INTRODUCTION: Ceramics is derived from the Greek word keramos, which means pottery or burnt stuff.

Ceramics were probably the 1 st material to be artificially made by humans and porcelain was among the 1st material to be the subject of early laboratory research by scientists. Examples of the early fabrication of ceramic articles have been found and dated as far back as !,""" years #.C. $istorically, three basic types of ceramic materials were developed. 1. . Earthern ware %fired at low temperature and is relatively porous&. 'tone ware %app. in China in 1"" #.C. (t is fired at higher temperature than 1st, which results in both higher st ) less porous&. !. Chine stone %king etching in China 1""" *.+. much stronger and more tranclucent&. ,ierre -auchard %.he father of modern dentistry was the 1 st to suggest the use of porcelain in dentistry in 1/ 0&. +e Chateau a -rench person was the 1st to make a ceramic denture in 1//0. .he idea of making porcelain jacket crowns is credited to #eers of California in 10/!. .he 1st successful ,1C is said to be made by 2and of +etroit in 100 . ,orcelain inlays were said to have been produced at the ,hiladelphia +ental College in 103". (n the early 134"5s the 1st successful porcelain fused to metal system was introduced. History: 6any attempts at imitating Chinese porcelain were made in Europe in the 1/th century. 1ohn +wight of England was granted a #ritish ,atent 7o.148 in 14/1 by 9ing Charles:((, which claimed that he had been able to simulate 1

transparent Chinese porcelain. $owever, no examples are available to indicate that he infact had succeeded. * method of fluxing white clay was discovered by lab experiments in 6eissen in Germany in 1/"0. true porcelain of souther china. * 1esuit father named +5entrecolles was able to gain the confidence of Chinese potters and learn the secret in 1/1/ that had eluded manufacturers in Europe for so long. .he majority of the early Chinese porcelain was called hard paste porcelain. .his hard paste product is often referred to as ;true< porcelain and was highly transluent. .he ;green< composition of traditional hard porcelain is $ ?& => feldspar %9 ? *l ?! 4'i? & approximately ="> 9aolinite %*l ?! 'i? and => @uartA %'i? &. .he 1st porcelain used in dentistry in the late 10 th century was originally based upon the tri:axial porcelain composition. Bhereas the dental porcelain materials have evolved from the traditional tri:axial formula the actual composition of the white ware parian chain bodies used has varied greatly over the years ranging from those consisting of more than 3"> feldspar plus !:=> kaolin to bodies containing less than /=> feldspar plus a wide variety frits and other auxillary fluxes. .he fact that in the dental techni@ue only small simple shapes are re@uired has meant that the plasticity of the unfired porcelain is relatively unimportant. .his allowed a reduction in kaolin content and an inc. in feldspar, which enabled the fired material to have a much higher translucency in the absence of mullite formation. .his resulted in the composition moving away from the mullite Aone and into the leucite Aone. $owever this so called white porcelain more closely resembled the northern Chinese white stoneware rather than the transluent

(n 1//8 a -rench apothecary named *lexis +uchateau was very dissatisfied with the way that his carved ivory dentures became badly stained. $e noticed that the glaAed ceramic utensils that he used everyday for mixing and grinding his various chemicals resisted staining with the relatively non:porous surface and even also resistant to abrasion. .hese circumstances gave birth to the idea of using porcelain as a dental restoration material. $e enlisted the help of french porcelain manufacturers at the Guerhard factory in 't.German en: laye and succeeded in making himself the 1st set of all mineral dentures. +echateau had little success and later collaborated with a dentist named 7icholas +ubois de Chemant of ,aris who considerably improved upon the method of fabrication. +e Chemant was granted an invention patent by 2ewis CD(. .he publicity that followed upset other ,arisian +entists who accused him of stealing +uchateau5s invention. .he Bedgewood factory supplied the porcelain powder from which he continued to manufacture his dentures. .he foundation for the modern mass production of artificial teeth was laid by the (talian dentist Giuseppangelo -onAi when he produced the 1 st individual porcelain terro:metallic teeth in 10"0. Classification: .here are several categories of dental ceramicsE Conventional leucite containing porcelain. 2eucite enriched porcelain. Fltra:low fusing porcelain %may contain leucite&. Glass ceramic. 'pecialiAed core ceramics %alumina, glass infiltrated alumina, magnesia, spinel&. 3

 C*+:C*6 ceramics. Dental ceramics can be classified by type as: -eldspathic porcelain. 2eucite:reinforced porcelain. *luminous porcelain. *lumina. Glass:infiltrated spinel. Glass ceramic. By use: +enture teeth. ,1C. 6etal ceramics crowns. Castable glass ceramic crown. Deneers. (nlaysG?nlays. Crowns. *nterior bridges. Ceramic brackets. According to processing met od: $igh fusing 1!""o C. 6edium fusing 11"1:1!"" o C. 2ow fusing 0=":11"" o C. Fltra low fusing H 0=" o C. 4

According to met od of firing: *ir fired i.e. at atmospheric pressure. Dacuum fired i.e. at reduced pressure gas fusing. According to substructure met od: Cast metal. 'waged metal. Glass ceramic. C*+:C*6 porcelain. 'intered ceramic core. According to met od of fabrication: Condensing and sintering. ,ressure moulding and sintering. Casting and ceramming. 'lip casting. 'intering and glass infiltration. 6illing by computer control. According to application: Core porcelain. +entin or body porcelain. Enamel porcelain. Definition: !"ilman #$%&' (t is defined as a combination of one or more metals with a non:metallic element usually ? serve as a matrix with smaller metal atoms tucked into spaces between the oxygen. According to ()inners: 5

