6

TH
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
ROLLER COMPACTED CONCRETE (RCC) DAMS
Zaragoza, 23 25 October 2012



PROPOSING A STANDARDIZED APPROACH TO STRESS-STRAIN
INSTRUMENTATION FOR RCC DAMS

Dr.-Ing. Marco CONRAD
AF-Consult Switzerland Ltd, Baden, Switzerland

Dr. Quentin SHAW
ARQ Consulting Engineers (Pty) Ltd., Pretoria, South Africa

Dr Malcolm R.H. DUNSTAN
MD&A, Buckfastleigh, United Kingdom



SUMMARY


It has recently been demonstrated that different types of roller-compacted
concrete (RCC) in large dams can display quite different early stress-strain
behaviour, which must be accurately modelled for meaningful thermal analysis and
dam design, particularly in the case of high dams. A need has consequently been
identified to motivate the RCC dams industry to investigate and to develop data on
this important characteristic across a broad range of RCC and Hardfill (CSG)
types, with a view to establishing rules of thumb for design and appropriate
methods for verification in the mix development process and during early
construction. The installation of a standardized instrumentation arrangement in a
large number of RCC dams is perceived as a best first approach to encourage a
broad investigation and consequently to swiftly advance the understanding of the
early stress-strain behaviour for a wide range of RCC types.

On the basis of their combined experience, the authors of this paper
correspondingly propose a standardized stress-strain instrumentation scheme for
RCC dams, designed to evaluate the response for the different material
combinations and RCC types in respect of stress-strain behaviour, in-situ elastic
modulus development, relaxation/creep in tension and compression and other
non-thermal volume changes. An arrangement of long-base strain gauges and
so-called effective concrete stressmeters is proposed, due to the well-proven
performance of these instruments under the harsh conditions inherent to RCC
placement for dams.






1. INTRODUCTION


1.1. BACKGROUND


Despite a history in dam construction of some 30 years, our understanding of
the early-age behaviour of different types of RCC in large dams continues to
develop and with these advances new opportunities and new problems that must
be considered in thermal analysis and dam design become apparent. With recent
research
[1]
demonstrating that different types of RCC and different cementitious
materials can give rise to quite different levels of early stress-relaxation creep, it is
particularly important for dam design that we can measure and eventually predict
these characteristics. To continue to advance our understanding of the associated
issues and to develop our ability to take full advantage of the associated behaviour
in the design of large RCC dams requires data from more dams and the broad
involvement of the community of RCC dam professionals in consequential
investigation and analysis.

Until very recently, we have assumed that all types of RCC behave in a
similar manner during the hydration cycle and that the typical stress-strain
behaviour witnessed in conventionally-vibrated concrete (CVC) is similarly evident
in all RCCs. While we construct CVC dams in separate vertical monoliths to
account for the related behaviour, we assume that the induced joints in RCC dams
open to allow the dam to behave as a similar series of monoliths. But if certain
RCCs experience negligible creep and consequential shrinkage during the
hydration cycle, at best, the considerations that we must apply for thermal
analyses must be appropriately adjusted and at worst, we might be incorrect in
treating our gravity dams essentially as 2-dimensional structures.


1.2. OBJECTIVES


With evidence demonstrating that RCC can now be designed for a range of
stress-relaxation and conventional creep characteristics, it is important to note that
the consequential behaviour of the RCC can be manifested in effects and
performance that have not previously been acknowledged in general RCC dam
design. In large RCC dams, particularly in narrower valleys, these consequential
effects can possibly be deleterious if not understood and appropriately managed.

The early stress-strain behaviour of each particular RCC mix is a very
important parameter that will influence the appropriate approaches to dam design,
thermal stress analysis, placement temperature control requirements and induced
joint systems and arrangements. Conversely, the requirements of a particular dam
site might well determine the requirements of the RCC in respect of early
stress-strain and creep behaviour.


Through a definition of the currently available instrumentation that is typically
most suitable for the measurement of early stress-strain behaviour in RCC and the
proposal of a standard layout of instruments, it is intended to encourage fellow
RCC dam practitioners to investigate the related behaviour of as many different
types of RCC and Hardfill (CSG) as possible. With more data and more technical
analysis, using the same reference framework, it will be possible to build a more
definitive understanding of the specific characteristics that determine the extent of
creep that occurs during the hydration cycle and the range of stress-relaxation
creep possible across the various different RCCs.

