Investment

Introduction
The casting procedure by the lost wax technique which is now a common practice, was not popular until 1907. When W.H. Taggart introduced his technique and casting machine to the pro ession. !odern dental practice in"ol"es a "ariety o casting operations, ranging rom the simplest inlay to all orms o cast crown, bridge structure and remo"able partial dentures. #ach o which ma$es use o the same undamental practices in orming the cast restorations. %nce the in"estment was set or an appropriate period approximately one hour, or most gypsum and phosphate bonded in"estments it is ready or burnout. The procedure or the two types o in"estments are similar. The crucible ormer and any metal sprue ormer are care ully remo"ed. &ny debris rom the in gate area ' unneled opening at the end o the ring( is cleaned with a camel hair brush. ) the in"ested ring is placed in a humidor at 100* humidity, i at all possible, the in"estment should not be permitted to dry out. +ehydration o set in"estment that has been stored or an extended period may not replenish all o the lost water. Definition &n in"estment can be described as a ceramic material which is suitable or orming a mold into which a metal or alloy is appropriately cast. The procedure or orming the mold is described as ,in"esting- 'wax pattern(. .epending on the melting range o the alloy and the pre erence o the clinician, generally two types o in"estment/ 1. 0ypsum 1 bonded and 2. 3hosphate 1 bonded in"estment are employed. The gypsum based materials represent the type traditionally used or con"entional gold alloys. The phosphate based in"est are designed purely or alloys used in the metal ceramic restoration. 1

Casting Procedure
Wax Elimination and Heating
The in"ested rings are placed in a room temperature urnace and heated to the prescribed maximum temperature. 4or gypsum bonded in"estments the temperature is either 56789 or hygroscopic technique or 6:089 or the thermal expansion technique. With phosphate bonded in"estments, the maximum temperature setting may range rom 70089 to 77089 depending on the type o alloy selected. The temperature setting is more critical with gypsum bonded in"estments than with the phosphate type because the gypsum in"estments are more prone to in"estment decomposition. .uring burnout, some o the melted wax is absorbed by the in"estment and residual carbon produced by ignition o the liquid wax becomes trapped in the porous in"estments, it is also ad"isable to begin the burnout procedures while the mold is still wet. Water trapped in the pores o the in"estment reduces the absorption o the wax and as water "apori;es. )t lushes wax rom the mold. The ormation o gases '9%2, H2%( depends howe"er, on the presence o a su icient supply o oxygen, the relati"ely high temperature o the o"en and adequate time o heating o the ring. ) the amount o oxygen a"ailable to the wax in the mould ca"ity is not su icient, the temperature o the o"en is not high enough or the wax pattern is heated only or a short time, incomplete reaction between the wax and oxygen may result '9raig(. %ne o the most satis actory way o eliminating wax pattern is to place the mold in the urnace with the hole down at irst, so that the ma<or portion o the wax drains out and is eliminated as a liquid. The ring is then in"erted with sprue hole placed upward. )n this way oxygen in the o"en atmosphere can circulate into the mold more readily.

) more than one ring is placed in an o"en a longer period o time is required or wax elimination. The general rule is to add : minutes to the wax elimination time or e"ery ring placed in the o"en at :0089.

According to Skinner
This process is acilitated by placing the ring with the sprue hole down o"er a slot in a ceramic tray in the burnout urnace, when the high heat technique is used the mold temperature generates enough heat to con"ert carbon to either carbon monoxide or dioxide, 'cause or the discolouration o alloy(. These gases can then escape through the pores in the heated in"estment.

Hygroscopic ( o! Heat" #ec$ni%ue

This technique obtains its compensation expansions rom three sources. 1. =789 water bath expands the wax pattern. 2. The warm water entering the in"estment mold rom the top adds some hygroscopic expansion. =. The thermal expansion at :0089 pro"ides the needed thermal expansions. This low heat technique o ers the ad"antages o less mold degradation, a cooler sur ace or smoother castings and the con"enience o placing the mold directly in the :0089 urnace, the last bene it ma$es it possible to $eep one or more urnaces at the burnout temperature, so that mold may be put in as they are ready at "arious times. This is particularly use ul in large laboratories where molds are ready at "arious times. 9are must ne"ertheless be ta$en to allow su icient burnout time because the wax is more slowly oxidi;ed at the low temperature.

The mold should remain in the urnace at least 60 minutes, and they may be held up to : hours longer with little damage. !olds placed in the urnace at inter"als lower the temperature o the urnace. #xtra time should be gi"en to ensure complete wax elimination. #"en though the mold is held at this temperature or 60>90 minutes, su icient residual ine carbon may be retained to reduce the "enting o the mold. ?ecause o this reduced "enting bac$ pressure porosity is a greater ha;ard in the low heat technique. @ince the in"estments generally employed with low heat technique may be more dense. @ome times mu le urnaces may be so air tight that burnout ta$es place in a reducing atmosphere, pre"enting complete oxidation o the wax residues. Aeeping the door open slightly permit air to enter and pro"ides enough oxygen or elimination o the wax. This is particularly important or the hygroscopic expansion technique when a lower burnout temperature is used. The standardi;ed hygroscopic technique was de"eloped or alloys with a high gold content. There may be a need or slightly more expansion or the newer noble alloys. This is obtained by ma$ing ollowing changes. 1. )ncreasing the water bath temperature to 508. 2. Bsing two layer o liner. =. )ncreasing the burnout temperature to a range o 60089 to 6:089.

Hig$ Heat (#$ermal Expansion" #ec$ni%ue

This approach depends almost entirely on high heat burnout to obtain the required expansion while at the same time eliminating the wax pattern.

&dditional expansion results

rom the slow heating o

gypsum

in"estments or setting, thus expanding the wax pattern and the water entering the in"estment rom the wet liner, which adds a small amount o hygroscopic expansion to the normal setting expansion.

&ypsum Investments
These are relati"ely ragile and require the use o a metal ring or protection during heating. The molds are usually placed in a urnace o room temperature and slowly heated to 6:089 to 70089 in 60 minutes and held or 1: to =0 minutes at the upper temperature. The rate o heating has some in luence on the smoothness and some instances o"erall dimensions. )nitially, the rapid heating can generate steam that can cause lac$ing or spalling o the mold walls. Too many patterns in the same plane within the in"estment a ter cause separation o a whole section o in"estment because the expanding wax creates excessi"e pressure o"er a large area. Too rapid a heating rate may also cause crac$ing o the in"estment. )n such a case the outside layer becomes heated be ore the wea$er sections, the outer layer starts to expand thermally, resulting in compressi"e stress in the outside layer that counteracts tensile stresses in the middle regions o the mold such a stress distribution causes the brittle in"estment to crac$ rom the interior outwardly in the orm o radial crac$s. These crac$s produce a casting with ine or spines. This condition is especially li$ely to be present with a cristobalite in"estment. Cow in"ersion temperature o the cristobalite, rapid rate o

expansion during the in"ersion ma$es it especially important to heat the in"estment slowly. The reduction o calcium sul ate by carbon ta$es place rapidly whene"er gypsum in"estments are heated abo"e 70089 in the presence o carbon. @ul ur dioxide as a product contaminates gold castings and ma$es them extremely brittle. This emphasi;es the need or complete elimination o wax and a"oiding burnout temperatures, abo"e 70089 particularly i the in"estment contains carbon. & ter casting temperature has been reached, the casting should be made immediately, maintaining high temperature or longer time may result in a sul ur contamination o the casting also sur ace on the casting because o the disintegration o the in"estment. @ome manu acturers who ad"ocate much more rapid burnout procedure suggest placing mold in a urnace at 1:89 or =0 minutes and ollowing with "ery rapid heating to the inal burnout temperature. & ew are o ering in"estment that may be placed directly into a urnace at the inal burnout temperature held or =0 minutes and cast. ?ecause the design o the urnace, the proximity o the mold to the heating element. The a"ailability o air in the shu le may a ect si;e and smoothness. )t is ad"isable to examine these actors care ully be ore a casting is made in this manner.

P$osp$ate Investments
?ecause the setting mechanism and reactions on heating are quite di erent there are se"eral di erences to gypsum 1 bonded in"estments.

3hosphate in"estment obtain their expansion rom / 1. The expansion o the wax pattern 1 this is considerable because the setting reaction raises the mold temperature considerably. 2. The setting expansion 1 this is usually higher than in gypsum 1 bonded in"estments especially because special liquid are used to enhance such expansion. =. The thermal expansion is greater when ta$en to temperatures higher than these used or gypsum 1 bonded in"estments.

