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Unit 1

Verbs followed by -ing and/or innitive


A Verbs followed by -ing or a noun
The builders avoided destroying the areas beauty. The builders avoided the destruction of the areas beauty. I miss seeing my friends every day. I miss my friends. Other verbs followed by -ing or a noun are: detest, dislike, enjoy, fancy, help, keep, loathe, do not mind, practise. Note that some verbs are followed by -ing or a that clause. He considered going there on holiday. He considered that this might be his last holiday. Other verbs in this category are: admit, deny, report.

remember

I remembered buying the ticket. (= I bought the ticket and I remember doing so.) Ill remember to buy the ticket. (= I havent bought it yet, but I will remember.) Note that you can use a that clause with remember. I remembered that I had bought the ticket.

mean

This means bringing all the information up to date. (= This involves bringing the information up to date.) I meant to bring all the information up to date. (= I intended to do it but didnt.) Note that you can use a that clause with mean. This means that the world will change more rapidly in future.

stop

I stopped looking at the scenery. (= I was looking at the scenery and then I stopped.) I stopped to look at the scenery. (= I was doing something, eg driving, and I stopped that activity in order to look at the scenery.)

B Verbs followed by -ing or the innitive with to


Some verbs are followed by -ing or to or a noun. I like playing chess. I like to play chess. I like chess. Other verbs followed by -ing or to or a noun are: attempt, cant bear/stand, begin, continue, hate, intend, love, prefer, start. Note that would like/love/prefer are followed by the innitive with to.

regret

I regret giving him the information. (= I gave him the information and I regret it.) I regret to tell you that you didnt get the job. (= I am about to give you some bad news.) Note that you can use a that clause with regret. I regretted that I had given the information.

D Verbs followed by the innitive with to


I cant afford to go back there. He failed to turn up for the interview. He managed to succeed in the end. Other verbs followed by the innitive with to are: appear, ask, choose, help, want.

C Verbs followed by -ing or the innitive with to where the meaning changes

forget

I forgot to buy the ticket. (= I didnt buy the ticket.) I forgot buying the ticket. (= I bought the ticket and then I forgot.) Note that you can use a that clause with forget. I forgot that I had bought the ticket.

E Some verbs are followed by -ing or the innitive without to


I watched the sun setting. (= I watched part of the process.) I watched the sun set. (= I watched the whole process.) Other verbs are: feel, hear, listen to, notice, see.

go on

She went on singing. (= She was singing and continued doing so.) She went on to sing. (= She was doing something and then began to sing or became a singer.)

Grammar reference

Unit 2
Using nouns to build noun phrases
1 (article/determiner) + adjective + noun
I live in a small at. a (article/determiner) + small (adjective) + at (noun) Other examples: Many ancient civilizations have disappeared. High-speed transport is essential for the modern world. The crisis had a huge impact. My country has considerable resources. They undertook an archaeological dig. A museum displays historical items. A thorough analysis was carried out by the scientists.

Other examples: The research into the survival of minority languages will be published soon. The plan of the facilities in the park was at the entrance. The investment in education has brought enormous benets to the children of all people in the area. The solution to the problem of illiteracy can be tackled in many ways.

5 (article/determiner) (+ adjective) + noun + relative clause


The neighbourhood where I live is very quiet. Describe a piece of electronic equipment that you like. Other examples: The exam that I took last week was fairly straightforward. The ideas that I read in the book were new to me. The people who support this idea argue that education is crucial. See dening and non-dening relative clauses in Unit 8 below.

2 (article/determiner) + noun + noun


The transport system works very well. Other examples: The telephone network is very efcient. Penicillin was a key invention. The supermarket carried out some market research. The education system is very well-organized. I followed several language classes.

The use of noun phrases


1 Noun phrases are used to build ideas by placing information before the noun using adjectives or other nouns and after the nouns using prepositional phrases. The building of the railway had a huge effect on the local community. 2 Noun phrases can be used to paraphrase and summarize ideas. Car sales rose slowly in the north of the UK. There was a slow rise in car sales in the north of the UK. 3 Noun phrases are often used in: a headings in the reading module the impact of tourism, the reasons for increased numbers of tourists, methods to protect the area b the Task 1 and Task 2 questions and answers Many people think that the changes in the climate are mainly the result of human behaviour. To what extent do you agree or disagree? c headings and questions in the listening Questions 15 The consequences of tourism The impact of 1 ................ on the environment in mountain regions (tourists)

3 (article/determiner) (+ adjective) + noun + prepositional phrase ((article/determiner) (+ adjective) + noun)


The past has a huge impact on the present. Other examples: Television has had a huge effect on peoples lives. Specialization in a particular eld can take time. The answer to the problem lies in investment.