In the current situation, we can develop only indicative information through
laboratory testing, while some better information can only really be produced by
the time of the construction of the Full-Scale Trial, which comes rather late to be of
more than of corroborative value for dam design. With a good data-base produced
for different RCC types using a standard configuration of instruments, it will
eventually be possible to develop the necessary knowledge and understanding on
which basis to establish rules of thumb for different RCC types and cementitious
materials blends to be applied during the dam design process.



2. DETERMINATION OF EARLY-AGE BEHAVIOUR


The recent research into the early-age behaviour of RCC demonstrated that
it is the processes that occur during placement and over the first few days that are
the key to the stress-relaxation creep and consequential shrinkage behaviour of an
RCC. With the method and mechanisms of compaction and the extent of restraint
undoubtedly playing significant roles, the real conditions that develop over the first
few days in bulk RCC cannot realistically be recreated and measured in a
laboratory, nor fully replicated in a Full-Scale Trial. While it is this very problem that
has compromised the development of our understanding of this early behaviour to
date, it required long-term comparative instrumentation measurement on RCC
dams, recreated in analytical simulation, to prove the different stress-relaxation
creep and volume-change characteristics of different RCC types.

A key aspect with a strong influence on the stress-relaxation characteristics
of a specific RCC is the autogenous volume change of the constituent cementitious
materials during hydration and this is probably the only related characteristic that
can realistically be measured in a laboratory. Consequently, and in the absence of
any rules of thumb, it is necessary to rely on instrumentation to establish the
associated anticipated level of stress-relaxation creep.


3. RCC DAM INSTRUMENTATION



3.1. GENERAL


Instrumentation for RCC dams has been developed over the years on the
same general principles as applied for traditional mass concrete dams, to
measure foundation uplift pressures, foundation and dam body seepage, concrete
and water temperatures, structural deformations and displacements, foundation
bearing loads, seismic response, etc. In addition, specific strain measurement
instruments have been developed to measure the openings on induced joints,
while RCC dams will also often use a substantial number of thermocouples, or
thermistor temperature sensors, in order to accurately establish the distributions
of temperature at various intervals during the hydration cycle. More recently,
effective stress measurement gauges, originally designed for use in CVC, have
been successfully applied in RCC.


3.2. STRESS-STRAIN MEASUREMENT


In this paper, the authors focus specifically on instrumentation suitable for
the measurement of stress-strain behaviour in RCC. While strain instruments can
be used for measuring joint opening and structural deformation over the full
operational life of the dam, it is the behaviour of the RCC over the duration of
hydration temperature rise and heat dissipation, or the hydration cycle, that is of
greatest interest to the dam designer. To this end, it has been found that the
location and orientation of instruments is of particular importance to avoid the
development of distorted stress-strain data, which will often be the case, for
example, when strain gauges are located across induced joints. In addition,
measured strains and restraint stresses can only realistically be interpreted for
stress-relaxation creep and non-thermal volume changes taking into account the
full picture of the concurrent transient temperature state. An enhanced monitoring
of thermal gradients therefore needs to accompany all stress-strain measurement.


3.3. FULL-SCALE INSTRUMENTATION


Due to the exaggerated influences of thermal effects and restraint caused
by the proximity of the foundation, the development of useful information in
relation to the early stress-strain behaviour of RCC during the Full-Scale Trial
(FST) construction has not generally been successful. While the standardized
arrangement proposed in this paper has been developed for installation in the
body of the dam itself, it is perhaps worth making some comment on
arrangements likely to be more suitable for an FST, as early information in respect
of this behaviour characteristic is obviously of particular value.


For the FST, or FSTs, a comparison of the early stress-strain behaviour
under restrained and un-restrained conditions is of specific value and it is
suggested that part of the FST be constructed on competent rock, while another
part be constructed on well-compacted dry sand. Blinding and a heavy HDPE
de-bonding sheet should also be used to minimise foundation restraint beneath
the section of the FST constructed on sand and dry sand should also be used for
thermal insulation over the full top surface of the completed trial embankment, in
order to replicate as closely as possible the maximum hydration temperature to be
experienced within the core of the dam body. Alternatively, to avoid the insulation,
a larger number of training layers could be placed in the bottom part of the FST
(which would be beneficial in any event), where the installed stress-strain
instrumentation would be insulated by the overlying RCC.



