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1999 by CRC Press LLC
ThIcIness
Neasuremenf
7.1 Desciiptions of the Relatively Matuie Measuiing
Techniques
Mechanical Electionic Gages Pneumatic Gaging Optical:
Focusing, Shadowing, Compaiing Weighing Capacitive
Gaging Inductive Gaging (Eddy Cuiient Sensing) Magnetic
Induction Hall Effect Gage Fai-Field/Time-of-Flight:
Ultiasound, Radai, Lidai Fai-Field/Resonance: Ultiasound,
Inteifeiometiy, Ellipsometiy Fai-Field/Absoiption,
Scatteiing, Emission: Beta, Gamma, X-Ray, Infiaied
Destiuctive Techniques
7.2 Futuie Diiections in Thickness Measuiement
Conceining Techniques Mentioned Above THz Technology
Nanoscale-Scanning Piobe Micioscopy
One can measuie thickness on many scales. The galaxy is a spiial disk about 100 Em (10
20
m) thick. The
solai system is pancake-like, about 1 Tm (10
12
m) thick. The iings of Satuin aie about 10 km thick. Closei
to home, Eaith`s atmospheie is a spheiical shell about 40 km thick; the weathei occuis in the tiopospheie,
about 12 km thick. The outeimost shell of the solid Eaith is the ciust, about 35 km thick. The ocean has
a mean depth of 3.9 km. In the Antaictic, the iecently discoveied objects believed to be miciofossils
indicative of ancient Maitian life aie less than 100 nm thick. In teims of the man-made enviionment,
industiy must contend with thickness vaiying fiom meteis, foi constiuction piojects, to millimeteis on
assembly lines, to miciometeis and nanometeis foi the solid-state, optical, and coatings industiies.
Peihaps the most familiai way of measuiing thickness is by mechanical means, such as by iulei oi calipei.
Othei means aie sometimes called foi, eithei because both sides of an object aie not accessible, the
dimension is eithei too big oi too small foi calipeis, the object is too fiagile, too hot, oi too cold foi
diiect contact, oi the object is in motion on an assembly line - it may not even be a solid. Thickness
may also be a function of position, as eithei the object may have oiiginally been made with nonunifoim
thickness, delibeiately oi not, oi the thickness may have become nonunifoim with time due eithei to
coiiosion, ciacking, oi some othei deteiioiation. The thickness may also be changing with time due to
delibeiate giowth oi etching, as example foi thin flms. Thus it follows that, in moie geneial teims,
measuiing thickness might iequiie measuiing the topogiaphy oi height piofle of two suifaces and taking
the diffeience. Alteinatively, the measuiement technique may pioduce a ieading diiectly ielated to the
diffeience. Table 7.1 lists some of the many techniques suited to deteimining thickness, togethei with the
iange of usefulness and some comments on accuiacy and/oi piecision.
}ohn C. Brasunas
NASA/Coddord
C. NarI Cushman
NASA/Coddord
BrooI LaIev
NASA/Coddord
1999 by CRC Press LLC
7.1 Descriptiuns ul the Re!ative!y Mature
Measuring Techniques
The following desciiptions will also iefei to some of the ielevant vendois, whose addiesses aie found in
Table 7.2. Additional vendoi infoimation, with specifc piice oi model numbei identifcation, is found
in Table 7.3. The woids gage" and gauge" aie used inteichangeably.
Mechanica!
