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Rainfall-induced landslides on steeply sloping natural terrain are potential hazards to developments down slope. Landslides on these natural slopes resulting from two major rainstorms in 1992 and 1993 were studied to determine their characteristics. Data were compared with the aerial photographic record of landslide scars within the same catchment over the period 1945-1995.
Deskripsi Asli:
Judul Asli
Characteristics of Some Rainfall-Induced Landslides on Natural Slopes, Lantau Island, Hong Kong_ C.a.M. Franks
Rainfall-induced landslides on steeply sloping natural terrain are potential hazards to developments down slope. Landslides on these natural slopes resulting from two major rainstorms in 1992 and 1993 were studied to determine their characteristics. Data were compared with the aerial photographic record of landslide scars within the same catchment over the period 1945-1995.
Rainfall-induced landslides on steeply sloping natural terrain are potential hazards to developments down slope. Landslides on these natural slopes resulting from two major rainstorms in 1992 and 1993 were studied to determine their characteristics. Data were compared with the aerial photographic record of landslide scars within the same catchment over the period 1945-1995.
Quarterly Journal o f Engineering Geology, 32, 247-259. 0481-2085/99 $15.
00 1999 The Geological Society of London
Characteristics of some rainfall-induced landslides on natural slopes, Lantau Island, Hong Kong C. A. M. Franks Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil Engineering Department, 101 Princess Margaret Road, Homantin, Kowloon, Hong Kong Abstract The north part of Lantau Island is undergoing rapid develop- ment following construction of the new airport at Chek Lap Kok. This development, primarily on reclaimed land, is adja- cent to a range of steeply sloping hills that experience levels of annual rain in excess of 2500 mm. Rainfall induced landslides on this steeply sloping natural terrain are potential hazards to developments down slope. Landslides on these natural slopes resulting from two major rainstorms in 1992 and 1993 were studied to determine their characteristics and define the geo- morphological factors influencing their debris trails. These data were compared with the aerial photographic record of landslide scars within the same catchment over the period 1945-1995 to determine the potential hazard from natural terrain landslides to downslope development. The limited data set indicates that channelized debris flows which produce long debris trails pose the greatest hazard potential to downslope development. Factors influencing debris flow paths and deposition zones were assessed from a geo- morphological study of the catchment to define criteria for preliminary hazard zoning of downslope developments. Keywords." case studies, erosion, geological hazards', geomorphology, landslides Introduction In Oct ober 1989 the Hong Kong Gover nment announced its i nt ent i on to const ruct a new i nt er nat i onal ai rport at Chek Lap Kok. As part of the associated i nfrast ruct ure devel opment , a new t own is bei ng bui l t at Tung Chung, Lant au Isl and (Fig. 1). Part s of the devel opment are adj acent to steep nat ur al slopes and fut ure landslides on these slopes may be of consequence in terms of the encr oachment of l andsl i de debris i nt o areas of development. A previ ous st udy ( Fr anks & Woods 1993) i ndi cat ed t hat much of the area covered by Nor t h Lant au is subject to hi gh to extreme geotechnical const rai nt s to development. The Tung Chung area is no except i on as most of the hillsides are steep (>30), the peaks are amongst the hi ghest in the Terri t ory and the slopes are covered wi t h colluvium, or soils derived from weat hered bedrock. These soils are often prone to i nst abi l i t y dur i ng or fol l owi ng periods of heavy rainfall. Fr anks & Woods (1993) hi ghl i ght ed several areas where landslides from nat ur al slopes were deemed to pose a significant const r ai nt to downsl ope development. Fol l owi ng heavy rai nfal l on 18 Jul y 1992 and 5 November 1993, wi despread l andsl i di ng occurred in Nor t h Lant au (Fig. 2). The largest of these rainfall- i nduced landslides resulted in a channel i zed debris flow in 1993 (Fig. 3). The