P$osp$ate'(onded
3hosphate in"estments are usually much harder and stronger than gypsum in"estments. They are quite brittle and are sub<ect to the same unequal expansion o ad<acent sections as phase changes occur during heating.

P$osp$ate Investments )e%uire*

1. Higher burnout temperatures to ensure total elimination o wax. 2. The completion o chemical and physical changes. =. 3re"ention o premature solidi ication o higher molding alloys, the usual burnout temperatures range rom 7:0 to 90089. The heating rate is usually slow to =1:89 and is quite rapid therea ter reaching completion a ter a hold at the upper temperature or 20 minutes. 4or time sa"ing, there are now some in"estments that can be sub<ected to two stage heating more rapidly and placed directly in the urnace at the top temperature, held or 20>=0 minutes and then cast. To sa"e more time, the use o a ring and a liner is also eliminated the metal ring being replaced with a

plastic ring that is tapered so that once the in"estment has set it can be washed out o the ring, held or a speci ied time to complete setting, and then placed directly into the hot urnace, ob"iously, the expansion on setting in di erent than when a lined ring is used, so that changes in o"erall it must be considered. The required expansion may be ad<usted by "arying the liquid concentration.

#ime Allo!a+le for Casting

The in"estment contracts thermally as it casts. When thermal expansion or high heat technique is used, the in"estment uses heat a ter the ring is remo"ed rom the urnace, and the mold contacts. ?ecause o the liner and the low thermal ductility o the in"estment, a short period can elapse be ore the temperature o the mold is a ected under a"erage conditions o casting, approximately 1 minute can pass without a noticeable loss in dimension. )n the low heat technique, the temperature gradient between the in"estment mold and the root is not as great as with the high>heat technique. &lso the thermal expansion o the in"est is not as important to the shrin$age compensation. Howe"er the burnout temperature lies on a airly steep portion o the thermal expansion cur"e rather than on a plateau portion as in high>heat technique. There ore the alloy should also be cast soon a ter remo"al o the ring rom the o"en.

Casting ,ec$anisms
9lassi ied broadly into 2 types/ 1. 9entri ugal orce type. 2. &ir pressure to orce the metal into the mold.

%ther alloys are melted in one o the three ways/ The alloy is melted in a separate crucible by a torch lame and the metal is cast into the mold by centri ugal orce. The alloy is melted electrically by a resistance or induction urnace, then cast into the mold centri ugally by motor or spring action. The alloy is melted as in the irst two ways but it is cast by air pressure, a "acuum or both.

Centrifugal Casting ,ac$ine

The casting machine is irst wound rom two to i"e turns 'depending on the particular machine and the speed o casting rotation desired(. The metal is melted by a torch lame in a gla;ed ceramic crucible attached to the ,bro$en arm- o the casting machine. The bro$en arm eature accelerates the initial rotational speed o the crucible and casting ring, thus increasing the linear speed o the liquid casting alloy as it mo"es into and through the mold. %nce the metal has reached the casting temperature and the heated casting ring is in position, the machine is released and the spring triggers the rotational motion. &s the metal ills the mold there is a hydrostatic pressure gradient rom the tip o the casting to the bottom sur ace is quite sharp and parabolic in orm, reaching at the button sur ace. '0.21>0.27!3a(. ?ecause o this pressure gradient, there is a gradient in the heat trans er rate, such that the greatest rate o heat trans er to the mold is at the high pressures and o the gradient 'i.e., the tip o the casting(.

?ecause this end is requently the sharp edge o the margin o a crown, there is urther assurance that the solidi ication progresses rom the thin margin edge to the button sur ace. & "ariety o centri ugal machine are a"ailable some designed to spin the mold in plane to the table top, on which the machine is mounted and other to rotate in a plane "ertical to the table top. @ome are spring dri"en and others are operated by electric power. &ttached to some machines is an electric heating unit to melt the alloy be ore the mold is started spinning to orce the metal into mold. %thers ha"e a simple re ractors tray mounted on the machine in which the alloy is placed to be melted by a blowtorch. The ad"antage o the centri ugal machines and the simplicity o design and operation with opportunity to cast both large and small castings on the same machine. When the air pressure type o machine to employ either compressed air or some other gas, such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen can be used to orce the molten metal into the mold. The casting machine with an attached "acuum system designed to assist the molten mold alling into the mold are a"ailable. )n some casting, addition o the "acuum may ad"antageous but in general there is little e"idence to indicate superiority in the quality o castings produced by this addition. %ne should $eep certain ob<ecti"es in mind at the time o ma$ing the casting.

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1. To heat the alloy no quic$ly as possible to a completely molten conditions. 2. 3re"ent oxidation by heating the metal quic$ly with a well>ad<usted torch or other method and a small amount o lux on the metal sur ace. =. 3roduce a sharp details by ha"ing adequate pressure applied to the hot> melted metal to urnish it into the mold.

Electrical )esistance Heated Casting ,ac$ine

)n this there is an automatic melting o the metal in a graphite crucible within a urnace 'rather than by use o a torch lame(. This is an ad"antage or alloys used or metal ceramic restorations which are alloyed with base metals in true amount that had to oxidi;e on o"erheating. &nother ad"antages is that the/ =. 9rucible in the urnace is located lush against the casting ring. There ore the metal button remain molten slightly longer, again ensuring that solidi ication progresses completely rom the tip o the casting to the button sur ace.

Induction ,elting ,ac$ine

With this unit, the metal is melted by an induction ield that de"elops within a crucible surrounded by water>cooled metal tubing. %nce the metal reaches the casting temperature. )t is orced into the mold by air pressure, "acuum or both at the other end o the ring. 3opular in the casting o <ewellery more commonly used or melting base metal alloys.

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There is little practical di erences in the properties or accuracy o castings made with any o the three types o ceramic. The choice is a matter o access and personal pre erence.

Casting Cruci+les
0enerally, three types o casting crucibles are a"ailable / 9lay, 9arbon and Duart; 'Eircon alumina(. 9lay crucible are 1 many o crown bridge alloys such as high noble> alloy. 9arbon crucible 1 not only or high 1 noble crown bridge but also or higher using gold based metal ceramic. Duart; crucibles are recommended or high using alloys o any type suited or alloys that ha"e a high melting range and are sensiti"e to carbon contamination. 1. High palladium content. 2. 3alladium silicon rom metal ceramic copings. =. Fic$el>cobalt based.

,et$ods of ,elting Alloys

The most common method o heating gold alloy or ull cast metal restorations ha"e been the use o a gas>air blowtorch. & properly ad<usted blowtorch with de"elop a temperature that is adequate or melting distal gold alloys, whose melting a"erage is between 7708>100089. !any descriptions o the proper lame or heating metals and alloys are ound in the literature one practical method o chec$ing and interpreting the

12

lame condition is to apply the lame to a small piece o copper, placed on a soldering bloc$. The blowtorch is ad<usted and is then directed upon the copper. ) the copper turns bright and clean as it is heated the lame and the blow torch manipulation are correct, i copper turns dar$, dull red color oxydation is occurring and the heating is ine ecti"e. #lectric melting units o "arious designs are used in some laboratories to melt the alloys. These units ha"e the ad"antage that less s$ill may be required by the operator to control such de"ices. This is necessary or the use o blow torch howe"er many o these electric heating units ha"e no limiting controls and as a result the operator is required to exercise regarding the proper conditioning o the alloy. #lectric units are heated either by induction or by resistance heating systems. These heated by induction melt alloy much aster than those by torch melting, they can easily to o"erheated. &n electronic monitor to induce the proper temperature is "ery use ul. Bnits employing resistance heating require a longer time to complete the heating and casting operation when compared to torch melting.

,elting -o+le ,etal Alloy

The alloy is best melted by placing it on the inner sidewall o the crucible. )n this position the operator can better obser"e the progress o the melting opportunity or air gases in the lame to be re lected rom the sur ace o the metal rather than to be absorbed. The uel employed is a mixture o natural or arti icial gas and air. > 0old alloys cast restoration.