The fundamental tool foi measuiing thickness is the line-giaduated instiument 1, 2]. It is the only
mechanical means to make diiect measuiements. Giaduated spacings that iepiesent known distances aie
used as diiect compaiisons to the unknown distance. Instiuments include bais, iules, and tapes geneiically
called iuleis; calipei gages, which employ a positive contact device foi impioved alignment of the distance
boundaiies; and miciometeis, which typically have gieatei piecision due to a combination of lineai and
ciicumfeiential scales. Calipei piecision can be impioved with veiniei scales oi lineai tiansduceis. Fixed
gages aie often used to measuie objects on a pass/fail basis. An object of fxed geometiy (length, tapeied
boie, thiead, etc.) is compaied to a test piece typically foi pait inspection. Vaiiations include the mastei
gage, an object used to iepiesent the nominal dimension of the pait; the limit gage, an object used to
iepiesent the limit condition foi toleiance dimensioning; and gage blocks oi Johansson blocks, an object
of fxed length used as a dimensional iefeience standaid. Dial indicatois aie used to sense displacement
TABLE 7.1 Thickness Measuiing Techniques
Technique Range Comments
Mechanical
Calipei gage, miciometei 1 m-100 mm 3 m accuiacy
Electionic gages: LVDT 0-1 m Piecision depends on noise level
Pneumatic gaging 50 nm minimum
Optical/focusing, shadowing, compaiing
Micioscope 5 m minimum About 1% accuiacy
Compaiatois/piojectois 25-250 nm
Lasei calipei 100 m-100 mm Piecision of 6 m oi bettei
Weighing Range depends on aiea
Capacitive gaging Fiom <1 m to about 1 cm
Inductive gaging (eddy cuiient sensing) 0-1.5 mm Piecision of 2.5 m
Magnetic induction 0-4 mm 10% accuiacy
Hall effect gage 0-10 mm 1-3% accuiacy
Fai-feld/time-of-ight
Sonai/ultiasound 0.5-250 mm 25 m accuiacy
Radai 0.1 to few hundied km
Lidai 10 m-5 km
THz technology
Fai-feld/iesonance
Resonant ultiasound
Inteifeiometiy: spectial and spatial 1 nm-100 m Accuiacy about /50
Ellipsometiy 0.3 nm-10 m 0.1 nm accuiacy
Fai-feld/absoiption, scatteiing, emission
Gamma-iay backscattei Range to 25 mm 0.5% piecision
Beta-tiansmission 2 m-1 mm 0.2% piecision
Beta-backscattei 100 nm-50 m 3 to 20% piecision
X-iay uoiescence 0-30 m
Infiaied absoiption Depends on mateiial
Scanning techniques: scanning piobe micioscopy Piecision bettei than 0.1 nm
Destiuctive techniques: electiolytic 15 nm-50 m
1999 by CRC Press LLC
fiom a iefeience plane and display the deviation theieof. The display can be electionically coupled foi
amplifcation and/oi display puiposes. The iange of a measuiing instiument may be extended if multiple
copies of the object to be measuied aie available. Foi example, the thickness of a sheet of papei may be
measuied by a simple iulei if 500 sheets of papei aie stacked. (Vendois: Biown & Shaipe, Staiiett,
Mitutoyo. Also see 3].)
E!ectrunic Gages
A Lineai Vaiiable Diffeiential Tiansfoimei (LVDT), utilizes multiple toioidal tiansfoimeis to sense axial
displacement of an iion coie that is attached to a measuiing contact, eithei diiectly oi by anothei joint
(such as a levei). The displacement has a diiect coiielation to the distance that othei electionics display.
Thus, the LVDT seives as a ieplacement foi a lined iulei oi miciometei, incoipoiating an electiical
ieadout. (Vendois: Penny - Giles; Schaevitz; Tiansicoil Inc.; Tians-Tek.)
TABLE 7.2 Vendoi addiesses.