t ot al vol ume of this channel i zed debris flow was est i mat ed to be 2300 m 3 and the debris compri sed col l uvi um and weat hered bedrock. The debris trail had a t ot al l engt h of about 450 m f r om a scarp el evat i on of about 180 m above sea level wi t h the final debris deposi t i on fan formi ng on an 8 slope encroach- ing ont o a site f or mat i on pl at f or m at a hei ght of 24 m above sea level. An assessment of the consequences of these pot ent i al l andsl i de hazards to downsl ope devel opment requires knowl edge of the failure mechani sm, pr obabi l i t y and magni t ude of the l andsl i de (Soeters & VanWest en 1996; Wu et al. 1996) and the resulting l engt h and pat h of debris trail r un- out in rel at i on to downsl ope develop- ment . Bot h emprical ( Mar k & Ellen 1995; Cor omi nas 1996) and quant i t at i ve (Sassa 1985; Hut chi nson 1986; Hungr 1995) met hods for the predi ct i on of debris trail run-out l engt h require a knowl edge of the l andsl i de charact er such as debris t r anspor t mechani sm and debris volume. These factors in t ur n are influenced by the geomor phol ogy of the cat chment . Thi s st udy was car- ried out to characterize landslides on nat ur al t errai n resul t i ng from some recent rai nst orms and det ermi ne those factors influencing debris trail run-out l engt h and deposi t i on. The results of this st udy were used to formu- late baseline criteria t hat can be used for prel i mi nary hazar d zoni ng of t errai n wi t h similar geomorphol ogi cal and hydrol ogi cal characteristics. Study methodology Aerial phot ogr aph i nt erpret at i on was used to det ermi ne the spat i al and t emporal di st ri but i on of past landslides as well as some limited geometric dat a (i.e. trail l engt h and width) for those sites whi ch could not be accessed in the field. However, aerial phot ogr aphs covering the 248 C. A. M. F RANKS O 0o ~ S h a Chau N Hong Kong International Airport Tung Chung Landslide g Study Area ~ The Brothers . . . . , ~; " a Location of Some GEO and RO Automatic Raingauges [ , "~ ~ P e n g Cha~ Fig. 1. Location of the Tung Chung landslide study area. I Scale 1:100 000 Fig. 2. Typical non-channelized debris flow landslides typical of those generated on the nat ural terrain above the Tung Chung New Town Development as a result of the rainstorm of 5 November 1993. RAI NFALL- I NDUCED LANDSLIDES 249 hydrological features were also visually assessed and recorded. For ease of comparison each landslide trail was divided into sections along which the slope angle was approximately equal and the trail width generally uniform. The predominant characteristic of the debris t ransport or deposition along any section of the trail was determined and the associated site specific factors assessed. The length of eight landslide trails (3% of the total length of trails in the study) were significantly affected by obstacles in the flow pat h leading to an abrupt termination of the trail as the resulting rapi d drainage of the debris flow promot ed deposition. These landslide trails were discounted from the dat a analysis. The dat a from each of the remaining forty-four landslides were analysed to determine the range of typical geo- metric and volume characteristics in relation to slope angle, past activity, superficial geology, vegetation and geomorphology. Generalized geological description of the study area Fig. 3. Channelized debris flow landslide on natural terrain above the Tung Chung New Town Development Area, Phase 1 resulting from the 5 November 1993. study area were not available for all years from 1945 and hence inferences relating specific rainstorms to landslide occurences could not always be rigorously deter- mined. Terrain classification mapping dat a from earlier mapping at a scale of 1:5000 were also examined (Emery & Hought on 1991). Fifty-two landslide scars resulting from the intense 1992 and 1993 rainstorms were inspected in the field during 1994. These were selected on the basis of field accessibility from the more than 80 scars identified from interpretation of aerial phot ographs covering this period. The detailed description and statistical analysis of the landslide characteristics are based on the dat a obtained from the field inspections. The terminology used to classify and describe the landslides in this