of some sort of po"er! "ithout "hich it cannot eEist% The doctrine of Aristot#e@s! that a man@s happiness consists in the free eEercise of his highest facu#ties! is a#so enunciated by Stobaeus in his eEposition of the Peripatetic phi#osophy0-3: ChappinessC! he says! Cmeans $igorous and successfu# acti$ity in a## your undertakingsCD and he eEp#ains that by C$igor 0Greek: aretae3C he means CmasteryC in any thing! "hate$er it be% <o"! the origina# purpose of those forces "ith "hich nature has endo"ed man is to enab#e him to strugg#e against the difficu#ties "hich beset him on a## sides% But if this strugg#e comes to an end! his unemp#oyed forces become a burden to himD and he has to set to "ork and p#ay "ith them!''to use them! 5 mean! for no purpose at a##! beyond a$oiding the other source of human suffering! boredom! to "hich he is at once eEposed% 5t is the upper c#asses! peop#e of "ea#th! "ho are the greatest $ictims of boredom% ucretius #ong ago described their miserab#e state! and the truth of his description may be sti## recogniIed to'day! in the #ife of e$ery great capita#''"here the rich man is se#dom in his o"n ha##s! because it bores him to be there! and sti## he returns thither! because he is no better off outsideD''or e#se he is a"ay in post'haste to his house in the country! as if it "ere on fireD and he is no sooner arri$ed there! than he is bored again! and seeks to forget e$erything in s#eep! or

e#se hurries back to to"n once more% 09ootnote +: i% 2 and $ii% +B! +/%3 09ootnote -: Ec#% eth% ii%! ch 2%3 CEEit saepe foras magnis eE aedibus i##e! Esse domi Fuem pertaesum est! subitoFue re$entat! Juippe foris nihi#o me#ius Fui sentiat esse% 4urrit! agens mannos! ad $i##am precipitanter! AuEi#ium tectis Fuasi ferre ardentibus instans: Oscitat eEtemp#o! tetigit Fuum #imina $i##aeD Aut abit in somnum gra$is! atFue ob#i$ia FuaeritD Aut etiam properans urbem petit atFue re$isitC%0+3 09ootnote +: 555 +.2B%3 5n their youth! such peop#e must ha$e had a superf#uity of muscu#ar and $ita# energy!''po"ers "hich! un#ike those of the mind! cannot maintain their fu## degree of $igor $ery #ongD and in #ater years they either ha$e no menta# po"ers at a##! or cannot de$e#op any for "ant of emp#oyment "hich "ou#d bring them into p#ayD so that they are in a "retched p#ight% CWi##C! ho"e$er! they sti## possess! for this is the on#y po"er that is ineEhaustib#eD and they try to stimu#ate their "i## by passionate eEcitement! such as games of chance for high stakes''undoubted#y a most degrading form of $ice% And one may say genera##y that if a man finds himse#f "ith nothing to do! he is sure to choose some amusement suited to the kind of po"er in "hich he eEce#s!''bo"#s! it may be! or chessD hunting or paintingD horse'racing or musicD cards! or poetry! hera#dry! phi#osophy! or some other di#ettante interest% We might c#assify these interests methodica##y! by reducing them to eEpressions of the three fundamenta# po"ers! the factors! that is to say! "hich go to make up the physio#ogica# constitution of manD and further! by considering these po"ers by themse#$es! and apart from any of the definite aims "hich they may subser$e! and simp#y as affording three sources of possib#e p#easure! out of "hich e$ery man "i## choose "hat suits him! according as he eEce#s in one direction or another% 9irst of a## come the p#easures of C$ita# energyC! of food! drink! digestion! rest and s#eepD and there are parts of the "or#d "here it can be said that these are characteristic and nationa# p#easures% Second#y! there are the p#easures of Cmuscu#ar energyC! such as "a#king! running! "rest#ing! dancing! fencing! riding and simi#ar ath#etic pursuits! "hich sometimes take the form of sport! and sometimes of a mi#itary #ife and rea# "arfare% Third#y! there are the p#easures of sensibi#ity! such as obser$ation! thought! fee#ing! or a taste for poetry or cu#ture! music! #earning! reading! meditation! in$ention! phi#osophy and the #ike% As regards the $a#ue! re#ati$e "orth and duration of each of these kinds of p#easure! a great dea# might be said! "hich! ho"e$er! 5 #ea$e the reader to supp#y% But e$ery one "i## see that the nob#er the po"er "hich is brought into p#ay! the greater "i## be the p#easure "hich it gi$esD for p#easure a#"ays in$o#$es the use of one@s o"n po"ers! and happiness consists in a freFuent repetition of p#easure% <o one "i## deny that in this respect the p#easures of sensibi#ity occupy a higher p#ace than either of the other t"o fundamenta# kindsD "hich eEist in an eFua#! nay! in a greater degree in brutesD it is this preponderating amount of sensibi#ity "hich distinguishes man from other anima#s% <o"! our menta# po"ers are forms of sensibi#ity! and therefore a preponderating amount of it makes us capab#e of that kind of p#easure "hich has to do

"ith mind! so'ca##ed inte##ectua# p#easureD and the more sensibi#ity predominates! the greater the p#easure "i## be%0+3 09ootnote +: <ature eEhibits a continua# progress! starting from the mechanica# and chemica# acti$ity of the inorganic "or#d! proceeding to the $egetab#e! "ith its du## enjoyment of se#f! from that to the anima# "or#d! "here inte##igence and consciousness begin! at first $ery "eak! and on#y after many intermediate stages attaining its #ast great de$e#opment in man! "hose inte##ect is <ature@s cro"ning point! the goa# of a## her efforts! the most perfect and difficu#t of a## her "orks% And e$en "ithin the range of the human inte##ect! there are a great many obser$ab#e differences of degree! and it is $ery se#dom that inte##ect reaches its highest point! inte##igence proper#y so'ca##ed! "hich in this narro" and strict sense of the "ord! is <ature@s most consummate product! and so the rarest and most precious thing of "hich the "or#d can boast% The highest product of <ature is the c#earest degree of consciousness! in "hich the "or#d mirrors itse#f more p#ain#y and comp#ete#y than any"here e#se% A man endo"ed "ith this form of inte##igence is in possession of "hat is nob#est and best on earthD and according#y! he has a source of p#easure in comparison "ith "hich a## others are sma##% 9rom his surroundings he asks nothing but #eisure for the free enjoyment of "hat he has got! time! as it "ere! to po#ish his diamond% A## other p#easures that are not of the inte##ect are of a #o"er kindD for they are! one and a##! mo$ements of "i##''desires! hopes! fears and ambitions! no matter to "hat directed: they are a#"ays satisfied at the cost of pain! and in the case of ambition! genera##y "ith more or #ess of i##usion% With inte##ectua# p#easure! on the other hand! truth becomes c#earer and c#earer% 5n the rea#m of inte##igence pain has no po"er% =no"#edge is a## in a##% 9urther! inte##ectua# p#easures are accessib#e entire#y and on#y through the medium of the inte##igence! and are #imited by its capacity% C9or a## the "it there is in the "or#d is use#ess to him "ho has noneC% Sti## this ad$antage is accompanied by a substantia# disad$antageD for the "ho#e of <ature sho"s that "ith the gro"th of inte##igence comes increased capacity for pain! and it is on#y "ith the highest degree of inte##igence that suffering reaches its supreme point%3 The norma#! ordinary man takes a $i$id interest in anything on#y in so far as it eEcites his "i##! that is to say! is a matter of persona# interest to him% But constant eEcitement of the "i## is ne$er an unmiEed good! to say the #eastD in other "ords! it in$o#$es pain% 4ard'p#aying! that uni$ersa# occupation of Agood societyA e$ery"here! is a de$ice for pro$iding this kind of eEcitement! and that! too! by means of interests so sma## as to produce s#ight and momentary! instead of rea# and permanent! pain% 4ard'p#aying is! in fact! a mere tick#ing of the "i##%0+3 09ootnote +: C?u#garityC is! at bottom! the kind of consciousness in "hich the "i## comp#ete#y predominates o$er the inte##ect! "here the #atter does nothing more than perform the ser$ice of its master! the "i##% Therefore! "hen the "i## makes no demands! supp#ies no moti$es! strong or "eak! the inte##ect entire#y #oses its po"er! and the resu#t is comp#ete $acancy of mind% <o" C"i## "ithout inte##ectC is the most $u#gar and common thing in the "or#d! possessed by e$ery b#ockhead! "ho! in the gratification of his passions! sho"s the stuff of "hich he is made% This is the condition of mind ca##ed C$u#garityC! in "hich the on#y acti$e e#ements are the organs of sense! and that sma## amount of inte##ect "hich is necessary for apprehending the data of sense% According#y! the $u#gar man is constant#y open to a## sorts of impressions! and immediate#y percei$es a## the #itt#e trif#ing things

that go on in his en$ironment: the #ightest "hisper! the most tri$ia# circumstance! is sufficient to rouse his attentionD he is just #ike an anima#% Such a man@s menta# condition re$ea#s itse#f in his face! in his "ho#e eEteriorD and hence that $u#gar! repu#si$e appearance! "hich is a## the more offensi$e! if! as is usua##y the case! his "i##''the on#y factor in his consciousness''is a base! se#fish and a#together bad one%3 On the other hand! a man of po"erfu# inte##ect is capab#e of taking a $i$id interest in things in the "ay of mere Ckno"#edgeC! "ith no admiEture of C"i##CD nay! such an interest is a necessity to him% 5t p#aces him in a sphere "here pain is an a#ien!''a di$iner air! "here the gods #i$e serene% C0Greek: phusis bebion ou ta chraematatheoi reia Eoontes30+3C 09ootnote +: Odyssey 5?%! ,.6%3 ook on these t"o pictures''the #ife of the masses! one #ong! du## record of strugg#e and effort entire#y de$oted to the petty interests of persona# "e#fare! to misery in a## its forms! a #ife beset by into#erab#e boredom as soon as e$er those aims are satisfied and the man is thro"n back upon himse#f! "hence he can be roused again to some sort of mo$ement on#y by the "i#d fire of passion% On the other side you ha$e a man endo"ed "ith a high degree of menta# po"er! #eading an eEistence rich in thought and fu## of #ife and meaning! occupied by "orthy and interesting objects as soon as e$er he is free to gi$e himse#f to them! bearing in himse#f a source of the nob#est p#easure% What eEterna# promptings he "ants come from the "orks of nature! and from the contemp#ation of human affairs and the achie$ements of the great of a## ages and countries! "hich are thorough#y appreciated by a man of this type a#one! as being the on#y one "ho can Fuite understand and fee# "ith them% And so it is for him a#one that those great ones ha$e rea##y #i$edD it is to him that they make their appea#D the rest are but casua# hearers "ho on#y ha#f understand either them or their fo##o"ers% Of course! this characteristic of the inte##ectua# man imp#ies that he has one more need than the others! the need of reading! obser$ing! studying! meditating! practising! the need! in short! of undisturbed #eisure% 9or! as ?o#taire has $ery right#y said! Cthere are no rea# p#easures "ithout rea# needsCD and the need of them is "hy to such a man p#easures are accessib#e "hich are denied to others!''the $aried beauties of nature and art and #iterature% To heap these p#easures round peop#e "ho do not "ant them and cannot appreciate them! is #ike eEpecting gray hairs to fa## in #o$e% A man "ho is pri$i#eged in this respect #eads t"o #i$es! a persona# and an inte##ectua# #ifeD and the #atter gradua##y comes to be #ooked upon as the true one! and the former as mere#y a means to it% Other peop#e make this sha##o"! empty and troub#ed eEistence an end in itse#f% To the #ife of the inte##ect such a man "i## gi$e the preference o$er a## his other occupations: by the constant gro"th of insight and kno"#edge! this inte##ectua# #ife! #ike a s#o"#y'forming "ork of art! "i## acFuire a consistency! a permanent intensity! a unity "hich becomes e$er more and more comp#eteD compared "ith "hich! a #ife de$oted to the attainment of persona# comfort! a #ife that may broaden indeed! but can ne$er be deepened! makes but a poor sho": and yet! as 5 ha$e said! peop#e make this baser sort of eEistence an end in itse#f% The ordinary #ife of e$ery day! so far as it is not mo$ed by passion! is tedious and insipidD and if it is so mo$ed! it soon becomes painfu#% Those a#one are happy "hom nature has fa$ored "ith some

superf#uity of inte##ect! something beyond "hat is just necessary to carry out the behests of their "i##D for it enab#es them to #ead an inte##ectua# #ife as "e##! a #ife unattended by pain and fu## of $i$id interests% >ere #eisure! that is to say! inte##ect unoccupied in the ser$ice of the "i##! is not of itse#f sufficient: there must be a rea# superf#uity of po"er! set free from the ser$ice of the "i## and de$oted to that of the inte##ectD for! as Seneca says! Cotium sine #itteris mors est et $i$i hominis sepu#turaC''i##iterate #eisure is a form of death! a #i$ing tomb% ?arying "ith the amount of the superf#uity! there "i## be count#ess de$e#opments in this second #ife! the #ife of the mindD it may be the mere co##ection and #abe##ing of insects! birds! minera#s! coins! or the highest achie$ements of poetry and phi#osophy% The #ife of the mind is not on#y a protection against boredomD it a#so "ards off the pernicious effects of boredomD it keeps us from bad company! from the many dangers! misfortunes! #osses and eEtra$agances "hich the man "ho p#aces his happiness entire#y in the objecti$e "or#d is sure to encounter! >y phi#osophy! for instance! has ne$er brought me in a siE'penceD but it has spared me many an eEpense% The ordinary man p#aces his #ife@s happiness in things eEterna# to him! in property! rank! "ife and chi#dren! friends! society! and the #ike! so that "hen he #oses them or finds them disappointing! the foundation of his happiness is destroyed% 5n other "ords! his centre of gra$ity is not in himse#fD it is constant#y changing its p#ace! "ith e$ery "ish and "him% 5f he is a man of means! one day it "i## be his house in the country! another buying horses! or entertaining friends! or tra$e#ing!''a #ife! in short! of genera# #uEury! the reason being that he seeks his p#easure in things outside him% ike one "hose hea#th and strength are gone! he tries to regain by the use of je##ies and drugs! instead of by de$e#oping his o"n $ita# po"er! the true source of "hat he has #ost% Before proceeding to the opposite! #et us compare "ith this common type the man "ho comes mid"ay bet"een the t"o! endo"ed! it may be! not eEact#y "ith distinguished po"ers of mind! but "ith some"hat more than the ordinary amount of inte##ect% :e "i## take a di#ettante interest in art! or de$ote his attention to some branch of science''botany! for eEamp#e! or physics! astronomy! history! and find a great dea# of p#easure in such studies! and amuse himse#f "ith them "hen eEterna# forces of happiness are eEhausted or fai# to satisfy him any more% Of a man #ike this it may be said that his centre of gra$ity is part#y in himse#f% But a di#ettante interest in art is a $ery different thing from creati$e acti$ityD and an amateur pursuit of science is apt to be superficia# and not to penetrate to the heart of the matter% A man cannot entire#y identify himse#f "ith such pursuits! or ha$e his "ho#e eEistence so comp#ete#y fi##ed and permeated "ith them that he #oses a## interest in e$erything e#se% 5t is on#y the highest inte##ectua# po"er! "hat "e ca## CgeniusC! that attains to this degree of intensity! making a## time and eEistence its theme! and stri$ing to eEpress its pecu#iar conception of the "or#d! "hether it contemp#ates #ife as the subject of poetry or of phi#osophy% :ence! undisturbed occupation "ith himse#f! his o"n thoughts and "orks! is a matter of urgent necessity to such a manD so#itude is "e#come! #eisure is the highest good! and e$erything e#se is unnecessary! nay! e$en burdensome% This is the on#y type of man of "hom it can be said that his centre of gra$ity is entire#y in himse#fD "hich eEp#ains "hy it is that peop#e of this sort''and they are $ery rare''no matter ho" eEce##ent their character may be! do not sho" that "arm and un#imited interest in friends! fami#y! and the community in genera#! of "hich others are so often capab#eD for if they ha$e on#y themse#$es they are not

inconso#ab#e for the #oss of e$erything e#se% This gi$es an iso#ation to their character! "hich is a## the more effecti$e since other peop#e ne$er rea##y Fuite satisfy them! as being! on the "ho#e! of a different nature: nay more! since this difference is constant#y forcing itse#f upon their notice they get accustomed to mo$e about amongst mankind as a#ien beings! and in thinking of humanity in genera#! to say CtheyC instead of C"eC% So the conc#usion "e come to is that the man "hom nature has endo"ed "ith inte##ectua# "ea#th is the happiestD so true it is that the subjecti$e concerns us more than the objecti$eD for "hate$er the #atter may be! it can "ork on#y indirect#y! second#y! and through the medium of the former''a truth fine#y eEpressed by ucian:'' 0Greek: CAe#outos ho taes psychaes p#outus monos estin a#aethaes Ta##a dechei ataen p#eiona ton kteanonC''30+3 09ootnote +: Epigrammata! +-%3 the "ea#th of the sou# is the on#y true "ea#th! for "ith a## other riches comes a bane e$en greater than they% The man of inner "ea#th "ants nothing from outside but the negati$e gift of undisturbed #eisure! to de$e#op and mature his inte##ectua# facu#ties! that is! to enjoy his "ea#thD in short! he "ants permission to be himse#f! his "ho#e #ife #ong! e$ery day and e$ery hour% 5f he is destined to impress the character of his mind upon a "ho#e race! he has on#y one measure of happiness or unhappiness''to succeed or fai# in perfecting his po"ers and comp#eting his "ork% A## e#se is of sma## conseFuence% According#y! the greatest minds of a## ages ha$e set the highest $a#ue upon undisturbed #eisure! as "orth eEact#y as much as the man himse#f% C:appiness appears to consist in #eisureC! says Aristot#eD0+3 and )iogenes aertius reports that CSocrates praised #eisure as the fairest of a## possessionsC% So! in the C<ichomachean EthicsC! Aristot#e conc#udes that a #ife de$oted to phi#osophy is the happiestD or! as he says in the CPo#itics!0-3 the free eEercise of any po"er! "hate$er it may be! is happinessC% This again! ta##ies "ith "hat Goethe says in CWi#he#m >eister: The man "ho is born "ith a ta#ent "hich he is meant to use! finds his greatest happiness in using itC% 09ootnote +: Eth% <ichom% E% 2%3 09ootnote -: i$% ++%3 But to be in possession of undisturbed #eisure! is far from being the common #otD nay! it is something a#ien to human nature! for the ordinary man@s destiny is to spend #ife in procuring "hat is necessary for the subsistence of himse#f and his fami#yD he is a son of strugg#e and need! not a free inte##igence% So peop#e as a ru#e soon get tired of undisturbed #eisure! and it becomes burdensome if there are no fictitious and forced aims to occupy it! p#ay! pastime and hobbies of e$ery kind% 9or this $ery reason it is fu## of possib#e danger! and Cdiffici#is in otio FuiesC is a true saying!''it is difficu#t to keep Fuiet if you ha$e nothing to do% On the other hand! a measure of inte##ect far surpassing the ordinary! is as unnatura# as it is abnorma#% But if it eEists! and the man endo"ed "ith it is to be happy! he "i## "ant precise#y that undisturbed #eisure "hich the others find burdensome or perniciousD for "ithout it he is a Pegasus in harness! and conseFuent#y unhappy% 5f these t"o unnatura# circumstances! eEterna#! and interna#! undisturbed #eisure and great inte##ect! happen to coincide in the same person! it is a great piece of fortuneD and if the fate is so far fa$orab#e! a man can #ead the

