EE 370: Communications Engineering I Chapter 5: Angle Modulations and Demodulations

Chapter 5
Angle Modulation and Demodulation
EE 370: Communications Engineering I Chapter 5: Angle Modulations and Demodulations
1. Angle (exponential) Modulation
2. Bandwidth of Angle Modulated Wave
3. Generation of FM Waves
4. Demodulation of FM Signals
Contents
4. Demodulation of FM Signals
6. Superheterodyne analog AM/FM Receivers
7. FM Broadcasting System
1. Angle Modulation
In AM signals, the amplitude of a carrier is
modulated by a signal m(t), and, hence, the
information content of m(t) is in the amplitude
variations of the carrier. Because a sinusoidal
signal is described by amplitude and angle signal is described by amplitude and angle
(which includes frequency and phase), there
exists a possibility of carrying the same
information by varying the angle of the
carrier. This in effect is a nonlinear
modulation technique.
3
1. Angle Modulation
The Concept of Instantaneous Frequency
A general sine wave signal can be expressed as
( ) ( ) t A t cos =
( ) + = t t
(t) is the generalized angle. For a sine wave with fixed
frequency and phase:
4
( )
0
+ = t t
( )
( )
dt
t d
t

=
can be represented as a linear function of time with a slope : angular
speed, = 2f.
In general is the derivative of the angle. That is
and
( ) ( )

=
t
d t
1. Angle Modulation
The Concept of Instantaneous Frequency
5
1. Angle Modulation
Phase Modulation (PM)
( ) ( ) t m k t t
p c
+ + =
0

The message signal is modulating the phase of the carrier signal:

6
( ) ( )
cos
PM c p
t A t k m t ( = +

( )
( )
( ) t m k
dt
t d
t
p c i

+ = =

without loosing generalization, we can omit the initial phase

0
and we get the
following PM signal :

i
is called the instantaneous frequency of the modulated signal.
1. Angle Modulation
Frequency Modulation (FM)
The message signal is modulating the frequency of the carrier signal:
( ) ( ) t m k t
f c i
+ =
( ) ( ) [ ]

+ =
t
f c
d m k t
7
( ) ( ) t m k t
f c i
+ =
( ) ( ) [ ]

+ =
f c
d m k t
( ) ( )

+ =
t
f c
d m k t t
( ) ( )
(

+ =

t
f c FM
d m k t A t cos
1. Angle Modulation
General Concept of Angle Modulation
( ) ( ) [ ] t t A t
c
+ = cos
( ) ( ) ( )

=
t
d t h m t
h(t) = k
p
(t) phase modulation
8
h(t) = k
f
u(t) frequency modulation
Further, according to the equations above we can say
that the PM and FM are equivalent in certain ways
FM with m(t) = a PM with m(t).
PM with m(t) = a FM with m(t).
1. Angle Modulation
General Concept of Angle Modulation
9
1. Angle Modulation
Power of Angle Modulation
Regardless the values of k
p
or k
f
, the expected
power of the modulated signal is given by: A
2
/2.
10
See example 5.1 and 5.2 of the text book
2. Bandwidth of Angle Modulated
Waves
To determine the bandwidth of an FM wave :
( ) ( )

=
t
d m t a ( )
( )
( )
c f
f
c
j t k a t
jk a t
j t
FM
t Ae Ae e

(
+

= =

( ) ( )
Re
FM FM
t t
(
=

11

expanding the factor in power series
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
2 3
cos sin cos sin ....
2! 3!
f f
FM c f c c c
k k
t A t k a t t a t t a t t
(
= + +
(
(

( )
f
jk a t
e
2. Bandwidth of Angle Modulated
Waves
the FM signal is expressed as an unmodulated carrier plus
spectra of a(t), a
2
(t), a
n
(t), centered at
c
.
Let M() be the spectrum of m(t) with bandwidth B.
The bandwidth of a(t) is also B because the integration is
12
equivalent to only a multiplication by 1/j .
a
2
(t) has a bandwidth of 2B (M()*M())
a
3
(t) has a bandwidth of 3B
a
n
(t) has a bandwidth of nB

2. Bandwidth of Angle Modulated

Waves
Conclusion: FM signal has infinite bandwidth. (theoretically)
Special cases:
Narrow-Band Angle Modulation
The angle modulation is not linear in general. However, if
13
The angle modulation is not linear in general. However, if
|k
f
a(t)| << 1 only the 1
st
two terms are important in the
above equation.
( ) ( )
cos sin
FM c f c
t A t k a t t
(


This is a linear modulation. It is like an AM wave* with
bandwidth = 2B. This is called Narrow Band FM (NBFM).
* However the waveform is entirely different from AM
2. Bandwidth of Angle Modulated
Waves
Narrow-Band Angle Modulation
Similarly the narrow band PM (NBPM) is given by:
( ) ( )
cos sin
PM c p c
t A t k m t t (