4 (article/determiner) (+ adjective) + noun + prepositional phrase ((article/determiner) (+ adjective) + noun) + prepositional phrase ((article/determiner) (+ adjective) + noun)
The countryside near the home of my parents is very beautiful. An explanation of the different types of systems was given.

Grammar reference

Unit 3
Prepositions with verbs
Verbs followed by prepositions are also called prepositional verbs. Such verbs are more common than phrasal verbs in academic writing. Phrasal verbs are colloquial and they are used more in conversation, news and ction.

Existence verbs
The increase in the availability of knowledge coincided with artistic development. Knowledge is often connected with power.

About
He thought about the essay for a long time. Little is known about the earliest city states. We talked about the book for a long time.

Unit 4
Comparatives and superlatives
Comparative and superlative adjectives are used to compare items, events, people and processes. They are also used to express peoples opinion. In sentences, the comparative form of the adjective is followed by than and the item which is being compared. The comparative form of adjectives is formed in different ways.

At
I looked at the dictionary denition. He guessed at the answer in the exam.

For
She asked for a reduction in fees. Many elderly people are cared for in the community.

1 Comparatives using -er


For adjectives with one syllable, you can form the comparative adjective by adding -er. Computers are faster now than they were ten years ago. For adjectives with two syllables or more, you can use more/less. Playing games on the computer is more/less interesting than reading books. Note that you use the word than with comparative adjectives.

From
The trend for car sales differs from that of motorbikes enormously. The idea stems from research in the eld of engineering.

In
He used the data in our answer. He took part in the survey. He succeeded in passing the exam. He wants to specialize in chemistry.

2 Comparatives with adjectives ending in -e or -y


For adjectives ending in -e, you add -r to the ending, and for adjectives ending in -y you replace the -y with -i and add -er. The streets in the new entertainment district of the city are wider than those in the old part. People were happier in the past than now.

On
The solution to the problem of illiteracy depends on the cause. He relied on his memory in the exam.

With
A sedentary lifestyle is associated with being overweight. The patients were provided with beds and medication.

3 Comparatives where you double the consonant


In one-syllable adjectives ending in a consonant, you double the consonant. Computers were bigger in the past than they are now.

Causative verbs
The increase in information via the Internet has resulted in information overload for students. The world has now been transformed into a global village. The education of the workforce can lead to greater economic growth.

4 Comparatives with -er or more


You can use -er or more with some adjectives. Some people think that childrens knowledge is shallower/ more shallow than it used to be. E-books are becoming commoner/more common than they were even a few years ago.

Grammar reference
5 Irregular comparatives
You use a different word as the comparative form for some common adjectives. Good She is a better reader than he is. Bad Last night the acting in the play was worse than other performances.

Unit 5
Degrees of certainty
A Possibility
1 You can express possibility by using can/may/ possibly/it is possible that
Doing even basic exercises such as walking can/may improve childrens health. It is possible that doing even basic exercises such as walking will improve childrens health. It is possible for even basic exercises such as walking to improve childrens health. Doing even basic exercises such as walking will possibly improve childrens health.

6 Superlative adjectives
You make superlative adjectives by using e and adding -(e)st to adjectives with one syllable or two syllables. The adjective is preceded with the word the. For adjectives ending in -y, you change the -y to -i and add -est. You use the most with longer adjectives. The latest computers are very fast. Clubs and discos are often the noisiest places that you can visit. The most impressive place I have been to is St Petersburg. With some adjectives, you can use the -(i)est or the most. The commonest/most common pastime is playing on the computer.

2 Negative possibility
It is not possible to improve ones health without taking exercise. It is impossible to improve ones health without taking exercise. It is impossible for ones health to improve without taking exercise.

7 Irregular superlative adjectives


The worst lm I have ever seen is The best place to study is the library.