higher #ife! the #ife protected from the t"o opposite sources of human suffering! pain and boredom! from the painfu# strugg#e for eEistence! and the incapacity for enduring #eisure G"hich is free eEistence itse#fH''e$i#s "hich may be escaped on#y by being mutua##y neutra#iIed% But there is something to be said in opposition to this $ie"% Great inte##ectua# gifts mean an acti$ity pre'eminent#y ner$ous in its character! and conseFuent#y a $ery high degree of susceptibi#ity to pain in e$ery form% 9urther! such gifts imp#y an intense temperament! #arger and more $i$id ideas! "hich! as the inseparab#e accompaniment of great inte##ectua# po"er! entai# on its possessor a corresponding intensity of the emotions! making them incomparab#y more $io#ent than those to "hich the ordinary man is a prey% <o"! there are more things in the "or#d producti$e of pain than of p#easure% Again! a #arge endo"ment of inte##ect tends to estrange the man "ho has it from other peop#e and their doingsD for the more a man has in himse#f! the #ess he "i## be ab#e to find in themD and the hundred things in "hich they take de#ight! he "i## think sha##o" and insipid% :ere! then! perhaps! is another instance of that #a" of compensation "hich makes itse#f fe#t e$ery"here% :o" often one hears it said! and said! too! "ith some p#ausibi#ity! that the narro"'minded man is at bottom the happiest! e$en though his fortune is unen$iab#e% 5 sha## make no attempt to foresta## the reader@s o"n judgment on this pointD more especia##y as Sophoc#es himse#f has gi$en utterance to t"o diametrica##y opposite opinions:'' 0Greek: Po##o to phronein eudaimonias proton uparchei%30+3 he says in one p#ace''"isdom is the greatest part of happinessD and again! in another passage! he dec#ares that the #ife of the thought#ess is the most p#easant of a##'' 0Greek: En ta phronein gar maeden aedistos bios%30-3 The phi#osophers of the CO#d TestamentC find themse#$es in a #ike contradiction% CThe #ife of a foo# is "orse than deathC0B3 and'' C5n much "isdom is much griefD and he that increaseth kno"#edge increaseth sorro"C%0/3 09ootnote +: Antigone! +B/2',%3 09ootnote -: AjaE! 66/%3 09ootnote B: Ecc#esiasticus! EEii% ++%3 09ootnote /: Ecc#esiastes! i% +,%3 5 may remark! ho"e$er! that a man "ho has no menta# needs! because his inte##ect is of the narro" and norma# amount! is! in the strict sense of the "ord! "hat is ca##ed a Cphi#istineC''an eEpression at first pecu#iar to the German #anguage! a kind of s#ang term at the ;ni$ersities! after"ards used! by ana#ogy! in a higher sense! though sti## in its origina# meaning! as denoting one "ho is not Ca Son of the >usesC% A phi#istine is and remains 0Greek: amousos anaer3% 5

shou#d prefer to take a higher point of $ie"! and app#y the term Cphi#istineC to peop#e "ho are a#"ays serious#y occupied "ith rea#ities "hich are no rea#itiesD but as such a definition "ou#d be a transcendenta# one! and therefore not genera##y inte##igib#e! it "ou#d hard#y be in p#ace in the present treatise! "hich aims at being popu#ar% The other definition can be more easi#y e#ucidated! indicating! as it does! satisfactori#y enough! the essentia# nature of a## those Fua#ities "hich distinguish the phi#istine% :e is defined to be Ca man "ithout menta# needsC% 9rom this is fo##o"s! first#y! Cin re#ation to himse#fC! that he has Cno inte##ectua# p#easuresCD for! as "as remarked before! there are no rea# p#easures "ithout rea# needs% The phi#istine@s #ife is animated by no desire to gain kno"#edge and insight for their o"n sake! or to eEperience that true aeesthetic p#easure "hich is so near#y akin to them% 5f p#easures of this kind are fashionab#e! and the phi#istine finds himse#f compe##ed to pay attention to them! he "i## force himse#f to do so! but he "i## take as #itt#e interest in them as possib#e% :is on#y rea# p#easures are of a sensua# kind! and he thinks that these indemnify him for the #oss of the others% To him oysters and champagne are the height of eEistenceD the aim of his #ife is to procure "hat "i## contribute to his bodi#y "e#fare! and he is indeed in a happy "ay if this causes him some troub#e% 5f the #uEuries of #ife are heaped upon him! he "i## ine$itab#y be bored! and against boredom he has a great many fancied remedies! ba##s! theatres! parties! cards! gamb#ing! horses! "omen! drinking! tra$e#ing and so onD a## of "hich can not protect a man from being bored! for "here there are no inte##ectua# needs! no inte##ectua# p#easures are possib#e% The pecu#iar characteristic of the phi#istine is a du##! dry kind of gra$ity! akin to that of anima#s% <othing rea##y p#eases! or eEcites! or interests him! for sensua# p#easure is Fuick#y eEhausted! and the society of phi#istines soon becomes burdensome! and one may e$en get tired of p#aying cards% True! the p#easures of $anity are #eft! p#easures "hich he enjoys in his o"n "ay! either by fee#ing himse#f superior in point of "ea#th! or rank! or inf#uence and po"er to other peop#e! "ho thereupon pay him honorD or! at any rate! by going about "ith those "ho ha$e a superf#uity of these b#essings! sunning himse#f in the ref#ection of their sp#endor''"hat the Eng#ish ca## a CsnobC% 9rom the essentia# nature of the phi#istine it fo##o"s! second#y! Cin regard to othersC! that! as he possesses no inte##ectua#! but on#y physica# need! he "i## seek the society of those "ho can satisfy the #atter! but not the former% The #ast thing he "i## eEpect from his friends is the possession of any sort of inte##ectua# capacityD nay! if he chances to meet "ith it! it "i## rouse his antipathy and e$en hatredD simp#y because in addition to an unp#easant sense of inferiority! he eEperiences! in his heart! a du## kind of en$y! "hich has to be carefu##y concea#ed e$en from himse#f% <e$erthe#ess! it sometimes gro"s into a secret fee#ing of rancor% But for a## that! it "i## ne$er occur to him to make his o"n ideas of "orth or $a#ue conform to the standard of such Fua#itiesD he "i## continue to gi$e the preference to rank and riches! po"er and inf#uence! "hich in his eyes seem to be the on#y genuine ad$antages in the "or#dD and his "ish "i## be to eEce# in them himse#f% A## this is the conseFuence of his being a man C"ithout inte##ectua# needsC% The great aff#iction of a## phi#istines is that they ha$e no interest in CideasC! and that! to escape being bored! they are in constant need of Crea#itiesC% But rea#ities are either unsatisfactory or dangerousD "hen they #ose their interest! they become fatiguing% But the idea# "or#d is i##imitab#e and ca#m! Csomething afar

9rom the sphere of our sorro"C% <OTE%''5n these remarks on the persona# Fua#ities "hich go to make happiness! 5 ha$e been main#y concerned "ith the physica# and inte##ectua# nature of man% 9or an account of the direct and immediate inf#uence of Cmora#ityC upon happiness! #et me refer to my priIe essay on CThe 9oundation of >ora#sC GSec% --%H

4:APTE( 555% P(OPE(T&! O( W:AT A >A< :AS% Epicurus di$ides the needs of mankind into three c#asses! and the di$ision made by this great professor of happiness is a true and a fine one% 9irst come natura# and necessary needs! such as! "hen not satisfied! produce pain!''food and c#othing! C$ictus et amictusC! needs "hich can easi#y be satisfied% Second#y! there are those needs "hich! though natura#! are not necessary! such as the gratification of certain of the senses% 5 may add! ho"e$er! that in the report gi$en by )iogenes aertius! Epicurus does not mention "hich of the senses he meansD so that on this point my account of his doctrine is some"hat more definite and eEact than the origina#% These are needs rather more difficu#t to satisfy% The third c#ass consists of needs "hich are neither natura# nor necessary! the need of #uEury and prodiga#ity! sho" and sp#endor! "hich ne$er come to an end! and are $ery hard to satisfy%0+3 09ootnote +: 4f% )iogenes aertius! Bk% E%! ch% EE$ii%! pp% +-2 and +/7D a#so 4icero Cde finibusC! i%! +B%3 5t is difficu#t! if not impossib#e! to define the #imits "hich reason shou#d impose on the desire for "ea#thD for there is no abso#ute or definite amount of "ea#th "hich "i## satisfy a man% The amount is a#"ays re#ati$e! that is to say! just so much as "i## maintain the proportion bet"een "hat he "ants and "hat he getsD for to measure a man@s happiness on#y by "hat he gets! and not a#so by "hat he eEpects to get! is as futi#e as to try and eEpress a fraction "hich sha## ha$e a numerator but no denominator% A man ne$er fee#s the #oss of things "hich it ne$er occurs to him to ask forD he is just as happy "ithout themD "hi#st another! "ho may ha$e a hundred times as much! fee#s miserab#e because he has not got the one thing he "ants% 5n fact! here too! e$ery man has an horiIon of his o"n! and he "i## eEpect as much as he thinks it is possib#e for him to get% 5f an object "ithin his horiIon #ooks as though he cou#d confident#y reckon on getting it! he is happyD but if difficu#ties come in the "ay! he is miserab#e% What #ies beyond his horiIon has no effect at a## upon him% So it is that the $ast possessions of the rich do not agitate the poor! and con$erse#y! that a "ea#thy man is not conso#ed by a## his "ea#th for the fai#ure of his hopes% (iches! one may say! are #ike sea'"aterD the more you drink the thirstier you becomeD and the same is true of fame% The #oss of "ea#th and prosperity #ea$es a man! as soon as the first pangs of grief are o$er! in $ery much the same habitua# temper as beforeD and the reason of this is! that as soon as fate diminishes the amount of his possessions! he himse#f immediate#y reduces the amount of his c#aims% But "hen misfortune comes upon us! to reduce the amount of our c#aims is just "hat is most painfu#D once that "e ha$e done so!

the pain becomes #ess and #ess! and is fe#t no moreD #ike an o#d "ound "hich has hea#ed% 4on$erse#y! "hen a piece of good fortune befa##s us! our c#aims mount higher and higher! as there is nothing to regu#ate themD it is in this fee#ing of eEpansion that the de#ight of it #ies% But it #asts no #onger than the process itse#f! and "hen the eEpansion is comp#ete! the de#ight ceasesD "e ha$e become accustomed to the increase in our c#aims! and conseFuent#y indifferent to the amount of "ea#th "hich satisfies them% There is a passage in the COdysseyC0+3 i##ustrating this truth! of "hich 5 may Fuote the #ast t"o #ines: 0Greek: Toios gar noos estin epichthonion anthropon Oion eth aemar agei pataer andron te theou te3 ''the thoughts of man that d"e##s on the earth are as the day granted him by the father of gods and men% )iscontent springs from a constant endea$or to increase the amount of our c#aims! "hen "e are po"er#ess to increase the amount "hich "i## satisfy them% 09ootnote +: E$iii%! +B.'2%3 When "e consider ho" fu## of needs the human race is! ho" its "ho#e eEistence is based upon them! it is not a matter for surprise that C"ea#thC is he#d in more sincere esteem! nay! in greater honor! than anything e#se in the "or#dD nor ought "e to "onder that gain is made the on#y good of #ife! and e$erything that does not #ead to it pushed aside or thro"n o$erboard''phi#osophy! for instance! by those "ho profess it% Peop#e are often reproached for "ishing for money abo$e a## things! and for #o$ing it more than anything e#seD but it is natura# and e$en ine$itab#e for peop#e to #o$e that "hich! #ike an un"earied Proteus! is a#"ays ready to turn itse#f into "hate$er object their "andering "ishes or manifo#d desires may for the moment fiE upon% E$erything e#se can satisfy on#y ConeC "ish! ConeC need: food is good on#y if you are hungryD "ine! if you are ab#e to enjoy itD drugs! if you are sickD fur for the "interD #o$e for youth! and so on% These are a## on#y re#ati$e#y good! 0Greek: agatha pros ti3% >oney a#one is abso#ute#y good! because it is not on#y a concrete satisfaction of one need in particu#arD it is an abstract satisfaction of a##% 5f a man has an independent fortune! he shou#d regard it as a bu#"ark against the many e$i#s and misfortunes "hich he may encounterD he shou#d not #ook upon it as gi$ing him #ea$e to get "hat p#easure he can out of the "or#d! or as rendering it incumbent upon him to spend it in this "ay% Peop#e "ho are not born "ith a fortune! but end by making a #arge one through the eEercise of "hate$er ta#ents they possess! a#most a#"ays come to think that their ta#ents are their capita#! and that the money they ha$e gained is mere#y the interest upon itD they do not #ay by a part of their earnings to form a permanent capita#! but spend their money much as they ha$e earned it% According#y! they often fa## into po$ertyD their earnings decreased! or come to an end a#together! either because their ta#ent is eEhausted by becoming antiFuated!''as! for instance! $ery often happens in the case of fine artD or e#se it "as $a#id on#y under a specia# conjunction of circumstances "hich has no" passed a"ay% There is nothing to pre$ent those "ho #i$e on the common #abor of their hands from treating their earnings in that "ay if they #ikeD because their kind of ski## is not #ike#y to disappear! or! if it does! it can be rep#aced by that of their fe##o"'"orkmenD more$er! the kind of "ork they do is a#"ays in demandD so that "hat the pro$erb says is Fuite true! Ca usefu# trade is a mine of go#dC% But "ith artists and professiona#s of e$ery kind the case is Fuite different! and that is the reason "hy they are "e## paid% They ought to bui#d up a capita#

out of their earningsD but they reck#ess#y #ook upon them as mere#y interest! and end in ruin% On the other hand! peop#e "ho inherit money kno"! at #east! ho" to distinguish bet"een capita# and interest! and most of them try to make their capita# secure and not encroach upon itD nay! if they can! they put by at #east an eighth of their interests in order to meet future contingencies% So most of them maintain their position% These fe" remarks about capita# and interest are not app#icab#e to commercia# #ife! for merchants #ook upon money on#y as a means of further gain! just as a "orkman regards his too#sD so e$en if their capita# has been entire#y the resu#t of their o"n efforts! they try to preser$e and increase it by using it% According#y! "ea#th is no"here so much at home as in the merchant c#ass% 5t "i## genera##y be found that those "ho kno" "hat it is to ha$e been in need and destitution are $ery much #ess afraid of it! and conseFuent#y more inc#ined to eEtra$agance! than those "ho kno" po$erty on#y by hearsay% Peop#e "ho ha$e been born and bred in good circumstances are as a ru#e much more carefu# about the future! more economica#! in fact! than those "ho! by a piece of good #uck! ha$e sudden#y passed from po$erty to "ea#th% This #ooks as if po$erty "ere not rea##y such a $ery "retched thing as it appears from a distance% The true reason! ho"e$er! is rather the fact that the man "ho has been born into a position of "ea#th comes to #ook upon it as something "ithout "hich he cou#d no more #i$e than he cou#d #i$e "ithout airD he guards it as he does his $ery #ifeD and so he is genera##y a #o$er of order! prudent and economica#% But the man "ho has been born into a poor position #ooks upon it as the natura# one! and if by any chance he comes in for a fortune! he regards it as a superf#uity! something to be enjoyed or "asted! because! if it comes to an end! he can get on just as "e## as before! "ith one anEiety the #essD or! as Shakespeare says in :enry ?5%!0+3 %%%% Cthe adage must be $erified That beggars mounted run their horse to deathC% 09ootnote +: Part 555%! Act +%! Sc% /%3 But it shou#d be said that peop#e of this kind ha$e a firm and eEcessi$e trust! part#y in fate! part#y in the pecu#iar means "hich ha$e a#ready raised them out of need and po$erty!''a trust not on#y of the head! but of the heart a#soD and so they do not! #ike the man born rich! #ook upon the sha##o"s of po$erty as bottom#ess! but conso#e themse#$es "ith the thought that once they ha$e touched ground again! they can take another up"ard f#ight% 5t is this trait in human character "hich eEp#ains the fact that "omen "ho "ere poor before their marriage often make greater c#aims! and are more eEtra$agant! than those "ho ha$e brought their husbands a rich do"ryD because! as a ru#e! rich gir#s bring "ith them! not on#y a fortune! but a#so more eagerness! nay! more of the inherited instinct! to preser$e it! than poor gir#s do% 5f anyone doubts the truth of this! and thinks that it is just the opposite! he "i## find authority for his $ie" in Ariosto@s first SatireD but! on the other hand! )r% *ohnson agrees "ith my opinion% CA "oman of fortuneC! he says! Cbeing used to the hand#ing of money! spends it judicious#yD but a "oman "ho gets the command of money for the first time upon her marriage! has such a gusto in spending it! that she thro"s it a"ay "ith great profusionC%0+3 And in any case #et me ad$ise anyone "ho marries a poor gir# not to #ea$e her the capita# but on#y the interest! and to take especia# care that she has not the management of the chi#dren@s fortune%

09ootnote +: Bos"e##@s

ife of *ohnson: ann: +22R! aetat: R2%3

5 do not by any means think that 5 am touching upon a subject "hich is not "orth my "hi#e to mention "hen 5 recommend peop#e to be carefu# to preser$e "hat they ha$e earned or inherited% 9or to start #ife "ith just as much as "i## make one independent! that is! a##o" one to #i$e comfortab#y "ithout ha$ing to "ork''e$en if one has on#y just enough for onese#f! not to speak of a fami#y''is an ad$antage "hich cannot be o$er'estimatedD for it means eEemption and immunity from that chronic disease of penury! "hich fastens on the #ife of man #ike a p#agueD it is emancipation from that forced #abor "hich is the natura# #ot of e$ery morta#% On#y under a fa$orab#e fate #ike this can a man be said to be born free! to be! in the proper sense of the "ord! Csui jurisC! master of his o"n time and po"ers! and ab#e to say e$ery morning! CThis day is my o"nC% And just for the same reason the difference bet"een the man "ho has a hundred a year and the man "ho has a thousand! is infinite#y sma##er than the difference bet"een the former and a man "ho has nothing at a##% But inherited "ea#th reaches its utmost $a#ue "hen it fa##s to the indi$idua# endo"ed "ith menta# po"ers of a high order! "ho is reso#$ed to pursue a #ine of #ife not compatib#e "ith the making of moneyD for he is then doub#y endo"ed by fate and can #i$e for his geniusD and he "i## pay his debt to mankind a hundred times! by achie$ing "hat no other cou#d achie$e! by producing some "ork "hich contributes to the genera# good! and redounds to the honor of humanity at #arge% Another! again! may use his "ea#th to further phi#anthropic schemes! and make himse#f "e##'deser$ing of his fe##o"men% But a man "ho does none of these things! "ho does not e$en try to do them! "ho ne$er attempts to #earn the rudiments of any branch of kno"#edge so that he may at #east do "hat he can to"ards promoting it''such a one! born as he is into riches! is a mere id#er and thief of time! a contemptib#e fe##o"% :e "i## not e$en be happy! because! in his case! eEemption from need de#i$ers him up to the other eEtreme of human suffering! boredom! "hich is such martyrdom to him! that he "ou#d ha$e been better off if po$erty had gi$en him something to do% And as he is bored he is apt to be eEtra$agant! and so #ose the ad$antage of "hich he sho"ed himse#f un"orthy% 4ount#ess numbers of peop#e find themse#$es in "ant! simp#y because! "hen they had money! they spent it on#y to get momentary re#ief from the fee#ing of boredom "hich oppressed them% 5t is Fuite another matter if one@s object is success in po#itica# #ife! "here fa$or! friends and connections are a##'important! in order to mount by their aid step by step on the #adder of promotion! and perhaps gain the topmost rung% 5n this kind of #ife! it is much better to be cast upon the "or#d "ithout a pennyD and if the aspirant is not of nob#e fami#y! but is a man of some ta#ent! it "i## redound to his ad$antage to be an abso#ute pauper% 9or "hat e$ery one most aims at in ordinary contact "ith his fe##o"s is to pro$e them inferior to himse#fD and ho" much more is this the case in po#itics% <o"! it is on#y an abso#ute pauper "ho has such a thorough con$iction of his o"n comp#ete! profound and positi$e inferiority from e$ery point of $ie"! of his o"n utter insignificance and "orth#essness! that he can take his p#ace Fuiet#y in the po#itica# machine%0+3 :e is the on#y one "ho can keep on bo"ing #o" enough! and e$en go right do"n upon his face if necessaryD he a#one can submit to e$erything and #augh at itD he a#one kno"s the entire "orth#essness of meritD he a#one uses his #oudest $oice and his bo#dest type "hene$er he has to speak or "rite of those "ho are p#aced o$er his head! or occupy any position of inf#uenceD and if they do a #itt#e scribb#ing! he is ready to app#aud it as a master"ork% :e a#one understands ho" to beg! and so betimes! "hen he is hard#y out of his boyhood! he becomes a high priest of that hidden

mystery "hich Goethe brings to #ight% C;ber@s <iemand )enn es Was man <iedertrOchtige sich bek#age: ist das >achtige dir auch sageC:

''it is no use to comp#ain of #o" aimsD for! "hate$er peop#e may say! they ru#e the "or#d% 09ootnote +: CTrans#ator@s <oteC%''Schopenhauer is probab#y here making one of his most $iru#ent attacks upon :ege#D in this case on account of "hat he thought to be the phi#osopher@s abject ser$i#ity to the go$ernment of his day% Though the :ege#ian system has been the fruitfu# mother of many #ibera# ideas! there can be no doubt that :ege#@s inf#uence! in his o"n #ifetime! "as an effecti$e support of Prussian bureaucracy%3 On the other hand! the man "ho is born "ith enough to #i$e upon is genera##y of a some"hat independent turn of mindD he is accustomed to keep his head upD he has not #earned a## the arts of the beggarD perhaps he e$en presumes a #itt#e upon the possession of ta#ents "hich! as he ought to kno"! can ne$er compete "ith cringing mediocrityD in the #ong run he comes to recogniIe the inferiority of those "ho are p#aced o$er his head! and "hen they try to put insu#ts upon him! he becomes refractory and shy% This is not the "ay to get on in the "or#d% <ay! such a man may at #east inc#ine to the opinion free#y eEpressed by ?o#taire: CWe ha$e on#y t"o days to #i$eD it is not "orth our "hi#e to spend themC in cringing to contemptib#e rasca#s% But a#asS #et me obser$e by the "ay! that Ccontemptib#e rasca#C is an attribute "hich may be predicated of an abominab#e number of peop#e% What *u$ena# says''it is difficu#t to rise if your po$erty is greater than your ta#ent'' C:aud faci#e emergunt Fuorum $irtutibus obstat (es angusta domiC'' is more app#icab#e to a career of art and #iterature than to a po#itica# and socia# ambition% Wife and chi#dren 5 ha$e not reckoned amongst a man@s possessions: he is rather in their possession% 5t "ou#d be easier to inc#ude friends under that headD but a man@s friends be#ong to him not a "hit more than he be#ongs to them%

4:APTE( 5?% POS5T5O<! O( A >A<@S P A4E 5< T:E EST5>AT5O< O9 OT:E(S% CSection +%''(eputationC% By a pecu#iar "eakness of human nature! peop#e genera##y think too much about the opinion "hich others form of themD a#though the s#ightest ref#ection "i## sho" that this opinion! "hate$er it may be! is not in itse#f essentia# to happiness% Therefore it is hard to understand "hy e$erybody fee#s so $ery p#eased "hen he sees that other

peop#e ha$e a good opinion of him! or say anything f#attering to his $anity% 5f you stroke a cat! it "i## purrD and! as ine$itab#y! if you praise a man! a s"eet eEpression of de#ight "i## appear on his faceD and e$en though the praise is a pa#pab#e #ie! it "i## be "e#come! if the matter is one on "hich he prides himse#f% 5f on#y other peop#e "i## app#aud him! a man may conso#e himse#f for do"nright misfortune or for the pittance he gets from the t"o sources of human happiness a#ready discussed: and con$erse#y! it is astonishing ho" infa##ib#y a man "i## be annoyed! and in some cases deep#y pained! by any "rong done to his fee#ing of se#f'importance! "hate$er be the nature! degree! or circumstances of the injury! or by any depreciation! s#ight! or disregard% 5f the fee#ing of honor rests upon this pecu#iarity of human nature! it may ha$e a $ery sa#utary effect upon the "e#fare of a great many peop#e! as a substitute for mora#ityD but upon their happiness! more especia##y upon that peace of mind and independence "hich are so essentia# to happiness! its effect "i## be disturbing and prejudicia# rather than sa#utary% Therefore it is ad$isab#e! from our point of $ie"! to set #imits to this "eakness! and du#y to consider and right#y to estimate the re#ati$e $a#ue of ad$antages! and thus temper! as far as possib#e! this great susceptibi#ity to other peop#e@s opinion! "hether the opinion be one f#attering to our $anity! or "hether it causes us painD for in either case it is the same fee#ing "hich is touched% Other"ise! a man is the s#a$e of "hat other peop#e are p#eased to think!''and ho" #itt#e it reFuires to disconcert or soothe the mind that is greedy of praise: CSic #e$e! sic par$um est! animum Fuod #audis a$arum Subruit ac reficitC%0+3 09ootnote +: :orace! Epist: 55%! +! +,.%3 Therefore it "i## $ery much conduce to our happiness if "e du#y compare the $a#ue of "hat a man is in and for himse#f "ith "hat he is in the eyes of others% ;nder the former conies e$erything that fi##s up the span of our eEistence and makes it "hat it is! in short! a## the ad$antages a#ready considered and summed up under the heads of persona#ity and propertyD and the sphere in "hich a## this takes p#ace is the man@s o"n consciousness% On the other hand! the sphere of "hat "e are for other peop#e is their consciousness! not oursD it is the kind of figure "e make in their eyes! together "ith the thoughts "hich this arouses%0+3 But this is something "hich has no direct and immediate eEistence for us! but can affect us on#y mediate#y and indirect#y! so far! that is! as other peop#e@s beha$ior to"ards us is directed by itD and e$en then it ought to affect us on#y in so far as it can mo$e us to modify C"hat "e are in and for ourse#$esC% Apart from this! "hat goes on in other peop#e@s consciousness is! as such! a matter of indifference to usD and in time "e get rea##y indifferent to it! "hen "e come to see ho" superficia# and futi#e are most peop#e@s thoughts! ho" narro" their ideas! ho" mean their sentiments! ho" per$erse their opinions! and ho" much of error there is in most of themD "hen "e #earn by eEperience "ith "hat depreciation a man "i## speak of his fe##o"! "hen he is not ob#iged to fear him! or thinks that "hat he says "i## not come to his ears% And if e$er "e ha$e had an opportunity of seeing ho" the greatest of men "i## meet "ith nothing but s#ight from ha#f'a'doIen b#ockheads! "e sha## understand that to #ay great $a#ue upon "hat other peop#e say is to pay them too much honor% 09ootnote +: et me remark that peop#e in the highest positions in

#ife! "ith a## their bri##iance! pomp! disp#ay! magnificence and genera# sho"! may "e## say:''Our happiness #ies entire#y outside usD for it eEists on#y in the heads of others%3 At a## e$ents! a man is in a $ery bad "ay! "ho finds no source of happiness in the first t"o c#asses of b#essings a#ready treated of! but has to seek it in the third! in other "ords! not in "hat he is in himse#f! but in "hat he is in the opinion of others% 9or! after a##! the foundation of our "ho#e nature! and! therefore! of our happiness! is our physiFue! and the most essentia# factor in happiness is hea#th! and! neEt in importance after hea#th! the abi#ity to maintain ourse#$es in independence and freedom from care% There can be no competition or compensation bet"een these essentia# factors on the one side! and honor! pomp! rank and reputation on the other! ho"e$er much $a#ue "e may set upon the #atter% <o one "ou#d hesitate to sacrifice the #atter for the former! if it "ere necessary% We shou#d add $ery much to our happiness by a time#y recognition of the simp#e truth that e$ery man@s chief and rea# eEistence is in his o"n skin! and not in other peop#e@s opinionsD and! conseFuent#y! that the actua# conditions of our persona# #ife!''hea#th! temperament! capacity! income! "ife! chi#dren! friends! home! are a hundred times more important for our happiness than "hat other peop#e are p#eased to think of us: other"ise "e sha## be miserab#e% And if peop#e insist that honor is dearer than #ife itse#f! "hat they rea##y mean is that eEistence and "e##'being are as nothing compared "ith other peop#e@s opinions% Of course! this may be on#y an eEaggerated "ay of stating the prosaic truth that reputation! that is! the opinion others ha$e of us! is indispensab#e if "e are to make any progress in the "or#dD but 5 sha## come back to that present#y% When "e see that a#most e$erything men de$ote their #i$es to attain! sparing no effort and encountering a thousand toi#s and dangers in the process! has! in the end! no further object than to raise themse#$es in the estimation of othersD "hen "e see that not on#y offices! tit#es! decorations! but a#so "ea#th! nay! e$en kno"#edge0+3 and art! are stri$en for on#y to obtain! as the u#timate goa# of a## effort! greater respect from one@s fe##o"men!''is not this a #amentab#e proof of the eEtent to "hich human fo##y can goP To set much too high a $a#ue on other peop#e@s opinion is a common error e$ery"hereD an error! it may be! rooted in human nature itse#f! or the resu#t of ci$i#iIation! and socia# arrangements genera##yD but! "hate$er its source! it eEercises a $ery immoderate inf#uence on a## "e do! and is $ery prejudicia# to our happiness% We can trace it from a timorous and s#a$ish regard for "hat other peop#e "i## say! up to the fee#ing "hich made ?irginius p#unge the dagger into his daughter@s heart! or induces many a man to sacrifice Fuiet! riches! hea#th and e$en #ife itse#f! for posthumous g#ory% ;ndoubted#y this fee#ing is a $ery con$enient instrument in the hands of those "ho ha$e the contro# or direction of their fe##o"menD and according#y "e find that in e$ery scheme for training up humanity in the "ay it shou#d go! the maintenance and strengthening of the fee#ing of honor occupies an important p#ace% But it is Fuite a different matter in its effect on human happiness! of "hich it is here our object to treatD and "e shou#d rather be carefu# to dissuade peop#e from setting too much store by "hat others think of them% )ai#y eEperience sho"s us! ho"e$er! that this is just the mistake peop#e persist in makingD most men set the utmost $a#ue precise#y on "hat other peop#e think! and are more concerned about it than about "hat goes on in their o"n consciousness! "hich is the thing most immediate#y and direct#y present to them% They re$erse the natura# order!''regarding the opinions of others as rea# eEistence and their o"n consciousness as something shado"yD making the deri$ati$e and secondary into the principa#! and considering the picture they present to the "or#d of

more importance than their o"n se#$es% By thus trying to get a direct and immediate resu#t out of "hat has no rea##y direct or immediate eEistence! they fa## into the kind of fo##y "hich is ca##ed C$anityC''the appropriate term for that "hich has no so#id or instrinsic $a#ue% ike a miser! such peop#e forget the end in their eagerness to obtain the means% 09ootnote +: CScire tuum nihi# est nisi te scire hoc sciat a#terC! GPersins i! -2H''kno"#edge is no use un#ess others kno" that you ha$e it%3 The truth is that the $a#ue "e set upon the opinion of others! and our constant endea$or in respect of it! are each Fuite out of proportion to any resu#t "e may reasonab#y hope to attainD so that this attention to other peop#e@s attitude may be regarded as a kind of uni$ersa# mania "hich e$ery one inherits% 5n a## "e do! a#most the first thing "e think about is! "hat "i## peop#e sayD and near#y ha#f the troub#es and bothers of #ife may be traced to our anEiety on this scoreD it is the anEiety "hich is at the bottom of a## that fee#ing of se#f'importance! "hich is so often mortified because it is so $ery morbid#y sensiti$e% 5t is so#icitude about "hat others "i## say that under#ies a## our $anity and pretension! yes! and a## our sho" and s"agger too% Without it! there "ou#d not be a tenth part of the #uEury "hich eEists% Pride in e$ery form! Cpoint d@honneurC and Cpuncti#ioC! ho"e$er $aried their kind or sphere! are at bottom nothing but this''anEiety about "hat others "i## say''and "hat sacrifices it costsS One can see it e$en in a chi#dD and though it eEists at e$ery period of #ife! it is strongest in ageD because! "hen the capacity for sensua# p#easure fai#s! $anity and pride ha$e on#y a$arice to share their dominion% 9renchmen! perhaps! afford the best eEamp#e of this fee#ing! and amongst them it is a regu#ar epidemic! appearing sometimes in the most absurd ambition! or in a ridicu#ous kind of nationa# $anity and the most shame#ess boasting% :o"e$er! they frustrate their o"n gains! for other peop#e make fun of them and ca## them C#a grande nationC% By "ay of specia##y i##ustrating this per$erse and eEuberant respect for other peop#e@s opinion! #et me take passage from the CTimesC of >arch B+st! +,/R! gi$ing a detai#ed account of the eEecution of one Thomas WiE! an apprentice "ho! from moti$es of $engeance! had murdered his master% :ere "e ha$e $ery unusua# circumstances and an eEtraordinary character! though one $ery suitab#e for our purposeD and these combine to gi$e a striking picture of this fo##y! "hich is so deep#y rooted in human nature! and a##o" us to form an accurate notion of the eEtent to "hich it "i## go% On the morning of the eEecution! says the report! Cthe re$% ordinary "as ear#y in attendance upon him! but WiE! beyond a Fuiet demeanor! betrayed no interest in his ministrations! appearing to fee# anEious on#y to acFuit himse#f Abra$e#yA before the spectators of his ignomininous end%%%% 5n the procession WiE fe## into his proper p#ace "ith a#acrity! and! as he entered the 4hape#'yard! remarked! sufficient#y #oud to be heard by se$era# persons near him! A<o"! then! as )r% )odd said! 5 sha## soon kno" the grand secret%A On reaching the scaffo#d! the miserab#e "retch mounted the drop "ithout the s#ightest assistance! and "hen he got to the centre! he bo"ed to the spectators t"ice! a proceeding "hich ca##ed forth a tremendous cheer from the degraded cro"d beneathC% This is an admirab#e eEamp#e of the "ay in "hich a man! "ith death in the most dreadfu# form before his $ery eyes! and eternity beyond it! "i## care for nothing but the impression he makes upon a cro"d of gapers! and the opinion he #ea$es behind him in their heads% There "as

much the same kind of thing in the case of ecompte! "ho "as eEecuted at 9rankfurt! a#so in +,/R! for an attempt on the king@s #ife% At the tria# he "as $ery much annoyed that he "as not a##o"ed to appear! in decent attire! before the ;pper :ouseD and on the day of the eEecution it "as a specia# grief to him that he "as not permitted to sha$e% 5t is not on#y in recent times that this kind of thing has been kno"n to happen% >ateo A#eman te##s us! in the 5ntroduction to his ce#ebrated romance! C*uIman de A#faracheC! that many infatuated crimina#s! instead of de$oting their #ast hours to the "e#fare of their sou#s! as they ought to ha$e done! neg#ect this duty for the purpose of preparing and committing to memory a speech to be made from the scaffo#d% 5 take these eEtreme cases as being the best i##ustrations to "hat 5 meanD for they gi$e us a magnified ref#ection of our o"n nature% The anEieties of a## of us! our "orries! $eEations! bothers! troub#es! uneasy apprehensions and strenuous efforts are due! in perhaps the #arge majority of instances! to "hat other peop#e "i## sayD and "e are just as foo#ish in this respect as those miserab#e crimina#s% En$y and hatred are $ery often traceab#e to a simi#ar source% <o"! it is ob$ious that happiness! "hich consists for the most part in peace of mind and contentment! "ou#d be ser$ed by nothing so much as by reducing this impu#se of human nature "ithin reasonab#e #imits!''"hich "ou#d perhaps make it one fiftieth part of "hat it is no"% By doing so! "e shou#d get rid of a thorn in the f#esh "hich is a#"ays causing us pain% But it is a $ery difficu#t task! because the impu#se in Fuestion is a natura# and innate per$ersity of human nature% Tacitus says! CThe #ust of fame is the #ast that a "ise man shakes offC0+3 The on#y "ay of putting an end to this uni$ersa# fo##y is to see c#ear#y that it is a fo##yD and this may be done by recogniIing the fact that most of the opinions in men@s heads are apt to be fa#se! per$erse! erroneous and absurd! and so in themse#$es un"orthy of attentionD further! that other peop#e@s opinions can ha$e $ery #itt#e rea# and positi$e inf#uence upon us in most of the circumstances and affairs of #ife% Again! this opinion is genera##y of such an unfa$orab#e character that it "ou#d "orry a man to death to hear e$erything that "as said of him! or the tone in "hich he "as spoken of% And fina##y! among other things! "e shou#d be c#ear about the fact that honor itse#f has no rea##y direct! but on#y an indirect! $a#ue% 5f peop#e "ere genera##y con$erted from this uni$ersa# fo##y! the resu#t "ou#d be such an addition to our piece of mind and cheerfu#ness as at present seems inconcei$ab#eD peop#e "ou#d present a firmer and more confident front to the "or#d! and genera##y beha$e "ith #ess embarrassment and restraint% 5t is obser$ab#e that a retired mode of #ife has an eEceeding#y beneficia# inf#uence on our peace of mind! and this is main#y because "e thus escape ha$ing to #i$e constant#y in the sight of others! and pay e$er#asting regard to their casua# opinionsD in a "ord! "e are ab#e to return upon ourse#$es% At the same time a good dea# of positi$e misfortune might be a$oided! "hich "e are no" dra"n into by stri$ing after shado"s! or! to speak more correct#y! by indu#ging a mischie$ous piece of fo##yD and "e shou#d conseFuent#y ha$e more attention to gi$e to so#id rea#ities and enjoy them "ith #ess interruption that at present% But 0Greek: cha#epa ga ka#a3''"hat is "orth doing is hard to do% 09ootnote +: :ist%! i$%! R%3 CSection -%''PrideC%

The fo##y of our nature "hich "e are discussing puts forth three shoots! ambition! $anity and pride% The difference bet"een the #ast t"o is this: CprideC is an estab#ished con$iction of one@s o"n paramount "orth in some particu#ar respectD "hi#e C$anityC is the desire of rousing such a con$iction in others! and it is genera##y accompanied by the secret hope of u#timate#y coming to the same con$iction onese#f% Pride "orks Cfrom "ithinCD it is the direct appreciation of onese#f% ?anity is the desire to arri$e at this appreciation indirect#y! Cfrom "ithoutC% So "e find that $ain peop#e are ta#kati$e! proud! and taciturn% But the $ain person ought to be a"are that the good opinion of others! "hich he stri$es for! may be obtained much more easi#y and certain#y by persistent si#ence than by speech! e$en though he has $ery good things to say% Anyone "ho "ishes to affect pride is not therefore a proud manD but he "i## soon ha$e to drop this! as e$ery other! assumed character% 5t is on#y a firm! unshakeab#e con$iction of pre'eminent "orth and specia# $a#ue "hich makes a man proud in the true sense of the "ord!''a con$iction "hich may! no doubt! be a mistaken one or rest on ad$antages "hich are of an ad$entitious and con$entiona# character: sti## pride is not the #ess pride for a## that! so #ong as it be present in rea# earnest% And since pride is thus rooted in con$iction! it resemb#es e$ery other form of kno"#edge in not being "ithin our o"n arbitrament% Pride@s "orst foe!''5 mean its greatest obstac#e!''is $anity! "hich courts the app#ause of the "or#d in order to gain the necessary foundation for a high opinion of one@s o"n "orth! "hi#st pride is based upon a pre'eEisting con$iction of it% 5t is Fuite true that pride is something "hich is genera##y found fau#t "ith! and cried do"nD but usua##y! 5 imagine! by those "ho ha$e nothing upon "hich they can pride themse#$es% 5n $ie" of the impudence and foo#hardiness of most peop#e! anyone "ho possesses any kind of superiority or merit "i## do "e## to keep his eyes fiEed on it! if he does not "ant it to be entire#y forgottenD for if a man is good'natured enough to ignore his o"n pri$i#eges! and hob'nob "ith the genera#ity of other peop#e! as if he "ere Fuite on their #e$e#! they "i## be sure to treat him! frank#y and candid#y! as one of themse#$es% This is a piece of ad$ice 5 "ou#d specia##y offer to those "hose superiority is of the highest kind''rea# superiority! 5 mean! of a pure#y persona# nature''"hich cannot! #ike orders and tit#es! appea# to the eye or ear at e$ery momentD as! other"ise! they "i## find that fami#iarity breeds contempt! or! as the (omans used to say! Csus >iner$am% *oke "ith a s#a$e! and he@## soon sho" his hee#sC! is an eEce##ent Arabian pro$erbD nor ought "e to despise "hat :orace says! CSume superbiam Juaesitam meritisC% ''usurp the fame you ha$e deser$ed% <o doubt! "hen modesty "as made a $irtue! it "as a $ery ad$antageous thing for the foo#sD for e$erybody is eEpected to speak of himse#f as if he "ere one% This is #e$e#ing do"n indeedD for it comes to #ook as if there "ere nothing but foo#s in the "or#d% The cheapest sort of pride is nationa# prideD for if a man is proud of his o"n nation! it argues that he has no Fua#ities of his o"n of "hich he can be proudD other"ise he "ou#d not ha$e recourse to those "hich he shares "ith so many mi##ions of his fe##o"men% The man "ho is endo"ed "ith important persona# Fua#ities "i## be on#y too ready to see c#ear#y in "hat respects his o"n nation fa##s short! since their