(t is a compound of metals and non:metals that may be used as single structural component, such as when used in a C*+:C*6 inlay or as one of the several layers that are used in the fabrication of a ceramic based prosthesis. Composition: Ceramics is a very broad term. Definition: * ceramic material may be defined as a compound of metallic and non:metallic elements, the formation of which re@uires high temperature. +ental ceramics contain a glassy matrix reinforced by various dispersed phases consisting of crystalline structures such as leucite, alumina and mica. ,orcelain is a specific type of ceramic characteriAed by it being white and transparent. *arly formulations: 9erl5s handbook of 13"/ gives the following mineral composition for the early dental porcelain developed by '.?C9.?7. -eldspar 9aolin ,otash silicate +ehydrated #orax " ."> T e recent composition: -eldspar 4":0"> basic glass former. 9aolin !:=> #inder. IuartA 1=: => filler. *lumina 0: "> glass former. #oric oxide :/> glass former and flux. ?xides of 7a, 9 ) Ca 3:1=> fluxes %glass modifiers&. 6etallic pigments H1> colour matching. 6 1=.!> "8./> /0.">

(ilica: 'ilica can exist in four different forms. Crystalline @uartA. Crystalline cristobalite. Crystalline .ridamite. 7on:crystalline fused silica. 'ilica acts as a refactory skeleton and provides strength and hardness to porcelain during fusing. (t remains unchanged during firing due to the ! dimensional network of the covalent bonds between silica tetra hydra. *ddition of metals like 7a, 9 or Ca can break the bonds between silica tretrahydra. .hese ions associate with the ? atoms at the corners of the tetra hydra, interrupt the ? silica bonds, as a result !+ silica network containing many linear chains of 'ilica tetrahydra which are amenable to move more easily at lower temperature than are the atoms locked into the ! dimensional structure of silica tetra hydra. +eucite: 2eucite is the crystal phase, which is used to create a high expansion porcelain that is thermally compatible with gold base, palladium based and nickel based alloys. Bhen subjected to heat treatments for 11=" o to 1!="o glasses in the 7 ?, 9 ?, *l ?!:'i? system containing not less than 11> 9 ? produce high exp. glasses suitable for bonding to metal. .he higher thermal exp. results from the crystalliAation of leucite. .he proportion of leucite is governed by the 9 ? content as well as the temperature and duration of heat Jx. .he leucite crystals contract more than the surrounding glass matrix during sintering. .he result is formation of compressive stress in the glass phase, which may reduce the stress at the tip of a propagating crack. Disad,antages:

.he high content of leucite seems to contribute to a relatively high in vitro wear of opposing teeth %'eghi, Josenstial, #auer 1331&. "lass modifier: ?xides of 7a, 9 ) Ca act a glass modifiers. .hese 1. 2ower the fusion temperature . (ncreases the flow of porcelain during firing and !. (ncrease thermal expansion. 8. .hey also absorb or remove impurities. $owever, if the concentration of flux is too high. (t reduces chemical durability of the glass. (t may cause the glass to crystalliAe or devitrify. #oric acid can behave as a glass modifier. *nother important glass

modifier is water although it is not an intentional addition to dental porcelain. .he hydronium ion $!? can replace sodium or other metal ions in an *lumina ceramic that contains glass modifier. .his fact accounting for the phenomenon of slow crack growth of ceramics that are exposed to tensile strength and moist porcelain restoration. Alumina: (t replaces some silica in glass matrix. (t gives strength and opacity to the porcelain. (t alters the softening point and increases the viscosity of porcelain during firing. .he form is used in ceramics and generally ball milled as powder below 1": " in siAe. -aolin:

(t is a white clay like material. (t is hydrated aluminium silicate. (t acts as a binder, gives opacity to the mass %some materials without kaolin use sugar or starch for the same purpose&. .eldspar: ,otassium and sodium feldspar are naturally occurring minerals composed of potash %9 ?&, soda %7a ?&, alumina %*l ?!& and silica %si? &. (t is the basic glass former. +uring firing feldspar fuses and acts as a matrix and binds silica and kaolin. (t acts as a flux, matrix and surface glaAe. Bhen it is mixed with metal oxides and fired at high temperatures it can form a glass phase that is able to soften and flow slightly. #ecause of this the porcelain powder particles coalesce together. .he process by which the particles coalesce is called li@uid phase sintering %firing of particles together without complete melting& a process controlled by diffusion between particles at a temperature sufficiently high to form a dense solid. (t has two important propertiesE 1. Bhen fused at high temperature it retains its form without rounding %due to high content of potash which is more viscous&. . #etween 11="o C and 1=!"o C it undergoes incongruent melting and forms crystals of leucite in a li@uid glass %2eucite is a potassium aluminium silicate material with a large co:efficient of thermal expansion compared with feldspar glasses % " to = x 1":4GoC comp to 1" x 1":4GoC&. Colouring frits: ,igmenting oxides are added to obtain various shades needed to simulate natural teeth. .hese colouring pigments are produced by fusing metallic oxides together with fine glass and feldspar and then regrinding to a powder. .hese powders are blended with the unpigmented powdered frit to provide the proper hue and chroma. 9