1=

%xygen air acetylene can also be used or cobalt>chromium based alloys with high melting point. The temperature o the gas>air lame is operately in luenced by the nature o gas and the proportions o gas and air mixture. 9are should be ta$en to obtain a nonluminous brush lame, with the di erent combination ;ones clearly di erentiated. ) the air supply is excessi"e incomplete compaction and a lower temperature results, roaring sounds accompanies this type o lame. The parts o the lame/ The irst long cone eminating directly rom the no;;le is the ;one in which air and gas are mixed be ore combustion. Fo heat is present in this ;one. The next cone, which is green and immediately surrounding the inner cone and $nown as the combustion ;one. Here the gas and air are partially burned. This ;one is oxidi;ing and should be $ept away rom the molten metal during usion. The next ;one, deep blue, is the reducing ;one it is the hottest part o the lame and is <ust beyond the tip o the green combustion ;one. This area should be $ept constantly on the metal during melting. The outer cone 'oxidi;ing ;one( is the area in which combustion occurs with oxygen in the air. This portion o the lame be added to melt the alloy, its temperature is lower than reducing ;one also oxidi;es the metal.

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The proper ;one in contact with the metal can be readily detected by the condition o the metal sur ace. With reducing ;one 1 sur ace o gold alloys is bright and mirrorli$e. When oxidi;ing ;one is in contact 1 there is a dull ilm o ,drossde"eloped o"er the sur ace. The alloy irst appears to be spongy, then small globules o used metal appears then the molten alloy soon assumes a spheroidal shape. &t the proper casting temperature, the molten alloy is slight orange and tends to spin or ollow the lame which mo"ed slightly, at this point the metal should be approximately =189 to 6689 abo"e its liquidous temperature. 9asting should be made immediately when the proper temperature is reached. )t is desirable to use the lux or gold alloys. The lux increases the luidity o the metal and the ilm o alloy helps pre"ent oxidation. +educing luxes containing charcoal are o ten used, small bits o carbon may be carried into the mold. They are excellent or cleaning old metal. & better lux is made rom equal parts o lux is added when the alloy is completely melted. used borax powder ground lux ormed on the sur ace o the molten

with boric acid powder. ?oric acid aids in "eterning borax on the sur ace. The

Cleaning t$e Casting

4or gold crown and bridge alloys. & ter the casting has been completed, the ring is remo"ed and quenched in water as soon as the button exhibits a dull red glow.

1:

The disad"antages o quenching are the noble metal alloy is le t in an annealed condition or burnishing, polishing and inishing procedures. When the water contacts the hot in"estments a "iolent reaction ensures. The in"estment becomes so t and granular and the casting is more easily cleaned. % ten the sur ace o the casting appears dar$ with oxide and tarnish such a sur ace ilm can be remo"ed by a process $nown as ,pic$ling- which consists o heating the discoloured casting in an acid. The best pic$ling solution or gypsum>bonded in"estments is a :0* hydrochloric acid H9l acid aids in the remo"al o any residual in"estment as well as o the oxide coating. .isad"antage to the umes rom the air are li$ely to corrode laboratory metal inishings and these umes are health ha;ard. & solution o sul uric acid is more ad"antageous in this respect care should be ta$en not to o"er heat or margins o the casting get distorted. Bltrasonic de"ices are also a"ailable or cleaning the casting, as are commercial pic$ling solutions made o acid salts. The best method or pic$ling is to place the casting in a test tube or dish and to pour acid o"er it. )t may be necessary to heat the acid, but boiling should be a"oided because o the considerable amount o acid umes in"ol"ed. & ter heating, the acid is poured o and the casting is remo"ed, in no case should casting be held with steel prongs so that both the casting and the tongs come into contact with the pic$ling solutions as this may contaminates the casting. The pic$ling solutions usually contains small amounts o copper dissol"ed rom pre"ious casting when the steel prongs contact this electrolyte, a small gal"anic cell is created and copper is deposited on the casting at the point where the prongs grip it. This copper deposition extends into the metal and is a uture success or discoloration in the area.

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)t is a common practice to heat the casting and then to drop it with the pic$ling solution. The disad"antages is that a delicate margin may be melted in lame or the casting may be distorted by the sudden thermal shoc$ when placed in the acid. 0old>based and palladium>based metal ceramic alloys and base metal alloys are bench cooled to room temperature be ore the casting is remo"ed rom the in"estment. 9astings rom these alloys are generally not pic$led, and when it is recommended or certain metal ceramic alloys it is only to selecti"ely remo"e speci ic sur ace oxides. Feither the phosphate binder not the silica re ractory is soluble in hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid. Hydro loric acid dissol"es the silica re ractory quite well without damage to a gold>palladium sil"er alloy but must be used care ully with other alloys. ?ase metal alloys require a light sandblasting usually with ine

aluminium oxide, chromium based partial dentures are usually sandblasted to remo"e the in"estment. &cid should ne"er be used or cleaning base metal alloys.

Casting of &lass
& castable glass ceramics inlay or crown is prepared in a manner similar to that o a metal casting, a wax pattern is made on a high strength stress die and all sections o the pattern should be more than 1 mm thic$ with the occlusal sur aces and marginal edges being 1: mm thic$. Wax pattern is sprued with 7 or 10 gauge sprues. The pattern is in"ested in a phosphate bonded in"estment and allowed to set or 1 hour.

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The in"ested pattern is placed in a room temperature o"en and heated to 27089 and held at that temperature or 20 minutes, a ter which the temperature is raised to 9::89 or an additional =0 minutes. & special centri ugal casting machine is used that has an electric urnace and is motor dri"en. The glass is heated to 1=6089 '2570( and then cast and spun or a su icient time to allow the casting to cool. The casting is allowed a set at room temperature or as minutes be ore di"erting. &t this point the casting is transparent. & ter the sprue is cut o and the area inished it must be cerammed 'recrystali;ed( to produce a transparent crown. The restoration is embedded in phosphate bonded in"estment prior to commonly or 6 hour at 107:89. the cerammed restorations is one color and must be shaded with ceramic stains to yield an esthetic restorations.

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& =rd type is the ethyl silicate bonded in"est used primarily in the casting o +.3... with base metal alloys. &ccording to &.& speci ication Fo.2 or casting in"estments or dental gold alloys are o three types o determined by whether the appliance is to be abricated is ixed or remo"able and the method o obtaining the expansion required to compensate or the contraction o the molten gold alloy during solidi ication. Type ) 1 are used or the casting o inlays or crowns, and the compensation o casting shrin$age is principally by thermal expansion o the in"estment. Type )) 1 are also used or the casting o inlays or crowns but ma<or mode o compensation is by the hygroscopic expansion o the in"estment. Type ))) 1 are used in the construction o partial dentures with gold> alloys.

&ypsum'(onded Investment
The essential ingredients are / 1. >hemihydrate o gypsum and 2. & orm o silica. >hemihydrate gi"es greater strength to the material and acts as a binder to hold the other ingredients together and pro"ide rigidity. &lthough depends on amount o binder 1 may contain 2:* > 5:* and is used or alloy with melting ranges below 100089 'i.e., gold>containing(. When heated to the required temperatures it shrin$s considerably and requently ractures all orm shrin$ considerably a ter dehydration between

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20089 and 50089. & slight expansion then occur between 50089 and approximately 70089, and then a large contraction occur. This is most li$ely carried by decomposition and sul ur gases such as sul ur dioxide are emitted which contaminates the castings 'with the sul ides o non habit allogest elements such as sil"er and copper(. Thus not to be heated abo"e 70089. > hemihydrate requires less mixing water and shrin$s less.

Silica
&dded to pro"ide a re ractory during the heating o the in"estment and to regulate the thermal expansion. )t exists in an allotrophic orm. 1. Duart; 2. Tridymite =. 9ristobalite and 5. 4used quart;. When heated a change in crystalline orm occurs at a transition temperatures, characteristics o the particular orm o silica. When heated quart; in"asion rom a GlowH orm >quit to high orm to quart; at :7089. 9ristobalite undergoes 1 between 20089>27089 rom 1 cristobalite. Tridymite 1 11789 to 16=89. >allotropic orm are stable only abo"e the transition temperature, in"ersion to the lower orm occur on coo$ing in each case. The density decrease as the >changes to > orm resulting increase in "olume.

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4used quart; is amorphous and glucobites in character exhibits in"ersion at any temperature below its usion points has an extremely low coe icient o thermal expansion and is o little use in dental expansion. Duart;, cristobalite, or a combination o the two orms may be used in a dental in"estment.