fai#ings "i## be constant#y before his eyes% But e$ery miserab#e foo# "ho has nothing at a## of "hich he can be proud adopts! as a #ast resource! pride in the nation to "hich he be#ongsD he is ready and g#ad to defend a## its fau#ts and fo##ies tooth and nai#! thus reimbursing himse#f for his o"n inferiority% 9or eEamp#e! if you speak of the stupid and degrading bigotry of the Eng#ish nation "ith the contempt it deser$es! you "i## hard#y find one Eng#ishman in fifty to agree "ith youD but if there shou#d be one! he "i## genera##y happen to be an inte##igent man% The Germans ha$e no nationa# pride! "hich sho"s ho" honest they are! as e$erybody kno"sS and ho" dishonest are those "ho! by a piece of ridicu#ous affectation! pretend that they are proud of their country''the C)eutsche BruderC and the demagogues "ho f#atter the mob in order to mis#ead it% 5 ha$e heard it said that gunpo"der "as in$ented by a German% 5 doubt it% ichtenberg asks! CWhy is it that a man "ho is not a German does not care about pretending that he is oneD and that if he makes any pretence at a##! it is to be a 9renchman or an Eng#ishmanCP0+3 09ootnote +: CTrans#ator@s <oteC%''5t shou#d be remembered that these remarks "ere "ritten in the ear#ier part of the present century! and that a German phi#osopher no"'a'days! e$en though he "ere as apt to say bitter things as Schopenhauer! cou#d hard#y "rite in a simi#ar strain%3 :o"e$er that may be! indi$idua#ity is a far more important thing than nationa#ity! and in any gi$en man deser$es a thousand'fo#d more consideration% And since you cannot speak of nationa# character "ithout referring to #arge masses of peop#e! it is impossib#e to be #oud in your praises and at the same time honest% <ationa# character is on#y another name for the particu#ar form "hich the #itt#eness! per$ersity and baseness of mankind take in e$ery country% 5f "e become disgusted "ith one! "e praise another! unti# "e get disgusted "ith this too% E$ery nation mocks at other nations! and a## are right% The contents of this chapter! "hich treats! as 5 ha$e said! of "hat "e represent in the "or#d! or "hat "e are in the eyes of others! may be further distributed under three heads: honor rank and fame% CSection B%''(ankC% et us take rank first! as it may be dismissed in a fe" "ords! a#though it p#ays an important part in the eyes of the masses and of the phi#istines! and is a most usefu# "hee# in the machinery of the State% 5t has a pure#y con$entiona# $a#ue% Strict#y speaking! it is a shamD its method is to eEact an artificia# respect! and! as a matter of fact! the "ho#e thing is a mere farce% Orders! it may be said! are bi##s of eEchange dra"n on pub#ic opinion! and the measure of their $a#ue is the credit of the dra"er% Of course! as a substitute for pensions! they sa$e the State a good dea# of moneyD and! besides! they ser$e a $ery usefu# purpose! if they are distributed "ith discrimination and judgment% 9or peop#e in genera# ha$e eyes and ears! it is trueD but not much e#se! $ery #itt#e judgment indeed! or e$en memory% There are many ser$ices of the State Fuite beyond the range of their understandingD others! again! are

appreciated and made much of for a time! and then soon forgotten% 5t seems to me! therefore! $ery proper! that a cross or a star shou#d proc#aim to the mass of peop#e a#"ays and e$ery"here! CThis man is not #ike youD he has done somethingC% But orders #ose their $a#ue "hen they are distributed unjust#y! or "ithout due se#ection! or in too great numbers: a prince shou#d be as carefu# in conferring them as a man of business is in signing a bi##% 5t is a p#eonasm to inscribe on any order Cfor distinguished ser$iceCD for e$ery order ought to be for distinguished ser$ice% That stands to reason% CSection /%'':onorC% :onor is a much #arger Fuestion than rank! and more difficu#t to discuss% et us begin by trying to define it% 5f 5 "ere to say C:onor is eEterna# conscience! and conscience is in"ard honorC! no doubt a good many peop#e "ou#d assentD but there "ou#d be more sho" than rea#ity about such a definition! and it "ou#d hard#y go to the root of the matter% 5 prefer to say! C:onor is! on its objecti$e side! other peop#e@s opinion of "hat "e are "orthD on its subjecti$e side! it is the respect "e pay to this opinionC% 9rom the #atter point of $ie"! to be Ca man of honorC is to eEercise "hat is often a $ery "ho#esome! but by no means a pure#y mora#! inf#uence% The fee#ings of honor and shame eEist in e$ery man "ho is not utter#y depra$ed! and honor is e$ery"here recogniIed as something particu#ar#y $a#uab#e% The reason of this is as fo##o"s% By and in himse#f a man can accomp#ish $ery #itt#eD he is #ike (obinson 4rusoe on a desert is#and% 5t is on#y in society that a man@s po"ers can be ca##ed into fu## acti$ity% :e $ery soon finds this out "hen his consciousness begins to de$e#op! and there arises in him the desire to be #ooked upon as a usefu# member of society! as one! that is! "ho is capab#e of p#aying his part as a man''Cpro parte $iri#iC''thereby acFuiring a right to the benefits of socia# #ife% <o"! to be a usefu# member of society! one must do t"o things: first#y! "hat e$eryone is eEpected to do e$ery"hereD and! second#y! "hat one@s o"n particu#ar position in the "or#d demands and reFuires% But a man soon disco$ers that e$erything depends upon his being usefu#! not in his o"n opinion! but in the opinion of othersD and so he tries his best to make that fa$orab#e impression upon the "or#d! to "hich he attaches such a high $a#ue% :ence! this primiti$e and innate characteristic of human nature! "hich is ca##ed the fee#ing of honor! or! under another aspect! the fee#ing of shame''C$erecundiaC% 5t is this "hich brings a b#ush to his cheeks at the thought of ha$ing sudden#y to fa## in the estimation of others! e$en "hen he kno"s that he is innocent! nay! e$en if his remissness eEtends to no abso#ute ob#igation! but on#y to one "hich he has taken upon himse#f of his o"n free "i##% 4on$erse#y! nothing in #ife gi$es a man so much courage as the attainment or rene"a# of the con$iction that other peop#e regard him "ith fa$orD because it means that e$eryone joins to gi$e him he#p and protection! "hich is an infinite#y stronger bu#"ark against the i##s of #ife than anything he can do himse#f% The $ariety of re#ations in "hich a man can stand to other peop#e so as to obtain their confidence! that is! their good opinion! gi$es rise to a distinction bet"een se$era# kinds of honor! resting chief#y on the different bearings that CmeumC may take to CtuumCD or! again! on the performance of $arious p#edgesD or fina##y! on the re#ation of the

seEes% :ence! there are three main kinds of honor! each of "hich takes $arious forms''ci$ic honor! officia# honor! and seEua# honor% C4i$ic honorC has the "idest sphere of a##% 5t consists in the assumption that "e sha## pay unconditiona# respect to the rights of others! and! therefore! ne$er use any unjust or un#a"fu# means of getting "hat "e "ant% 5t is the condition of a## peaceab#e intercourse bet"een man and manD and it is destroyed by anything that open#y and manifest#y mi#itates against this peaceab#e intercourse! anything! according#y! "hich entai#s punishment at the hands of the #a"! a#"ays supposing that the punishment is a just one% The u#timate foundation of honor is the con$iction that mora# character is una#terab#e: a sing#e bad action imp#ies that future actions of the same kind "i##! under simi#ar circumstances! a#so be bad% This is "e## eEpressed by the Eng#ish use of the "ord CcharacterC as meaning credit! reputation! honor% :ence honor! once #ost! can ne$er be reco$eredD un#ess the #oss rested on some mistake! such as may occur if a man is s#andered or his actions $ie"ed in a fa#se #ight% So the #a" pro$ides remedies against s#ander! #ibe#! and e$en insu#tD for insu#t though it amounts to no more than mere abuse! is a kind of summary s#ander "ith a suppression of the reasons% What 5 mean may be "e## put in the Greek phrase''not Fuoted from any author''0Greek: estin hae #oidoria diabo#ae3% 5t is true that if a man abuses another! he is simp#y sho"ing that he has no rea# or true causes of comp#aint against himD as! other"ise! he "ou#d bring these for"ard as the premises! and re#y upon his hearers to dra" the conc#usion themse#$es: instead of "hich! he gi$es the conc#usion and #ea$es out the premises! trusting that peop#e "i## suppose that he has done so on#y for the sake of being brief% 4i$ic honor dra"s its eEistence and name from the midd#e c#assesD but it app#ies eFua##y to a##! not eEcepting the highest% <o man can disregard it! and it is a $ery serious thing! of "hich e$ery one shou#d be carefu# not to make #ight% The man "ho breaks confidence has for e$er forfeited confidence! "hate$er he may do! and "hoe$er he may beD and the bitter conseFuences of the #oss of confidence can ne$er be a$erted% There is a sense in "hich honor may be said to ha$e a Cnegati$eC character in opposition to the Cpositi$eC character of fame% 9or honor is not the opinion peop#e ha$e of particu#ar Fua#ities "hich a man may happen to possess eEc#usi$e#y: it is rather the opinion they ha$e of the Fua#ities "hich a man may be eEpected to eEhibit! and to "hich he shou#d not pro$e fa#se% :onor! therefore! means that a man is not eEceptiona#D fame! that he is% 9ame is something "hich must be "onD honor! on#y something "hich must not be #ost% The absence of fame is obscurity! "hich is on#y a negati$eD but #oss of honor is shame! "hich is a positi$e Fua#ity% This negati$e character of honor must not be confused "ith anything Cpassi$eCD for honor is abo$e a## things acti$e in its "orking% 5t is the on#y Fua#ity "hich proceeds Cdirect#yC from the man "ho eEhibits itD it is concerned entire#y "ith "hat he does and #ea$es undone! and has nothing to do "ith the actions of others or the obstac#es they p#ace in his "ay% 5t is something entire#y in our o"n po"er''0Greek: ton ephaemon3% This distinction! as "e sha## see present#y! marks off true honor from the sham honor of chi$a#ry% S#ander is the on#y "eapon by "hich honor can be attacked from "ithoutD and the on#y "ay to repe# the attack is to confute the s#ander "ith the proper amount of pub#icity! and a due unmasking of him "ho utters it%

The reason "hy respect is paid to age is that o#d peop#e ha$e necessari#y sho"n in the course of their #i$es "hether or not they ha$e been ab#e to maintain their honor unb#emishedD "hi#e that of young peop#e has not been put to the proof! though they are credited "ith the possession of it% 9or neither #ength of years!''eFua##ed! as it is! and e$en eEce##ed! in the case of the #o"er anima#s!''nor! again! eEperience! "hich is on#y a c#oser kno"#edge of the "or#d@s "ays! can be any sufficient reason for the respect "hich the young are e$ery"here reFuired to sho" to"ards the o#d: for if it "ere mere#y a matter of years! the "eakness "hich attends on age "ou#d ca## rather for consideration than for respect% 5t is! ho"e$er! a remarkab#e fact that "hite hair a#"ays commands re$erence''a re$erence rea##y innate and instincti$e% Wrink#es''a much surer sign of o#d age''command no re$erence at a##D you ne$er hear any one speak of C$enerab#e "rink#esCD but C$enerab#e "hite hairC is a common eEpression% :onor has on#y an indirect $a#ue% 9or! as 5 eEp#ained at the beginning of this chapter! "hat other peop#e think of us! if it affects us at a##! can affect us on#y in so far as it go$erns their beha$ior to"ards us! and on#y just so #ong as "e #i$e "ith! or ha$e to do "ith! them% But it is to society a#one that "e o"e that safety "hich "e and our possessions enjoy in a state of ci$i#iIationD in a## "e do "e need the he#p of others! and they! in their turn! must ha$e confidence in us before they can ha$e anything to do "ith us% According#y! their opinion of us is! indirect#y! a matter of great importanceD though 5 cannot see ho" it can ha$e a direct or immediate $a#ue% This is an opinion a#so he#d by 4icero% 5 CFuite agreeC! he "rites! C"ith "hat 4hrysippus and )iogenes used to say! that a good reputation is not "orth raising a finger to obtain! if it "ere not that it is so usefu#C%0+3 This truth has been insisted upon at great #ength by :e#$etius in his chief "ork C)e #@EspritC!0-3 the conc#usion of "hich is that C"e #o$e esteem not for its o"n sake! but so#e#y for the ad$antages "hich it bringsC% And as the means can ne$er be more than the end! that saying! of "hich so much is made! C:onor is dearer than #ife itse#fC! is! as 5 ha$e remarked! a $ery eEaggerated statement% So much then! for ci$ic honor% 09ootnote +: C)e fini#usC iii%! +2%3 09ootnote -: C)iscC: iii% +2%3 COfficia# honorC is the genera# opinion of other peop#e that a man "ho fi##s any office rea##y has the necessary Fua#ities for the proper discharge of a## the duties "hich appertain to it% The greater and more important the duties a man has to discharge in the State! and the higher and more inf#uentia# the office "hich he fi##s! the stronger must be the opinion "hich peop#e ha$e of the mora# and inte##ectua# Fua#ities "hich render him fit for his post% Therefore! the higher his position! the greater must be the degree of honor paid to him! eEpressed! as it is! in tit#es! orders and the genera##y subser$ient beha$ior of others to"ards him% As a ru#e! a man@s officia# rank imp#ies the particu#ar degree of honor "hich ought to be paid to him! ho"e$er much this degree may be modified by the capacity of the masses to form any notion of its importance% Sti##! as a matter of fact! greater honor is paid to a man "ho fu#fi##s specia# duties than to the common citiIen! "hose honor main#y consists in keeping c#ear of dishonor% Officia# honor demands! further! that the man "ho occupies an office must maintain respect for it! for the sake both of his co##eagues

and of those "ho "i## come after him% This respect an officia# can maintain by a proper obser$ance of his duties! and by repe##ing any attack that may be made upon the office itse#f or upon its occupant: he must not! for instance! pass o$er unheeded any statement to the effect that the duties of the office are not proper#y discharged! or that the office itse#f does not conduce to the pub#ic "e#fare% :e must pro$e the un"arrantab#e nature of such attacks by enforcing the #ega# pena#ty for them% Subordinate to the honor of officia# personages comes that of those "ho ser$e the State in any other capacity! as doctors! #a"yers! teachers! anyone! in short! "ho! by graduating in any subject! or by any other pub#ic dec#aration that he is Fua#ified to eEercise some specia# ski##! c#aims to practice itD in a "ord! the honor of a## those "ho take any pub#ic p#edges "hate$er% ;nder this head comes mi#itary honor! in the true sense of the "ord! the opinion that peop#e "ho ha$e bound themse#$es to defend their country rea##y possess the reFuisite Fua#ities "hich "i## enab#e them to do so! especia##y courage! persona# bra$ery and strength! and that they are perfect#y ready to defend their country to the death! and ne$er and under any circumstances desert the f#ag to "hich they ha$e once s"orn a##egiance% 5 ha$e here taken officia# honor in a "ider sense than that in "hich it is genera##y used! name#y! the respect due by citiIens to an office itse#f% 5n treating of CseEua# honorC and the princip#es on "hich it rests! a #itt#e more attention and ana#ysis are necessaryD and "hat 5 sha## say "i## support my contention that a## honor rea##y rests upon a uti#itarian basis% There are t"o natura# di$isions of the subject''the honor of "omen and the honor of men! in either side issuing in a "e##'understood Cesprit de corpsC% The former is by far the more important of the t"o! because the most essentia# feature in "oman@s #ife is her re#ation to man% 9ema#e honor is the genera# opinion in regard to a gir# that she is pure! and in regard to a "ife that she is faithfu#% The importance of this opinion rests upon the fo##o"ing considerations% Women depend upon men in a## the re#ations of #ifeD men upon "omen! it might be said! in one on#y% So an arrangement is made for mutua# interdependence''man undertaking responsibi#ity for a## "oman@s needs and a#so for the chi#dren that spring from their union''an arrangement on "hich is based the "e#fare of the "ho#e fema#e race% To carry out this p#an! "omen ha$e to band together "ith a sho" of Cesprit de corpsC! and present one undi$ided front to their common enemy! man!''"ho possesses a## the good things of the earth! in $irtue of his superior physica# and inte##ectua# po"er!''in order to #ay siege to and conFuer him! and so get possession of him and a share of those good things% To this end the honor of a## "omen depends upon the enforcement of the ru#e that no "oman shou#d gi$e herse#f to a man eEcept in marriage! in order that e$ery man may be forced! as it "ere! to surrender and a##y himse#f "ith a "omanD by this arrangement pro$ision is made for the "ho#e of the fema#e race% This is a resu#t! ho"e$er! "hich can be obtained on#y by a strict obser$ance of the ru#eD and! according#y! "omen e$ery"here sho" true Cesprit de corpsC in carefu##y insisting upon its maintenance% Any gir# "ho commits a breach of the ru#e betrays the "ho#e fema#e race! because its "e#fare "ou#d be destroyed if e$ery "oman "ere to do #ike"iseD so she is cast out "ith shame as one "ho has #ost her honor% <o "oman "i## ha$e anything more to do "ith herD she is a$oided #ike the p#ague% The same doom is a"arded to a "oman "ho breaks the marriage tieD for in so doing she is fa#se to the terms upon "hich the man capitu#atedD and

as her conduct is such as to frighten other men from making a simi#ar surrender! it imperi#s the "e#fare of a## her sisters% <ay! moreD this deception and coarse breach of troth is a crime punishab#e by the #oss! not on#y of persona#! but a#so of ci$ic honor% This is "hy "e minimiIe the shame of a gir#! but not of a "ifeD because! in the former case! marriage can restore honor! "hi#e in the #atter! no atonement can be made for the breach of contract% Once this Cesprit de corpsC is ackno"#edged to be the foundation of fema#e honor! and is seen to be a "ho#esome! nay! a necessary arrangement! as at bottom a matter of prudence and interest! its eEtreme importance for the "e#fare of "omen "i## be recogniIed% But it does not possess anything more than a re#ati$e $a#ue% 5t is no abso#ute end! #ying beyond a## other aims of eEistence and $a#ued abo$e #ife itse#f% 5n this $ie"! there "i## be nothing to app#aud in the forced and eEtra$agant conduct of a ucretia or a ?irginius''conduct "hich can easi#y degenerate into tragic farce! and produce a terrib#e fee#ing of re$u#sion% The conc#usion of CEmi#ia Ga#ottiC! for instance! makes one #ea$e the theatre comp#ete#y i## at easeD and! on the other hand! a## the ru#es of fema#e honor cannot pre$ent a certain sympathy "ith 4#ara in CEgmontC% To carry this princip#e of fema#e honor too far is to forget the end in thinking of the means''and this is just "hat peop#e often doD for such eEaggeration suggests that the $a#ue of seEua# honor is abso#uteD "hi#e the truth is that it is more re#ati$e than any other kind% One might go so far as to say that its $a#ue is pure#y con$entiona#! "hen one sees from Thomasius ho" in a## ages and countries! up to the time of the (eformation! irregu#arities "ere permitted and recogniIed by #a"! "ith no derogation to fema#e honor!''not to speak of the temp#e of >y#itta at Baby#on%0+3 09ootnote +: :eroditus! i% +77%3 There are a#so of course certain circumstances in ci$i# #ife "hich make eEterna# forms of marriage impossib#e! especia##y in 4atho#ic countries! "here there is no such thing as di$orce% (u#ing princes e$ery"here! "ou#d! in my opinion! do much better! from a mora# point of $ie"! to dispense "ith forms a#together rather than contract a morganatic marriage! the descendants of "hich might raise c#aims to the throne if the #egitimate stock happened to die outD so that there is a possibi#ity! though! perhaps! a remote one! that a morganatic marriage might produce a ci$i# "ar% And! besides! such a marriage! conc#uded in defiance of a## out"ard ceremony! is a concession made to "omen and priests''t"o c#asses of persons to "hom one shou#d be most carefu# to gi$e as #itt#e tether as possib#e% 5t is further to be remarked that e$ery man in a country can marry the "oman of his choice! eEcept one poor indi$idua#! name#y! the prince% :is hand be#ongs to his country! and can be gi$en in marriage on#y for reasons of State! that is! for the good of the country% Sti##! for a## that! he is a manD and! as a man! he #ikes to fo##o" "hither his heart #eads% 5t is an unjust! ungratefu# and priggish thing to forbid! or to desire to forbid! a prince from fo##o"ing his inc#inations in this matterD of course! as #ong as the #ady has no inf#uence upon the Go$ernment of the country% 9rom her point of $ie" she occupies an eEceptiona# position! and does not come under the ordinary ru#es of seEua# honorD for she has mere#y gi$en herse#f to a man "ho #o$es her! and "hom she #o$es but cannot marry% And in genera#! the fact that the princip#e of fema#e honor has no origin in nature! is sho"n by the many b#oody sacrifices "hich ha$e been offered to it!''the murder of chi#dren and the mother@s suicide% <o doubt a gir# "ho contra$enes the code commits a breach of faith against her "ho#e seED but this faith