study is largely based on Cruden & Varnes (1996) and as modified by King (1997). During the fieldwork, observations were made of the landslide type, scarp and trail morphology (including the nature of the materials involved), hydrogeology and vegetation. The steepness of the terrain was estimated (with an accuracy of about -4-1 ) using a hand-held clinometer. Evidence of past instability, erosion and Bedrock geology The bedrock in the area (Fig. 4) is dominated by Mesozoic volcanic rocks (Langford et al. 1995) which have been intruded by a dense swarm of younger feldsparphyric rhyolite dykes. These dykes generally trend in an ENE or NE direction. The volcanic rocks consist mainly of fine and coarse ash tuff and lava which are commonly banded. Nar r ow dykes of lamprophyre and basalt are common within the feldsparphyric rhyo- lite, although rare within the volcanics. Quartz veins are common within all rock types. Residual soils and saprolite The bedrock in this area, as elsewhere in Hong Kong, has been subject to weathering over a very long period of time, and this process continues today. The typical depth of saprolite across the study area is between 5 and 10 m, with a thin covering (generally < 1.0 m) of residual soil. However, there are a number of localities where the weathering depth is much greater (Franks & Woods 1993) such as the slopes to the south of Tung Chung where saprolite depths in the range 20 to 30 m are indicated. The northwest facing slopes to the south of Tai Po also appear to be deeply weathered at a number of locations. This may be associated with the inferred northeast-southwest trending fault that truncates the 250 C. A. M. FRANKS 817 500 N . ' . ' . ' . ::~.+ ~ . ' . . / ' S q ' - " ' - : - - . , " - - , , \? Q d i i . , x " ,~..... . . . . . . , . . . \ . l p , t - / . ' I / - / [ \C. ,~- -t- " ~ ~ ~,. / x _ / . . . . . x . . / . ~ .1... "* / \ . / x . . : ] , - < ~ ~ / \ t t' , " , , j ; , 1 L e g e n d Tung Chung Development Area Boundary LandsLides with debris trails longer than 150m - - Geological boundary . . . . Inferred fault ~ Feldsparphyric rhyolite Tuff g m Medium-grained granite b Basalt Q d Col l uvi um ~ a Terraced alluvium Qa A l l u v i u m Q b Beach deposit m Meta sediments rh Rhyol i t e lava S c a l e 0 100 200 300 400 500m I I I I I I Fig. 4. Generalized geological map of the Study Area showing the Tung Chung Development Area boundary and locations of landslides with debris trails longer than 150 m. predominantly volcanic sequences to the south from the feldsparphyric rhyolite outcrops along the coastline (Campbell & Sewell 1998). Col l uvi um Much of the colluvium in the study area was deposited from the late-Pleistocene through to the Holocene (Langford et al. 1995). The extent of colluvium mapped in the area is based largely on aerial photo interpretation supplemented by limited field checking. Colluvium occurs most commonly as relatively thin (<3 m thick) ribbon-like deposits infilling drainage courses. However, there are deposits which are considerably thicker and of greater areal extent on some hillslopes in the study area. The colluvium typically consists of cobbles and boulders, of feldsparphyric rhyolite with some tuff, in a matrix of mottled, reddish brown and yellowish brown gravelly, sandy, slightly clayey silt. The cobbles and boulders are typically subangular and moderately to highly decomposed with a patina (halo of discolour- ation) up to 50 mm thick. In si t u tests in pits excavated into this material indicate in si t u bulk density of 2. 2- 2.3 Mg/m 3 for the overall deposit using the water replacement method (Anon 1982a) and 1.7 Mg/ m 3 (with in si t u moisture content in the range 10.7-16.6%) for the sand and silt sized matrix materials using the sand replacement method (Anon 1975). The mottled nature, relative high density of the deposit and presence of a patina (Irfan & Tang 1992) on the coarse materials indicates that the colluvium is most likely of late Pleistocene age (Anon 1982b). Isolated lobes of colluvium of a younger age were also noted across this region. These are characterized by a less dense structure of the matrix and light yellowish brown colour. RAINFALL-INDUCED LANDSLIDES 251 Hydrology and groundwater The northwest facing slopes in the study area are drained by numerous small streams most of which only