Vendoi Addiess
Bomem Quebec, Canada
Biown & Shaipe Noith Kingstown, RI
CMI Inteinational Elk Giove Village, IL
Conductus Sunnyvale, CA
deFelsko Ogdensbuig, NY
Digilab Cambiidge, MA
Digital Instiuments Santa Baibaia, CA
Electiomatic Cedaihuist, NY
Fischei Windsoi, CT
Hewlett Packaid Englewood, CO
Kta-Tatoi Pittsbuigh, PA
Magnetic Analysis Coip. Mount Veinon, NY
Mattson Madison, WI
Measuiex Cupeitino, CA
Micio Photonics Allentown, PA
Midac Costa Mesa, CA
Mitutoyo Plymouth, MI
Mooie Pioducts Co Spiing House, PA
NDC Systems Iiwindale, CA
Nicolet Madison, WI
Ono Sokki Addison, IL
Oxfoid Instiuments Concoid, MA
Panametiics Waltham, MA
Paik Scientifc Instiuments Sunnyvale, CA
Penny - Giles Attleboio, MA
Peikin Elmei Noiwalk, CT
Phase-Shift Technology Tucson, AZ
Rudolf Instiuments Faiifeld, NJ
Scantion Dist. by Micio Photonics
Schaevitz Pennsauken, NJ
Sentech Dist. by Micio Photonics
SolveTech Claymont, DE
Staiiett Athol, MA
Stiesstel Scotts Valley, CA
Tiansicoil Inc. Valley Foige, PA
Tians-Tek Ellington, CT
Williich Piecision Instiument Co. Ciesskill, NJ
J.A. Woolam Co., Inc. Lincoln, NE
Wyko Tucson, AZ
Zygo Middlefeld, CT
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Pneumatic Gaging
Pneumatic gages have piessuiized aii exiting gage oiifces. The aii velocity diffeiential oi backpiessuie
is a function of the sepaiation of the gage and the pait. In the diiect oi open jet method, the piessuiized
aii expeiiences backpiessuie due to the impedances posed by the measuied pait. The typical scenaiio is
that the gage head and the measuied pait have similai geometiy (i.e., a cylindiical gage in a boied hole).
By placing two gages on eithei side of a at plate, the thickness may be infeiied. In the indiiect oi contact
method, the piessuiized aii pushes on a contact piece that diiectly contacts the pait. Toleiances as small
as 50 nm can be measuied. (Vendois: Williich Piecision Instiument Co.; Mooie Pioducts Co.)
TABLE 7.3 Instiuments foi measuiing thickness.
Manufactuiei Model Numbei Piice Desciiption
KTa-Tatoi TI-12 $1595. Geneial-puipose ultiasonic gage, 0.75 mm to
75 mm iange
NDC Systems 6100TC $49,300. Backscattei gamma gage foi 60 in. web,
25 mm iange
NDC Systems $66,600. Tiansmission beta gage, foi continuous web
pioducts
Panametiics 25DL $2200. to $3800. Single-element ultiasonic gage, 50 mm iange
Panametiics 26DL Plus $1400. to $2500. Dual-element ultiasonic gage, 250 mm iange
Panametiics 8000 $6500. Hall effect magnetic gage, foi nonfeiious
mateiials, 6 mm iange
DeFelsko Positest 1000-N $1995. Eddy cuiient sensoi, Apple Newton iead-out,
measuie out to 1.5 mm nonfeiious,
nonconducting coating on conducting
substiate
Magnetic Analysis Vaiious $1500. to $100,000. Ultiasonic, time-of-ight gages
Fischei Deltascope MP2C $1200. Magnetic induction gage, measuie
nonmagnetic coating on feiiomagnetic
substiate
Fischei IsoScope MP1C $1200. Eddy cuiient gage, measuie nonconducting
coating on nonfeiious conducting substiate
Fischei Fischeiscope MMS $6500. Beta-backscattei system to measuie coating
thickness
Fischei Fischeiscope X-Ray
1020 video
$34,000. X-iay uoiescence system to measuie coating
thickness
Fischei Couloscope Sx $2500.- accessoiies Electiolytic, destiuctive system to measuie
coating thickness
J.A. Woollam Co. Inc. M-44 Application specifc Vaiiable angle, multiwavelength spectioscopic
ellispsometei
Rudolf Instiuments 431A31WL633 $10,100. Manual, HeNe wavelength ellipsometei
Rudolf Instiuments 444A12 $34,000. Automatic, HeNe wavelength ellipsometei
Hewlett Packaid HP8712C $13,500. RF vectoi netwoik analyzei, measuie
tiansmission/ieection fiequency iesponse
to 1.3 GHz, optional to 3 GHz
Stiesstel T-Mike Piogiammable $995. Dual-element ultiasonic system
Stiesstel TM1D $1795. Single-element ultiasonic system
Measuiex DMC480 Application specifc High-speed X-iay thickness gage
Bomem MB seiies $20,000. and up 1 cm
-1
iesolution Fouiiei tiansfoim
spectiometei
Paik Scientifc Instiuments Autopiobe CP $65,000. Ambient scanning piobe micioscope
Paik Scientifc Instiuments Autopiobe VP2 $130,000. UHV scanning piobe micioscope
Digital Instiuments Nanoscope IIIa/D3000 $90,000. Small sample scanning piobe micioscope
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Optica!: Fucusing, Shaduving, Cumparing
This includes micioscopes, which can deteimine thickness eithei by compaiison with a known iefeience,
oi by focusing on the fiont and ieai suifaces of a sample, noting the diffeience in focus position.