,odifiers
@uch as coloring matter reducing agents such as carbon powdered copper to pro"ide a non>oxidi;ing atmosphere in the mold when the gold alloy is cast. @ome o the added modi iers such as toxic acid and sodium chloride not only regulate setting expansion and the setting time, but also pre"ent most o the shrin$age o gypsum when it is heated abo"e =0089.

Setting #ime
&ccording &.& speci ications Fo.2 or dental alloy casting, @.T. should not be shorter than : minutes nor longer than 2: minutes the modern inlay in"estments set initially in 9>17 minutes.

-ormal Setting Expansion

& mixture o silica and gypsum hemihydrate results in setting expansion greater than that o the gypsum product when it is used alone. The silica particles probably inter ere with the inert washing and interloc$ing o the crystals as they orm. Thus the thrust o the crystals is outward during growth and they increase expansion. &.& speci ication Fo.2 or type ) in"est permits maximum setting expansion in air o only 0.6*, that o modern in"est is approximately 0.5*.

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The purpose o setting expansion is to aid in enlarging the mold to compensate partially or the casting shrin$age o the gold. The e ecti"eness o the setting expansion in enlarging the mold containing the wax pattern may be related to the thermal expansion o the pattern caused by the heat o reaction that occurs coincidentally with the setting o the in"estment. )t ollows rom such a theory that the setting expansion and e ecti"e only to the extent that the exothermic heat is transmitted to the pattern. The amount o heat present depends on the gypsum content o the in"estment I there ore the setting expansion o the in"est with comparably high content o gypsum more e ecti"e in enlarging the mold than is a product with a lower gypsum content. Ci$ewise manipulati"e conditions that increase the exothermic heat increase the e ecti"e setting expansion, 'eg, the lower the water powder ratio or the in"estment, the greater is the e ecti"e setting expansion(. .t$er varia+les are* &s the in"estment sets, it e"entually gains su icient strength to produce a dimensional change in the wax pattern as setting expansion occurs. The inner wall o the in"estment within a !%. wax pattern can actually orce the proximal walls outward to a certain extent. ) the pattern has a thin wall then the e ecti"e setting expansion, is somewhat greater than or a pattern with thic$er walls because the in"estment can mo"e the thinner wall more readily. &lso the so ter wax, the greater the e ecti"e setting expansion because the so ter wax is more readily mo"ed by the expanding in"estment.

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Hygroscopic Setting Expansion The hygroscopic setting expansion di ers rom the normal setting expansion in that it occurs when the gypsum product is allowed to set under or in contact with water and that it is greater in magnitude than the normal setting expansion. This is related to the additional crystal growth permitted and not to any di erences in chemical reaction. )n normal setting condition, the water around the particle is reduced by the hydration and the particle are brought more closely together by the sur ace tension action o the water. )n hygroscopic reaction the setting is ta$ing place under water, the water o hydration is replaced and the distance between the particles remain same. &s the crystals o dehydrate grow they contact each other and the setting expansion begins in normal setting reaction the crystals being inhibited become intermershed and entangled much sooner than those on hygroscopic reaction which grow much more reely during the early stage be ore the intermeshing inally pre"ents with urther expansion, the hygroscopic setting expansion is one o the methods or expanding the casting mold to compensate or the casting shrin$age o the gold alloys. 9ommercial in"estments exhibit di erent amounts o wax expansion. &.& speci ication Fo.2 or such type )) in"estments requires a minimum setting expansion in water o 1.2*, the wax expansion permitted is 2.2*. the actors controlling hygroscopic expansion.

2=

Effect of Composition
3roportional to the silica content o the in"estment the ine the particle si;e o silica the greater hygroscopic expansion >hemihydrate produce more hygroscopic expansion with silica. @hould ha"e enough binder with silica, at least 1:* o binder is necessary to pre"ent and drying shrin$age.

Effect of t$e Water/Po!der )atio (W*P"

Higher the W/3 ratio less the hygroscopic expansion.

Effect of Spatulation
!ixing time is reduced hygroscopic expansion decreased. %lder the in"estment lower is the setting expansion.

Effect of #ime of Investment

The greater amount o hygroscopic expansion is obser"ed i the immersion ta$e place be ore the initial set, the longer the immersion o the in"estment in the water both is delayed beyond the time o the initial set o the in"est. The lower is the hygroscopic expansion.

#$e effect of confinement

?oth the normal and hygroscopic setting expansion are con ined by exposing orces such as walls o the container in which the in"estment is placed on the walls o a wax pattern, the con ining e ect on the hygroscopic expansion is much more pronounced than the normal setting expansion. The increase in the e ecti"e setting expansion when the in"estment is immersed in a =789 water bath is caused mainly by the so tening o the wax

25

pattern at the water bath temperature permitting an increase in e ecti"e setting expansion, so tened conditions o wax reduces its con ining e ect on the expansion o the setting expansion.

Effect of t$e Amount of Added Water

The magnitude o the hygroscopic setting expansion can be controlled by the amount o water than is added to the in"estment. !agnitude is in direct proportion to the amount o water added during the period until a maximum expansion occurs also urther expansions to e"ident regardless o any amount o water added, the hygroscopic setting expansion is a continuation o the ordinary setting expansion because the immersion water replaces the water o hydration and thus pre"ents the con inement o the growing crystals by the sur ace tension o the excess water. ?ecause o the diluent e ect o the quart; particles the hygroscopic expansion in these in"est is greater than that o the gypsum binder when used alone. The phenomenon is purely physical, the hemihydrate binder is not necessary or the hygroscopic expansion. )n"estment with other binder exhibit similar expansion when allowed to set under water. #xpansion can be detected when water is poured into a "essel containing only small smooth quart; particles, the water is drawn between the particles by capillary action and thus causes the particles to separate, creating an expansion. &ny water insoluble powder that is wettable can be mixed with hemihydrate and hygroscopic expansion results. The greater the amount o silica or inert iller the more easily the added water can di use thus the setting material and the greater is the expansion.

2:

The term hygroscopic is a misnomer, although the added water may be drawn into the setting material by capillary action, the e ect is not related to hygroscopy. %n the basis o theory the hygroscopic expansion is a normal

phenomenon as that which occurs during normal set expansions the terms ha"e gained general acceptance by usage.

#$ermal Expansion
The thermal expansions o a gypsum bonded in"estment is directly related to the amount o silica present and to the type o silica employed, the contraction o the gypsum is entirely balanced when the quart; content is immersed to 7:*. The thermal expansion cur"es o the quart; is in luenced by particle si;e o the quart;, the type o the gypsum binder and the resultant water powder ratio necessary to pro"ide a wor$able mix. !uch greater expansion occurs during the in"ersion o cristobalite, the normal contraction o the gypsum during heating is easily eliminated. The expansions occurs at a lower temperature because o the lower in"ersion temperature. )n"estments containing cristobalite expand earlier and to a greater extent than those containing quart;. &.& speci ications no.2 requires that the thermal expansion must be not '0>66*( less than 1* nor greater than 1.6*. !aximum thermal expansion is obtained at a temperature not higher than 70089.

26

W*P )atio
!ore water that is used in mixing the in"estment the less is the thermal expansion that is achie"ed during subsequent heating.

Effect of C$emical ,odifiers

The addition o small amounts o sodium, potassium or libuim chlorides to the in"estments eliminates the contraction caused by the gypsum and increase the expansion without the presence o excessi"e silica.

Strengt$
The strength o the in"estment must be adequate to pre"ent racture or chipping o the mold during heating and casting gold alloy. When the alloy is still quite hot and wea$ the in"estment and resist alloy shrin$age by strong and constant dimension. & ter burnout o the pattern 'mold(, the strength need be no greater than that required to resist the impact o the metals containing the mold. &.& speci ications no.2 the compressi"e strength in"estments should not be less than 2.5 !pa or gypsum. or the inlay

.t$er &ypsum Considerations

)n"estments ineness a ect the setting time, the sur ace roughness o the casting, a ine silica results in higher hygroscopic expansion.

Porosity
&s the molten metal enters the mold, the air must be orced out ahead o it. ) not a bac$ pressure builds up to pre"ent the gold alloy rom completely

27

illing the mold, the common method or "enting the mold is though pores o in"estment, the more gypsum crystals, the less is its porosity lower the hemihydrates content and the greater the amount o gauging water used to mix, the more porous it becomes. !ore uni orm the particles si;e, the greater the porosity.

Storage P$osp$ate (onded Investment

The rapid growth o use o metal ceramic restorations and the increased use o higher melting alloys ha"e resulted in an increased use o phosphate or silica bonded in"estment.