Examples of metallic oxides and their respective colour contribution includesE (ron or nickel oxide %brown&. .itanium oxide %yellowish brown&. 6anganese oxide %lavender&. Copper oxide %green&. Cobalt oxide %blue&. ?pacity may be achieved by addition of cerium oxide, Airconium oxide, titanium oxide and tin oxide. ,hosphorous dentoxide %, ?=& is sometimes added to induce opalascence and is also a glass forming oxide. /et ods of strengt ening ceramics: Ceramics are brittle materials and have low tensile strength. #ut their compressive strength is higher. (n order to overcome their principle deficiencies of brittleness and low tensile strength different methods have been usedE a. 6ethods of strengthening. b. 6ethods of designing components. (trengt ening of ceramic materials is done by: a. (ntroduction of residual compressive stresses into the surface of the material. b. (nterruption of crack propagation through the material. Introduction of residual compressi,e stresses: Concept: (f a surface is treated to introduce a residual compressive stress which is higher than the tensile stress, the resultant stress on the surface would still be a compressive stress. .hus the restoration will not yield and fracture due to the tensile stress. 'ome of the techni@ue for introducing residual compressive stress areE (on exchange %also called chemical tempering& 10

Jesidual compressive stresses can be introduced if sodium ion having a small ionic diameter which is a constituent of glass is exchanged by potassium ion %which is !=> larger&. .hus there is s@ueeAing of the potassium ion into smaller space termed as ;stuffing<. .his s@ueeAing creates large residual compressive stress %/"" 6pa& in the surfaces of the glasses subjected to this treatment. .hese residual compressive stresses produce a pronounced strengthening effect. $owever, this procedure is best used on the internal surface of a crown, veneer or inlay because this surface is protected from grinding and exposure to acids. 7ot all ceramics are amenable to ion exchange. .or e0ample: *lumina core materials. +icor glass:ceramic core. Conventional feldspathic porcelain that are highly enriched with potash feldspar cannot be sufficiently exchanged with potassium to warrant this treatment. T ermal tempering: .his is the most common method for strengthening glasses. .hermal

tempering creates residual surface compressive stresses by rapidly cooling the surface of the object while it is hot and in the softened state. .his rapid cooling produces a skin of rigid glass surrounding a soft %molten& core. *s the molten core solidifies, it tends to shrink but the outer skin remains rigid. .he pull of the solidifying molten core as it shrinks creates residual tensile stresses in the core and residual compressive stresses within the outer surface. -or dental application it is more effective to @uench hot glass:phase ceramic in silicon oil or other special li@uids rather than using air jets that may not uniformly cool the surface. T ermal compatibility !t ermal co1efficient mismatc ': 11

(n fabrication of ceramic in combination with metal this theory is employed. Ceramic in combination with metal are heated and cooled together. .he metal which is veneered with ceramic has a higher co:efficient of thermal expansion than the ceramic. $ence on cooling the metal contracts more than the ceramic thus leaving the outer layer of ceramic in residual compressive stress. Disruption of crac) propagation: *nother method of strengthening glass ceramics is to reinforce it with a dispersed phase of a different material that is capable of hindering a crack from propagating through the material. .wo different types of dispersions used to interrupt crack propagation areE 1. #y absorption of energy by the dispersed tough particle from the crack and thus depleting its driving force for propagation. . #y change of crystal structure under stress to absorb energy from the crack. Dispersion of a crystalline p ase: Bhen a tough crystalline material such as alumina %*l ?!& in particulate form is added to a glass, the glass is toughened and strengthened because the crack cannot penetrate the alumina particles as easily as it can the glass. .hus aluminous porcelain was developed for ,1C. *nother ceramic material that uses reinforcement of a glass by a dispersed crystalline substance is +icor glass ceramic. .he cast glass crown is subjected to a heat treatment that causes silicon siAed mica crystals to grow in the glass. Transformation toug ening: * newer technology for strengthening glasses involves the incorporation of a crystalline material that is capable of undergoing a change in crystal structure when placed under stress. .he crystalline material usually used is termed. ,artially stabiliAed Airconia %,'K&. .he energy re@uired for the 12

transformation of ,'K is taken from the energy that allows the crack to propagate

%one drawback of ,'K is that its index of refraction is much higher than that of the surrounding glass matrix&. *s a result the particles of ,'K scatter light as it passes through the bulk of the porcelain and this scattering produces an opacifying effect that may not be esthetic is most dental restorations. Design of dental restorations in,ol,ing ceramics: +ental restoration containing ceramics should be designed in such a way as to overcome their weakness. .he design should avoid exposure of the ceramic to high tensile stresses. (t should also avoid stress concentration at sharp angles or marked changes in thickness. /inimi2ing tensile stress: Conventional ,1C5s are contra indicated for restoring posterior teeth %because occlusal forces can subject them to large tensile stresses which are usually concentrated near the internal surface of the crown&. Reducing stress raisers: 'tress raisers are discontinuities in ceramic structures and in other brittle materials that cause stress conc. .he design of ceramic dental restoration should also avoid stress raisers in the ceramic. *brupt changes in shape or thickness in the ceramic contour can act as stress raisers and make the restoration more prone to failure. .abricating of a ceramic restoration: .he porcelain powder is mixed with the li@uid to form a plastic mass, which is condensed to form the porcelain restoration. has to be supported on a matrix. .he matrix should have a higher fusion temperature than the porcelains. 1. ,latinum foil ".""1< is adapted on the die to form a wrinkle free matrix. . 6etal coping of suitable design and alloy. 13 (t is then fired in the furnace for sintering. Bhen fired the mass shrinks and flows so the built up mass

.he matrix supports the unfired porcelain. #efore condensing porcelain the matrix is degassed in the furnace to remove the gasseous impurities and anneal the platinum foil. Building up of porcelain: * plastics mass is prepared of porcelain powders mixed with li@uid. Bith a brush the plastic mass is applied over the matrix. (t is built up in series of layers of core, dentin and enamel. /anipulation: Condensation: .he porcelain powder particles within the mass are closely packed in order to reduce the shrinkage of porcelain and minimise porosity in the fired porcelain. .he process of packing the powder particles together and removing the excess water is known as condensation. ,roper condensation gives a dense packing. +ense packing provides 2ower firing shrinkage. 2ess porosity. 6ethods of condensation areE 3ibration: 6ild vibrations are used to densely pack the wet powder upon the underlying matrix. .he excess water comes to the surface and it is blotted with a tissue. (patulation: * small spatula is used to apply and smoothen the wet porcelain. .his action brings excess water to the surface. Brus Tec ni4ue: +ry powder is placed by a brush water is drawn towards the dry powder and the wet particles are pulled together. Ultrasonic: 6ild vibrations are transmitted electrically. GravitationalE 14 benefits.