4. STADARDIZED APPROACH TO STRESS-STRAIN
INSTRUMENTATION FOR RCC DAMS


4.1. MOTIVATION


As discussed in the paper The Influence of Low Stress-Relaxation Creep
on Large RCC Arch & Gravity Dam Design
[2]
, the early stress-strain behaviour of
different types of RCC can be seen to substantially alter the requirements for dam
design and analysis, placement temperature controls, allowable thermal gradients
and exposure times between the layers. Furthermore, an accurate thermal
analysis is simply not possible without knowledge of the actual stress-relaxation
characteristics of the particular RCC to be used. Investigations have further
demonstrated that deleterious 3-dimensional effects can become particularly
problematic for high gravity dams in narrow valleys and it is quite possible that a
different approach would be appropriate for the induced joints in cases where
foundations indicate significant variations in deformability. It is consequently
apparent that an additional parameter exists for RCC that requires detail
consideration in the design and mix development process.

On the basis of the importance of the early stress-strain behaviour of the
various different types of RCC and the difficulties inherent to the prediction and
measurement of this characteristic, the most appropriate means by which to
improve the related understanding within the dam engineering industry is
considered to be the production, gathering and analysis of as much related data
as possible, ideally produced on a comparable basis. To realise this objective, a
standardized arrangement of specific instrumentation is advocated, that can be
simply and relatively cheaply installed in as many RCC dams as possible over the
coming years.



4.2. PROPOSAL


From the early days of RCC construction, instrumentation designed
specifically to monitor the behaviour of the material itself has generally included
thermocouples and thermistors and different types of strain gauges. In respect of
temperature, instrumentation has been installed to establish the temperature
profile and consequently the thermal gradients at various stages during
construction and early operation, while allowing the monitoring of the hydration
temperature development and dissipation cycle. Strain gauges have been
installed with the primary function of monitoring the opening of induced joints, as
the body of the dam cools.

With some early RCC dams only including crack inducers in the surface
zone, and not in the body of the RCC, Long-Base-Strain-Gauge-Temperature
Meters (LBSGTMs) were developed with a view to intercepting an induced joint
opening that could occur over an area, as opposed to on a precise,
pre-determined alignment. With the advent of crack directors placed in the RCC at
intervals varying between every layer and every fourth layer, it has been possible
to reduce the length of the LBSGTMs from 1 m to 600 or 700 mm. These
instruments, which use vibrating wire technology, have proved very successful
and reliable in operation and are well suited to the conditions of any type of RCC
dam construction. Paradoxically, shorter (250 mm) and apparently more robust
stainless steel strain gauges have proved more unreliable and more susceptible
to indicating variable strain results.

More recently, effective concrete stressmeters (Munich type)
[3]
and fibre
optic
[4]
instruments have been successfully installed in RCC dams. Fibre optics
offer the benefit of being able to recover densely distributed data over an
extended length and the ability to measure temperature, strain and deformation.
However, the disadvantage of fibre optics is the cost of the readout units. These
units are expensive, when looking at the specifications usually desired for the
application in an RCC dam, and not commonly available. Consequently, it is not
realistically possible to maintain standby equipment, unless an Owner is
constructing several large RCC dams in a short period of time, and accordingly
any malfunction could lead to important data being permanently lost.

While effective concrete stressmeters have been installed in RCC, it is not
considered that accurate measurement using these instruments can be
universally assured. Consequently, it is considered sensible to support a
stressmeter with simultaneous, adjacent strain measurement, which will allow
better validation and calibration of the indicated stress levels, taking into account
in particular the variable restraint conditions. It is also important that all stress and
strain measurements are accompanied by temperature measurements and the
use of vibrating wire systems will allow coincident strain and temperature
measurements within the same gauges. Enhanced thermal gradient monitoring,
with a higher density of thermocouples or thermistors in the vicinity of the

stress-strain instrumentation, will allow a more accurate analysis of stress-strain
behaviour.