Composition
9onsists o re ractory illers and binder, the iller is silica, in the orm o cristobalite, quart; or a mixture o two 1 70* concentration approximately. The purpose o silica is to pro"ide high temperature thermal shoc$ resistance and a high thermal expansion. The binder consists o magnesium oxide 'basic( and a phosphate that is acid in nature. %riginally phosphoric acid was used, but mono ammonium phosphate has replaced it, because it can be incorporated into the powdered in"estment. Fewer gold>containing alloys and other alloys used or metal ceramic ha"e higher melting temperature ranges and then contraction during solidi ication is also greater. This necessitate greater expansion, can be achie"ed by using colloidal silica suspensions with the phosphate in"estments,

27

in place o water colloidal silica liquid suspension ree;e, should be assessed be ore winter, ree;e solid at low temperature. @ome are made to be mixed with water, or predominantly base metal alloys, a 2=* dilution o the colloidal silica is required. 9arbon is o ten added to the powder to produce clear castings and acilitates the di"esting o the casting rom the mold, appropriate when the casting alloys is gold not with sil"er containing and base metal alloys. )t is belie"ed carbon embrittles the alloys. Catest e"idence palladium reacts with carbon i heated abo"e 1:0589 in this case in"estment without carbon should be used.

Setting and #$ermal Expansion

There is a slight expansion during the reaction compared to gypsum products, and this can be increased considerably by using a colloidal silica solution instead o water. When phosphate in"estments are mixed with water this exhibit a shrin$age within essentially the same temperature range as gypsum inert '20089>50089(. this contraction is practically eliminated when a colloidal silica solution replaces. @ome users o phosphate bonded > expansion can be decreased by the increasing the liquid / powder ratio also by decreasing the concentration o the special liquid or by they may use a combination o these methods.

29

Working and Setting #ime

3hosphate in"estments are mar$edly a ected by temperature. The normal the mix, the aster it sets the setting reaction itsel gi"es o itsel gi"es heat( and this urther accelerates the rate o setting. )ncreased mixing time and mixing e iciency results in a aster set and a greater rise in temperature. The ideal technique is to mix as long as possible yet ha"e <ust enough time or in"esting. !echanical mixing under "acuum is pre erred. heat 'this

Et$yl'Silicate 0 (onded Investments

)n"ol"es more complicated and time consuming procedures in"ol"ed. Bsed in the construction o the high using base metal palladium alloys. The binder is a silica gel, that re"erts to silica cristobalite on heating. @e"eral method may be used to produce the silica or silicic acid gel binder. When the pH o sodium silicate is lowered by the addition o an acid salt, a bonding silicic acid gel orms. The condition o magnesium oxide strengthen the gel. &n aqueous suspension o colloidal silica can be con"erted to a gel by the addition o an accelerator, such as ammonium chloride. &nother system or binder ormation is based on ethyl silicate. & colloidal silicic acid is irst ormed by hydroly;ing ethyl silicate in the presence o hydrochloric acid, ethyl alcohol and water. The solution is then mixed with the quart; or cristobalite to which is added a small amount o inely powdered magnesium oxide to render the mixture al$aline. & coherent gel o polysilicic acid then orms accompanied by a shrin$age. The so t gel is dried at a temperature below 16789. .uring the drying process, the gel losses alcohol and

=0

water to orm a concentrated hard gel, a "olumetric contraction accompanies the drying which reduces the si;e o the mold. This contraction is $nown as ,green shrin$age-, and it occurs in addition to the setting shrin$age. The gelation process is slow and time consuming certain types o amines can be added to the solution o ethyl silicate so that hydrolysis and gelation occurs simultaneously.

#$e Sprue 1ormer

The purpose o a sprue ormer or sprue pin is to pro"ide a channel through which molten alloy can reach the mold in an in"ested ring a ter the wax has been eliminated. With large restorations or prosthesis, such as remo"able partial denture rame wor$s and ixed partial dentures, the sprue ormer are made o wax. 4or smaller casting metal pins can be used, plastic sprue orms are also a"ailable. The diameter and length o the sprue ormer depends to a larger extent on the 1. Type and si;e o the pattern, 2. The type o casting machine to be used, =. &nd the dimensions o the las$ ring in which the casting is to be made. 3re abricated sprue ormers are a"ailable in a wide range o gauges or diameters sprue ormer gauge selection is o ten empirical, yet it is based on the ollowing i"e general principles '@$innerHs(. @elect the gauge sprue ormer with a diameter that is approximately the same si;e as the thic$est area o the wax pattern. ) the pattern is small the sprue ormer must also be small because a large @.4. attached to a thin, delicate pattern could cause distortion.

=1

 Howe"er, i the sprue ormer diameter is too small, this area will solidi y be ore the casting itsel and locali;ed shrin$age porosity ',suc$ bac$- porosity( may de"elop. +eser"oir sprues are used to help o"ercome this problem. ) possible, the sprue ormer should be attached to the portion o the pattern with the largest cross>sectional areas, it is best or the molten alloys to low rom a thic$ section to surrounding thin areas not the re"erse. This minimi;es the ris$ or turbulence.

Porosity *
&lso, the sprue ormer orientation should minimi;e the ris$ o metal low on to lat areas o the in"estment or small areas such as line angles. The length o the sprue ormer should be long enough to be within 6 mm o the trailing end and yet short enough so the molten alloy doesnHt solidi y be ore it ills the mold. The type o sprue ormer selected in luences the burnout technique used it is ad"isable to use a two>stage burnout technique, whene"er plastic sprue ormer or pattern are in"ol"ed, to ensure complete carbon elimination because plastic sprues so ten at temperature abo"e the mounting point o inlay wax. 3atterns may be sprued either directly or indirectly. 4or direct spruing the sprue ormer pro"ides a direct connection between the pattern area and the sprue base or crucible ormer area.

=2

)n indirect spruing, a connector or reser"oir bar is positioned between the pattern and the crucible ormer 1 commonly used or multiple single units and ixed partial dentures. &lso se"eral single limits can be sprued with multiple direct sprue. +eser"oir should be added to a spruing networ$ to pre"ent locali;ed shrin$age porosity. When the molten alloy ills the heated casting ring, the pattern area should solidi y irst and reser"oir lost. ?ecause o its large mass o alloy and position in the heat centre o the ring, the reser"oir remains molten to urnish liquid alloy into the mold as it solidi ies. +esulting solidi ication shrin$age occurs in the reser"oir bar and not in the restorations.

Sprue 1ormer Attac$ment

The sprue ormer connection in the wax pattern is generally lared 'telescopic( or higher density gold alloy, but is o ten restricted or lower density alloys. 4laring act much in the same way as a reser"oir, acilitating the entry o the luid alloy into the pattern area.

Sprue 1ormer Position

sprue ormer attachment is o ten a matter o indi"idual <udgement, based on the shape and orm o the wax pattern. @ome pre er at the occlusal sur ace, others choose sites such as a proximal wall or <ust below non unctional cusp to minimi;e subsequent grinding o occlusal anatomy and contact areas, as indicated earlier the ideal area or the sprue ormer is the point o greatest bul$ in the pattern to a"oid

==

distorting this areas o wax during attachment, and to permit a smooth low o the alloy.

Sprue 1ormer Direction

The sprue ormer should be directed away rom thin or delicate parts o the pattern, because the molten metal may abrade or racture in"estment in this area and result in a casting ailure. )t should not be attached at a right angle to a broad lat sur ace, this will lead to turbulence within the mold ca"ity and ser"e porosity in this region, i it is sprued at a 5:8 angle to the proximal area a satis actory casting can be obtained.

Sprue 1ormer engt$

Cength depends on the length o the casting ring, i sprue is short, the resulting mould space may be ar rom the end o the casting ring that gases can not be adequately "ented to permit the molten alloy to ill the ring completely 'mould space(, thus may result in the porosity. 4or gypsum bonded should be within 6mm o the open end o the ring, with the higher strong phosphate bonded in"estments position may be within => 5 mm o the top o the in"estment. 4or reproducibility o casting accuracy, the pattern should be placed as close to the center o the ring as possible.

=5

Wax Pattern )emoval

@prue ormer should be attached with the pattern on the master die, pro"ided the pattern can be remo"ed directly in line with its path o withdrawal rom the die.