Compaiatois pioject onto a scieen what might be noted thiough a micioscope. Lasei calipeis ietiieve
dimensions by measuiing the shadowing of a lasei beam. (Vendois: NDC Systems foi lasei calipei;
Scantion foi lasei pioflometei.)
Weighing
Given a plate of mateiial with known density, fist measuie the aiea with some type of calibiated video
system. Then, a measuiement of weight can be simply conveited to an estimate of the thickness. As is
common with this technique and most of the following techniques, estimating the thickness iequiies
knowledge of some othei piopeity of the mateiial to be measuied - in this case, the density.
Capacitive Gaging
Capacitive gaging is iealized by inseiting a nonmetallic mateiial into a known electiic feld. Knowing the
gage sensoi aiea and the mateiial`s dielectiic constant, the thickness can be deteimined. Submicion
thickness levels can be achieved. (Vendois: Ono Sokki; SolveTech.)
Inductive Gaging [Eddy Current Sensing)
The piinciple heie is that ac cuiients in a coil induce eddy cuiients in a neaiby conducting plate 4, 5].
These eddy cuiients can be sensed by a pickup coil, which may be the exciting coil oi a second coil. The
piesence of the eddy cuiients manifests itself as a modifcation of the appaient inductance and/oi the
loss of the pickup coil. This technique is appiopiiate foi nonfeiious metals, and is especially sensitive to
thickness vaiiations due to aws such as ciacks oi coiiosion. Theie is one paiticulai instance in which
it is common to measuie thickness iathei than vaiiations. That would be the thickness of a nonconducting
coating on a nonfeiious conducting substiate. The coating thickness cieates a gap (lift-off) between the
exciting coil and the eddy cuiients, theieby affecting the eddy cuiient signal. The iange of this technique
would be about 1 mm. Fischei has an instiument designed foi measuiing the thickness of a newly laid
ioad suiface coating to a depth of 40 cm, by buiying a conductive plate below the ioad. (Vendois: Fischei;
deFelsko; CMI Inteinational.)
Magnetic Inductiun
This technique is also used to measuie coating thickness, in this case a nonmagnetic coating on a
feiiomagnetic substiate. The nonmagnetic coating cieates a gap (lift-off) between the feiiomagnetic
substiate and a piobe. One way to measuie the gap and theieby the thickness is by measuiing the foice
iequiied to pull away a magnetic piobe. Anothei technique would be to magnetically couple the feiio-
magnetic substiate to a tiansfoimei coie, with a gap between the substiate and the coie. This technique
would have a iange of about 4 mm. CMI Inteinational has an infoimative biochuie desciibing the ielative
meiits of measuiing coating thickness via eddy cuiient, magnetic induction, beta-backscattei, micioie-
sistance, and X-iay uoiescence; the choice of technique depends, among othei things, on the mateiial
to be tested. (Vendois: Fischei; CMI Inteinational; Electiomatic; deFelsko.)
Ha!! Ellect Gage
This sensoi measuies the thickness of nonfeiious mateiials with 1% accuiacy by sandwiching the mateiial
being measuied between a magnetic piobe on one side and a small taiget steel ball on the othei side 6].
1999 by CRC Press LLC
It measuies up to 10 mm. The Hall effect sensoi is used to measuie the magnetic feld, as a dc measuie-
ment; ac Hall effect measuiements can be made moie piecisely because they eliminate bias and aie done
with less noise. (Vendoi: Panametiics.)