is one "hich is on#y secret#y taken for granted! and not s"orn to% And since! in most cases! her o"n prospects suffer most immediate#y! her fo##y is infinite#y greater than her crime% The corresponding $irtue in men is a product of the one 5 ha$e been discussing% 5t is their Cesprit de corpsC! "hich demands that! once a man has made that surrender of himse#f in marriage "hich is so ad$antageous to his conFueror! he sha## take care that the terms of the treaty are maintainedD both in order that the agreement itse#f may #ose none of its force by the permission of any #aEity in its obser$ance! and that men! ha$ing gi$en up e$erything! may! at #east! be assured of their bargain! name#y! eEc#usi$e possession% According#y! it is part of a man@s honor to resent a breach of the marriage tie on the part of his "ife! and to punish it! at the $ery #east by separating from her% 5f he condones the offence! his fe##o"men cry shame upon himD but the shame in this case is not near#y so fou# as that of the "oman "ho has #ost her honorD the stain is by no means of so deep a dye''C#e$ioris notae macu#aCD''because a man@s re#ation to "oman is subordinate to many other and more important affairs in his #ife% The t"o great dramatic poets of modern times ha$e each taken man@s honor as the theme of t"o p#aysD Shakespeare in COthe##oC and CThe Winter@s Ta#eC! and 4a#deron in CE# medico de su honraC! GThe Physician of his :onorH! and CA secreto agra$io secreta $enganIaC! Gfor Secret 5nsu#t Secret ?engeanceH% 5t shou#d be said! ho"e$er! that honor demands the punishment of the "ife on#yD to punish her paramour too! is a "ork of supererogation% This confirms the $ie" 5 ha$e taken! that a man@s honor originates in Cesprit de corpsC% The kind of honor "hich 5 ha$e been discussing hitherto has a#"ays eEisted in its $arious forms and princip#es amongst a## nations and at a## timesD a#though the history of fema#e honor sho"s that its princip#es ha$e undergone certain #oca# modifications at different periods% But there is another species of honor "hich differs from this entire#y! a species of honor of "hich the Greeks and (omans had no conception! and up to this day it is perfect#y unkno"n amongst 4hinese! :indoos or >ohammedans% 5t is a kind of honor "hich arose on#y in the >idd#e Age! and is indigenous on#y to 4hristian Europe! nay! on#y to an eEtreme#y sma## portion of the popu#ation! that is to say! the higher c#asses of society and those "ho ape them% 5t is Cknight#y honorC! or Cpoint d@honneurC% 5ts princip#es are Fuite different from those "hich under#ie the kind of honor 5 ha$e been treating unti# no"! and in some respects are e$en opposed to them% The sort 5 am referring to produces the Cca$a#ierCD "hi#e the other kind creates the Cman of honorC% As this is so! 5 sha## proceed to gi$e an eEp#anation of its princip#es! as a kind of code or mirror of knight#y courtesy% G+%H To begin "ith! honor of this sort consists! not in other peop#e@s opinion of "hat "e are "orth! but "ho##y and entire#y in "hether they eEpress it or not! no matter "hether they rea##y ha$e any opinion at a##! #et a#one "hether they kno" of reasons for ha$ing one% Other peop#e may entertain the "orst opinion of us in conseFuence of "hat "e do! and may despise us as much as they #ikeD so #ong as no one dares to gi$e eEpression to his opinion! our honor remains untarnished% So if our actions and Fua#ities compe# the highest respect from other peop#e! and they ha$e no option but to gi$e this respect!''as soon as anyone! no matter ho" "icked or foo#ish he may be! utters something depreciatory of us! our honor is offended! nay! gone for e$er! un#ess "e can manage to restore it% A superf#uous proof of "hat 5 say! name#y! that knight#y honor depends! not upon "hat peop#e think! but upon "hat they say! is furnished by the fact that insu#ts can be

"ithdra"n! or! if necessary! form the subject of an apo#ogy! "hich makes them as though they had ne$er been uttered% Whether the opinion "hich under#ays the eEpression has a#so been rectified! and "hy the eEpression shou#d e$er ha$e been used! are Fuestions "hich are perfect#y unimportant: so #ong as the statement is "ithdra"n! a## is "e##% The truth is that conduct of this kind aims! not at earning respect! but at eEtorting it% G-%H 5n the second p#ace! this sort of honor rests! not on "hat a man does! but on "hat he suffers! the obstac#es he encountersD differing from the honor "hich pre$ai#s in a## e#se! in consisting! not in "hat he says or does himse#f! but in "hat another man says or does% :is honor is thus at the mercy of e$ery man "ho can ta#k it a"ay on the tip of his tongueD and if he attacks it! in a moment it is gone for e$er!''un#ess the man "ho is attacked manages to "rest it back again by a process "hich 5 sha## mention present#y! a process "hich in$o#$es danger to his #ife! hea#th! freedom! property and peace of mind% A man@s "ho#e conduct may be in accordance "ith the most righteous and nob#e princip#es! his spirit may be the purest that e$er breathed! his inte##ect of the $ery highest orderD and yet his honor may disappear the moment that anyone is p#eased to insu#t him! anyone at a## "ho has not offended against this code of honor himse#f! #et him be the most "orth#ess rasca# or the most stupid beast! an id#er! gamb#er! debtor! a man! in short! of no account at a##% 5t is usua##y this sort of fe##o" "ho #ikes to insu#t peop#eD for! as Seneca0+3 right#y remarks! Cut FuisFue contemtissimus et #udibrio est! ita so#utissimae estC! the more contemptib#e and ridicu#ous a man is!''the readier he is "ith his tongue% :is insu#ts are most #ike#y to be directed against the $ery kind of man 5 ha$e described! because peop#e of different tastes can ne$er be friends! and the sight of pre'eminent merit is apt to raise the secret ire of a ne@er'do'"e##% What Goethe says in the CWestKst#icher )i$anC is Fuite true! that it is use#ess to comp#ain against your enemiesD for they can ne$er become your friends! if your "ho#e being is a standing reproach to them:'' CWas k#agst du Mber 9eindeP So##ten So#che je "arden 9reunde )enen das Wesen! "ie du bist! 5m sti##en ein e"iger ?or"urf istCP 09ootnote +: C)e 4onstantiaC! ++%3 5t is ob$ious that peop#e of this "orth#ess description ha$e good cause to be thankfu# to the princip#e of honor! because it puts them on a #e$e# "ith peop#e "ho in e$ery other respect stand far abo$e them% 5f a fe##o" #ikes to insu#t any one! attribute to him! for eEamp#e! some bad Fua#ity! this is taken Cprima facieC as a "e##'founded opinion! true in factD a decree! as it "ere! "ith a## the force of #a"D nay! if it is not at once "iped out in b#ood! it is a judgment "hich ho#ds good and $a#id to a## time% 5n other "ords! the man "ho is insu#ted remains''in the eyes of a## Chonorab#e peop#eC''"hat the man "ho uttered the insu#t''e$en though he "ere the greatest "retch on earth''"as p#eased to ca## himD for he has Cput up "ithC the insu#t''the technica# term! 5 be#ie$e% According#y! a## Chonorab#e peop#eC "i## ha$e nothing more to do "ith him! and treat him #ike a #eper! and! it may be! refuse to go into any company "here he may be found! and so on% This "ise proceeding may! 5 think! be traced back to the fact that in the >idd#e Age! up to the fifteenth century! it "as not the accuser in any crimina# process "ho had to pro$e the gui#t of the accused! but

the accused "ho had to pro$e his innocence%0+3 This he cou#d do by s"earing he "as not gui#tyD and his backers''Cconsacramenta#esC''had to come and s"ear that in their opinion he "as incapab#e of perjury% 5f he cou#d find no one to he#p him in this "ay! or the accuser took objection to his backers! recourse "as had to tria# by Cthe *udgment of GodC! "hich genera##y meant a due#% 9or the accused "as no" Cin disgraceC!0-3 and had to c#ear himse#f% :ere! then! is the origin of the notion of disgrace! and of that "ho#e system "hich pre$ai#s no"'a'days amongst Chonorab#e peop#eC''on#y that the oath is omitted% This is a#so the eEp#anation of that deep fee#ing of indignation "hich Chonorab#e peop#eC are ca##ed upon to sho" if they are gi$en the #ieD it is a reproach "hich they say must be "iped out in b#ood% 5t se#dom comes to this pass! ho"e$er! though #ies are of common occurrenceD but in Eng#and! more than e#se"here! it is a superstition "hich has taken $ery deep root% As a matter of order! a man "ho threatens to ki## another for te##ing a #ie shou#d ne$er ha$e to#d one himse#f% The fact is! that the crimina# tria# of the >idd#e Age a#so admitted of a shorter form% 5n rep#y to the charge! the accused ans"ered: CThat is a #ieCD "hereupon it "as #eft to be decided by Cthe *udgment of GodC% :ence! the code of knight#y honor prescribes that! "hen the #ie is gi$en! an appea# to arms fo##o"s as a matter of course% So much! then! for the theory of insu#t% 09ootnote +: See 4%G% $on Waehter@s CBeitrOge Iur deutschen GeschichteC! especia##y the chapter on crimina# #a"%3 09ootnote -: CTrans#ator@s <oteC%''5t is true that this eEpression has another specia# meaning in the technica# termino#ogy of 4hi$a#ry! but it is the nearest Eng#ish eFui$a#ent "hich 5 can find for the German''Cein Bescho#tenerC3 But there is something e$en "orse than insu#t! something so dreadfu# that 5 must beg pardon of a## Chonorab#e peop#eC for so much as mentioning it in this code of knight#y honorD for 5 kno" they "i## shi$er! and their hair "i## stand on end! at the $ery thought of it''the Csummum ma#umC! the greatest e$i# on earth! "orse than death and damnation% A man may gi$e another''Chorrib#e dictuCS''a s#ap or a b#o"% This is such an a"fu# thing! and so utter#y fata# to a## honor! that! "hi#e any other species of insu#t may be hea#ed by b#ood'#etting! this can be cured on#y by the Ccoup'de'graceC% GB%H 5n the third p#ace! this kind of honor has abso#ute#y nothing to do "ith "hat a man may be in and for himse#fD or! again! "ith the Fuestion "hether his mora# character can e$er become better or "orse! and a## such pedantic inFuiries% 5f your honor happens to be attacked! or to a## appearances gone! it can $ery soon be restored in its entirety if you are on#y Fuick enough in ha$ing recourse to the one uni$ersa# remedy''Ca due#C% But if the aggressor does not be#ong to the c#asses "hich recogniIe the code of knight#y honor! or has himse#f once offended against it! there is a safer "ay of meeting any attack upon your honor! "hether it consists in b#o"s! or mere#y in "ords% 5f you are armed! you can strike do"n your opponent on the spot! or perhaps an hour #ater% This "i## restore your honor% But if you "ish to a$oid such an eEtreme step! from fear of any unp#easant conseFuences arising therefrom! or from uncertainty as to "hether the aggressor is subject to the #a"s of knight#y honor or not! there is another means of making your position good! name#y! the CA$antageC% This consists in returning rudeness "ith sti## greater rudenessD and if insu#ts are no use! you can try a b#o"! "hich forms a sort of c#imaE in the redemption of your honorD for instance! a boE on

the ear may be cured by a b#o" "ith a stick! and a b#o" "ith a stick by a thrashing "ith a horse"hipD and! as the appro$ed remedy for this #ast! some peop#e recommend you to spit at your opponent%0+3 5f a## these means are of no a$ai#! you must not shrink from dra"ing b#ood% And the reason for these methods of "iping out insu#t is! in this code! as fo##o"s: 09ootnote +: CTrans#ator@s <oteC% 5t must be remembered that Schopenhauer is here describing! or perhaps caricaturing the manners and customs of the German aristocracy of ha#f a century ago% <o"! of course! Cnous a$ons change tout ce#aCS3 G/%H To recei$e an insu#t is disgracefu#D to gi$e one! honorab#e% et me take an eEamp#e% >y opponent has truth! right and reason on his side% ?ery "e##% 5 insu#t him% Thereupon right and honor #ea$e him and come to me! and! for the time being! he has #ost them''unti# he gets them back! not by the eEercise of right or reason! but by shooting and sticking me% According#y! rudeness is a Fua#ity "hich! in point of honor! is a substitute for any other and out"eighs them a##% The rudest is a#"ays right% What more do you "antP :o"e$er stupid! bad or "icked a man may ha$e been! if he is on#y rude into the bargain! he condones and #egitimiIes a## his fau#ts% 5f in any discussion or con$ersation! another man sho"s more kno"#edge! greater #o$e of truth! a sounder judgment! better understanding than "e! or genera##y eEhibits inte##ectua# Fua#ities "hich cast ours into the shade! "e can at once annu# his superiority and our o"n sha##o"ness! and in our turn be superior to him! by being insu#ting and offensi$e% 9or rudeness is better than any argumentD it tota##y ec#ipses inte##ect% 5f our opponent does not care for our mode of attack! and "i## not ans"er sti## more rude#y! so as to p#unge us into the ignob#e ri$a#ry of the CA$antageC! "e are the $ictors and honor is on our side% Truth! kno"#edge! understanding! inte##ect! "it! must beat a retreat and #ea$e the fie#d to this a#mighty inso#ence% C:onorab#e peop#eC immediate#y make a sho" of mounting their "ar'horse! if anyone utters an opinion ad$erse to theirs! or sho"s more inte##igence than they can musterD and if in any contro$ersy they are at a #oss for a rep#y! they #ook about for some "eapon of rudeness! "hich "i## ser$e as "e## and come readier to handD so they retire masters of the position% 5t must no" be ob$ious that peop#e are Fuite right in app#auding this princip#e of honor as ha$ing ennob#ed the tone of society% This princip#e springs from another! "hich forms the heart and sou# of the entire code% G6%H 9ifth#y! the code imp#ies that the highest court to "hich a man can appea# in any differences he may ha$e "ith another on a point of honor is the court of physica# force! that is! of bruta#ity% E$ery piece of rudeness is! strict#y speaking! an appea# to bruta#ityD for it is a dec#aration that inte##ectua# strength and mora# insight are incompetent to decide! and that the batt#e must be fought out by physica# force''a strugg#e "hich! in the case of man! "hom 9rank#in defines as Ca too#'making anima#C! is decided by the "eapons pecu#iar to the speciesD and the decision is irre$ocab#e% This is the "e##'kno"n princip#e of Cright of mightC''irony! of course! #ike Cthe "it of a foo#C! a para##e# phrase% The honor of a knight may be ca##ed the g#ory of might% GR%H ast#y! if! as "e sa" abo$e! ci$ic honor the matter of CmeumC and CtuumC! paying great and a promise once made! the code "e are here the other hand! the nob#est #ibera#ity% There is $ery scrupu#ous in respect to ob#igations discussing disp#ays! on is on#y one "ord "hich

may not be broken! Cthe "ord of honorC''upon my ChonorC! as peop#e say''the presumption being! of course! that e$ery other form of promise may be broken% <ay! if the "orst comes to the "orst! it is easy to break e$en one@s "ord of honor! and sti## remain honorab#e''again by adopting that uni$ersa# remedy! the due#! and fighting "ith those "ho maintain that "e p#edged our "ord% 9urther! there is one debt! and one a#one! that under no circumstances must be #eft unpaid''a gamb#ing debt! "hich has according#y been ca##ed Ca debt of honorC% 5n a## other kinds of debt you may cheat *e"s and 4hristians as much as you #ikeD and your knight#y honor remains "ithout a stain% The unprejudiced reader "i## see at once that such a strange! sa$age and ridicu#ous code of honor as this has no foundation in human nature! nor any "arrant in a hea#thy $ie" of human affairs% The eEtreme#y narro" sphere of its operation ser$es on#y to intensify the fee#ing! "hich is eEc#usi$e#y confined to Europe since the >idd#e Age! and then on#y to the upper c#asses! officers and so#diers! and peop#e "ho imitate them% <either Greeks nor (omans kne" anything of this code of honor or of its princip#esD nor the high#y ci$i#iIed nations of Asia! ancient or modern% Amongst them no other kind of honor is recogniIed but that "hich 5 discussed first! in $irtue of "hich a man is "hat he sho"s himse#f to be by his actions! not "hat any "agging tongue is p#eased to say of him% They thought that "hat a man said or did might perhaps affect his o"n honor! but not any other man@s% To them! a b#o" "as but a b#o"''and any horse or donkey cou#d gi$e a harder one''a b#o" "hich under certain circumstances might make a man angry and demand immediate $engeanceD but it had nothing to do "ith honor% <o one kept account of b#o"s or insu#ting "ords! or of the CsatisfactionC "hich "as demanded or omitted to be demanded% &et in persona# bra$ery and contempt of death! the ancients "ere certain#y not inferior to the nations of 4hristian Europe% The Greeks and (omans "ere thorough heroes! if you #ikeD but they kne" nothing about Cpoint d@honneurC% 5f CtheyC had any idea of a due#! it "as tota##y unconnected "ith the #ife of the nob#esD it "as mere#y the eEhibition of mercenary g#adiators! s#a$es de$oted to s#aughter! condemned crimina#s! "ho! a#ternate#y "ith "i#d beasts! "ere set to butcher one another to make a (oman ho#iday% When 4hristianity "as introduced! g#adiatoria# sho"s "ere done a"ay "ith! and their p#ace taken! in 4hristian times! by the due#! "hich "as a "ay of sett#ing difficu#ties by Cthe *udgment of GodC% 5f the g#adiatoria# fight "as a crue# sacrifice to the pre$ai#ing desire for great spectac#es! due#ing is a crue# sacrifice to eEisting prejudices''a sacrifice! not of crimina#s! s#a$es and prisoners! but of the nob#e and the free%0+3 09ootnote +: CTrans#ator@s <oteC% These and other remarks on due#ing "i## no doubt "ear a be#ated #ook to Eng#ish readersD but they are hard#y yet antiFuated for most parts of the 4ontinent%3 There are a great many traits in the character of the ancients "hich sho" that they "ere entire#y free from these prejudices% When! for instance! >arius "as summoned to a due# by a Teutonic chief! he returned ans"er to the effect that! if the chief "ere tired of his #ife! he might go and hang himse#fD at the same time he offered him a $eteran g#adiator for a round or t"o% P#utarch re#ates in his #ife of Themistoc#es that Eurybiades! "ho "as in command of the f#eet! once raised his stick to strike himD "hereupon Themistoc#es! instead of dra"ing his s"ord! simp#y said: CStrike! but hear meC% :o" sorry the reader must be! if he is an Chonorab#eC man! to find that "e ha$e no

information that the Athenian officers refused in a body to ser$e any #onger under Themistoc#es! if he acted #ike thatS There is a modern 9rench "riter "ho dec#ares that if anyone considers )emosthenes a man of honor! his ignorance "i## eEcite a smi#e of pityD and that 4icero "as not a man of honor eitherS0+3 5n a certain passage in P#ato@s C a"sC0-3 the phi#osopher speaks at #ength of 0Greek: aikia3 or Cassau#tC! sho"ing us c#ear#y enough that the ancients had no notion of any fee#ing of honor in connection "ith such matters% Socrates@ freFuent discussions "ere often fo##o"ed by his being se$ere#y hand#ed! and he bore it a## mi#d#y% Once! for instance! "hen somebody kicked him! the patience "ith "hich he took the insu#t surprised one of his friends% C)o you thinkC! said Socrates! Cthat if an ass happened to kick me! 5 shou#d resent itCP0B3 On another occasion! "hen he "as asked! C:as not that fe##o" abused and insu#ted youP <oC! "as his ans"er! C"hat he says is not addressed to meC0/3 Stobaeus has preser$ed a #ong passage from >usonius! from "hich "e can see ho" the ancients treated insu#ts% They kne" no other form of satisfaction than that "hich the #a" pro$ided! and "ise peop#e despised e$en this% 5f a Greek recei$ed a boE on the ear! he cou#d get satisfaction by the aid of the #a"D as is e$ident from P#ato@s CGorgiasC! "here Socrates@ opinion may be found% The same thing may be seen in the account gi$en by Ge##ius of one ucius ?eratius! "ho had the audacity to gi$e some (oman citiIens "hom he met on the road a boE on the ear! "ithout any pro$ocation "hate$erD but to a$oid any u#terior conseFuences! he to#d a s#a$e to bring a bag of sma## money! and on the spot paid the tri$ia# #ega# pena#ty to the men "hom he had astonished by his conduct% 09ootnote +:C#itterairesC: par 4% )urand% (ouen! +,-,%3 09ootnote -: Bk% 5T%3% 09ootnote B: )iogenes aertius! ii%! -+%3