3 Tentative possibility
Robots could/might perform operations in the future. It is possible that robots (will) might/could perform operations in the future.

8 Comparatives with less and not as as


You can use not as ... as with short adjectives and less with longer adjectives. Factual books are not as popular as ction. Some types of websites are less attractive than others. You can make comparisons by using than. Sales were greater in 1980 than in 1990.

B Probability and expectation


1 You can express probability by using should/ ought to/likely/probably/it is probable that
It is probable that health care will become more technologically advanced in coming years. This can be rewritten as follows: It is likely that health care will become more technologically advanced in coming years. Health care should/ought to become more technologically advanced in coming years. Health care will probably/likely become more technologically advanced in coming years. Health care is likely to become more technologically advanced in coming years. Note that you cannot say: Health care is probable to become more technologically advanced in coming years.

9 Words to strengthen or weaken comparatives


You can add words to strengthen or weaken comparatives. Books are much more attractive nowadays than in the past. The number of visitors was a little higher this year than last year.

10 You can also compare clauses


Computer sales were as high in June as they were in January. Twice as many people attended the show this time as the last time.

Grammar reference

Grammar reference
Second conditional
You use the second conditional to talk about imaginary or impossible situations in the present or future. You form the second conditional by using if + the past simple + would + the innitive without to. If we constructed taller building in cities, it would save a lot of space. If I were able to live anywhere, Id move near the sea. Note that in speech If I was you is becoming common. You can also use could, might, should instead of would in the main clause. If we constructed taller building in cities, it could/might/ should save a lot of space.

2 Negative
It is unlikely/improbable that health care will become more technologically advanced in coming years.

C Necessity
1 You can express necessity as follows:
It is necessary for all children to be vaccinated against polio. All children need to be vaccinated against polio.

2 Negative necessity
It is unnecessary for all age groups to be vaccinated against the u.

Third conditional
You use the third conditional to hypothesize or speculate about the past. You form the third conditional by using if + past perfect + would have + the past participle. If I had been more interested in science, Id have been able to study astronomy. You can also use could, might, should, instead of would in the main clause. If popular tourist spots around the world had not been protected, they could/might/should have been destroyed by now. You can remove the if in the second conditional and third conditional and invert as follows:

D Certainty
1 You can express certainty as follows:
It is certain that the world will need fewer doctors in future. The world will need fewer doctors in future.

2 Negative
It is not certain that the world will need fewer doctors in future.

Unit 6
Hypothesizing: rst, second and third conditionals
First conditional
You use the rst conditional to talk about real situations in the present or future and their possible results. You form the rst conditional by using if + the present simple + will + the innitive without to. If more money is invested in space research we will one day inhabit other worlds. You can also use may, might, going to, can instead of will in the main clause. If more money is invested in space research, we may one day inhabit other worlds. If more space is needed in cities, derelict areas can be turned into parks. If the neighbourhood is improved, its going to be an interesting place to live in.

Were I to buy an e-book reader, I still wouldnt have enough space for books. Had I bought a house in the country I would have had much more space.

Unless/if not
You can use unless instead of if not in conditional clauses. Unless the world population growth slows down, we will run out of space sometime this century. If the world population growth doesnt slow down, we will run out of space sometime this century.

Various types of conditional sentences


You can use even if/on condition that/provided that/ provided/as long as in conditional sentences.

Grammar reference

Grammar reference
You can buy two pieces of luggage at a reduced price. Can I give you a piece of advice? 3 Some uncountable nouns that end in s like news are followed by a singular verb. The news is all about nancial matters today. 4 Note that many common nouns are uncountable in English, but countable in other languages. Accommodation is not cheap in city centres. The information is on the company website. Modern furniture is very different from that of the past. The weather is bad today. Other nouns are: advice, equipment, knowledge, money. 5 Plural nouns take plural verbs. The surroundings are very beautiful. Some other common plural nouns are: goods, means, trousers. 6 Depending on whether you want to focus on the group or the individuals in a group, some group nouns have singular and plural verbs. The government is/are planning to change consumer protection laws. The family like(s) the HD TV. But note: The police have arrived. Note that in Australian and American English the singular verb is used with family etc. Other similar nouns are: army, crowd, data, group, public. 7 Some uncountable nouns may also be used as countable nouns. Fruit is available in most supermarkets. Two fruits (bananas and apples) outsell all the others in this market.