flow during or after heavy or prolonged rainfall. The hillsides are often deeply gullied as a result of erosion caused by ephemeral streams. The catchment boundaries reveal a complex system of narrow, long catchments associated with these gullies within a much larger pri mary catch- ment defined by a hillcrest. Mean annual rainfall for the catchment over the period 1961-1991 is in the range of 2000 to 2400 mm (Lam & Leung 1994). This is similar to that experienced by most of the developed area of Hong Kong Island, Kowloon and the New Territories (excluding Ma On Shan central uplands and Sha Tin). In general, piezometric records from previous site investigations indicate that the regional groundwater table lies either just within the slightly to moderately weathered bedrock or within the overlying saprolite (Franks & Woods 1993). The relative permeability of the colluvium deposits when compared with underlying saprolite allows for the development of transient perched water tables at the interface during or following periods of intense rainfall. Factors influencing the distribution of landslides in the study area Previ ous r ai nst or ms Aerial photo interpretation indicates a number of periods during which significant numbers of new land- slide scarps are visible in the study area. The earliest photographs from 1945 reveal widespread relatively fresh and also degraded landslide scars on a terrain with thin vegetation cover. Exami nat i on of the photographs between 1963 and 1973 reveals many new landslide scars on the hills to the northeast and east of Tai Po. Conversely, relatively few new landslide scars are observed from photographs between 1979 and 1982. The 1993 photographs show most of the new scarps on the hills to the south of Tai Po whilst the 1994 photographs show new landslides to be widespread in the study area, consistent with the expected consequences of the intensity and duration of rainfall experienced during 5 November 1993 which was much heavier and longer than that of 18 July 1992. Although detailed rain gauge data are only available for the study area from 1991, the following rainstorms are considered to be likely trigger events for the wide- spread landsliding observed from examination of the subsequent aerial photographs: 14/15 June 1959 (24-hr rolling rainfall of 308.9 mm, 1 in 5 year event), recorded at raingauge R01 (see Fig. 1 for location of raingauge) 18/19 August 1972 (24-hr rolling rainfall of 186.8 mm, 1 in 1 year event, 2-day rainfall 446.4 mm 1 in 10 year event), recorded at raingauge R01 18 July 1992 (24-hr rolling rainfall of 454 mm, 1 in 28 year event), recorded at raingauge N17 (see Fig. 1 for location of raingauge) 5 November 1993 (24-hr rolling rainfall of 742 mm, 1 in 796 year event), recorded at raingauge N17 Although other major rainstorms have been recorded at R01 over the period 1945 to 1995, they have been discounted from further study due to the poor corre- lation between rainfall at the R01 gauge and rainfall in the study area and the lack of aerial photographic evidence indicating widespread landsliding in the Territory of Hong Kong. Bedr ock geol ogy The slopes where the underlying bedrock is mapped as volcanic appear generally more susceptible to landslid- ing than the slopes underlain by feldsparphyric rocks, but this may be because the topographic relief is greater where the bedrock is volcanic. Although Vandine (1985), who studied debris flow landslides in British Columbia, discounted underlying bedrock geology as a predispos- ing factor, recent studies of natural terrain landslides in Hong Kong have concluded that geology together with slope angle are significant predisposing factors (Evans e t al . 