Preparation of t$e ,aster Die

The most commonly used die materials are type>)J 'dental stone, high strength( and type>J 'dental stone, high strength, high expansion(. +elati"ely, inexpensi"e, easy to use and generally compatible with all impression materials. Type>)J stones ha"e a setting expansion o 0.1* or less whereas the harder type>J stones expand as 0.=* this greater expansion is use ul or compensation o the relati"ely large solidi ication shrin$age o base metal alloys. To increase the abrasion resistance se"eral means including sil"er plating, coating the sur ace with cyanoacrylate and adding a die hardner to the gypsum. Howe"er each may also increase the die dimensions, thus reducing accuracy.

,et$ods of Altering Die Dimensions

To reduce the setting expansion o the type>)J die stone to less than 0.1* there by reducing diameter additional accelerator 'potassium sul ate( and retarder 'borax( can be added to the gauging water. To produce relie space or cement, die spacer can be used with a stone die, the most common die spacers are resins. &lthough proprietary point on liquids are sold or this purpose, model paint, colored nail polish or

=:

thermoplastic polymers dissol"ed in "olatile sol"ents en<oy wide spread popularity. These spacers are applied in se"eral coats to within 0.:mm o the preparation inish line to pro"ide relie or the cement luting agent and to ensure complete seating o an otherwise precisely itting casting.

Die Stone 0 Investment Com+ination

)n this technique 'that has been de"eloped( the die material and the in"esting medium ha"e a comparable composition. & commercial gypsum bonded material, called di"estments 'whip mix corporation, Couis"ille AK( is mixed with a colloidal silica liquid. The die is made rom this mix and the wax pattern constructed on it. Then the entire assembly 'die and pattern( is inserted in a mixture o di"estment and water thereby eliminating the possibility o distortion.

Casting )ing iners

With the use o solid metal rings or casting las$s, the mold may actually become smaller rather than larger because o the re"erse pressure resulting rom the con inement o the setting expansion. This e ect can be o"ercome by using a split ring on lexible rubber ring that permits the setting expansion o the in"estment. The most commonly used technique to pro"ide in"estment expansion is to line the walls o the ring with ring liner. Traditionally, 'earlier( asbestos was the material o choice, no longer be used because o its carcinogenic potential.

=6

Two types o non>asbestos ring liner used are aluminium silicate ceramic liner and a cellulose 'paper( liner. To ensure uni orm expansion, the liner is cut to it the inside diameter o the casting ring with no o"erlap. The cut liner is added in position with stic$y wax and then is used with a dry or wet, with a wet liner technique the liner ring is immersed in water or a time and the excess water is sha$en away. @quee;ing the liner should be a"oided because this leads to "ariable amounts o water remo"al and une"en expansion. 9eramic liner doesnHt absorb water li$e a cellulose liner, its networ$ o ibres can retain water on the sur ace. )n the liner the absorbed water causes a semihygroscopic expansion as it is drawn into the in"estment during setting. & thic$er liner material or two layers o liner pro"ide e"en greater semihygroscopic expansion and also a ect a more unrestricted normal setting expansion o the in"estment in any case, the thic$ness o the liner should not be less than approximately 1mm. The length o the liner remains a matter o contro"ersy. ) the liner is shorter than ring, the in"estment is con ined at one or both end o the ring, the longitudinal setting and hygroscopic expansion are thereby restricted as compared with the end where the liner is lush with the ends o the ring. The expansion o the in"estment is always greater in the unrestricted longitudinal direction than in the lateral direction that is toward the ring itsel . There ore it is desirable to reduce the expansion in the longitudinal direction. 3lacing the liner somewhat shorter o the end o the ring tends to pro"ide a more uni orm expansionI thus there is less chance or distortion o the wax pattern and the mold.

=7

Investing Procedure
The wax pattern should be cleaned o any debris, grease or oils. & commercial wax pattern cleaner or a diluted synthetic detergent is used. &ny excess liquid is sha$en o and the pattern is le t to air dry while the in"estment is being prepared. The thin ilm o cleaner le t on the pattern reduces the sur ace tension o the wax and permits better ,wetting- o the in"estment to ensure complete co"erage o the intricate portions o the pattern. While the wax pattern cleaner is air drying, the approximate amount o distilled water 'gypsum in"estment( or colloidal silica special liquid 'phosphate in"estment( is measured. The liquid is added to a clean dry mixing bowl, and the powder is gradually added to the liquid care should be ta$en to minimi;e air entrapment, mixing be started gently until all the powder has been wet, or the unmixed powder may inad"ertantly be e<ected rom the bowl. Hand mixing is an option. )t is ar more common place to mechanically mix all casting in"estments under "acuum.

2acuum ,ixing
!echanical mixing under "acuum remo"es air bubbles created during mixing and eliminates potentially harm ul gases produced during chemical reaction o the high heat in"estment. %nce the mixing is completed, the pattern may be hand in"ested or "acuum in"ested. 4or in"esting by hand, the entire pattern is painted 'inside and out( with a thin layer o in"estment. The casting ring is positioned on the crucible ormer, and the remainder o the in"estment is "ibrated slowly into the

=7

ring, with "acuum in"esting, the same equipment used to mix the in"estment is employed to in"est the pattern under "acuum. &mount o porosity in "acuum in"estment is reduced the texture o the cast sur ace is smoother with better detail reproduction and tensile strength also increases. )n one study it has ound 9:* o "acuum in"ested castings were ree o nodules where as 17* castings made in hand in"estment molds were entirely ree o de ects. &ir bubbles that are remain in the mix, can be entraped on lat or conca"e sur aces that are not orientated suitably or air e"acuation tilting the ring slightly aids in releasing these bubbles so they can rise to the sur ace. #xcessi"e "ibration is to be a"oided it can cause solids in in"estments to settle and may lead to ree water illumination ad<acent the wax pattern. +esulting sur ace roughness. #xcessi"e "ibration may also dislodge small pattern rom the sprue ormer with miscast. ) the hygroscopic technique is employed, the illed casting ring is immediately placed as =789 water bath with crucible ormer side down. 4or high heat expansion, the in"ested ring is allowed to bench cool undisturbed or the time recommended by the manu acturers.

Compensation for S$rinkage

& number o actors in luence the mold si;e/ 1. Two liners allows a greater setting and thermal expansion than does a single liner.

=9

2. @etting thermal and hygroscopic expansion can be controlled to a certain extent by "arying the liquid / powder ratio o the in"estment. =. Cower the C/3 ratio greater the potential or expansion, thinner mixes reduces the expansion. With some in"estment minor ad<ustments with C/3 ratio is insigni icant. There is a limit to which C/3 can be altered i it is too thic$, it canHt be applied to the pattern without distorting the pattern and producing air "oids. ) the mixture is too thin, a rough sur ace on the casting may result. )n controlling hygroscopic expansion along with C/3 ratio can also be regulated either by reducing the time o immersion o the setting in"estment or by controlling the amount o water to be added during the setting process. The longer the delay be ore immersion in the water bath, the less the hygroscopic expansion that occurs. )ncreasing the burnout temperature and the water bath temperature increases the expansion and "ice "ersa.

Controlled Water 0 Added #ec$ni%ue

&nother technique, in which the shrin$age compensation is controlled by the addition o water during the setting o the in"estment. Here the linear hygroscopic expansion increases directly with the amount o water added until a maximal expansion is attained. The compositions o in"estments in this technique ensure maximal expansion during immersion in water. The amount o hygroscopic expansion needed is then obtained by adding enough water to pro"ide the desired expansion. & so t, lexible rubber ring is employed instead o the usual asbestos lined metal ring. & speci ied amount o water is then added on the top o the in"estment in the rubber ring and the in"estment is allowed to set, usually at room temperature. This technique is rarely used, since the hygroscopic expansion method described earlier pro"ides adequate expansion in most cases.