14
The narrow band angle modulation is similar to AM (same
bandwidth, carrier plus spectrum centered on
c
).
The difference: in angle modulation the sideband spectrum is
/2 phase shifted with respect to the carrier. The waveform is
completely different.
2. Bandwidth of Angle Modulated
Waves
Narrow-Band FM and PM wave generation
15
2. Bandwidth of Angle Modulated
Waves
Wide-Band Angle Modulation
This is the situation where we cannot ignore the higher
terms because (|k
f
a(t)| << 1) is not satisfied. (can be due
to high k
f
).
In this case the bandwidth of the FM signal is found to be
16
f
In this case the bandwidth of the FM signal is found to be
given by the following approximation:
( )
|
|

\
|
+ = + = B
m k
B f B
p f
FM
2
2 2 Carsons rule
For truly wideband case, f >> B B
FM
2 f
Carsons rule can be in terms of the deviation ratio
as
2. Bandwidth of Angle Modulated
Waves
Phase Modulation
( ) 1 2 + = B B
FM
B
f
=
Deviation ratio in FM plays the role of modulation index in AM
17
All the analysis developed for the FM can be applied to
the PM by replacing m
p
by m
p
and k
f
by k
p
. That is
Examples 5.3 5.5 (pg. 217-220)
( )
2 2
2
p p
PM
k m
B f B B

| |
= + = +
|
\

3. Generation of FM Wave
Indirect Method of Armstrong
We start with the generation of a NBFM as
described previously. Then we use a frequency
multiplier ( x N ) to obtain a WBFM. After filtering
using a bandpass filter centered at N
c
, we get an
FM signal with Nf.
18
FM signal with Nf.
Sometimes the frequency increase of the carrier is
not needed.
Solution: after the multiplier we insert a mixer to
down convert the carrier to the wanted one.
3. Generation of FM Wave
19
Example 5.7
3. Generation of FM Wave
Direct Generation
Using a VCO
Design of VCO:
20
1) OPAMP + hysteric circuit (i.e. Smith trigger)
2) Variation of L or C of a tank of a resonant circuit
: reverse biased semiconductor (i.e. diode) can be
used as a variable capacitor.
3. Generation of FM Wave
21
3. Generation of FM Wave
22
3. Generation of FM Wave
Direct Generation
Also we can use variable inductor. It can be
23
Also we can use variable inductor. It can be
achieved by winding two inductors in the same
core. Then controlling the inductance of the inner
inductor by injecting a current in the outer one.
4. Demodulation of FM Wave
In an FM signal the information resides in the
instantaneous frequency :
a network with a response linear to would be
( )
i c f
k m t = +
24
a network with a response linear to would be
able to detect the message signal.e

example : |H()| = a + b centered around the

carrier frequency in the FM band.
4. Demodulation of FM Wave
|H()| = a + b
25
Direct
Differentiation
Method
4. Demodulation of FM Wave
( ) ( )
(

+ =

t
f c FM
d m k t A t cos
Let the FM signal:
The differentiator output will be:
26 26
( ) ( ) { } ( )
)
`

+ = =

t
f c FM FM
d m k t A
dt
d
t
dt
d
t cos

( ) ( ) [ ] ( )
(

+ + =

t
f c f c FM
d m k t t m k A t sin

4. Demodulation of FM Wave
the above expression shows that the output is
FM and AM modulated. See figure 5.12b. Since

c
> k
f
m(t) all the time, an envelop detector can
be used to extract m(t) as shown in the previous
figure.
27
figure.
Problem: A must be a constant. If not (due to
channel noise, fading, ), it must be fixed before
demodulation.
Solution: Bandpass limiter
4. Demodulation of FM Wave
Bandpass limiter
28
4. Demodulation of FM Wave
Input: distorted FM signal
Output of the hard limiter: A(t) >=0
29
Output of the bandpass filter:
4. Demodulation of FM Wave
Practical Frequency Demodulators
Differentiation: OPAMP differentiator can be used to
convert frequency variation to amplitude variation
that can be detected using a simple envelop detector.
Slope detection: Any tuned circuit which has a linear
30
Slope detection: Any tuned circuit which has a linear
segment of positive slope in the frequency response
under or above the resonance can be used instead of
the OPAMP differentiator.
Example: high pass RC filter.
Limitation: narrow bandwidth.
4. Demodulation of FM Wave
31
4. Demodulation of FM Wave
Ratio detector: balanced demodulator. Not very
sensitive to the amplitude variation of the FM signal.
widely used in the past.
Zero-crossing detectors: frequency counter that
32
Zero-crossing detectors: frequency counter that
measures the instantaneous frequency by counting the
rate of zero-crossing.
Phase-Locked Loop (PLL): because of its low cost and
good performance, it is widely used in FM receivers.
Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
PLL is used to track the phase and frequency of the carrier
component of an incoming signal.
Useful for synchronous demodulation of AM signals with
suppressed carrier (no pilot).
Can be used for demodulation of angle-modulated signals
especially under low SNR conditions.
Also has applications in clock recovery clock recovery clock recovery clock recovery systems in
digital receivers.
Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
Three basic components:
1. Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
2. Multiplier-works as the phase detector(PD) or phase comparator
3. Loop filter
( )
where is a constant
VCO c o
ce t c = +
Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)

c
is the free running frequency of VCO
Instantaneous frequency of the VCO :
Further, considering the output of VCO
35
( )
VCO c o
t = +

