RF Amplifiers Processes the very weak input signal.

gnal. Selectivity such that it eliminates images Essential to use low noise components. For lower frequency (<30 !"# no nee$ of %F amplifier. &nly use tune$ circuit for selectivity' image re(ection. )hus* mi+er this kin$ must ,e low noise. For frequency a,ove -00 !"* usually have %F amplifier* to increase the weak signal prior to mi+ing. . single transistor can give gain -0/30$0. For lower freq* use ,ipolar transistors. For 1!F* 2!F an$ microwave* use FE)s. FE)s have lower noise characteristics/give ,etter performance.

a) Broadband bipolar RF amplifier .ntenna connecte$ $irectly to ,ase of transistor. 3ircuit is ,roa$,an$' the transistor can pick up an$ amplify any incoming signal. .t collector* has tune$ circuit for selectivity ,efore going to mi+er.

b) Tuned FET RF amplifier !ave tune$ circuit in front. )hus* 4 is higher* an$ ,etter selectivity. .lso have low noise figure.

Mixer and Converters 3ircuits to perform mi+ing or hetero$yning or frequency conversion. 2p conversion/translating the input signal to a higher frequency. 5own conversion/translating the input signal to a lower frequency. 6 types of mi+ers usually foun$ in communication7 a# 5io$e mi+ers ,# 5ou,ly 0alance$ mi+ers c# )ransistor mi+ers $# 83 mi+ers

Diode mixers ost common type foun$ in microwave applications. 8nput is applie$ to primary win$ing of transformer )-. )he signal is couple$ to secon$ary win$ing an$ applie$ to the $io$e mi+er. )he 9& signal is couple$ to the $io$e via 3-. )he output signals are7 Fs* F0* Fs: F0* an$ Fs/F0;F0 /Fs. )hen* $evelope$ through the tune$ circuit to select the frequency $esire$. For small signal applications* use germanium $io$es (low turn on voltage#. For 1!F* 2!F* an$ microwaves* usually hot carrier or Schottky ,arrier $io$es.

Doubly Balanced Mixers 0alance$ mo$ulators are wi$ely use$ as mi+ers. .$vantage7 carrier eliminate$ from output* thus easier in $esigning filters. 5io$e lattice ,alance$ mo$ulator* an$ $ifferential amplifier type of ,alance$ mo$ulator can ,oth effectively ,e use s mi+ers. &ne version that is most popular in 1!F an$ 2!F applications is 5ou,ly 0alance$ mi+er.

Transistor Mixers )ransistors* if ,iase$ to a nonlinear region* can ,e use as mi+ers to perform analog multiplications. .$vantage over $io$e is that the gain is o,taine$ in the transistor stage. E+amples7 ,ipolar transistors mi+ers/use$ at low frequencies' (unction FE)s an$ 5ual/gate &SFE)s (provi$e superior performance in mi+ing applications# at 1!F* 2!F an$ microwaves ,ecause of their high gain an$ low noise. <allium .rseni$e (<a.s# is preferre$ rather than silicon at high frequencies also ,ecause high gain an$ low noise.

IC Mixers =nown as >E?0@. 3onsists of $ou,le/,alance$ mi+er cct ma$e up of two cross/connecte$ $ifferential amplifiers.

IF Amplifiers )his is where most of gain an$ selectivity is o,taine$. 8n $esigning receiver* the choice of 8F must compromise ,etween goo$ selectivity an$ sta,ility' an$ goo$ image re(ection. Notes: remember ood selecti!ity "#en IF is lo" fre$uency% and ood ima e re&ection "#en c#oosin a #i # IF' For . usually use 6AA =!"'/low enough to get goo$ selectivity an$ make high gain with minimum insta,ility. !owever* for input frequency a,ove -0 !"* higher 8F is selecte$* ,ecause it is not anymore sufficient to remove image re(ection. For 30 !"* usually use 8FB-A00/@000 k!". For most F receivers (CC !"/-0C h"# we use -0.D !" of 8F frequency. 2sually some receivers also use $ou,le conversion to solve the image an$ selectivity pro,lems. )he selectivity of the 8F amplifiers is provi$e$ ,y the tune$ circuit. 3asca$ing the tune$ circuits causes the overall circuit ,an$wi$th to narrow. 8n $esigning 8F* make sure the selectivity is not too sharp that will cause si$e,an$ cutting. )his means that the higher frequency amplitu$e will ,e greatly re$uce$ in amplitu$e thus $istorting the signal. 8n some cases itEs necessary to wi$en the ,an$wi$th when we get a ,roa$,an$ signals. )wo ways of $oing so is7 -st ,y connecting a high value of resistance across the parallel tune$ circuit* thus lowering the 4 that will pro$uce the appropriate ,an$wi$th. .nother way is to use a $ou,le/tune$ transformer. Principle7 the spacing ,etween the primary win$ing an$ secon$ary win$ings $etermines how much the magnetic fiel$ pro$uce$ ,y the primary will cut the turns in the secon$ary. )hus* the farther away the spacing of the coil* the amplitu$e will ,e lower an$ the ,an$wi$th will ,e narrower. 5efine un$er coupling* critical coupling* optimum coupling an$ over coupling. )hus* ,y setting the amount of coupling ,etween the win$ings in the 8F coupling transformer* the $esire$ amount of ,an$wi$th can ,e o,taine$.