1997; Evans & Ki ng 1998). Veget at i on Anot her factor which may affect the susceptibility to landsliding appears to be the presence or absence of thick vegetation, but there is much conflicting evidence in the literature concerning this (Johnson & Rodine 1984; Collinson & Anderson 1996). Irigaray e t al . (1996) have stated that apparent correlations of landsliding susceptibility with vegetation have to be considered with care, as vegetation is very strongly interdependent on factors such as geology and hydrology. Wi t hi n the study area, the vast majority of landslides resulting from the 1992 and 1993 rainstorms occurred in terrain with low scrub and grass. Sur f ace dr ai nage Studies in Canada (Vandine 1985) and California (Reneau & Dietrich 1987) indicate that surface drainage is an important factor controlling debris flow susceptibility and this is confirmed within the present 252 C. A. M. FRANKS Plan ~ Crown - - ~ Main ScarPL Surface of Rupture f ~ ~ Scarp ~ o o r i (Sour~ above) Source, may be partly ~ (" ~ n ~ or fully mobilised [ ~ ~ . . . . -~ (- Intact Displaced ~ ~ i ' ~ / [ Material ~ ~ [ ] Di s a g g r e g a t e d ~ ~ ~, [ . . . . J Displa~d Material ~ X ~ l ' r a . . Debris I Lateral Deposit ~ X N / / < ' - " ' > / # May contai n secti ons that are predomi nantl y erosi on, deposition, or outwash in addition the trial may be constrained ff channel widtlddepth ratio is < 5 Section ~~ arp Intact Displaced ~ r a f l Material Fig. 5. Typical natural terrain landslide scar showing features common to landslides in the Tung Chung study area. st udy where most landslides occur wi t hi n or adj acent to significant drai nage lines or hollows. Landslide characteristics in the study area All the landslides had the following common features (Fig. 5); a source area (defined by a surface of rupt ure whi ch comprises the mai n scarp and the scarp floor), a landslide trail downsl ope of the source (where debris t r anspor t predomi nat es, al t hough erosi on and out wash may also occur), and a deposi t i on fan (where the maj or i t y of the debris is deposited). In general, the trails resulting f r om the downsl ope di spl acement of disaggregated displaced mat eri al were complex, compri si ng a number of sections wi t hi n which either deposi t i on or channel i zat i on of debris or erosi on of the underl yi ng mat eri al s ( subst r at e) was the pr edomi nant characteristic. Mi nor deposi t i on of debris occurred al ong the lateral boundari es (as levees) of many of the landslide trails, however deposi t i on of most of the debris generally occurred at the end of the trail. Exami nat i on of the charact er (matrix and com- posi t i on) and form of the debris i ndi cat ed t hat at some l ocat i ons secondary mobi l i zat i on of the previ ousl y deposi t ed landslide debris resulted in furt her deposi t i on downsl ope as an alluvial deposit. This is consi dered to RAI NFALL- I NDUCED LANDSLIDES 253 Table 1. Geometry of landslide sources Length of Main scarp Source Natural No. of Material surface of width volume slope angle slides composition rupture (m) (m) (m 3) () (as % of of source (Range) Range (Range) (Range) all scarps) (as % of no. of slides) 9 (5-25) 5-9 76 (13-400) 37 (28-80t) 39 (45%) Colluvium 70% Residual Soil 30% 15 (8-25) 10-14 286 (50-650) 34 (28-50t) 29 (34%) Colluvium 50% Residual Soil 50% 15 (10-30) 15-19 520 (150-1250) 36 (29-45t) 13 (15%) Colluvium 40% Residual Soil 60% 20 (20) 20-24 400 (400) 40 (40) 1 ( 1%) Colluvium 18 (12-30) 25-30 450 (450-1500) 37 (38-40) 4 ( 5%) Colluvium (50%) Weathered Rock (50%) Notes: Average of range in bold. tThe very steep slope angles are from scarps on the sides of steep drainage channels. be the result of intense rainfall following the initial failure. The landslides can be recognized in terms of the charact er and compl exi t y of t hei r associated landslide trails as follows (Tables 2 and 3): landslides whi ch have unconst r ai ned landslide trails whi ch include non-channel i zed debris flows and debris slides. Most of this group are debris flows wi t h the pr edomi nant characteristic wi t hi n the complete trail l engt h being deposi t i on. landslides which have const rai ned landslide trails whi ch are compl ex and include gully erosi on and channel i zed debris flows (viz. debris t orrent s of Hungr et al. 1984). These landslides oft en include erosion, deposi t i on, out wash (secondary al l uvi at i on subse- quent to initial debris deposi t i on) and channel i zat i on wi t hi n different sections of the compl et e trail. Landsl i de sour ces Typi cal l y the landslides were i ni t i at ed from sources wi t h shallow scarps (<1. 