5 ipping: *ny method may be used for condensation but care is taken not to allow the porcelain to dry out as the porcelain powder is held together due to surface tension of water.

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.iring: -iring is carried out for fusing the porcelain. .he process is known as sintering. .he thermochemical reaction between the porcelain powder components are virtually completed during the original manufacturing process. 'ome chemical reaction do occur during prolonged firing times or multiple firings. Changes occur in the leucite content of the porcelain %2eucite is a high: expansion crystal phase whose volume fraction in the glass matrix can greatly affect the thermal contraction co:efficient of the porcelain&. Changes in the leucite content can cause the development of a thermal contraction coeff mismatch between porcelain and the metal and thus can produce stresses during cooling. .he porcelain should never be allowed to come directly in contact with the walls and floor of the muffle. .he condensed mass is gradually heated by first placing it in front of the muffle of a preheated muffle 4="o C and later inserting into the furnace. +uring firing the porcelain shrinks !":8"> by volume. +uring firing there is partial fusion of the particles at their point of contact. *s the temperature is raised the fused glass gradually flows to fill up air spaces. *s the fused mass is viscous all the air cannot escape and some get trapped giving rise to voids or porosity vaccum offset firing is done to reduce porosity in porcelain. Daccum firing of dental porcelain was introduced in the late 138"5s. $elberger %Germany& has been given the credit of developing and using the 1st vaccum furnace in 131!. .he vaccum firing porcelain frit has a large average particle siAe compared to air firing porcelain frit. 16

"as firing: *n alternative for producing high densities in by subsitution of diffensable gas for the ordinary furnace atmosphere. *ir is driven out of the porcelain powder bed and diffusable gas is substituted. .he gases used are heluim, hydrogen or steam. /anufacture .ritting: -rit is the final glass that is produced. .he raw mineral powder oxides or carbonates are mixed together in a refractory crucible heated to a temperature well above the ultimate maturing temperature in the laboratory. @uenched in $ ?. .he oxides melt together to form a molten glass. Gases are allowed to escape and the mix is .he red hot glass on sticking with cold $ ? immediately .he process of blending breaks up into fragments and is termed as the frit.

melting and @uenching the glas components is termed fritting. De,itrification: Bhen too many of the glass forming %' 1?8& are disrupted in dental porcelain the glass may devitrify. Ditrification in ceramic terms is the development of a li@uid phase by reaction or melting which on cooling provides the glass phase. .his structure is termed vitreous.

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(tages in firing: #6 +o7 Bis4ue stage: (n this stage the material becomes rigid and is very porous. .here is very little shrinkage. 86 /edium Bis4ue stage: .here is complete cohesion of the powder particles. (t is still porous, lacks transluency and high glaAe. shrinkage. 96 Hig Bis4ue stage: .he shrinkage is complete and the mass exhibits smooth surface. 'light porosity may be seen. .he body does not appear to be glaAed. *t any stage the work can be removed, cooled and additions can be made. 2ess the number of firings higher is the st. and better the esthetics. .oo many firings give a lifeless, over transluent porcelain. Cooling: 6ust be carried out slowly and uniformly. (f shrinkage is not uniform it causes cracking and loss of strength. +uring cooling subsurface submicroscopic surface cracks occur. %#ecause of the low thermal conductivity of porcelain the differential between the thermal dimensional change of the outside and inside can introduce stresses which embrittle the porcelain&. "la2ing: ,orcelain are glaAed to give a smooth and glossy surface, enhance esthetics and help in hygiene. .here are two types of glaAe. 1. 'elf glaAe. . ?ver glaAe. (elf1gla2e: *ll the constituents of porcelain frit are completely melted to form a single phase glass. .hen the porcelain is said to be self:glaAed. .he dental porcelains can be self glaAed by heating under controlled condition i.e. it is heated to its fusion temperature and maintained for = minutes. .his causes the surface 18 .here is definite

layer to fuse more confluently and fill up the irregularities giving a glossy surface. .he glass grains flow over the surface to form a vitreous layer, which is a glaAe %prolonged heating at higher temperature can cause pyroplastic flow of the material, which causes rounding of sharp angles and edges&. O,er gla2e: ?ver glaAe are ceramic powders containing more glass modifiers thus lowering fusion temperature. (t imparts an impervious glossly surface to the restoration. .he co:eff of thermal exp of the over glaAe should be slightly lower than that of body porcelain. %GlaAed porcelain is much stronger than unglaAed. transverse st reduces to half&. ?ver glaAe L 'ome of these materials are fluxes, not porcelains and tend to wear more rapidly than the natural glaAe. .he advantage of over glaAe is that it can be matured at a lower temperature than that re@uired to attain the auto glaAe. .his can be helpful for restorations that have been fired several times without forming a natural over glaAe. *lso, some stains tend to dilute and display a lower chroma when fired at the natural glass temperature. .herefore only if lower glaAing temperature is necessary the over glaAe may be used however the natural glaAe is preferred. Definition: 'tain is defined as a mixture of one or more pigmented metal oxides and usually a low fusing glass that when dispersed in a a@. slurry or monomer medium applied to the surface of porcelain or other specialised ceramic dried or light cured and fired will modify the shade of ceramic based restoration. .hey are also called as surface colorants or characteriAation porcelain. (taining materials: Ceramic stains are usually coloured metallic oxide pigments. 'ome are mixed with translucent ceramic powders, fired and dispersed in a ceramic glass base. .he glaAe is also