T"o sta e IF (mplifier usin double tuned transformer couplin for selecti!ity Ceramic and crystal Filters 8n most communication receivers where superior selectivity is $esire$* very sharp ceramic an$ crystal filters are use to o,tain the $esire$ selectivity. 3eramics can ,e cut an$ shape$ so that it is sharply resonant over a narrow ,an$ of frequencies centere$ at the resonant frequency. Since it is $esign for specific frequency* i$eal to use for 8F selectivity. )hus* the 8F amplifiers are only ,roa$,an$ circuits. )he filter itself has set the ,an$wi$th.

Automatic gain control .<3 is a fee$,ack system that automatically a$(usts the gain of the receiver ,ase$ on the amplitu$e of the receive$ signal. 1ery low level signal will cause the gain of the receiver to ,e high. 1ery high level signal will cause the gain of the receiver to ,e re$uce$. !aving the .<3* the receiver can have a very wi$e dynamic range. 5ynamic range refers to the measure of the receiverEs a,ility to receive ,oth the very strong an$ weak signal without intro$ucing $istortion. )ypically its ?0/-00$0 range.

)o" does it "or*s+ .<3 take the receive$ signal from o;p of 8F amplifier or $emo$ulator an$ converts it to 53. )he amplitu$e of 53 is proportional to the level of receive$ signal. )he $c is applie$ to one or more stages of 8F amplifier to control their gain. >ote that the gain of ,ipolar transistor amplifier is proportional to the collector current. 8ncreasing 8c will increase the gain. !owever* at some point* the gain will flatten over a narrow 8c gain* then ,egins to $ecrease. )hus* increasing the 83 after this point will $ecrease the gain. )hus* the gain of the amplifier can ,e a$(uste$ in two ways*,y increasing or $ecreasing the collector current.

Re!erse (,C .n .<3 circuit that $ecreases the current flowing in the amplifier in or$er to $ecrease the gain is calle$ reverse .<3. 8n circuit shown* the ,ias of the amplifier is $erive$ ,y voltage $ivi$er %- an$ %@* an$ emitter resistor %3. %6 applie$ to the ,ase will accept the negative 53 from .<3. .s signal amplitu$e increases* the negative 53 voltage increases* there,y $ecreasing the ,ase current. )hus* this $ecreases the collector current* an$ lowers the circuit gain.

For"ard (,C )he .<3 that increases the current flowing in the amplifier in or$er to $ecrease the gain is known as forwar$ .<3. )he ,ias in this circuit is $erive$ only ,y %- an$ the .<3 circuit itself. )he 53 voltage is positive* which sets the ,ias level. .s the signal amplitu$e level increases* the 53 voltage will increase. )his in turn* increases the ,ase current* increasing the collector current. )hus* the gain will ,e re$uce$.

(,C in (M 5io$e $etector recovers the original signal. 1oltage across %- is a negative $c voltage. 3- filters out 8F signal* leaving only original signal. )he recovere$ signal is applie$ to 3@ to remove the 53. )he resulting ac is amplifie$ ,y au$io amplifier an$ applie$ to lou$speaker.

)he 53 voltage across %- an$ 3- are filtere$ out further to get pure 53. )his is $one ,y %@ an$ 33. Note: must ma*e sure t#e time constant of t#e component be so lar e t#at t#e !olta e output is pure dc' )he $c level will vary with the amplitu$e f the receive$ signal. )he resulting negative signal will then ,e applie$ to one or more 8F amplifier stages.

Squelch circuit .lso known as mute circuit. 5esigne$ to keep the receiver au$io off until an %F signal appears at the receiverEs output. Provi$es a mean of keeping the au$io amplifier turne$ off $uring the time noise are hear$ in the ,ackgroun$* an$ ena,le$ the au$io when a %F signal is receive$.

Principle of popular types of squelch circuit7 amplifies the high frequency ,ackgroun$ noise an$ use it to keep the au$io turne$ off. Fhen signal is receive$* the noise will ,e overri$$en* an$ the au$io will ,e turne$ on.

Notes: ost two ways comm are short conversations* an$ not always continuous. !owever the receiver is left on so that if a call is to ,e receive$* it will ,e hear$. )hus* when no %F signals in the input* the au$io output is (ust ,ackgroun$ noise* which coul$ ,e annoying. 2sually* people will (ust turn $own the volume* ,ut then this will cause the %F signal not to ,e hear$.

( noise deri!ed s$uelc# circuit

)he ,ackgroun$ noise with no F input is taken in one of the 8F amplifier. Passe$ through 3- an$ %- that acts as a high pass filter. (%- also acts as the squelch control level#. )he noise is amplifie$* then rectifies to $c voltage ,y rectifier/voltage $ou,ler. )he output of the rectifier will cause the squelch gate 4- to saturate. )he ,ase current of au$io amplifier 4@ is shunte$ away through 4-. )hus* no au$io amplification takes place an$ the receiver is quiet. 8f a voice signal occurs* it will ,lank;mask any high frequency noise. )hus no noise signal will ,e applie$ to the squelch circuit.>otice that high pass filter 3- an$ %- will not pass through voice signal since it is ,elow 3k!". )hus* no squelch voltage applie$ to 4-.4- cuts off. 4@ is ,iase$ normally an$ the au$io signal is passe$ through the au$io power amplifier an$ the speaker.