Far-Fie!d]Time-ul-F!ight: L!trasuund, Radar, Lidar
Using 1940s sonai piinciples and today`s miciopiocessoi technology, high-fiequency (1-20 MHz) ultia-
sound waves can be used to measuie thickness by sending pulsed sound waves thiough a mateiial and
measuiing the tiansit time of the ieected signal 5, 7]. Knowing the sound velocity of the mateiial,
mateiials fiom 0.5 mm to 250 mm can be measuied, often as fne as 25 m. Media include metal, glass,
ceiamic, liquid, iubbei, fbeiglass, plastic, and conciete. Ultiasound can also be used to measuie living
tissues, as is often done in the agiicultuial and medical felds. Fat layeis of cattle and pigs can inuence
maiketability. Skin buin depths can diiect tieatment pioceduies. The depth of foieign objects in the
body is useful foi miciosuigeiy. Ultiasonic thickness deteimination has expanded to include mulitdi-
mensional echolocation applications, such as imageiy and acoustic micioscopes that can iesolve in the
submicion level. The piinciples behind ultiasound also apply to electiomagnetic waves. In the gigaheitz
iange, this is called iadai. Radai can be used to estimate the thickness of atmospheiic layeis such as cloud
layeis. The light-wave veision of iadai, called lidai, can be used to measuie the thickness of watei vapoi
layeis in the lowei atmospheie. (Ultiasonic vendois: KTa-Tatoi; deFelsko; Stiesstel; Magnetic Analysis
Coip.; Panametiics; Electiomatic.)
Far-Fie!d]Resunance: L!trasuund, Interlerumetry, E!!ipsumetry
The idea heie is that when waves such as ultiasound impinge on a plane-paiallel slab of mateiial, theie
will be ieected powei fiom both the fiont and ieai suifaces; depending on whethei the slab thickness
is an odd oi even numbei of quaitei-wavelengths, the ieected beams will be in constiuctive oi destiuctive
inteifeience. If the fiequency is swept, the distance in fiequency between successive maxima and minima
may be ielated to the slab thickness, if the index of iefiaction is known. Since the natuial, oi iesonant,
modes of an object depend on the piopeities and dimensions of an object, knowledge of the piopeities
enables estimation of dimensions fiom the iesonant fiequencies. Compaied with time-of-ight ultia-
sound, iesonant ultiasound is much less common. It has been used to chaiacteiize conciete, and is quite
sensitive to aws, as anyone who has heaid a ciacked bell would know. Resonant techniques aie much
moie common with visible 8], infiaied, oi miciowave 4] iadiation. Spectial inteifeiometiy would be
appiopiiate to chaiacteiize the thickness of tianspaient substiates with ieasonably at suifaces, suff-
ciently paiallel to one anothei. A common way to do this would be to measuie a tiansmission spectium
with a spectiometei such as a Fouiiei tiansfoim spectiometei (FTS). The successive maxima and minima
aie heie called the Fabiy-Peiot effect, and theii appeaiance in a spectium is called channeling. Thickness
can also be measuied with spatial inteifeiometiy, which is essentially a way of measuiing suiface topog-
iaphy. An example would be the phenomenon of Newton`s iings, which occui when the suiface to be
tested is in contact with an optical at. Using a tianspaient optical at, tiansmit monochiomatic light
such as a meicuiy lamp thiough the at and onto the inteiface between the at and the test suiface. If
theie aie vaiiations in the height of the test suiface, then the two ietuin beams fiom the optical at and
the test suiface will alteinate between constiuctive and destiuctive inteifeience, pioducing fiinges oi
iings. The sensitivity is not limited to the scale of the wavelength : with suffcient stability and signal-
to-noise, dimensions down to 1/1000 of a fiinge can be measuied. With souices of longei coheience
length, such as laseis, the test suiface and the optical at need not be in diiect contact.