effective in reducing crack propagation. (f the glaAe is removed by grinding the

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'tains can be applied on the natural glaAed porcelain or to the surface with the glaAe removed %better&. .he stain will penetrate the unglaAed surface to a much greater degree than on a glaAed surface and have less tendency to pool. 'tains should not be applied on over glaAe. .he stains leave the surface in a rougher state than the unstained glaAed surface. 6etals used in metal ceramic restorationsE $igh 7oble Gold L ,latinum L ,alladuim Gold L ,alladuim L 'ilver Gold L ,lalladuim 7oble ,alladuim 'ilver $igh ,alladuim ,redominantly base 7ickel Chromium 7ickel Chromium #erryluim Cobalt Chromium Bonding /ec anism: -our mechanisms have been described to explain the bond between the ceramic verneer and the metal substructure. 1. 6echanical entrapment . Compresive forces !. Dan der Ball5s forces 8. Chemical bonding. Indications: 1. (n case of parafunctional mandibular activity where an esthetic restoration is essential. 20

. 2ingual clearance is less than ".0 mm after tooth preparation. !. *butments and aplinting. 8. ,osteriors, where full coverage is necessary for esthetics. =. +eep chamfer preparation are necessary. 4. Good occlusal surfaces are re@uired. Contra Indications: 1. *dolescent teeth with minimal tooth preparation. . *dult teeth with high enamel wear and insufficient bulk of the tooth. !. *nterior where esthetics is of prime importance. Ad,antages: $igh strength %comp& (mproved fit. Dis1ad,antages: 2ow tensile strength and shear stress. -it may vary due to distortion of metal. (ncreased opacity decreased light reflectivity. /etal Ceramic Restorations: .he bonding of porcelain to gold alloys introduced in early 134" by Beinstein et.al. was a pivotal breakthrough in dental esthetics. Beinstein et.al. first described the production of metal ceramic restorations by using porcelain powders containing 11> to 1=> 9 ? frits. Bhen subjected to heat treatments at temperature from /"" o C to 1 ""o C glasses in the 7a ?, 9 ?, *l ?! L '1?! system containing not less than 11> 9 ? produced high exp glasses suitable for bonding to metal. .he higher thermal expansion resulted from the crystalliAation of leucite. .he proportion of leucite is 21

governed by the -8O content as well as the temperature and duration of eat treatment6 .o achieve a strong bond to metal certain conditions must be met. 1. .he glass must wet the metal and the stresses resulting from thermal expansion and contraction should not exceed the tensile strength of the glass. . *lloys for attachment to dental porcelain must have high temperature stability and produce thin films of oxide for porcelain bonding %;degassing< treatment& %tin oxide ,iridium oxide in precious metals&. !. .he temperature should be raised to such a level that this oxide is partially dissolved into the glass. 8. Excess oxide production can produce weak bonding as some times occurs when 7i:Cr alloys are used. $igh gold alloys containing mininum 08> pure gold still remain alloy of choice. .o bond suitably to the alloys porcelain must be sufficiently low fusing and they also must have a coeff of thermal contraction that is closely matched to that of alloys %6etal should have a slightly higher value&. T ermal compatibility systems: .his porcelain metal bond is primarily c emical in nature and is capable of forming even when the metal surface is smooth and little opportunity exists for mec anical interlocking. .he alloy should have a high proportional limit and high modulus of elasticity. .he metal framework must not melt during porcelain firing and must resist high temperature %sag deformation&. #onding of porcelain to metal using electrodepositionE 22

* layer of pure gold is deposited onto the cast metal followed by a short ;flashing< deposition of tin. Ad,antages are: 1. #onding is improved because of improved wetting of the metal by the porcelain and the reduced porosity at the porcelain metal interface. . .he electro deposited layer acts as a barrier between the metal casting and porcelain to inhibit ion penetration by the metal %within normal limits of porcelain maturation&. !. .he gold colour of the oxide film improves the vitality and esthetics of the porcelain when compared to the normal dark oxides which re@uires thick opa@ue of porcelain to mask it. 8. .he colour of the activated surface can be controlled from golden, reddish brown to gray. =. .he deposited layer acts as a buffer Aone to absorb stresses caused by difference in the co:eff of thermal exp between porcelain and metal during cooling. 4. .he maturation time and temperature of the porcelain is reduced because of the highly reflective surface of the gold layer. 6etal:ceramic crowns based on swaged foil copings L 'chossow 1308. Jenaissance %Fnikorn 2td.& and captex are products designed to fabricate the metal coping of a metal:ceramic crown without the rise of a melting and casting procedure. (t is a laminated gold alloy foil that is delivered to the user in a fluted shape reminiscent of a miniature coffee filter. .his is swaged with a swaging instrument burnished and then flame sintered to form a coping with moderate strength. 23