50

Causes of Defective Casting

Introduction
)n almost all instance, de ects in casting can be a"oided by strict obser"ance o procedures go"erned by certain undamental rules and principles. @eldom is a de ect in a casting attributable to other actors than the carelessness or ignorance o the operator. .e ect in casting can be classi ied under our headings/ 1. .istortions 2. @ur ace roughness and irregularities =. 3orosity 5. )ncomplete or missing detail Distortion* &ny mar$ed distortion is probably related to a distortion o the wax pattern. This type o distortion can be minimi;ed or pre"ented by proper manipulation o the wax and handling o the pattern. @ome distortion o the wax pattern occurs as the in"estment hardens around it, the setting and hygroscopic expansion o the in"estment may produce une"en mo"ement o the walls o the pattern. #ames W.?. %LFeal et al '1977( established that die spacing was one o the most suitable methods to compensate or casting "ariables and it ensured impro"ed marginal adaptation yet increasing retention by 2: percent. This type o distortion occur in part rom the une"en outward mo"ement o the proximal walls. The gingi"al margins are orced apart by the mold

51

expansion. Whereas the solid occlusal bar o wax resist expansion during the early stages o setting. The con iguration o the pattern, the type o wax, thic$ness all in luence the distortion that occur. .istortion increase as the thic$ness o pattern decreases, and the less the setting expansion o in"estment, the less is distortion. There is probably not a great deal that can be done to control this phenomena. Howe"er, 0ra<ower +., Cewinstein '197:( ound that shrin$age o wax pattern on dies created marginal gap at shoulders and be"els which was attributed to elastic stress in wax. +emodeling o pattern margins by heating marginal wax with spatula was ound to impro"e the adaptation o die. @ur ace roughness, irregularities and discoloration.

Influence )oug$ness Irregularities and Discoloration

The sur ace o a dental casting should be an accurate reproduction o the sur ace o the wax pattern rom which it is made. #xcessi"e roughness or irregularities on the outer sur ace o the casting necessitates additional inishing and polishing where as irregularities on the ca"ity sur ace pre"ent a proper setting o an otherwise accurate casting. @ur ace roughness is de ined as relati"ely inely spaced sur ace

imper ections whose height width and direction establish the predominant sur ace pattern. @ur ace irregularities re er to isolated imper ections such as nodule, that do not characteri;e the total sur ace area. The di erence in the sur ace roughness o the casting and the wax pattern rom which it is made is probably related to the particle si;e o in"estment and its ability to reproduce the wax pattern in microscopic detail.

52

)mproper technique can lead to a mar$ed increase in sur ace roughness as well as to the ormation o sur ace irregularities.

Air (u++les
@mall nodules on a casting are caused by air bubbles that become attached to the pattern during or subsequent to the in"esting procedure. @uch nodule can sometimes be remo"ed i they are not in a critical area. The best method to a"oid air bubbles is to use the "acuum technique. ) manual method is used, "arious precautions can be obser"ed. The use o a mechanical mixture with "ibration both be ore and a ter mixing should be practiced routinely. & wetting agent may be use ul in pre"enting the collection o air bubbles on the sur ace o the pattern, but it is by no menas a certain remedy. )t is important that the wetting agent be applied in a thin layer. )t is best to air dry the wetting agent because any excess will dilute the in"estment , producing sur ace irregularities on the casting.

Water 1ilms
Wax is repellant to water, and i the in"estment becomes separated rom the wax pattern in some manner a water ilm may orm irregularly o"er the sur ace. This type o sur ace irregularity appears as minute ridges or "eins on the sur ace. ) the pattern is mo"ed slightly <arred or "ibrated a ter in"esting or i the painting procedure does not result in an intimate contact o the in"estment with pattern, such a condition may result. & wetting agent is o aid in the pre"ention o such irregularities. Too high a W / 3 ratio may also produce these irregularities.

5=

#oo )apid Heating

)t results in ins or spicules on the casting. The mold should be heated gradually I at least 60 minutes should elapse during the heating rom room temperature to 70089. The greater the bul$ o the in"estment the more slowly it should be heated. 3nder Heating * )ncomplete elimination o wax residues may occur i the heating time is too short or i insu icient air is a"ailable in the urnace. )t is particularly important with the low>heat technique. Joids or porosity may occur in the casting rom the gases ormed when the hot alloy comes in contact with the carbonaceous residues. %ccasionally, the casting may be co"ered with a tenacious casting that is "irtually impossible to remo"e by pic$ling. i%uid Po!der )atio/ The higher the C/3 ratio the rougher the casting. Howe"er i too little water is used the in"estment may be unmanageably thic$ and cannot be properly applied to the pattern. )n "acuum in"esting the air may not be su iciently remo"ed. )n either instance a rough sur ace on the casting may result. Prolonged Heating / When high heating casting technique is used, prolonged heating is li$ely to cause disintegration o the in"estment and the walls o the mold are roughned as a result. 4urther more the products o decomposition are sul er compounds that may contaminate the alloy to the extent that the sur ace texture is a ected. @uch contamination sometimes doesnHt respond to pic$ling. When thermal expansion technique is employed the mold should be heated to the casting temperature, ne"er higher than 70089 and the casting should be made immediately. #emperature of t$e Alloy / ) an alloy is heated to too high a temperature be ore casting, the sur ace o the in"estment is li$ely to be attac$ed and a

55

sur ace roughness result. @pecial care should be obser"ed that the color emitted by the molten gold alloy, or example is no lighter than a light orange. Casting Pressure / Too high a pressure during casting produces a rough sur ace on the casting. & gauge pressure o 0.10 to 0.15 !pa M1: to 20 psiN in an air pressure casting machine or three to our turns o the spring in an a"erage type o centri ugal casting machine is su icient or small castings.

Composition of t$e Investment

The ratio o the binder to the quart; in luence, the sur ace texture o the casting. )n addition, a coarse silica causes a sur ace roughness. ) the in"estment meets &.& speci ication no.2 the composition is probably not a actor in the sur ace roughness. 1oreign (odies / When oreign substances get into the mold, a sur ace roughness may be produced. 4or example a rough crucible ormer with in"estment clinging to it may roughen the in"estment on its remo"al so that bits o in"estment carried into the mold with the molten alloy. 9arelessness in the remo"al o the sprue ormer may be a similar cause. &ny casting that shows sharp well de ined de iciences indicates the presence o some oreign particles in the mold such as pieces o in"estment or bits o carbon rom a lux. ?right appearing conca"ities may be the result o lux being carried into the mold with the metal.

Impact of ,olten Alloy

The molten alloy, should not stri$e a wea$ portion o the mold sur ace. %ccasionally the molten alloy may racture or abrade the mold sur ace on impact regardless o its bul$. @ometimes the abraded area is smooth so that it can not be detected on the sur ace o the casting. @uch a depression in the mold 5:

is re lected as a raised area on the casting, o ten too slight to be noticed yet su iciently large to pre"ent the seating o the casting. This type can be a"oided by proper spruing so as to pre"ent impact at an angle o 908 to sur ace. & glancing impact is li$ely to be less damaging and at the same time an undesirable turbulence is a"oided. Pattern Position / ) se"eral pattern are in"ested in the same ring they should not be too close together. Ci$ewise too many patterns positioned in the same place in the mold should be a"oided, the extension o the wax is much greater than that o the in"estment, causing brea$down or crac$ing o the in"estment i the spacing between pattern is less than =mm. Car+on Inclusions / 4rom a crucible, improperly ad<usted torch or a carbon containing in"estment can be absorbed by the alloy during casting. !ay lead to the ormation o carbide or e"en a "isible carbon inclusions.

.t$er Causes / There are certain sur ace discolorations and roughness that may not be e"ident when the casting is completed but that may appear during ser"ice "arious gold alloys, solders, bits o wire and mixture o di erent casting alloys should ne"er be melted together and reused. The resulting mixture would not possess the proper physical properties orm eutectic or similar alloys with low corrosion resistance. .iscoloration and corrosion may also occur. & source o discoloration o ten o"erloo$ed is the sur ace contamination o a gold alloy restoration with mercury. !ercury penetrates rapidly into the alloys and causes a mar$ed loss in ductility and a greater susceptibility to corrosion. Thus it is not a good practice to place a new amalgam restoration

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ad<acent to high noble alloy restoration, it also orms a gal"anic circuit leading to the brea$down o the anode i.e., amalgam.