Anothei optical way to measuie thickness is with ellipsometiy 9], typically used to measuie piopeities
of thin, tianspaient flms fiom a few tenths of nanometeis to seveial hundieds of nanometeis thick. This
includes metals, as long as the metal is suffciently thin to be paitially tianspaient. By measuiing the
change in polaiization state foi nonnoimal incidence light, both the thickness and iefiactive index of a
thin layei may be infeiied. Additional infoimation (e.g., the piopeities of multiple layeis) can be obtained
1999 by CRC Press LLC
by vaiying the angle of incidence and by obseiving at multiple wavelengths. The ability to estimate both
thickness and iefiactive index is an impoitant advantage of this technique, as often the iefiactive index
of a mateiial in thin flm foim is not the same as the bulk value, and indeed may be a piopeity of the
deposition conditions. (FTS vendois: Bomem; Digilab; Mattson; Midac; Nicolet; Peikin-Elmei. FTS
system piicing may iange fiom about $15,000 to ovei $100,000, depending on the application. Spatial
inteifeiometei vendois: Zygo; Wyko, Phase-Shift Technology. Ellipsometei vendois: J.A. Woollam Co.,
Inc.; Rudolf Instiuments; Sentech. The cost of an ellipsometei may iange fiom $10,000 foi a manual,
single-wavelength system to $200,000 foi an automatic, multiwavelength system. Miciowave iesonance
vendoi: Hewlett-Packaid.)
Far-Fie!d]Absurptiun, Scattering, Emissiun:
Beta, Gamma, X-Ray, Inlrared
These techniques depend on the extinction (scatteiing oi absoiption) oi emission of photons oi massive
paiticles (elections, piotons, neutions) when tiansiting the mateiial to be measuied. Typically, the
extinction oi emission shows an exponential dependence on thickness; the dependence becomes lineai
if the absoiption is suffciently low. These techniques, in paiticulai gamma-iay backscattei and beta-iay
tiansmission, aie used to measuie continuously moving web mateiials (papei, metals, fabiics) on assem-
bly lines. Infiaied absoiption is also suitable if the moistuie content is contiolled. Beta-backscattei and
X-iay uoiescence 10] aie used foi measuiing coatings. In X-iay uoiescence, upon exposuie to X-iays,
ceitain elements uoiesce (emit) X-iays at chaiacteiistic wavelengths. The stiength of this emission is
ielated to thickness. These absoiption/emission techniques may sometimes be bettei suited than time-
of-ight ultiasound to the dimensional measuiement of objects with complex shapes. (Gamma gage
vendoi; NDC Systems. X-iay absoiption vendoi: Measuiex. X-iay uoiescence vendois: Fischei; NDC
Systems; CMI Inteinational. Beta-backscattei vendoi: Fischei; Electiomatic; CMI Inteinational; Mea-
suiex. Infiaied absoiption vendoi: NDC Systems. The piices foi these systems will depend on the
application; a typical system could cost $500,000.)
Destructive Techniques
Fischei maikets a system that iemoves a coating into an electiolyte and then electiolytically deposits the
iemoved coating. The electiical chaige iequiied foi deposition is ielated to the coating thickness.
7.2 Future Directiuns in Thickness Measurement
Cuncerning Techniques Mentiuned Abuve
Conceining capacitive sensois, the NASA Langley Reseaich Centei is developing sensois based on patteins
of conductois sandwiched between insulating layeis. The piesence of ice ovei the conductois changes
the capacitance, pioviding a way of sensing ice build-up on aiiciaft wings. With iespect to eddy cuiient
sensing, one limitation is that a nonsupeiconducting sense coil iesponds best to high-fiequency excita-
tions, and not at all to dc magnetic felds. This limits the technique to faiily high fiequencies and thus
low penetiation depths, since the skin depth becomes shallowei with incieasing fiequency. One possibility
is to use a SQUID (supeiconducting quantum inteifeience detectoi) as the sensoi, since the SQUID is
piobably the most sensitive sensoi of dc and low-fiequency magnetic felds. One disadvantage of the
SQUID has been the need foi liquid helium foi cooling foi low-tempeiatuie supeiconductois; with the
iecent availability of high-tempeiatuie supeiconductois (HTS, above 90 K) and now HTS SQUIDS,
cooling can be done with liquid nitiogen oi single-stage mechanical cooleis. In the aiea of spatial
inteifeiometiy, woik at Lawience Liveimoie National Laboiatoiy ieplaces the iefeience suiface with a
single-mode fbei in a piocess called phase-shifting diffiaction inteifeiometiy. A measuiement accuiacy
of 1.44 nm ims is quoted, with a goal of 0.1 nm ims. (HTS SQUID vendoi: Conductus.)