09ootnote /: C5bidC BR%3 4rates! the ce#ebrated 4ynic phi#osopher! got such a boE on the ear from <icodromus! the musician! that his face s"e##ed up and became b#ack and b#ueD "hereupon he put a #abe# on his forehead! "ith the inscription! C<icodromus fecitC! "hich brought much disgrace to the f#utep#ayer "ho had committed such a piece of bruta#ity upon the man "hom a## Athens honored as a househo#d god%0+3 And in a #etter to >e#esippus! )iogenes of Sinope te##s us that he got a beating from the drunken sons of the AtheniansD but he adds that it "as a matter of no importance%0-3 And Seneca de$otes the #ast fe" chapters of his C)e 4onstantiaC to a #engthy discussion on insu#t''Ccontume#iaCD in order to sho" that a "ise man "i## take no notice of it% 5n 4hapter T5?! he says! CWhat sha## a "ise man do! if he is gi$en a b#o"P What 4ato did! "hen some one struck him on the mouthD''not fire up or a$enge the insu#t! or e$en return the b#o"! but simp#y ignore itC% 09ootnote +: )iogenes aertius! $i% ,2! and Apu#: 9#or: p% +-R%3 aert%! $i% BB%3

09ootnote -: 4f% 4asaubon@s <ote! )iog%

C&esC! you say! Cbut these men "ere phi#osophersC%''And you are foo#s! ehP Precise#y% 5t is c#ear that the "ho#e code of knight#y honor "as utter#y unkno"n to the ancientsD for the simp#e reason that they a#"ays took a natura# and unprejudiced $ie" of human affairs! and did not a##o" themse#$es

to be inf#uenced by any such $icious and abominab#e fo##y% A b#o" in the face "as to them a b#o" and nothing more! a tri$ia# physica# injuryD "hereas the moderns make a catastrophe out of it! a theme for a tragedyD as! for instance! in the C4idC of 4ornei##e! or in a recent German comedy of midd#e'c#ass #ife! ca##ed CThe Po"er of 4ircumstanceC! "hich shou#d ha$e been entit#ed CThe Po"er of PrejudiceC% 5f a member of the <ationa# Assemb#y at Paris got a b#o" on the ear! it "ou#d resound from one end of Europe to the other% The eEamp#es "hich 5 ha$e gi$en of the "ay in "hich such an occurrence "ou#d ha$e been treated in c#assic times may not suit the ideas of Chonorab#e peop#eCD so #et me recommend to their notice! as a kind of antidote! the story of >onsieur )esg#ands in )iderot@s masterpiece! C*acFues #e fata#isteC% 5t is an eEce##ent specimen of modern knight#y honor! "hich! no doubt! they "i## find enjoyab#e and edifying%0+3 09ootnote: +: CTrans#ator@s <oteC% The story to "hich Schopenhauer here refers is brief#y as fo##o"s: T"o gent#emen! one of "hom "as named )esg#ands! "ere paying court to the same #ady% As they sat at tab#e side by side! "ith the #ady opposite! )esg#ands did his best to charm her "ith his con$ersationD but she pretended not to hear him! and kept #ooking at his ri$a#% 5n the agony of jea#ousy! )esg#ands! as he "as ho#ding a fresh egg in his hand! in$o#untari#y crushed itD the she## broke! and its contents bespattered his ri$a#@s face% Seeing him raise his hand! )esg#ands seiIed it and "hispered: CSir! 5 take it as gi$enC% The neEt day )esg#ands appeared "ith a #arge piece of b#ack sticking'p#aster upon his right cheek% 5n the due# "hich fo##o"ed! )esg#ands se$ere#y "ounded his ri$a#D upon "hich he reduced the siIe of the p#aster% When his ri$a# reco$ered! they had another due#D )esg#ands dre" b#ood again! and again made his p#aster a #itt#e sma##erD and so on for fi$e or siE times% After e$ery due# )esg#ands@ p#aster gre" #ess and #ess! unti# at #ast his ri$a#%3 9rom "hat 5 ha$e said it must be Fuite e$ident that the princip#e of knight#y honor has no essentia# and spontaneous origin in human nature% 5t is an artificia# product! and its source is not hard to find% 5ts eEistence ob$ious#y dates from the time "hen peop#e used their fists more than their heads! "hen priestcraft had enchained the human inte##ect! the much bepraised >idd#e Age! "ith its system of chi$a#ry% That "as the time "hen peop#e #et the A#mighty not on#y care for them but judge for them tooD "hen difficu#t cases "ere decided by an ordea#! a C*udgment of GodCD "hich! "ith fe" eEceptions! meant a due#! not on#y "here nob#es "ere concerned! but in the case of ordinary citiIens as "e##% There is a neat i##ustration of this in Shakespeare@s :enry ?5%0+3 E$ery judicia# sentence "as subject to an appea# to arms''a court! as it "ere! of higher instance! name#y! Cthe *udgment of GodC: and this rea##y meant that physica# strength and acti$ity! that is! our anima# nature! usurped the p#ace of reason on the judgment seat! deciding in matters of right and "rong! not by "hat a man had done! but by the force "ith "hich he "as opposed! the same system! in fact! as pre$ai#s to'day under the princip#es of knight#y honor% 5f any one doubts that such is rea##y the origin of our modern due#! #et him read an eEce##ent "ork by *%B% >i##ingen! CThe :istory of )ue#ingC%0-3 <ay! you may sti## find amongst the supporters of the system!''"ho! by the "ay are not usua##y the most educated or thoughtfu# of men!''some "ho #ook upon the resu#t of a due# as rea##y constituting a di$ine judgment in the matter in disputeD no doubt in conseFuence of the traditiona# fee#ing on the subject% But #ea$ing aside the Fuestion of origin! it must no" be c#ear to us that the main tendency of the princip#e is to use physica# menace for the purpose of eEtorting an appearance of respect "hich is deemed too

difficu#t or superf#uous to acFuire in rea#ityD a proceeding "hich comes to much the same thing as if you "ere to pro$e the "armth of your room by ho#ding your hand on the thermometer and so make it rise% 5n fact! the kerne# of the matter is this: "hereas ci$ic honor aims at peaceab#e intercourse! and consists in the opinion of other peop#e that C"e deser$e fu## confidenceC! because "e pay unconditiona# respect to their rightsD knight#y honor! on the other hand! #ays do"n that C"e are to be fearedC! as being determined at a## costs to maintain our o"n% As not much re#iance can be p#aced upon human integrity! the princip#e that it is more essentia# to arouse fear than to in$ite confidence "ou#d not! perhaps! be a fa#se one! if "e "ere #i$ing in a state of nature! "here e$ery man "ou#d ha$e to protect himse#f and direct#y maintain his o"n rights% But in ci$i#iIed #ife! "here the State undertakes the protection of our person and property! the princip#e is no #onger app#icab#e: it stands! #ike the cast#es and "atch'to"ers of the age "hen might "as right! a use#ess and for#orn object! amidst "e##'ti##ed fie#ds and freFuented roads! or e$en rai#"ays% According#y! the app#ication of knight#y honor! "hich sti## recogniIes this princip#e! is confined to those sma## cases of persona# assau#t "hich meet "ith but s#ight punishment at the hands of the #a"! or e$en none at a##! for Cde minimis nonC!''mere tri$ia# "rongs! committed sometimes on#y in jest% The conseFuence of this #imited app#ication of the princip#e is that it has forced itse#f into an eEaggerated respect for the $a#ue of the person!''a respect utter#y a#ien to the nature! constitution or destiny of man''"hich it has e#ated into a species of sanctity: and as it considers that the State has imposed a $ery insufficient pena#ty on the commission of such tri$ia# injuries! it takes upon itse#f to punish them by attacking the aggressor in #ife or #imb% The "ho#e thing manifest#y rests upon an eEcessi$e degree of arrogant pride! "hich! comp#ete#y forgetting "hat man rea##y is! c#aims that he sha## be abso#ute#y free from a## attack or e$en censure% Those "ho determine to carry out this princip#e by main force! and announce! as their ru#e of action! C"hoe$er insu#ts or strikes me sha## dieCS ought for their pains to be banished the country%0+3 09ootnote +: =night#y honor is the chi#d of pride and fo##y! and it is CneedyC not pride! "hich is the heritage of the human race% 5t is a $ery remarkab#e fact that this eEtreme form of pride shou#d be found eEc#usi$e#y amongst the adherents of the re#igion "hich teaches the deepest humi#ity% Sti##! this pride must not be put do"n to re#igion! but! rather! to the feuda# system! "hich made e$ery nob#eman a petty so$ereign "ho recogniIed no human judge! and #earned to regard his person as sacred and in$io#ab#e! and any attack upon it! or any b#o" or insu#ting "ord! as an offence punishab#e "ith death% The princip#e of knight#y honor and of the due# "ere at first confined to the nob#es! and! #ater on! a#so to officers in the army! "ho! enjoying a kind of off'and'on re#ationship "ith the upper c#asses! though they "ere ne$er incorporated "ith them! "ere anEious not to be behind them% 5t is true that due#s "ere the product of the o#d ordea#sD but the #atter are not the foundation! but rather the conseFuence and app#ication of the princip#e of honor: the man "ho recogniIed no human judge appea#ed to the di$ine% Ordea#s! ho"e$er! are not pecu#iar to 4hristendom: they may be found in great force among the :indoos! especia##y of ancient timesD and there are traces of them e$en no"%3 As a pa##iati$e to this rash arrogance! peop#e are in the habit of gi$ing "ay on e$erything% 5f t"o intrepid persons meet! and neither

"i## gi$e "ay! the s#ightest difference may cause a sho"er of abuse! then fisticuffs! and! fina##y! a fata# b#o": so that it "ou#d rea##y be a more decorous proceeding to omit the intermediate steps and appea# to arms at once% An appea# to arms has its o"n specia# forma#itiesD and these ha$e de$e#oped into a rigid and precise system of #a"s and regu#ations! together forming the most so#emn farce there is''a regu#ar temp#e of honor dedicated to fo##yS 9or if t"o intrepid persons dispute o$er some tri$ia# matter! Gmore important affairs are dea#t "ith by #a"H! one of them! the c#e$erer of the t"o! "i## of course yie#dD and they "i## agree to differ% That this is so is pro$ed by the fact that common peop#e!''or! rather! the numerous c#asses of the community "ho do not ackno"#edge the princip#e of knight#y honor! #et any dispute run its natura# course% Amongst these c#asses homicide is a hundredfo#d rarer than amongst those''and they amount! perhaps! in a##! to hard#y one in a thousand!''"ho pay homage to the princip#e: and e$en b#o"s are of no $ery freFuent occurrence% Then it has been said that the manners and tone of good society are u#timate#y based upon this princip#e of honor! "hich! "ith its system of due#s! is made out to be a bu#"ark against the assau#ts of sa$agery and rudeness% But Athens! 4orinth and (ome cou#d assured#y boast of good! nay! eEce##ent society! and manners and tone of a high order! "ithout any support from the bogey of knight#y honor% 5t is true that "omen did not occupy that prominent p#ace in ancient society "hich they ho#d no"! "hen con$ersation has taken on a fri$o#ous and trif#ing character! to the eEc#usion of that "eighty discourse "hich distinguished the ancients% This change has certain#y contributed a great dea# to bring about the tendency! "hich is obser$ab#e in good society no"'a'days! to prefer persona# courage to the possession of any other Fua#ity% The fact is that persona# courage is rea##y a $ery subordinate $irtue!''mere#y the distinguishing mark of a suba#tern!''a $irtue! indeed! in "hich "e are surpassed by the #o"er anima#sD or e#se you "ou#d not hear peop#e say! Cas bra$e as a #ionC% 9ar from being the pi##ar of society! knight#y honor affords a sure asy#um! in genera# for dishonesty and "ickedness! and a#so for sma## inci$i#ities! "ant of consideration and unmanner#iness% (ude beha$ior is often passed o$er in si#ence because no one cares to risk his neck in correcting it% After "hat 5 ha$e said! it "i## not appear strange that the due#ing system is carried to the highest pitch of sanguinary Iea# precise#y in that nation "hose po#itica# and financia# records sho" that they are not too honorab#e% What that nation is #ike in its pri$ate and domestic #ife! is a Fuestion "hich may be best put to those "ho are eEperienced in the matter% Their urbanity and socia# cu#ture ha$e #ong been conspicuous by their absence% There is no truth! then! in such preteEts% 5t can be urged "ith more justice that as! "hen you snar# at a dog! he snar#s in return! and "hen you pet him! he fa"nsD so it #ies in the nature of men to return hosti#ity by hosti#ity! and to be embittered and irritated at any signs of depreciatory treatment or hatred: and! as 4icero says! Cthere is something so penetrating in the shaft of en$y that e$en men of "isdom and "orth find its "ound a painfu# oneCD and no"here in the "or#d! eEcept! perhaps! in a fe" re#igious sects! is an insu#t or a b#o" taken "ith eFuanimity% And yet a natura# $ie" of either "ou#d in no case demand anything more than a reFuita# proportionate to the offence! and "ou#d ne$er go to the #ength of assigning CdeathC as the proper pena#ty for anyone "ho accuses another of #ying or stupidity or co"ardice% The o#d German theory of Cb#ood for a b#o"C is a re$o#ting

superstition of the age of chi$a#ry% And in any case the return or reFuita# of an insu#t is dictated by anger! and not by any such ob#igation of honor and duty as the ad$ocates of chi$a#ry seek to attach to it% The fact is that! the greater the truth! the greater the s#anderD and it is c#ear that the s#ightest hint of some rea# de#inFuency "i## gi$e much greater offence than a most terrib#e accusation "hich is perfect#y base#ess: so that a man "ho is Fuite sure that he has done nothing to deser$e a reproach may treat it "ith contempt! and "i## be safe in doing so% The theory of honor demands that he sha## sho" a susceptibi#ity "hich he does not possess! and take b#oody $engeance for insu#ts "hich he cannot fee#% A man must himse#f ha$e but a poor opinion of his o"n "orth "ho hastens to pre$ent the utterance of an unfa$orab#e opinion by gi$ing his enemy a b#ack eye% True appreciation of his o"n $a#ue "i## make a man rea##y indifferent to insu#tD but if he cannot he#p resenting it! a #itt#e shre"dness and cu#ture "i## enab#e him to sa$e appearances and dissemb#e his anger% 5f he cou#d on#y get rid of this superstition about honor''the idea! 5 mean! that it disappears "hen you are insu#ted! and can be restored by returning the insu#tD if "e cou#d on#y stop peop#e from thinking that "rong! bruta#ity and inso#ence can be #ega#iIed by eEpressing readiness to gi$e satisfaction! that is! to fight in defence of it! "e shou#d a## soon come to the genera# opinion that insu#t and depreciation are #ike a batt#e in "hich the #oser "insD and that! as ?incenIo >onti says! abuse resemb#es a church'procession! because it a#"ays returns to the point from "hich it set out% 5f "e cou#d on#y get peop#e to #ook upon insu#t in this #ight! "e shou#d no #onger ha$e to say something rude in order to pro$e that "e are in the right% <o"! unfortunate#y! if "e "ant to take a serious $ie" of any Fuestion! "e ha$e first of a## to consider "hether it "i## not gi$e offence in some "ay or other to the du##ard! "ho genera##y sho"s a#arm and resentment at the merest sign of inte##igenceD and it may easi#y happen that the head "hich contains the inte##igent $ie" has to be pitted against the nood#e "hich is empty of e$erything but narro"ness and stupidity% 5f a## this "ere done a"ay "ith! inte##ectua# superiority cou#d take the #eading p#ace in society "hich is its due''a p#ace no" occupied! though peop#e do not #ike to confess it! by eEce##ence of physiFue! mere fighting p#uck! in factD and the natura# effect of such a change "ou#d be that the best kind of peop#e "ou#d ha$e one reason the #ess for "ithdra"ing from society% This "ou#d pa$e the "ay for the introduction of rea# courtesy and genuine#y good society! such as undoubted#y eEisted in Athens! 4orinth and (ome% 5f anyone "ants to see a good eEamp#e of "hat 5 mean! 5 shou#d #ike him to read Tenophon@s CBanFuetC% The #ast argument in defence of knight#y honor no doubt is! that! but for its eEistence! the "or#d''a"fu# thoughtS''"ou#d be a regu#ar bear'garden% To "hich 5 may brief#y rep#y that nine hundred and ninety'nine peop#e out of a thousand "ho do not recogniIe the code! ha$e often gi$en and recei$ed a b#o" "ithout any fata# conseFuences: "hereas amongst the adherents of the code a b#o" usua##y means death to one of the parties% But #et me eEamine this argument more c#ose#y% 5 ha$e often tried to find some tenab#e! or at any rate! p#ausib#e basis''other than a mere#y con$entiona# one''some positi$e reasons! that is to say! for the rooted con$iction "hich a portion of mankind entertains! that a b#o" is a $ery dreadfu# thingD but 5 ha$e #ooked for it in $ain! either in the anima# or in the rationa# side of human nature% A b#o" is! and a#"ays "i## be! a tri$ia# physica# injury "hich one man can do to anotherD pro$ing! thereby! nothing more than his

superiority in strength or ski##! or that his enemy "as off his guard% Ana#ysis "i## carry us no further% The same knight "ho regards a b#o" from the human hand as the greatest of e$i#s! if he gets a ten times harder b#o" from his horse! "i## gi$e you the assurance! as he #imps a"ay in suppressed pain! that it is a matter of no conseFuence "hate$er% So 5 ha$e come to think that it is the human hand "hich is at the bottom of the mischief% And yet in a batt#e the knight may get cuts and thrusts from the same hand! and sti## assure you that his "ounds are not "orth mentioning% <o"! 5 hear that a b#o" from the f#at of a s"ord is not by any means so bad as a b#o" from a stickD and that! a short time ago! cadets "ere #iab#e to be punished by the one but not the other! and that the $ery greatest honor of a## is the Cacco#adeC% This is a## the psycho#ogica# or mora# basis that 5 can findD and so there is nothing #eft me but to pronounce the "ho#e thing an antiFuated superstition that has taken deep root! and one more of the many eEamp#es "hich sho" the force of tradition% >y $ie" is confirmed by the "e##'kno"n fact that in 4hina a beating "ith a bamboo is a $ery freFuent punishment for the common peop#e! and e$en for officia#s of e$ery c#assD "hich sho"s that human nature! e$en in a high#y ci$i#iIed state! does not run in the same groo$e here and in 4hina% On the contrary! an unprejudiced $ie" of human nature sho"s that it is just as natura# for a man to beat as it is for sa$age anima#s to bite and rend in pieces! or for horned beasts to butt or push% >an may be said to be the anima# that beats% :ence it is re$o#ting to our sense of the fitness of things to hear! as "e sometimes do! that one man bitten anotherD on the other hand! it is a natura# and e$eryday occurrence for him to get b#o"s or gi$e them% 5t is inte##igib#e enough that! as "e become educated! "e are g#ad to dispense "ith b#o"s by a system of mutua# restraint% But it is a crue# thing to compe# a nation or a sing#e c#ass to regard a b#o" as an a"fu# misfortune "hich must ha$e death and murder for its conseFuences% There are too many genuine e$i#s in the "or#d to a##o" of our increasing them by imaginary misfortunes! "hich brings rea# ones in their train: and yet this is the precise effect of the superstition! "hich thus pro$es itse#f at once stupid and ma#ign% 5t does not seem to me "ise of go$ernments and #egis#ati$e bodies to promote any such fo##y by attempting to do a"ay "ith f#ogging as a punishment in ci$i# or mi#itary #ife% Their idea is that they are acting in the interests of humanityD but! in point of fact! they are doing just the oppositeD for the abo#ition of f#ogging "i## ser$e on#y to strengthen this inhuman and abominab#e superstition! to "hich so many sacrifices ha$e a#ready been made% 9or a## offences! eEcept the "orst! a beating is the ob$ious! and therefore the natura# pena#tyD and a man "ho "i## not #isten to reason "i## yie#d to b#o"s% 5t seems to me right and proper to administer corpora# punishment to the man "ho possesses nothing and therefore cannot be fined! or cannot be put in prison because his master@s interests "ou#d suffer by the #oss of his ser$ice% There are rea##y no arguments against it: on#y mere ta#k about Cthe dignity of manC''ta#k "hich proceeds! not from any c#ear notions on the subject! but from the pernicious superstition 5 ha$e been describing% That it is a superstition "hich #ies at the bottom of the "ho#e business is pro$ed by an a#most #aughab#e eEamp#e% <ot #ong ago! in the mi#itary discip#ine of many countries! the cat "as rep#aced by the stick% 5n either case the object "as to produce physica# painD but the #atter method in$o#$ed no disgrace! and "as not derogatory to honor% By promoting this superstition! the State is p#aying into the hands of