%Ceraplatin or Ceplatec crown&. Compressive strength is inferiorE -it was accurate Bonded platinum foil coping: .he 1st commercially viable foil reinforced crown system was developed by 6clean and 'eed in 13/4. .he surface to platinum foil was coated with upto system was marketed under the trade name Dita:,t&. * foil thickness of not less than ".1 mm was sufficient to prevent fracture through metals according to studies. .hus allows more space for porcelain. *n alternative system for reinforcing porcelain crowns was produced by Captek. .he material is supplied in the form of impregnated wax like elastic strips that can be burnished to a refractory die before sintering each layer. .he gold alloy powder in the centre of the laminate provides the reinforcing phase. Bond failures in metal ceramics: Classification %Given by ?5brien in 13//&. /etal porcelain: -racture leaves a clean surface of metal seen when metal surface is devoid of oxides. 6ay also be due to contaminated or porous metal surface. /etal O0ide : ;orcelain: ,orcelain at metal oxide surface leaving oxide firmly attached to metal. 'een more often in base metal alloys. /etal1/etal O0ide: mm of tin. ?xidation

of the tin coating provided the mechanisms for bonding of the porcelain. %.his

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6etal oxide breaks away from the metal and is left attached to the porcelain. 'een in base metal alloys due to over production of chromium and nickel oxide.

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/etal O0ide : /etal O0ide: ?ccurs through the metal oxide. Jesults from over production of oxide causing sandwich effect between metal and porcelain. Co esi,e 7it in metal: 6ore common in bridges where the joint area breaks. Jarely seen in single crowns. Co esi,e 7it in porcelain: .ensile failure within porcelain bond strength exceeds strength of porcelain. 'een in high gold containing alloys. Tec nical considerations for metal ceramic restorations: 1. * clean metal surface is essential for good bonding. . -inal texturing is done with a alumina air abrasive by the process of sand blasting %6echanical bonding&. !. Casting in some cases is heated at 30" o C to burn off the impurities and degas it. 8. *pplications of opa@uer %". mm& to mask the colour of the underlying metal. =. .he porcelain is then built up and fired. All Ceramic Restorations: .he all ceramic crown in one form or the other has been employed in dentistry for more than 0" years. .he use of ,1C has been limited owing to its lack of precision and the inherent weakness of dental porcelain. $owever, it is commonly selected as rest of choice over the metal:ceramic crown when esthetics is of prime importance. .he ceramics employed in the conventional ,1C were high fusing feldspathic porcelains. .he relatively low strength of this type of porcelain

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prompted 6clean and $ughes %134=& to develop an alumina reinforced porcelain core material for the fabrication of ,1C. %="> weight fused alumina& 'trength of upto 10" 6pa was achieved. Dis1ad,antages: *ddition of alumina reduces the trasparency of the porcelain. .herefore for full coverage crowns alumina reinforced porcelain is often used as a core which is covered by conventional feldspathic porcelain with a smaller content of alumina. EgE $i Ceram. .hey have lower incidence of clinical fracture for three important reasons. 1. 6ade up of stronger materials and better fabrication technology. . *ll ceramic restoration can be etched and bonded to the underlying tooth structure with newer dentinal adhesives. !. Greater tooth reduction than was used previously for ,1C +eucite1reinforced porcelain !Optec H(;' !<eneric pentron': (t is a leucite:reinforced feldspathic porcelain that is condensed and sintered like aluminous porcelains and traditional feldspathic porcelain %1" " o C&. .he strength is higher than feldspathic porcelain %flexural st. L 184 6,*&.

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Dis1ad,antages: 6arginal fit inaccuracyM inc wear of opposing tooth re@uires a special die material. +o7 fusing porcelains: Jecently a number of low fusing porcelains have been introduced including -inesse +uceram 2-C. .hese porcelains sinter at a lower temperature than normally used for all:ceramic porcelains %44"o C&. .his effect is obtained mainly by a decreased or even non:existing content of leucite. (t has a less potential for abrading opposing teeth. .hey are used for veneers, inlaysGonlays or together with another material for crowns. Hig Alumina reinforced cro7ns: * techni@ue for manufacturing individual all ceramic crowns composed of a coping of densly sintered high purity alumina was described by *nderson and ?den in 133!. .his system was marketed as the ,rocera:*ll:Ceramic system. ,rocera:*ll:Ceramic copings are manufactured by compacting high:purity alumina powder *l ?! 33.3> with a dry pressing techni@ue against enlarged models of tooth preparation. .he milling machine produces a refactory die that is "> larger than the original die in order to compensate for the shrinkage of dense sintered power. (t has a flexural strength of 4"1 6pa. (t is one of the strongest current dental ceramic. Conventional etching with $- acid has no effect on alumina, other techni@ue must be used. Alumina 3eneer ;orcelain: *luminous veneer porcelains were designed to have a slightly higher thermal expansion than aluminous core porcelains. +uring the development of 28

veneer porcelains, the radioactive fluirescue sodium diuranuim septoxide was used. .his salt produced a strong greenish:yellow colour, when small amounts of cerium oxide were added a bluish:white flourescence very similar to human teeth was achieved. Ditadur the 1st commercial porcelain was marketed in 1344. %Jadioactive flourescence have now been banned&. "lass Ceramics !Castable ceramics': ;* glass ceramic is a material that is formed into the desired shape as a glass then subjected to a heat treatment to induce partial devitrification< %i.e. loss of glassy structure by crystalliAation of the glass&. .he crystalline particles, needles or plates formed during this ceramming process serve to interrupt the propagation of cracks in the material thereby increasing strength and toughness. .he use of glass ceramics in dentistry was 1 st proposed by /ac Culloc in#$%=6 $is pioneering effort in co:operation with the ,ilkington Glass Company in 't.$elen5s, England received little recognition. Jecently a glass:ceramic material based on the work of "rossman and Adair has been marketed under the trade name +icor %corning glass works and marketed by Dentsply international& mid 130". .he original glass ceramic material contained tetrasilicic fluomica crystals %9 6g='1? ?-8& %==>& which because of their plate like morphology %mica& added strength and resistance to fracture propagation. +icor is a castable glass that is formed into an inlay, facial veneer or full:crown restoration by lost wax casting process. *fter the casting is over the glass is covered by a protective Nembedment5 material and subjected to a heat treatment that causes microscopic plate like crystals of crystalline material Omica& to grow within the glass matrix. .his crystal nucleation and growth process is called ceramming6 %6ac Culloh reported that shade modification could be achieved only with surface colorants which tend to erode over time&. +icor because of its high 29 transluency has a chemeleon like effect and merges with the surrounding teeth %to