Cause and effect verbs


1 There is a wide range of verbs to indicate causes and effect: affect, bring about, cause, change, create, impact, improve, inuence, lead to, make something happen, produce, result (in/from), shape, transform Exercise can affect peoples well-being. (cause effect) Technology has changed our working habits. (cause effect) Note the difference between result in and result from: Advances in science have resulted in many medical treatments. (cause effect) Many medical treatments have resulted from advances in science. (effect cause) 2 You can use the passive to change the order of the cause and effect items. Peoples well-being can be affected by exercise. (effect cause) Our working habits have been changed by technology. (effect cause) 3 You can also use the nouns formed from the verbs in 1: effect, cause, change, creation, impact, improvement, inuence, production, result, shaping, transformation Labour-saving devices have had an effect/impact on our lifestyle. Supermarkets have great inuence over our eating habits. The result of proper hygiene and a good diet can be a longer life. Science has brought many improvements to our lives. 4 Expressing connections You need to distinguish ideas that are connected but do not have a cause and effect relationship. Using computers is associated/linked with different health issues.

Unit 7
Countable and uncountable nouns
Countable nouns
1 Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form. They are used with a singular or a plural verb. I bought a tablet. The tablet is very convenient. I have two tablets. The tablets are both very convenient.

8 Nouns that change their meaning: A Business (in general related to enterprise) is different from a business (which is a company or rm). Help (in general) is not the same as a help (a person who helps people). Work (in general) is not the same as a work (of art). B Contrast coffee (the material) with a coffee, as in a cup of coffee. Contrast paper (the material) with a paper, as in a newspaper. Contrast wood (the material) with a wood, which is an area with some trees.

Uncountable nouns
1 Uncountable nouns are used with a singular verb. The information is inside the box. 2 To count uncountable nouns you can use phrases like a piece of/a bit of/a slice of/a sheet of etc.

Grammar reference

Unit 8
Dening and non-dening relative clauses
Relative clauses contain a relative pronoun: which, that, who, whose, whom. You can use them in sentences to provide additional information about nouns. There are two types of relative clauses: dening and non-dening.

That or which
1 You can use that or which when referring to things, but you use which with prepositions rather than that. The painting, from which I got the idea for the story, is in the National Gallery.

Whom
1 You can use the word whom as the object of the word who. Whom is more formal and it is not often used in speech. The singer (who/whom) I saw on the bus is very well-known. 2 You use whom with prepositions, but again this is more formal. It is not often used in speech and mostly found in formal writing. The sculptor from whom I purchased the bronze statue has reduced the price. The manager (who/whom) I purchased the bronze statue from has reduced the price.

Dening clauses
1 Dening clauses provide information that identies the person, event or thing that they refer to. Dening relative clauses cannot be left out of the sentence and do not have commas at the beginning and end of the clause. The comedy lm that I saw yesterday was very funny. The actress who played the heroine was captivating. 2 You can leave out the relative pronoun: a only if it is the object of the clause b only in dening clauses I couldnt put down the book (that/which) I bought. The person (who/whom) Id like to describe is my grandfather. 3 In speech some people use that instead of who/whom. The person (that) Id like to describe is my grandfather.

Whose
You use whose for possession instead of whom. Thats the pop singer whose song sold millions.

When and why


You can leave out when and why in dening clauses. The reason (why) the bridge looks so elegant is the way it was constructed. I want to talk about the time (when) I was in Australia.

Non-dening clauses
1 Non-dening clauses provide additional information about a person, event or thing. Non-dening clauses can be left out without affecting the main information of the sentence. They have commas at the beginning and the end. In speech, you indicate a non-dening clause by pausing briey at the commas and using a rising tone on the word before the comma. The building, which is made of glass and is very elegant, is near the river. 2 You cannot leave out the relative pronoun in nondening clauses when it is the object of the clause. The building, is made of glass and is very elegant, is near the river. 3 You cannot use the word that to introduce a nondening clause. The building, that which is made of glass and is very elegant, is near the river.

Where
You cannot leave out where. Id like to talk about the area where I was brought up.

Dening and non-dening relative clauses and noun phrases


Both dening and non-dening relative clauses can be used to build ideas. See Unit 2.5 above.

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