Porosity
!ay occur within the interior region o a casting and on the external sur ace. The later is a actor in sur ace roughness but also it is generally a mani estation o internal porosity. )nternal porosity wea$en the casting and extends on the sur ace it may because or discoloration. ) se"ere it may produce lea$age at the tooth restoration inter ace and :5secondary caries may result. &lthough the porosity in a casting cant not be pre"ented entirely, it can be minimi;ed by use o proper techniques. 3orosities in noble metal alloy castings may be classi ied as ollows / ). @olidi ication de ects. a. Cocali;ed shrin$age porosity. b. !icroporosity. )). Trapped gases. a. 3inhole porosity. b. 0as inclusion porosity. c. @ubsur ace porosity. ))). +esidual air /

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Cocalised shrin$age porosity is generally caused by incomplete eeding o molten metal during solidi ication. The linear contraction o noble metal alloys in changing rom a liquid to a solid is at least 1.2:*. there ore there must be continual eeding o molten metal through the sprue to ma$e up or the shrin$age o eeding o molten metal through the sprue to ma$e up or shrin$age o metal "olume during solidi ication. ) the spure ree;es in its cross section be ore this eeding is completed to the casting proper, a locali;ed shrin$age "oid will occur in the last portion o the casting that solidi ies. The porosity in the pontic area is caused by the ability o the pontic to retain heat because o its bul$ and because o it is located in the heat centre o the ring. This problem can be sol"ed by attaching one or more small gauge sprues at the sur ace most distant rom the main sprue attachment and extending the sprue laterally within sprue o the edge o ring. These small 'auxiliary( sprues ensures that solidi ication begins within sprues and they act as cooling pins to carry heat away rom the pontic. Cocali;ed shrin$age generally occur near sprue casting <unction but it may occur any where between dendrites where the last part o the casting that solidi ied was in the low melting metal that remains as the dendrite branches de"elop. This type o "oid may also occur externally, usually in the interior o a crown near the area o the sprue. ) a hot spot has been created by the hot metal impinging rom the sprue channel on a point o the mold wall. This hot spot causes the local regions to ree;e last and result in what is called suc$bac$ porosity.

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This o ten occurs at an occlusoaxial line angle or incisoaxial line angle that is not well roudned. The entering metal impinge onto the mold sur ace at this point and creates a higher locali;ed mold temperature in this region that is called a hot spot. & hot spot may retain a locali;ed pool o molten metal a ter other areas o the casting ha"e solidi ied. This in turn creates shrin$age "oid or suc$ bac$ porosity. @uc$ bac$ porosity can be eliminated by laring the point o the sprue attachment and by reducing the mold melt temperature di erential, that is lowering the casting temperature by about =089. !icroporositiy also occur rom solidi ication shrin$age but is generally present in ine grain alloy castings when the solidi ication is too rapid or the micro"oids to segregate to the liquid pool. This premature solidi ication causes the porosity in the orm o small irregular "oids. @uch phenomenon can occur rom the rapid solidi ication o the mold or casting temperature is too low. )t is un ortunate that this type o de ect is not detectable unless the casting is sectioned. )n many case it is generally not a serious de ect. ?oth the pinhole and the gas inclusion porosities are related the entrapment o gas during solidi ication. ?oth are characteri;ed by a spherical contour, but they are decidedly di erent in si;e. The gas inclusion porosities are usually much larger than pinhole porosity. !any metals dissol"e or occlude gases while they are in molten state. 4or e.g. both copper and sil"er dissol"e oxygen in large amounts in the liquid state, molten platinum and palladium ha"e a strong a inity or H2 as well as oxygen. %n solidi ication the absorbed gases are expelled and the pinhole porosity results.

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The larger "oid may also result rom the same cause but it seems more logical to assume that such "oids may be caused by gas that is mechanically trapped by the molten metal in the mold on that is incorporated during the casting procedure. &ll castings probably contain a certain amount o porosity. Howe"er, the porosity should be $ept to a minimum because it may ad"ersely a ect the physical properties o the casting. The porosity that extends to the sur ace is usually in the orm o small pinpoint holes, when the sur ace is polished other pinholes appear. Carger spherical porosities can be caused by gas occluded rom a poorly ad<usted torch lame, or the use o the mixing or oxidi;ing ;ones o the lame rather than the reducing ;one. These types o porosity can be minimi;ed by premelting the gold alloy on a charcoal or a graphite bloc$ i the alloy has been used be ore and by correctly ad<usting and positioning the torch lame during melting. Su+surface Porosity / %ccurs due to simultaneous nucleation o solid grains and gas bubbles at the irst moment that the metal ree;es at the mold walls. This type o porosity can be eliminated by controlling the rate at which the molten metal enter mold.

Entrapped Air Porosity

%n the inner sur ace o the casting. @ometimes re erred to as bac$ pressure porosity. 9an produce large conca"e depressions. This is caused by the inability o the air in the mold to escape through the pores in the in"estment or by the pressure gradient that displaces the air poc$et toward the end o the in"estment "ia the molten sprue and button. :0

The entrapment is requently ound in a poc$et at the ca"ity sur ace o a crown or mesio>occlusal distal casting. %ccasionally it is ound e"en on the outside sur ace o escape. The incidence o entrapped air can be increased by the dense modern in"estments, an increase in mold density produced by "acuum in"esting and the tendency or the mold to clog with residual carbon when the low heat technique is used. #ach o these actors tends to slow down the "enting o gases rom the mold during casting. 3roper burnout an adequate mold and casting temperature, a su iciently high casting pressure and proper C/3 ratio can help to eliminate this phenomenon. !a$e sure that the thic$ness o in"estment between the tip o the pattern and the end o the ring not be greater than 6mm. the casting when the casting temperature or mold temperature is so low that solidi ication occurs be ore the entrapped air can

Incomplete Casting
%ccassionally a partially complete or perhaps no casting at all is ound because that the molten alloy has been pre"ented in some manner, rom completely illing the mold. The two actors responsible are/ )nsu icient "enting o the mold and High "iscosity o the used metal. )nsu icient "enting is directly related to the bac$ pressure exerted by the air in the mold. ) the air cannot be "ented quic$ly, the molten alloy doesnHt ill the mold be ore it solidi ies. )n such a case the magnitude o the pressure should be suspected. The pressure should be applied at least 5 seconds. The

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mold is illed and solidi ied in 1 second or less yet it is quite so t during the early stages. These ailures ha"e castings with rounded incomplete margins. & second common cause or an incomplete casting is incomplete elimination o wax residues rom the mold i too many products o combusion remains in the mold the pores in the in"estment may become illed so that the air cant be "ented completely. ) mixture or particles o air remain, the contact o the molten alloy with these oreign substances produce an explosion that may produce su icient bac$ pressure to pre"ent the mold rom being illed. The rounded margins are quite shiny in some cases because o the strong reducing atmoshpere created by carbon monoxide le t by the residual wax. & lower C/3 ratio o the in"estment has been associated with less porosity. &n increase in casting pressure during casting sol"es this problem. .i erent alloy compositions probably exhibit "arying "iscosities in the molten state, depending on composition and temperatuere. Howe"er, both the sur ace tension and the "iscosity o a molten alloy are decreased with an increase in temperature. &n incomplete casting resulting rom too great a "iscosity o the casting metal can be attributed to insu icient heating. Temperature o the alloy should be raised higher than its liquidus temperature so that its "iscosity and sur ace tension are lowered and its doesnHt solidi y prematurely as it enters the mold. @uch premature solidi ication may amount or the greater susceptibility o the white gold alloys to porosity because their liquidus temperature are higher thus they are more di icult to melt with a gas air lame. To gain an understanding o dental materials we need a basic $nowledge o matter and its beha"iour during handling.

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&ssuming that the wax pattern is satis actory, the procedure techniques become a matter o enlarging the mold uni ormly and su iciently to compensate or the casting shrin$age o the gold alloy. Theoretically, i the shrin$age o the wax and the gold alloy are $nown, the mold can be expanded an amount equal to such shrin$ages and the problem is sol"ed. There are "ariables in the beha"iour o the materials in"ol"ed, especially the wax that cannot be rigidly controlled.

Summary and Conclusion

The o"erall dimensional accuracy possible with current technique has ne"er been clearly de ined. Feither the allowable tolerance o accuracy in the it o the casting nor that obtainable during the procedure is $nown. ')n the last analysis the procedure is partially expired and a matter o routine procedure. The latter should be rigidly ollowed. There are howe"er many steps in the procedure or which a considerable number o acts are $nown and there are also certain "ariations in technique described ha"e produced equally satis actory results. Howe"er, any technique in"ol"es strict adherence to certain undamental principles that are common to all.

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Contents
)ntroduction 9lassi ication 0ypsum>bonded in"estment 3hosphate>bonded in"estment #thyl silicate>bonded in"estment 9ompensation or solidi ication shrin$age The sprue ormer 3reparation o the master die 9asting ring liner )n"esting procedure 9asting machines 9asting procedure 9auses o de ecti"e castings @ummary O 9onclusion

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