( ) ( )
Therefore (5.24)
o o
t ce t =

Further, considering the output of VCO

as Bcos[
c
t+
o
(t)]:
c and B are constants of the PLL.
Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
Although in Figure (a), incoming frequency and the VCO
Output frequency are equal (
c
), the analysis is also valid
when they are different as shown below.
We assume the incoming signal (input to the PLL) be
Asin[
c
t+
i
(t)]. Asin[
c
t+
i
(t)].
If the incoming signal happens to be
Asin[
o
t+(t)],
it can still be expressed as Asin[
c
t+
i
(t)],
where
i
(t)=(
o
-
c
)t+ (t).
Thus the analysis is not restricted to equal frequencies
of the incoming signal and the free-running VCO signal.
Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
The multiplier output is ABsin[
c
t +
i
(t)]cos[
c
t +
o
(t)]
=(1/2)AB (sin[
i
(t) -
o
(t)]+sin[2
c
t +
i
(t) +
o
(t)]).
The sum frequency term is suppressed by the loop filter.
Hence the effective input to the loop filter is (1/2)AB sin[
i
(t) -
o
(t)].
37
These equations suggest the model in part (b) of the Figure
If h(t) is the unit impulse response of the loop filter,
e
o
(t)=h(t)*(1/2) AB sin[
i
(t) -
o
(t)]
Since , we have
where K=cB/2 and
e
(t) is the phase error, defined by

e
(t) =
i
(t) -
o
(t).
( ) ( ) ( )
0
1
sin
2
t
i o
AB h t x x x dx ( =

( ) ( )
o o
t ce t =

( ) ( ) ( )
0
sin
t
o e
t AK h t x x dx ( =

Demodulation of FM, PM Waves with PLL

When the incoming FM signal is A sin[
c
t +
i
(t)],
Hence,
and assuming a small error
e
(t),
( ) ( )
.
t
i f
t k m d

( ) ( ) ( )
t
o f e
t k m d t

k
38
and assuming a small error
e
(t),
Thus, the PLL acts as an FM demodulator. If the incoming
signal is a PM wave, and
In this case the output of the PLL should be integrated to
obtain the message signal m(t).
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
i.e.,
f
o f o
k
t k m t e t m t
c
=

( ) ( )
i p
t k m t = ( ) ( )
1
.
o p
e t k m t
c
=

6. Superheterodyne FM/AM
Receiver
[A+m(t)]cos(
IF
t)
Or
Acos(w
IF
t+ (t))
[A+m(t)]cos(
c
t)
Or
Acos(
c
t+ (t))
39
AM superheterodyne receiver: Intermediate frequency = 455kHz and enelope
detection is used.
monophonic FM receiver: Identical to the superheterodyne AM receiver
except that the intermediate frequency is 10.7MHz and envelope detector is
replaced by a PLL or a frequency discriminator.
Superheterodyne FM/AM Receiver
All of the frequency (channel) selectivity is realized in the
IF section; the RF section plays a negligible role.
The main function of the RF section is image frequency suppression.
The mixer (converter output consists of components of the difference
between the incoming (f
c
) and the local-oscillator (f
LO
) frequencies.
i.e., f
IF
=| f
LO
-f
c
|
e.g., if the incoming carrier frequency f
c
=1000kHz, then
f
LO
=f
c
+f
IF
=1000+455=1455 kHz. But another carrier , with frequency f
LO
=f
c
+f
IF
=1000+455=1455 kHz. But another carrier , with frequency
f
c
=1455+455=1910kHz will also be picked up because the difference
f
c
f
LO
is also 455kHz. The station at 1910kHz is said to be the
image of the station of 1000kHz. Stations that are 2f
IF
=910 kHz apart
are called image stations and would both appear simultaneously at the
IF output. The RF filter at receiver input prevents this from happening.
The RF filter may provide poor selectivity against adjacent stations
separated by 10kH, but can provide good selectivity against stations
separated by 910kHz. Thus when we wish to tune in a station at
1000kHZ, the RF filter tuned to 1000kHz suppresses the image station
at 1910kHz.
7. FM Broadcasting System
FCC assigned the following frequency bands for FM
broadcasting.
Frequency range: 88 to 108MHz
Separation: 200 kHz
Max. frequency deviation: 75 kHz
Old FM receivers are monophonic. (one signal m(t))
New FM receivers are stereophonic. (left and right
41
New FM receivers are stereophonic. (left and right
audio signals, i.e. two different microphones).
more natural effect.
FCC ruled that:
monophonic receivers must be able to receive
stereo FM signals.
Total transmission band for the stereo FM signal =
200kHz with f = 75KHz.
7. FM Broadcasting System
19kHz
Composite
Baseband
Signal
Left
Signal
(Base band)
Right
Signal
42
Diagram for stereo FM transmitter
Signal
(Baseband)
7. FM Broadcasting System
43
Spectrum of a baseband stereo FM signal
7. FM Broadcasting System
44
FM stereo receiver