overcome the problems associated with surface colorants, +icor was used as a cast coping that could be veneered with a specially prepared aluminous porcelain. $owever, thin copings %less than 1 mm thick& tended to crack probably because of mismatches in thermal diffusivity or poor resistance to pyrophastic flow during the firing of the veneer porcelain&. *lthough highly esthetic dicor lacks fracture toughness and is more suitable for the fabrication of glass ceramic inlays. %occ wear of opposing natural tooth is less in case of +(C?J&. %*nother glass ceramic material was developed by Coors ,orcelain Company known as Cerestore L *l ?! is the principle component /"> and is partially crystallised as alpha L *l ?!. .he alpha L *l ?! and 6g. *luminate spinal are the strengthening pahse&. (n another type of castable glass ceramic material developed in 1apan the ceramming process produces hydroxyapatite crystals in the glass matrix rather than mica crystals in +icor. (t consists of a calcium phosphate based glass. (t is known as CEJ*,E*J2. /ac inable Ceramics: .hese products are supplied as ceramic ingots in various shades and are used either for computer aided designing, computer aided manufacturing procedure on in copy milling technology. %?ne of the 1st C*+:C*6 systems introduced was +FJE. system by $ennson L 7ot popular&. (n the C*+:C*6 techni@ue %Cerec& 'eimens developed by 6ormann and #randistini and made commercially available in 1300 the prepared cavity is mapped by a mini camers and fed to a computer linked to a milling machine. .his C*+:C*6 techni@ue is intended for use in dental office and produces a ceramic inlay in a one visit appointment. Cerec Ditablocs 6ark ( was the 1st to be used with the Cerec system. (t is a feldspathic porcelain with a composition similar to that of porcelains used for 30

,-6 restoration %3! 6pa st&. Cerec vitablocs 6ark (( is a feldspathic porcelain with a finer grain siAe and allegedly increased strength and decreased invitro abrasive wear of opposing tooth structure. +icor 6CG is a glass ceramic with fluoromica crystals in a glass matrix. C*+:C*6 technology has mainly been used for inlaysGonlays. (t has greater flexural st % 14 6pa& than castable dicor. (n the celay copy milling technology a resin composite restoration is made on a master die. .he restoration is then traced with a contact digitiAer that transfers the shape to the celay milling device. .he same ingots are used. Ad,antages: 7egligible porosity -reedom from making an impression Jeduced assistant time 'ingle sitting Good patient acceptance ,roduces less wear of natural tooth. .he dis:advantages of C*+:C*6 restoration include the need for %1& Costly e@uipment % & 2ack of computer controlled processing %!& 'upport for occlusal adjustment and %8& .he techni@ue sensitive nature of surface imaging that is re@uired for the prepared teeth. * gap between the restoration and the tooth is evident that is wider than that in other all ceramic system.

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.o over come this dis:advantages L * newer C*+:C*6 system was introduced by 'iemens called Cerec:E or the ceramic recontouring system with electric milling machine. .his system produces smaller marginal gaps. In>ection moulded glass ceramic: ,ressable ceramics %(,':empress&. .his material was developed by Bohlwend Divadent at +ental (nstitute, Kurich Fniversity. (,' empress is a precerramed glass:ceramic that is heated in a cylinder form and injected under pressure and high temperature into a mold. (t has !":8"> volume of leucite crystals and thus increased. -lexural strength and tends resistance to crack propagation. Dis1ad,antages: *brasion of opp tooth. 'pecial ?ven and die material. .he core material is a glass ceramic containing lithium disilicate and lithium orthophosphate crystals, while the veneering material contains fluorapatite crystals. * higher volume of the crystalline phase results in increased strength of (,' empress compared to the original (,' empress. ?ptec ?,C is also a leucite containing glass ceramic, which is processed by molding under pressure and heat. * full crown is waxed, invested and placed in a specialiAed mold that has a alumina plunger. .he ingot is placed under the plunger. .he entire assembly is heated to 11="o C and the plunger is released. .he plunger presses the molten ceramic into the mould. .he pressed ceramic is then baked. "lass infiltrated ig alumina core ceramic !In1Ceram': (n:Ceram is a so:called infilterated ceramic and is used as a core material which is later veneered with feldspathic porcelain. .he slightly sintered 32