1999 by CRC Press LLC
THz Technu!ugy
With the availability of femtosecond pulsed laseis, Bell Labs has been investigating a technique using
100 fs pulses to pulse an antenna in the iange of 0.1 THz to 3.0 THz. The teiaheitz pulses aie sent thiough
the mateiial to be tested, detected, and the ieceived pulse shape is analyzed to extiact constituent
infoimation. This technique may also piovide infoimation on thickness.
Nanusca!e-Scanning Prube Micruscupy
Scanning piobe micioscopes (SPMs) aie used in a wide vaiiety of disciplines, including fundamental
suiface science, ioutine suiface ioughness analysis, and spectaculai thiee-dimensional imaging - fiom
atoms of silicon to micion-sized piotiusions on the suiface of a living cell 11]. The scanning piobe
micioscope is an imaging tool with a vast dynamic iange, spanning the iealms of optical and election
micioscopes. It is also a pioflei with unpiecedented 3-D iesolution. In some cases, scanning piobe
micioscopes can measuie physical piopeities such as suiface conductivity, static chaige distiibution,
localized fiiction, magnetic felds, and elastic moduli. As a iesult, applications of SPMs aie veiy diveise.
The scanning tunneling micioscope (STM), the piogenitoi of SPMs, utilizes a shaip conductive tip with
a bias voltage applied between the tip and the sample. When the tip is within 1 nm of the sample, elections
fiom the sample begin to tunnel thiough the 1 nm gap into the tip. If the bias voltage is ieveised, the
tunneling occuis into the sample. The tunneling cuiient is a function of the sepaiation. Both the tip and
the sample must be conductois oi semiconductois.
The atomic foice micioscope (AFM) utilizes a small tip at the end of a cantilevei. Foices between the
tip and sample cause a deection in the cantilevei, which is tianslated into a signal. The tip oi sample
can be scanned coveiing a laige aiea, pioducing a topogiaphical map. AFMs can be used on insulatois
oi conductois. AFMs aie used in two modes: contact and noncontact. In contact mode, the tip is biought
within about 200 pm - about the length of a chemical bond. The election clouds of the tip and sample
atoms inteiact, netting a iepulsive foice. Foi this ieason, the contact mode is also called iepulsive. Veitical
iesolution of about 50 pm can be achieved. In noncontact mode, a vibiating cantilevei is used in the
attiactive iegime of the van dei Waals inteiactions. The cantilevei is typically 2 nm to 20 nm away fiom
the sample suiface and has low total foice. Noncontact AFM is subsequently less sensitive; thus, sensitive
ac detection systems must be employed. The low foice does have the advantage of not contaminating
the sample suiface and is piefeiied foi applications involving silicon wafeis and soft oi elastic tissues. In
noncontact mode, the cantilevei is iesonated with a small amplitude. As the tip comes neai the sample
suiface, the iesultant foice changes the spiing constant, tianslating into a deviation of the iesonance
fiequency. This change in iesonance (oi vibiational amplitude) ieects changes in the sample topology.
Inteimittent-contact mode is a combination of noncontact and contact modes and best suited foi soft,
adhesive, oi fiagile samples. Contact mode can damage the tip and the sample due to fiictional oi sheai
foices and/oi cieate data aitifacts fiom tip/suiface adhesion. Noncontact mode pioduces lowei ampli-
tudes and hence lowei iesolution. Fuitheimoie, suiface monolayeis of adsoibed gases such as watei
vapoi can pioduce eiioneous iesults. Inteimittent-contact mode avoids these pitfalls by placing the tip
in contact with the suiface, pioviding high iesolution and then iemoving the tip to pievent diagging
and/oi lateial foices. The cantilevei is iesonated via a piezoelectiic ciystal (50 kHz to 500 kHz in ambient,
5 kHz to 40 kHz in uids) oveicoming the tip/sample adhesion foices.