Restraint, both internal and external, will impact stress and strain
development and, while it is important to understand the associated influence on
the early stress-relaxation creep of a particular RCC, this is only of real value if
compared with the equivalent situation without any significant influence of
restraint. Consequently, to develop a meaningful understanding of the early
stress-strain behaviour of a particular RCC, it is necessary to make strain
measurement during the hydration temperature rise and dissipation under
unrestrained conditions and to take stress and strain measurement, both parallel
and perpendicular to the dam axis, in the core and external zones of the dam
body. To achieve this objective, it is necessary to include appropriate
instrumentation in the FST (see Fig. 1), as well as the body of the dam itself. It is
also recommended that part of the FST be constructed to simulate unrestrained
conditions (see sub-Section 3.3).


Fig. 1:
Designed Instrumentation in the FST for Dak Mi 4, Vietnam

While the FST serves a number of purposes, it is considered likely that only
an indicative evaluation of the early stress-strain behaviour of the constituent RCC
can be made on the basis of the FST and it is the body of the dam that is likely to
yield the most definitive information. Consequently, it is proposed that the main
set of standardized instrumentation be installed in the body of the main dam.
Instrumentation under minimised impacts of restraint and hydration temperature
peak suppression resulting from the proximity of the foundation rockmass or
exposed surfaces, where steep thermal gradients will develop, should be installed
at least 10 m above the foundation level and ideally in the monolith centre.
However, it is also considered beneficial to install instrumentation in areas of
maximum restraint, i.e. close to the foundation and close to facings. Long-term
placement breaks also represent an additional area of interest.

On the basis of successful experience to date, a system developed using
effective concrete stressmeters (Munich type) and LBSGTMs is advocated and
the arrangement considered most practical and appropriate is indicated in Fig. 2
and Fig. 3.


Fig. 2:
Schematic Section of Proposed Standardized Instrumentation for Early Stress-Strain
Behaviour Measurement (excluding Temperature Monitoring)


Fig. 3:
Schematic Layout of Proposed Standardized Instrumentation for Early Stress-Strain
Behaviour Measurement (considering instrument redundancy)

5. CONCLUSIONS



In proposing and presenting a standardized layout of instrumentation for the
measurement of the early stress-strain response of RCC in large dams, the
authors are attempting to encourage the development of a better understanding of
this previously inadequately addressed behaviour characteristic across the full
range of RCC types. In tandem with laboratory testing to determine the
autogenous shrinkage characteristics of the applicable cementitious materials
blend, the proposed instrumentation is seen as a necessary and appropriate
inclusion in all large dams to investigate and verify the applicable early
stress-relaxation creep parameters to be applied in thermal analysis and structural
design.

The findings from the standardized stress-strain instrumentation proposed
are expected to be of significant structural and economic importance, with benefits
including reducing adverse dam structure behaviour, eliminating the need to grout
induced joints on RCC arch dams and allowing higher maximum admissible RCC
placement temperatures. A better understanding of the in-situ stress-relaxation
creep behaviour will also enable a more accurate determination of the potential for
surface and mass gradient cracking in RCC dams both during construction and
operation.



REFERENCES



[1} Shaw, Q.H.W., and Dunstan, M.R.H., The Low Stress-Relaxation
Characteristics of Flyash-rich RCC. Proceedings. 6
th
International
Symposium on RCC Dams. Zaragoza, Spain. October 2012.
[2] Shaw, Q.H.W., The Influence of Low Stress Relaxation Creep on Large
RCC Arch & Gravity Dam Design. Proceedings. 6
th
International
Symposium on RCC Dams. Zaragoza, Spain. October 2012.
[3] Conrad, M, Aufleger, M.G. and Husein Malkawi, Al., Investigations on the
Modulus of Elasticity of Young RCC Dams. Proceedings. 4
th
International
Symposium on RCC Dams. Madrid, Spain. November 2003.
[4] Conrad, M, Hoepffner, R and Aufleger, M.G., Innovative Monitoring
Devices for an Integral Observation of Thermal Stress Behaviour of Large
RCC Dams. Proceedings. 5
th
International Symposium on RCC Dams.
Guiyang, China. November 2007.




Dams: Dams: Dams: Dams: Dak Mi 4
Keywords Keywords Keywords Keywords: Trial Mix Programme, Full-Scale Trial, instrumentation,
standardized layout, long-base strain gauges, effective concrete
stressmeters, early age, stress