aluminous porcelain core is infilterated with glass at 11"" o C for 8 hours to eliminate porosity and to strengthen the slip:cast core. 'lip casting is the science of preparing stable suspensions and fabricating structures by building a solid layer on the surface of a porous mould that absorbs the li@uid phase by means of capillary forces. .he most common mould material used in slip casting is plaster of paris. (n 131" Count Don 'chwerin showed that alumina could be plasticiAed by grinding in acid. 'lip casting is generally carried out with *l' ?! most of the particles in 1 to = mm range few particles exceed " mm. * commonly used vehicle is 1> solution of polyvinyl alcohol. 'adoun refined the slip casting technology to produce a high strength. coping which is marketed under the trade name (n:Ceram. $e showed that a lightly sintered alumina powder could be infused with a %11"" o C L 8 hours& low: firing sodium lanthamim glass to produce a dense composite ceramic of very high strength. /=> of alumina is used. (n:Ceram has a high strength of 4!" 6pa %8=" 6pa&. * more translucent ceramic called (n:Ceram spinell has been introduced as an alternative to (n:Ceram. .he core in (n:Ceram spinell is 6g*l ?8 infilterated with glass. (t has decreased flexural strength. .he powder containing fine grained particles of *l ?! and 6g ?! is mixed with $ ? to form a suspension which is known as slip. .his slip is placed on a gypsum die and baked at 11 "o C for 1" hours to produce an opa@ue porous core. *t this stage the material is very fragile and must be handled very careful. 7ext an appropriate shade of glass powder is applied to the core and it is baked again at 11""o C for 8 hours. times. ( rin) free alumina !(o2io and Riley #$=9': +uring this process the molten glass infilterates the porous alumina by capillary action and increases strength by "

33

.he alumina ceramic used in this techni@ue is a shrink free composition. *luminium oxide is the primary component *l ?! %corundum& dominant phase. (t enhances strength. 6agnesium *luminate spinel %?ne of the mechanically strongest oxide ceramic material&. .he ceramic formulation is such that on firing chemical and crystalline transformations occurs to compensate for the decreased shrinkage volume. Direct /oulding: #ecause the alumina ceramic has the uni@ue property of not changing dimensionally from its unfired state to fired state a direct formation approach can be followed rather than the conventional indirect casting procedure. .he moulding procedure is done on the master die. .he die material must withstand the temperature of the moulding process without breaking or distorting. * special epoxy resin %cerestore epoxy& was developed for this purpose. Fnlike the most conventional dental epoxies this product is heat stable and undergoes permanent controlled expansion during curing. .he ceramic substrate is supplied as a dense pellet of the compacted shrink free formulation. .he pellet is heated until it is flowable %14" o C& and then transferred by pressure into a suitable mold directly on the master die. (n addition to being thermoplastic the ceramic is thermo setting therefore after the flowable ceramic has been injected into the mould and around the die it automatically sets. .he green substrate is then removed from the die and sintered. .he core is called cerestore core. .he opalascent veneer porcelain was invented by .he +entist5s 'upply Company of 7ew Pork, which in 134 filed the 1 st patents on the incorporation of the fine particles %grain siAe less than = mm& of alumina, aluminium or Airconium silicate, Airconium or tin oxide into commercial tooth porcelains. .hey have good esthetics. Hybrid ceramics !*stenia': 34

(t is a combination of ceramic and composite material. (t has 3 > wt. filler loading. .he particle siAes "." to jacket crown, inlay, onlay, crown and bridge. /agnesia Ceramic <ac)et Cro7n: Obrien #$=? 6agnesia was used as a core material on the basis of high expansion core material because of coeff. of thermal exp. being 1!.=x1" :4 for magnesia. .his diff is explained on the basis that magnesia has -CC structure where as alumina has a hexagonal close packed structure. reinforced porcelain L 1!1 6,*. T e main Ad,antages is: 'tronger jacket crown. Exceptional esthetic. 7o need for special e@uipment. 7o long process. (mproved flexival strength. Ormocers: ?rmocers an acronym for organically modified ceramics are a new type of material, which chemically are methacrylate substituted alkosilanes, that is they are organic:inorganic copolymers. .he alkylsilyl groups of the silane allow the formation of a inorganic '1:?:'1 network by hydrolysis and condensation. ,olymerisation reaction to give cross linked structures and their properties may be modified by filler particle substitution. * material based on this concept has recently become available. +efiniteE +egussa dental $anan, Germany. .he manufacturers claimE 6odulus of elasticity is same as *lumina . (t is indicated for

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2ow shrinkage, high abrasion resistance condensibility, timeless aesthetics, bio:compatibility and protection against caries. results are yet available. Bonded porcelain restorations: .he concept of bonding composite resin to acid etched porcelain was 1 st reported by 'imonsen and Calamia in 130! and the fabrication of porcelain veneers with this system was reported by $orn in 130!. Ceramic materials that have *l ?! as the main component are not etched appreciably by $- acid. $ybrid ceramis %Estenia& (t is a combination of ceramic and composite material. (t has 3 > wt filler loading. .he particle siAe is "." mm L ." mm. (t is indicated for jacket crowns, inlay, onlay, crown and bridge. ;orcelain laminate ,eneers: * laminate veneer is a conservative alternative to full coverage for improving the appearance of an anterior tooth. * porcelain laminate is an .his extremely thin shell of porcelain applied directly to tooth structure. misshapen teeth and close interproximal spaces. .he idea of porcelain veneers was given in 13!"5s by +r.Charles ,inceus. GlaAed porcelain which is non:porous, resists abrasion possesses esthetic stability and in well tolerated by gingiva is used. (n early 130"5s a method of bonding porcelain to acid etched enamel was developed. CONC+U(ION: +espite all possible differences in the materials and methods when a choice has to be made, apart from longivity focus should be directed to several other 36 7o longer taken clinical trial

restoration may be used to improve the colour of stained teeth, alters contours of

aspects which are important to the pt. for exmaples price, esthetics and number and duration of dental. R*.*R*NC*(: 1. ,hillips 'cience of +ental 6aterial 1"th Edition. . Jecent *dvances in +ental 6aterials L J.7ageswar Jao. !. .he all ceramic restoration L 1*+*, 3/, Dol.1 0. 8. Ceramics L +C7*.

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