the princip#e of knight#y honor! and therefore of the due#D "hi#e at the same time it is trying! or at any rate it pretends it is trying! to abo#ish the due# by #egis#ati$e enactment% As a natura# conseFuence "e find that this fragment of the theory that Cmight is rightC! "hich has come do"n to us from the most sa$age days of the >idd#e Age! has sti## in this nineteenth century a good dea# of #ife #eft in it''more shame to usS 5t is high time for the princip#e to be dri$en out bag and baggage% <o"'a'days no one is a##o"ed to set dogs or cocks to fight each other!''at any rate! in Eng#and it is a pena# offence!''but men are p#unged into dead#y strife! against their "i##! by the operation of this ridicu#ous! superstitious and absurd princip#e! "hich imposes upon us the ob#igation! as its narro"'minded supporters and ad$ocates dec#are! of fighting "ith one another #ike g#adiators! for any #itt#e trif#e% et me recommend our purists to adopt the eEpression CbaitingC0+3 instead of Cdue#C! "hich probab#y comes to us! not from the atin Cdue##umC! but from the Spanish Cdue#oC!''meaning suffering! nuisance! annoyance% 09ootnote +: C(itterhetIeC3 5n any case! "e may "e## #augh at the pedantic eEcess to "hich this foo#ish system has been carried% 5t is rea##y re$o#ting that this princip#e! "ith its absurd code! can form a po"er "ithin the State''Cimperium in imperioC''a po"er too easi#y put in motion! "hich! recogniIing no right but might! tyranniIes o$er the c#asses "hich come "ithin its range! by keeping up a sort of inFuisition! before "hich any one may be ha#ed on the most f#imsy preteEt! and there and then be tried on an issue of #ife and death bet"een himse#f and his opponent% This is the #urking p#ace from "hich e$ery rasca#! if he on#y be#ongs to the c#asses in Fuestion! may menace and e$en eEterminate the nob#est and best of men! "ho! as such! must of course be an object of hatred to him% Our system of justice and po#ice'protection has made it impossib#e in these days for any scoundre# in the street to attack us "ith''C&our money or your #ifeCS An end shou#d be put to the burden "hich "eighs upon the higher c#asses''the burden! 5 mean! of ha$ing to be ready e$ery moment to eEpose #ife and #imb to the mercy of anyone "ho takes it into his rasca##y head to be coarse! rude! foo#ish or ma#icious% 5t is perfect#y atrocious that a pair of si##y! passionate boys shou#d be "ounded! maimed or e$en ki##ed! simp#y because they ha$e had a fe" "ords% The strength of this tyrannica# po"er "ithin the State! and the force of the superstition! may be measured by the fact that peop#e "ho are pre$ented from restoring their knight#y honor by the superior or inferior rank of their aggressor! or anything e#se that puts the persons on a different #e$e#! often come to a tragic'comic end by committing suicide in sheer despair% &ou may genera##y kno" a thing to be fa#se and ridicu#ous by finding that! if it is carried to its #ogica# conc#usion! it resu#ts in a contradictionD and here! too! "e ha$e a $ery g#aring absurdity% 9or an officer is forbidden to take part in a due#D but if he is cha##enged and dec#ines to come out! he is punished by being dismissed the ser$ice% As 5 am on the matter! #et me be more frank sti##% The important distinction! "hich is often insisted upon! bet"een ki##ing your enemy in a fair fight "ith eFua# "eapons! and #ying in ambush for him! is entire#y a coro##ary of the fact that the po"er "ithin the State! of "hich 5 ha$e spoken! recogniIes no other right than might! that is! the right of the stronger! and appea#s to a C*udgment of GodC as the basis of the "ho#e code% 9or to ki## a man in a fair fight! is to pro$e that you are superior to him in strength or ski##D and to

justify the deed! Cyou must assume that the right of the stronger is rea##y a rightC% But the truth is that! if my opponent is unab#e to defend himse#f! it gi$es me the possibi#ity! but not by any means the right! of ki##ing him% The CrightC! the Cmora# justificationC! must depend entire#y upon the Cmoti$esC "hich 5 ha$e for taking his #ife% E$en supposing that 5 ha$e sufficient moti$e for taking a man@s #ife! there is no reason "hy 5 shou#d make his death depend upon "hether 5 can shoot or fence better than he% 5n such a case! it is immateria# in "hat "ay 5 ki## him! "hether 5 attack him from the front or the rear% 9rom a mora# point of $ie"! the right of the stronger is no more con$incing than the right of the more ski##fu#D and it is ski## "hich is emp#oyed if you murder a a man treacherous#y% >ight and ski## are in this case eFua##y rightD in a due#! for instance! both the one and the other come into p#ayD for a feint is on#y another name for treachery% 5f 5 consider myse#f mora##y justified in taking a man@s #ife! it is stupid of me to try first of a## "hether he can shoot or fence better than 5D as! if he can! he "i## not on#y ha$e "ronged me! but ha$e taken my #ife into the bargain% 5t is (ousseau@s opinion that the proper "ay to a$enge an insu#t is! not to fight a due# "ith your aggressor! but to assassinate him!''an opinion! ho"e$er! "hich he is cautious enough on#y to bare#y indicate in a mysterious note to one of the books of his CEmi#eC% This sho"s the phi#osopher so comp#ete#y under the inf#uence of the mediae$a# superstition of knight#y honor that he considers it justifiab#e to murder a man "ho accuses you of #ying: "hi#st he must ha$e kno"n that e$ery man! and himse#f especia##y! has deser$ed to ha$e the #ie gi$en him times "ithout number% The prejudice "hich justifies the ki##ing of your ad$ersary! so #ong as it is done in an open contest and "ith eFua# "eapons! ob$ious#y #ooks upon might as rea##y right! and a due# as the interference of God% The 5ta#ian "ho! in a fit of rage! fa##s upon his aggressor "here$er he finds him! and despatches him "ithout any ceremony! acts! at any rate! consistent#y and natura##y: he may be c#e$erer! but he is not "orse! than the due#ist% 5f you say! 5 am justified in ki##ing my ad$ersary in a due#! because he is at the moment doing his best to ki## meD 5 can rep#y that it is your cha##enge "hich has p#aced him under the necessity of defending himse#fD and that by mutua##y putting it on the ground of se#f'defence! the combatants are seeking a p#ausib#e preteEt for committing murder% 5 shou#d rather justify the deed by the #ega# maEim C?o#enti non fit injuriaCD because the parties mutua##y agree to set their #ife upon the issue% This argument may! ho"e$er! be rebutted by sho"ing that the injured party is not injured C$o#ensCD because it is this tyrannica# princip#e of knight#y honor! "ith its absurd code! "hich forcib#y drags one at #east of the combatants before a b#oody inFuisition% 5 ha$e been rather pro#iE on the subject of knight#y honor! but 5 had good reason for being so! because the Augean stab#e of mora# and inte##ectua# enormity in this "or#d can be c#eaned out on#y "ith the besom of phi#osophy% There are t"o things "hich more than a## e#se ser$e to make the socia# arrangements of modern #ife compare unfa$orab#y "ith those of antiFuity! by gi$ing our age a g#oomy! dark and sinister aspect! from "hich antiFuity! fresh! natura# and! as it "ere! in the morning of #ife! is comp#ete#y freeD 5 mean modern honor and modern disease!''Cpar nobi#e fratrumCS''"hich ha$e combined to poison a## the re#ations of #ife! "hether pub#ic or pri$ate% The

second of this nob#e pair eEtends its inf#uence much farther than at first appears to be the case! as being not mere#y a physica#! but a#so a mora# disease% 9rom the time that poisoned arro"s ha$e been found in 4upid@s Fui$er! an estranging! hosti#e! nay! de$i#ish e#ement has entered into the re#ations of men and "omen! #ike a sinister thread of fear and mistrust in the "arp and "oof of their intercourseD indirect#y shaking the foundations of human fe##o"ship! and so more or #ess affecting the "ho#e tenor of eEistence% But it "ou#d be beside my present purpose to pursue the subject further% An inf#uence ana#ogous to this! though "orking on other #ines! is eEerted by the princip#e of knight#y honor!''that so#emn farce! unkno"n to the ancient "or#d! "hich makes modern society stiff! g#oomy and timid! forcing us to keep the strictest "atch on e$ery "ord that fa##s% <or is this a##% The princip#e is a uni$ersa# >inotaurD and the good#y company of the sons of nob#e houses "hich it demands in year#y tribute! comes! not from one country a#one! as of o#d! but from e$ery #and in Europe% 5t is high time to make a regu#ar attack upon this foo#ish systemD and this is "hat 5 am trying to do no"% Wou#d that these t"o monsters of the modern "or#d might disappear before the end of the centuryS et us hope that medicine may be ab#e to find some means of pre$enting the one! and that! by c#earing our idea#s! phi#osophy may put an end to the other: for it is on#y by c#earing our ideas that the e$i# can be eradicated% Go$ernments ha$e tried to do so by #egis#ation! and fai#ed% Sti##! if they are rea##y concerned to stop the due#ing systemD and if the sma## success that has attended their efforts is rea##y due on#y to their inabi#ity to cope "ith the e$i#! 5 do not mind proposing a #a" the success of "hich 5 am prepared to guarantee% 5t "i## in$o#$e no sanguinary measures! and can be put into operation "ithout recourse either to the scaffo#d or the ga##o"s! or to imprisonment for #ife% 5t is a sma## homeopathic pi#u#e! "ith no serious after effects% 5f any man send or accept a cha##enge! #et the corpora# take him before the guard house! and there gi$e him! in broad day#ight! t"e#$e strokes "ith a stick Ca #a 4hinoiseCD a non'commissioned officer or a pri$ate to recei$e siE% 5f a due# has actua##y taken p#ace! the usua# crimina# proceedings shou#d be instituted% A person "ith knight#y notions might! perhaps! object that! if such a punishment "ere carried out! a man of honor "ou#d possib#y shoot himse#fD to "hich 5 shou#d ans"er that it is better for a foo# #ike that to shoot himse#f rather than other peop#e% :o"e$er! 5 kno" $ery "e## that go$ernments are not rea##y in earnest about putting do"n due#ing% 4i$i# officia#s! and much more so! officers in the army! GeEcept those in the highest positionsH! are paid most inadeFuate#y for the ser$ices they performD and the deficiency is made up by honor! "hich is represented by tit#es and orders! and! in genera#! by the system of rank and distinction% The due# is! so to speak! a $ery ser$iceab#e eEtra'horse for peop#e of rank: so they are trained in the kno"#edge of it at the uni$ersities% The accidents "hich happen to those "ho use it make up in b#ood for the deficiency of the pay% *ust to comp#ete the discussion! #et me here mention the subject of Cnationa# honorC% 5t is the honor of a nation as a unit in the aggregate of nations% And as there is no court to appea# to but the court of forceD and as e$ery nation must be prepared to defend its o"n interests! the honor of a nation consists in estab#ishing the opinion! not on#y that it may be trusted Gits creditH! but a#so that it is to

be feared% An attack upon its rights must ne$er be a##o"ed to pass unheeded% 5t is a combination of ci$ic and knight#y honor% CSection 6%''9ameC% ;nder the heading of p#ace in the estimation of the "or#d "e ha$e put C9ameCD and this "e must no" proceed to consider% 9ame and honor are t"insD and t"ins! too! #ike 4astor and Po##uE! of "hom the one "as morta# and the other "as not% 9ame is the undying brother of ephemera# honor% 5 speak! of course! of the highest kind of fame! that is! of fame in the true and genuine sense of the "ordD for! to be sure! there are many sorts of fame! some of "hich #ast but a day% :onor is concerned mere#y "ith such Fua#ities as e$eryone may be eEpected to sho" under simi#ar circumstancesD fame on#y of those "hich cannot be reFuired of any man% :onor is of Fua#ities "hich e$eryone has a right to attribute to himse#fD fame on#y of those "hich shou#d be #eft to others to attribute% Whi#st our honor eEtends as far as peop#e ha$e kno"#edge of usD fame runs in ad$ance! and makes us kno"n "here$er it finds its "ay% E$eryone can make a c#aim to honorD $ery fe" to fame! as being attainab#e on#y in $irtue of eEtraordinary achie$ements% These achie$ements may be of t"o kinds! either CactionsC or C"orksCD and so to fame there are t"o paths open% On the path of actions! a great heart is the chief recommendationD on that of "orks! a great head% Each of the t"o paths has its o"n pecu#iar ad$antages and detrimentsD and the chief difference bet"een them is that actions are f#eeting! "hi#e "orks remain% The inf#uence of an action! be it ne$er so nob#e! can #ast but a short timeD but a "ork of genius is a #i$ing inf#uence! beneficia# and ennob#ing throughout the ages% A## that can remain of actions is a memory! and that becomes "eak and disfigured by time''a matter of indifference to us! unti# at #ast it is eEtinguished a#togetherD un#ess! indeed! history takes it up! and presents it! fossi#iIed! to posterity% Works are immorta# in themse#$es! and once committed to "riting! may #i$e for e$er% Of A#eEander the Great "e ha$e but the name and the recordD but P#ato and Aristot#e! :omer and :orace are a#i$e! and as direct#y at "ork to'day as they "ere in their o"n #ifetime% The C?edasC! and their C;panishadsC! are sti## "ith us: but of a## contemporaneous actions not a trace has come do"n to us%0+3 09ootnote +: According#y it is a poor comp#iment! though sometimes a fashionab#e one! to try to pay honor to a "ork by ca##ing it an action% 9or a "ork is something essentia##y higher in its nature% An action is a#"ays something based on moti$e! and! therefore! fragmentary and f#eeting''a part! in fact! of that Wi## "hich is the uni$ersa# and origina# e#ement in the constitution of the "or#d% But a great and beautifu# "ork has a permanent character! as being of uni$ersa# significance! and sprung from the 5nte##ect! "hich rises! #ike a perfume! abo$e the fau#ts and fo##ies of the "or#d of Wi##% The fame of a great action has this ad$antage! that it genera##y starts "ith a #oud eEp#osionD so #oud! indeed! as to be heard a## o$er Europe: "hereas the fame of a great "ork is s#o" and gradua# in its beginningsD the noise it makes is at first s#ight! but it goes on gro"ing greater! unti# at #ast! after a hundred years perhaps! it attains its fu## forceD but then it remains! because the "orks remain! for thousands of years% But in the other case! "hen the first eEp#osion is o$er! the noise it makes gro"s #ess and #ess! and is

heard by fe"er and fe"er personsD unti# it ends by the action ha$ing on#y a shado"y eEistence in the pages of history%3 Another disad$antage under "hich actions #abor is that they depend upon chance for the possibi#ity of coming into eEistenceD and hence! the fame they "in does not f#o" entire#y from their intrinsic $a#ue! but a#so from the circumstances "hich happened to #end them importance and #ustre% Again! the fame of actions! if! as in "ar! they are pure#y persona#! depends upon the testimony of fe"er "itnessesD and these are not a#"ays present! and e$en if present! are not a#"ays just or unbiased obser$ers% This disad$antage! ho"e$er! is counterba#anced by the fact that actions ha$e the ad$antage of being of a practica# character! and! therefore! "ithin the range of genera# human inte##igenceD so that once the facts ha$e been correct#y reported! justice is immediate#y doneD un#ess! indeed! the moti$e under#ying the action is not at first proper#y understood or appreciated% <o action can be rea##y understood apart from the moti$e "hich prompted it% 5t is just the contrary "ith "orks% Their inception does not depend upon chance! but "ho##y and entire#y upon their authorD and "hoe$er they are in and for themse#$es! that they remain as #ong as they #i$e% 9urther! there is a difficu#ty in proper#y judging them! "hich becomes a## the harder! the higher their characterD often there are no persons competent to understand the "ork! and often no unbiased or honest critics% Their fame! ho"e$er! does not depend upon one judge on#yD they can enter an appea# to another% 5n the case of actions! as 5 ha$e said! it is on#y their memory "hich comes do"n to posterity! and then on#y in the traditiona# formD but "orks are handed do"n themse#$es! and! eEcept "hen parts of them ha$e been #ost! in the form in "hich they first appeared% 5n this case there is no room for any disfigurement of the factsD and any circumstance "hich may ha$e prejudiced them in their origin! fa## a"ay "ith the #apse of time% <ay! it is often on#y after the #apse of time that the persons rea##y competent to judge them appear''eEceptiona# critics sitting in judgment on eEceptiona# "orks! and gi$ing their "eighty $erdicts in succession% These co##ecti$e#y form a perfect#y just appreciationD and though there are cases "here it has taken some hundreds of years to form it! no further #apse of time is ab#e to re$erse the $erdictD''so secure and ine$itab#e is the fame of a great "ork% Whether authors e$er #i$e to see the da"n of their fame depends upon the chance of circumstanceD and the higher and more important their "orks are! the #ess #ike#ihood there is of their doing so% That "as an incomparab#e fine saying of Seneca@s! that fame fo##o"s merit as sure#y as the body casts a shado"D sometimes fa##ing in front! and sometimes behind% And he goes on to remark that Cthough the en$y of contemporaries be sho"n by uni$ersa# si#ence! there "i## come those "ho "i## judge "ithout enmity or fa$orC% 9rom this remark it is manifest that e$en in Seneca@s age there "ere rasca#s "ho understood the art of suppressing merit by ma#icious#y ignoring its eEistence! and of concea#ing good "ork from the pub#ic in order to fa$or the bad: it is an art "e## understood in our day! too! manifesting itse#f! both then and no"! in Can en$ious conspiracy of si#enceC% As a genera# ru#e! the #onger a man@s fame is #ike#y to #ast! the #ater it "i## be in comingD for a## eEce##ent products reFuire time for their de$e#opment% The fame "hich #asts to posterity is #ike an oak! of $ery s#o" gro"thD and that "hich endures but a #itt#e "hi#e! #ike p#ants "hich spring up in a year and then dieD "hi#st fa#se fame is #ike a fungus! shooting up in a night and perishing as soon%

And "hyP 9or this reasonD the more a man be#ongs to posterity! in other "ords! to humanity in genera#! the more of an a#ien he is to his contemporariesD since his "ork is not meant for them as such! but on#y for them in so far as they form part of mankind at #argeD there is none of that fami#iar #oca# co#or about his productions "hich "ou#d appea# to themD and so "hat he does! fai#s of recognition because it is strange% Peop#e are more #ike#y to appreciate the man "ho ser$es the circumstances of his o"n brief hour! or the temper of the moment!''be#onging to it! #i$ing and dying "ith it% The genera# history of art and #iterature sho"s that the highest achie$ements of the human mind are! as a ru#e! not fa$orab#y recei$ed at firstD but remain in obscurity unti# they "in notice from inte##igence of a high order! by "hose inf#uence they are brought into a position "hich they then maintain! in $irtue of the authority thus gi$en them% 5f the reason of this shou#d be asked! it "i## be found that u#timate#y! a man can rea##y understand and appreciate those things on#y "hich are of #ike nature "ith himse#f% The du## person "i## #ike "hat is du##! and the common person "hat is commonD a man "hose ideas are miEed "i## be attracted by confusion of thoughtD and fo##y "i## appea# to him "ho has no brains at a##D but best of a##! a man "i## #ike his o"n "orks! as being of a character thorough#y at one "ith himse#f% This is a truth as o#d as Epicharmus of fabu#ous memory'' 0Greek: Thaumaston ouden esti me tauth outo #egein =a# andanein autoisin autous ka# dokein =a#os pethukenai ka# gar ho kuon kuni =a##oton eimen phainetai koi bous boi Onos dono ka##iston 0estin3! us dut%3 The sense of this passage''for it shou#d not be #ost''is that "e shou#d not be surprised if peop#e are p#eased "ith themse#$es! and fancy that they are in good caseD for to a dog the best thing in the "or#d is a dogD to an oE! an oED to an ass! an assD and to a so"! a so"% The strongest arm is una$ai#ing to gi$e impetus to a feather"eightD for! instead of speeding on its "ay and hitting its mark "ith effect! it "i## soon fa## to the ground! ha$ing eEpended "hat #itt#e energy "as gi$en to it! and possessing no mass of its o"n to be the $ehic#e of momentum% So it is "ith great and nob#e thoughts! nay! "ith the $ery masterpieces of genius! "hen there are none but #itt#e! "eak! and per$erse minds to appreciate them!''a fact "hich has been dep#ored by a chorus of the "ise in a## ages% *esus! the son of Sirach! for instance! dec#ares that C:e that te##eth a ta#e to a foo# speaketh to one in s#umber: "hen he hath to#d his ta#e! he "i## say! What is the matterCP0+3 And :am#et says! CA kna$ish speech s#eeps in a foo#@s earC%0-3 And Goethe is of the same opinion! that a du## ear mocks at the "isest "ord! C)as g#Mcktichste Wort es "ird $erhKhnt! Wenn der :Krer ein Schiefohr istC: and again! that "e shou#d not be discouraged if peop#e are stupid! for you can make no rings if you thro" your stone into a marsh% C)u i"irkest nicht! A##es b#eibt so stumpf:

Sei guter )ingeS )er Stein in Sumpf >acht keine (ingeC% 09ootnote +: Ecc#esiasticus! EEii%! ,%3 09ootnote -: Act i$%! Sc% -%3 ichtenberg asks: CWhen a head and a book come into co##ision! and one sounds ho##o"! is it a#"ays the bookCP And in another p#ace: CWorks #ike this are as a mirrorD if an ass #ooks in! you cannot eEpect an apost#e to #ook outC% We shou#d do "e## to remember o#d Ge##ert@s fine and touching #ament! that the best gifts of a## find the fe"est admirers! and that most men mistake the bad for the good!''a dai#y e$i# that nothing can pre$ent! #ike a p#ague "hich no remedy can cure% There is but one thing to be done! though ho" difficu#tS''the foo#ish must become "ise!''and that they can ne$er be% The $a#ue of #ife they ne$er kno"D they see "ith the outer eye but ne$er "ith the mind! and praise the tri$ia# because the good is strange to them:'' C<ie kennen sie den Werth der )inge! 5hr Auge sch#iesst! nicht ihr ?erstandD Sie #oben e"ig das Geringe Wei# sie das Gute nie gekanntC% To the inte##ectua# incapacity "hich! as Goethe says! fai#s to recogniIe and appreciate the good "hich eEists! must be added something "hich comes into p#ay e$ery"here! the mora# baseness of mankind! here taking the form of en$y% The ne" fame that a man "ins raises him afresh o$er the heads of his fe##o"s! "ho are thus degraded in proportion% A## conspicuous merit is obtained at the cost of those "ho possess noneD or! as Goethe has it in the CWestKst#icher )i$anC! another@s praise is one@s o"n depreciation'' CWenn "ir Andern Ehre geben >Mssen "ir uns se#bst entade#nC% We see! then! ho" it is that! "hate$er be the form "hich eEce##ence takes! mediocrity! the common #ot of by far the greatest number! is #eagued against it in a conspiracy to resist! and if possib#e! to suppress it% The pass'"ord of this #eague is CU bas #e mQriteC% <ay moreD those "ho ha$e done something themse#$es! and enjoy a certain amount of fame! do not care about the appearance of a ne" reputation! because its success is apt to thro" theirs into the shade% :ence! Goethe dec#ares that if "e had to depend for our #ife upon the fa$or of others! "e shou#d ne$er ha$e #i$ed at a##D from their desire to appear important themse#$es! peop#e g#ad#y ignore our $ery eEistence:'' C:Otte ich geIaudert Iu "erden! Bis man mir@s eben geKgnut! 5ch "Ore noch nicht auf Erden! Wie ihr begreifen kKnnt! Wenn ihr seht! "ie sie sich geberden! )ie! um et"as Iu scheinen! >ich gerne mochten $erneinenC% :onor! on the contrary! genera##y meets "ith fair appreciation! and is not eEposed to the ons#aught of en$yD nay! e$ery man is credited "ith the possession of it unti# the contrary is pro$ed% But fame has to be "on in despite of en$y! and the tribuna# "hich a"ards the #aure# is

composed of judges biased against the app#icant from the $ery first% :onor is something "hich "e are ab#e and ready to share "ith e$eryoneD fame suffers encroachment and is rendered more unattainab#e in proportion as more peop#e come by it% 9urther! the difficu#ty of "inning fame by any gi$en "ork stands in re$erse ratio to the number of peop#e "ho are #ike#y to read itD and hence it is so much harder to become famous as the author of a #earned "ork than as a "riter "ho aspires on#y to amuse% 5t is hardest of a## in the case of phi#osophica# "orks! because the resu#t at "hich they aim is rather $ague! and! at the same time! use#ess from a materia# point of $ie"D they appea# chief#y to readers "ho are "orking on the same #ines themse#$es% 5t is c#ear! then! from "hat 5 ha$e said as to the difficu#ty of "inning fame! that those "ho #abor! not out of #o$e for their subject! nor from p#easure in pursuing it! but under the stimu#us of ambition! rare#y or ne$er #ea$e mankind a #egacy of immorta# "orks% The man "ho seeks to do "hat is good and genuine! must a$oid "hat is bad! and be ready to defy the opinions of the mob! nay! e$en to despise it and its mis#eaders% :ence the truth of the remark! Gespecia##y insisted upon by Osorius Cde G#oriaCH! that fame shuns those "ho seek it! and seeks those "ho shun itD for the one adapt themse#$es to the taste of their contemporaries! and the others "ork in defiance of it% But! difficu#t though it be to acFuire fame! it is an easy thing to keep "hen once acFuired% :ere! again! fame is in direct opposition to honor! "ith "hich e$eryone is presumab#y to be accredited% :onor has not to be "onD it must on#y not be #ost% But there #ies the difficu#tyS 9or by a sing#e un"orthy action! it is gone irretrie$ab#y% But fame! in the proper sense of the "ord! can ne$er disappearD for the action or "ork by "hich it "as acFuired can ne$er be undoneD and fame attaches to its author! e$en though he does nothing to deser$e it ane"% The fame "hich $anishes! or is out#i$ed! pro$es itse#f thereby to be spurious! in other "ords! unmerited! and due to a momentary o$erestimate of a man@s "orkD not to speak of the kind of fame "hich :ege# enjoyed! and "hich ichtenberg describes as Ctrumpeted forth by a c#iFue of admiring undergraduatesC''Cthe resounding echo of empty headsCD''Csuch a fame as "i## make posterity smi#e "hen it #ights upon a grotesFue architecture of "ords! a fine nest "ith the birds #ong ago f#o"nD it "i## knock at the door of this decayed structure of con$entiona#ities and find it utter#y emptyCS''Cnot e$en a trace of thought there to in$ite the passer'byC% The truth is that fame means nothing but "hat a man is in comparison "ith others% 5t is essentia##y re#ati$e in character! and therefore on#y indirect#y $a#uab#eD for it $anishes the moment other peop#e become "hat the famous man is% Abso#ute $a#ue can be predicated on#y of "hat a man possesses under any and a## circumstances!''here! "hat a man is direct#y and in himse#f% 5t is the possession of a great heart or a great head! and not the mere fame of it! "hich is "orth ha$ing! and conduci$e to happiness% <ot fame! but that "hich deser$es to be famous! is "hat a man shou#d ho#d in esteem% This is! as it "ere! the true under#ying substance! and fame is on#y an accident! affecting its subject chief#y as a kind of eEterna# symptom! "hich ser$es to confirm his o"n opinion of himse#f% ight is not $isib#e un#ess it meets "ith something to ref#ect itD and ta#ent is sure of itse#f on#y "hen its fame is noised abroad% But fame is not a certain symptom of meritD because you can ha$e the one "ithout the otherD or! as essing nice#y puts it! CSome peop#e obtain fame! and others deser$e itC% 5t "ou#d be a miserab#e eEistence "hich shou#d make its $a#ue or "ant

of $a#ue depend upon "hat other peop#e thinkD but such "ou#d be the #ife of a hero or a genius if its "orth consisted in fame! that is! in the app#ause of the "or#d% E$ery man #i$es and eEists on his o"n account! and! therefore! main#y in and for himse#fD and "hat he is and the "ho#e manner of his being concern himse#f more than anyone e#seD so if he is not "orth much in this respect! he cannot be "orth much other"ise% The idea "hich other peop#e form of his eEistence is something secondary! deri$ati$e! eEposed to a## the chances of fate! and in the end affecting him but $ery indirect#y% Besides! other peop#e@s heads are a "retched p#ace to be the home of a man@s true happiness''a fancifu# happiness perhaps! but not a rea# one% And "hat a miEed company inhabits the Temp#e of ;ni$ersa# 9ameS''genera#s! ministers! char#atans! jugg#ers! dancers! singers! mi##ionaires and *e"sS 5t is a temp#e in "hich more sincere recognition! more genuine esteem! is gi$en to the se$era# eEce##encies of such fo#k! than to superiority of mind! e$en of a high order! "hich obtains from the great majority on#y a $erba# ackno"#edgment% 9rom the point of $ie" of human happiness! fame is! sure#y! nothing but a $ery rare and de#icate morse# for the appetite that feeds on pride and $anity''an appetite "hich! ho"e$er carefu##y concea#ed! eEists to an immoderate degree in e$ery man! and is! perhaps strongest of a## in those "ho set their hearts on becoming famous at any cost% Such peop#e genera##y ha$e to "ait some time in uncertainty as to their o"n $a#ue! before the opportunity comes "hich "i## put it to the proof and #et other peop#e see "hat they are made ofD but unti# then! they fee# as if they "ere suffering secret injustice%0+3 09ootnote +: Our greatest p#easure consists in being admiredD but those "ho admire us! e$en if they ha$e e$ery reason to do so! are s#o" to eEpress their sentiments% :ence he is the happiest man "ho! no matter ho"! manages sincere#y to admire himse#f''so #ong as other peop#e #ea$e him a#one%3 But! as 5 eEp#ained at the beginning of this chapter! an unreasonab#e $a#ue is set upon other peop#e@s opinion! and one Fuite disproportionate to its rea# "orth% :obbes has some strong remarks on this subjectD and no doubt he is Fuite right% C>enta# p#easureC! he "rites! Cand ecstacy of any kind! arise "hen! on comparing ourse#$es "ith others! "e come to the conc#usion that "e may think "e## of ourse#$esC% So "e can easi#y understand the great $a#ue "hich is a#"ays attached to fame! as "orth any sacrifices if there is the s#ightest hope of attaining it% C9ame is the spur that the c#ear spirit doth raiseC CGThat hath infirmity of nob#e mindHC CTo scorn de#ights and #i$e #aborious daysC0+3 And again: C:o" hard it is to c#imb The heights "here 9ame@s proud temp#e shines afarCS 09ootnote +: >i#ton% C ycidasC%3 We can thus understand ho" it is that the $ainest peop#e in the "or#d are a#"ays ta#king about C#a g#oireC! "ith the most imp#icit faith in it as a stimu#us to great actions and great "orks% But there can he no doubt that fame is something secondary in its character! a mere echo or ref#ection''as it "ere! a shado" or symptom''of merit: and! in

any case! "hat eEcites admiration must be of more $a#ue than the admiration itse#f% The truth is that a man is made happy! not by fame! but by that "hich brings him fame! by his merits! or to speak more correct#y! by the disposition and capacity from "hich his merits proceed! "hether they be mora# or inte##ectua#% The best side of a man@s nature must of necessity be more important for him than for anyone e#se: the ref#ection of it! the opinion "hich eEists in the heads of others! is a matter that can affect him on#y in a $ery subordinate degree% :e "ho deser$es fame "ithout getting it possesses by far the more important e#ement of happiness! "hich shou#d conso#e him for the #oss of the other% 5t is not that a man is thought to be great by masses of incompetent and often infatuated peop#e! but that he rea##y is great! "hich shou#d mo$e us to en$y his positionD and his happiness #ies! not in the fact that posterity "i## hear of him! but that he is the creator of thoughts "orthy to be treasured up and studied for hundreds of years% Besides! if a man has done this! he possesses something "hich cannot be "rested from himD and! un#ike fame! it is a possession dependent entire#y upon himse#f% 5f admiration "ere his chief aim! there "ou#d be nothing in him to admire% This is just "hat happens in the case of fa#se! that is! unmerited! fameD for its recipient #i$es upon it "ithout actua##y possessing the so#id substratum of "hich fame is the out"ard and $isib#e sign% 9a#se fame must often put its possessor out of conceit "ith himse#fD for the time may come "hen! in spite of the i##usions borne of se#f'#o$e! he "i## fee# giddy on the heights "hich he "as ne$er meant to c#imb! or #ook upon himse#f as spurious coinD and in the anguish of threatened disco$ery and "e##'merited degradation! he "i## read the sentence of posterity on the foreheads of the "ise''#ike a man "ho o"es his property to a forged "i##% The truest fame! the fame that comes after death! is ne$er heard of by its recipientD and yet he is ca##ed a happy man% :is happiness #ay both in the possession of those great Fua#ities "hich "on him fame! and in the opportunity that "as granted him of de$e#oping them''the #eisure he had to act as he p#eased! to dedicate himse#f to his fa$orite pursuits% 5t is on#y "ork done from the heart that e$er gains the #aure#% Greatness of sou#! or "ea#th of inte##ect! is "hat makes a man happy''inte##ect! such as! "hen stamped on its productions! "i## recei$e the admiration of centuries to come!''thoughts "hich make him happy at the time! and "i## in their turn be a source of study and de#ight to the nob#est minds of the most remote posterity% The $a#ue of posthumous fame #ies in deser$ing itD and this is its o"n re"ard% Whether "orks destined to fame attain it in the #ifetime of their author is a chance affair! of no $ery great importance% 9or the a$erage man has no critica# po"er of his o"n! and is abso#ute#y incapab#e of appreciating the difficu#ty of a great "ork% Peop#e are a#"ays s"ayed by authorityD and "here fame is "idespread! it means that ninety'nine out of a hundred take it on faith a#one% 5f a man is famed far and "ide in his o"n #ifetime! he "i##! if he is "ise! not set too much $a#ue upon it! because it is no more than the echo of a fe" $oices! "hich the chance of a day has touched in his fa$or% Wou#d a musician fee# f#attered by the #oud app#ause of an audience if he kne" that they "ere near#y a## deaf! and that! to concea# their infirmity! they set to "ork to c#ap $igorous#y as soon as e$er they sa" one or t"o persons app#audingP And "hat "ou#d he say if he got to kno" that those one or t"o persons had often taken bribes to secure

the #oudest app#ause for the poorest p#ayerS 5t is easy to see "hy contemporary praise so se#dom de$e#ops into posthumous fame% )@A#embert! in an eEtreme#y fine description of the temp#e of #iterary fame! remarks that the sanctuary of the temp#e is inhabited by the great dead! "ho during their #ife had no p#ace there! and by a $ery fe" #i$ing persons! "ho are near#y a## ejected on their death% et me remark! in passing! that to erect a monument to a man in his #ifetime is as much as dec#aring that posterity is not to be trusted in its judgment of him% 5f a man does happen to see his o"n true fame! it can $ery rare#y be before he is o#d! though there ha$e been artists and musicians "ho ha$e been eEceptions to this ru#e! but $ery fe" phi#osophers% This is confirmed by the portraits of peop#e ce#ebrated by their "orksD for most of them are taken on#y after their subjects ha$e attained ce#ebrity! genera##y depicting them as o#d and greyD more especia##y if phi#osophy has been the "ork of their #i$es% 9rom the eudaemonistic standpoint! this is a $ery proper arrangementD as fame and youth are too much for a morta# at one and the same time% ife is such a poor business that the strictest economy must be eEercised in its good things% &outh has enough and to spare in itse#f! and must rest content "ith "hat it has% But "hen the de#ights and joys of #ife fa## a"ay in o#d age! as the #ea$es from a tree in autumn! fame buds forth opportune#y! #ike a p#ant that is green in "inter% 9ame is! as it "ere! the fruit that must gro" a## the summer before it can be enjoyed at &u#e% There is no greater conso#ation in age than the fee#ing of ha$ing put the "ho#e force of one@s youth into "orks "hich sti## remain young% 9ina##y! #et us eEamine a #itt#e more c#ose#y the kinds of fame "hich attach to $arious inte##ectua# pursuitsD for it is "ith fame of this sort that my remarks are more immediate#y concerned% 5 think it may be said broad#y that the inte##ectua# superiority it denotes consists in forming theories! that is! ne" combinations of certain facts% These facts may be of $ery different kindsD but the better they are kno"n! and the more they come "ithin e$eryday eEperience! the greater and "ider "i## be the fame "hich is to be "on by theoriIing about them% 9or instance! if the facts in Fuestion are numbers or #ines or specia# branches of science! such as physics! Ioo#ogy! botany! anatomy! or corrupt passages in ancient authors! or undecipherab#e inscriptions! "ritten! it may be! in some unkno"n a#phabet! or obscure points in historyD the kind of fame that may be obtained by correct#y manipu#ating such facts "i## not eEtend much beyond those "ho make a study of them''a sma## number of persons! most of "hom #i$e retired #i$es and are en$ious of others "ho become famous in their specia# branch of kno"#edge% But if the facts be such as are kno"n to e$eryone! for eEamp#e! the fundamenta# characteristics of the human mind or the human heart! "hich are shared by a## a#ikeD or the great physica# agencies "hich are constant#y in operation before our eyes! or the genera# course of natura# #a"sD the kind of fame "hich is to be "on by spreading the #ight of a ne" and manifest#y true theory in regard to them! is such as in time "i## eEtend a#most a## o$er the ci$i#iIed "or#d: for if the facts be such as e$eryone can grasp! the theory a#so "i## be genera##y inte##igib#e% But the eEtent of the fame "i## depend upon the difficu#ties o$ercomeD and the more genera##y kno"n the facts are! the harder it "i## be to form a theory that sha## be both ne" and true: because a great many heads "i## ha$e been occupied "ith them! and

there "i## be #itt#e or no possibi#ity of saying anything that has not been said before% On the other hand! facts "hich are not accessib#e to e$erybody! and can be got at on#y after much difficu#ty and #abor! near#y a#"ays admit of ne" combinations and theoriesD so that! if sound understanding and judgment are brought to bear upon them''Fua#ities "hich do not in$o#$e $ery high inte##ectua# po"er''a man may easi#y be so fortunate as to #ight upon some ne" theory in regard to them "hich sha## be a#so true% But fame "on on such paths does not eEtend much beyond those "ho possess a kno"#edge of the facts in Fuestion% To so#$e prob#ems of this sort reFuires! no doubt! a great idea# of study and #abor! if on#y to get at the factsD "hi#st on the path "here the greatest and most "idespread fame is to be "on! the facts may be grasped "ithout any #abor at a##% But just in proportion as #ess #abor is necessary! more ta#ent or genius is reFuiredD and bet"een such Fua#ities and the drudgery of research no comparison is possib#e! in respect either of their intrinsic $a#ue! or of the estimation in "hich they are he#d% And so peop#e "ho fee# that they possess so#id inte##ectua# capacity and a sound judgment! and yet cannot c#aim the highest menta# po"ers! shou#d not be afraid of #aborious studyD for by its aid they may "ork themse#$es abo$e the great mob of humanity "ho ha$e the facts constant#y before their eyes! and reach those sec#uded spots "hich are accessib#e to #earned toi#% 9or this is a sphere "here there are infinite#y fe"er ri$a#s! and a man of on#y moderate capacity may soon find an opportunity of proc#aiming a theory "hich sha## be both ne" and trueD nay! the merit of his disco$ery "i## part#y rest upon the difficu#ty of coming at the facts% But app#ause from one@s fe##o"'students! "ho are the on#y persons "ith a kno"#edge of the subject! sounds $ery faint to the far'off mu#titude% And if "e fo##o" up this sort of fame far enough! "e sha## at #ast come to a point "here facts $ery difficu#t to get at are in themse#$es sufficient to #ay a foundation of fame! "ithout any necessity for forming a theoryD''tra$e#s! for instance! in remote and #itt#e'kno"n countries! "hich make a man famous by "hat he has seen! not by "hat he has thought% The great ad$antage of this kind of fame is that to re#ate "hat one has seen! is much easier than to impart one@s thoughts! and peop#e are apt to understand descriptions better than ideas! reading the one more readi#y than the other: for! as Asmus says! CWhen one goes forth a'$oyaging :e has a ta#e to te##C% And yet for a## that! a persona# acFuaintance "ith ce#ebrated tra$e#ers often remind us of a #ine from :orace''ne" scenes do not a#"ays mean ne" ideas'' C4ae#um non animum mutant Fui trans mare curruntC%0+3 09ootnote +: Epist% 5% 55%3 But if a man finds himse#f in possession of great menta# facu#ties! such as a#one shou#d $enture on the so#ution of the hardest of a## prob#ems''those "hich concern nature as a "ho#e and humanity in its "idest range! he "i## do "e## to eEtend his $ie" eFua##y in a## directions! "ithout e$er straying too far amid the intricacies of $arious by'paths! or in$ading regions #itt#e kno"nD in other "ords!

"ithout occupying himse#f "ith specia# branches of kno"#edge! to say nothing of their petty detai#s% There is no necessity for him to seek out subjects difficu#t of access! in order to escape a cro"d of ri$a#sD the common objects of #ife "i## gi$e him materia# for ne" theories at once serious and trueD and the ser$ice he renders "i## be appreciated by a## those''and they form a great part of mankind''"ho kno" the facts of "hich he treats% What a $ast distinction there is bet"een students of physics! chemistry! anatomy! minera#ogy! Ioo#ogy! phi#o#ogy! history! and the men "ho dea# "ith the great facts of human #ife! the poet and the phi#osopherS

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