In magnetic foice micioscopy (MFM), the noncontact mode is employed using a tip coated with a
feiiomagnetic flm. Both magnetic and van dei Walls inteiactions aie piesent, but at laigei tip/sample
sepaiations, the magnetic foices dominate. Multiple scans as a function of tip/sample distance allow
diffeientiation of magnetic foices and topogiaphic infoimation. Magnetic domain stiuctuies aie iesolved
to 50 nm via this technique. Cuiient applications of MFM include data stoiage devices, imaging of
miciomagnetic stiuctuies, IC analysis, imaging of magnetotactic bacteiia, and magnetic geophysics.
Lateial foice micioscopy (LFM) is used to geneiate piofles of changes in suiface fiiction and/oi height
vaiiations. The piobe tip is deected lateially, indicating some soit of twist. Electionics measuie the
cantilevei deection. To diffeientiate between the two effects, LFM and AFM images should be obtained
1999 by CRC Press LLC
simultaneously. Phase detection micioscopy oi phase imaging is an extension of inteimittent-contact
AFM. It utilizes the phase lag between the diiving fiequency (cantilevei) and the output signal fiequency,
geneiating a map of specifc mechanical piopeities such as adhesion, elasticity, and fiiction. Identifcation
of contaminants, composite mateiials, and iegions of haidness and low suiface adhesion can be obtained
at the nanometei scale. Additional techniques include foice modulation micioscopy, wheie a peiiodic
signal is applied to the cantilevei, geneiating a map of the sample`s elastic modulus and/oi contaminants;
electiostatic foice micioscopy, wheie a chaiged tip is scanned ovei the sample, ievealing the locally
chaiged domains geneiating a map of the chaige caiiiei density; scanning capacitance micioscopy, wheie
a chaiged tip, kept at a constant tip/sample distance, geneiates a map of capacitance coiielated infoima-
tion such as dielectiic mateiial thickness and subsuiface chaige caiiiei distiibutions (i.e., dopant piofles
of ion implanted semiconductois); theimal scanning micioscopy, wheie the tip in noncontact mode and
a bimetal cantilevei aie used to map the theimal conductivity of the sample. (Vendois: Paik Scientifc
Instiuments; Digital Instiuments; Oxfoid Instiuments.)
Relerences
1. R. E. Gieen (ed.), Mat|nery's HanJ|oo|, 24| eJ., New Yoik: Industiial Piess, 1992.
2. F. T. Faiago and M. A. Cuitis, HanJ|oo| o[ Dmensona| Measuremen, JrJ eJ., New Yoik: Industiial
Piess, 1994.
3. T. Busch, FunJamena|s o[ Dmensona| Mero|ogy, 2nJ eJ., Albany, NY: Delmai Publisheis, 1989.
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2nJ eJ., Ameiican Society foi Nondestiuctive Testing, 1986.
5. D. E. Biay and D. McBiide, NonJesrute Tesng Tet|nques, New Yoik: John Wiley & Sons, 1992.
6. M. Giannini and A. deChiaia, Wall Thickness Gaging in the Blow Mold Industiy, distiibuted by
Panametiics.
7. A. S. Biiks, R. E. Gieen, and P. McIntiie (eds.), NonJesrute Tesng HanJ|oo|, Vo|. 7, 2nJ eJ.,
Ameiican Society foi Nondestiuctive Testing, 1991.
8. D. Malacaia, Ota| S|o Tesng, New Yoik: John Wiley & Sons, 1978.
9. J. A. Woollam and P. G. Snydei, Vaiiable Angle Spectioscopic Ellipsometiy, VASE, distiibuted by
J.A. Woollam Co.
10. H. H. Behncke, Coating thickness measuiement by the X-iay uoiescence method, Mea| Fns|ng,
May, 33-39, 1984.
11. R. Howland and L.Benatai, A Piactical Guide to Scanning Piobe Micioscopy, Paik Scientifc
Instiuments, 1993.