5 m) wi t hi n pr edomi nant l y residual (and in some l ocat i ons saprolitic) soils, or colluvium. The sources were generally hi gh up wi t hi n the cat chment close to the cat chment divide on steep slopes (30-40). The mai n scarp wi dt hs were typically small, in the range of 5 to 30 m and wi t h source wi dt h to l engt h rat i os of 1 to 2 (Tabl e 1). Some 80% of the landslides had a source vol ume of <400 m 3, the remai ni ng 20% had much larger source volumes up to 1500 m 3. The vol ume of mat eri al mobi l i zed f r om the source was typically in the range of 100 and 400 m 3. Aeri al phot ogr aph i nt er pr et at i on confi rmed t hat all of the larger (>400 m 3) landslides occurred as a result of the 5 November 1993 rai nst orm. The maj or i t y of the sources (64%) were first-time slides as inferred f r om aerial phot ogr aph i nt erpret at i on. Many of the mai n scarps (65%) show field evidence of soil pi pi ng and this appears to be most preval ent wi t hi n t hose mai n scarps formed in residual soil (84%) or col l uvi um (55%). There is a st rong correl at i on between mai n scarps formed in residual soils t hat have previ ousl y been active and the presence of soil pipes. Exami nat i on of t errai n classification dat a (Emery & Hought on 1991) indicates t hat 68% of the sources are formed in t errai n t hat has experienced previous i nst abi l i t y in terms of the existence of relict scarps (44%) or colluvium. Most of the surfaces of rupt ure were relatively free of debris i ndi cat i ng t hat the debris was typically hi ghl y mobi l e and flows freely downslope. However, at a small number of the sources the displaced mat eri al remai ned relatively i nt act above the surface of rupt ure f or mi ng a landslide trail of more limited length. This mechani sm has also been observed elsewhere (Turner 1996; Ellen & Fl emi ng 1987). Tur ner has described this as a staged process of a debris slide t r ansf or mi ng i nt o a debris flow. These observed differences in mobi l i zat i on have been at t ri but ed, by Ellen & Fl emi ng (1987), to differences in the soil voi d rat i o between cont ract i ve and dilative soils. Landsl i de t r ai l s Tabl e 2 summarizes the observed characteristics (of debris t r anspor t at i on and deposi t i on) for the trail sections associated wi t h bot h unconst r ai ned and con- strained landslides. The average l engt h of trail section 254 C. A. M. F RANKS [ , , . , ,,..~ b~ . ,,...~ o . ,,...~ o ,...~ r ~ 0 x l ~..~ o o ~ ~ ~ ~ ' - ~ , ~ ~.~ o n ~ c ~
0 ,,..~ o c - O o o "~.~ ~ ~ 0 o " 0
o ~ " 0 o ~o ~O ~ ~ ~ o o .~ 0 ~ s o Z RAI NFALL- I NDUCED LANDSLIDES 255 Table 3. Range of values for trail length and erosion volume for constrained and unconstrained landslides Landslide model Type Typical main source volume<400 m 3 Typical main source volume>400 m 3 Trail No. of Erosion range No. of Erosion range length landslides (m 3) Trail landslides (m 3) (m) in study (average) length (m) in study (average) Unconst rai ned trail Debris slide (i) 2-10 2 0 Debris flow--predominantly (ii) 15-100 16 0-30 depositional (15) Debris flow~deposition and (iii) 20-85 6 12-80 erosion (46) Debris flow--deposition and (iv) 5-100 9 0-20 outwash (10) Const rai ned trail Gully erosion Channelized debris flow-- includes deposition, erosion and channelised flow (v) 25-95 3 50-330 (190) (vi) no occurrence 0 no occurrence no occurrence 0 no occurrence 35-70 4 0-20 (10) no occurrence 0 no occurrence no occurrence 0 no occurrence no occurrence 0 no occurrence 70450 4 90-860 (470) where erosion predomi nat ed was 25 m with a range from 5 to 52 m. The average length of trail section where deposition predomi nat ed was 28 m with a range from 2 to 100 m. The width of deposition within the trail was generally controlled by the topography, either leading to uncon- strained or constrained deposition depending on the absence of otherwise of drainage lines and hollows along the trail. Typically the width of the trail averaged 9 m, and ranged from 1 m to 30 m for unconstrained debris flow, where the topographic controls are relatively sub- tle. For channelized debris flows the width of the trail was less than 8 m. Table 3 summarizes the observed range of values for run-out length for those landslides with unconstrained and constrained trails in the study area. Deposition was the predomi nant characteristic observed along the com- plete length of many of the trails, especially from those landslides with a small source vol ume<400 m 3 . The run-out length of these landslide trails was typically in the range of 15 to 100 m. Other trails, especially those which had a larger source volume >400 m 3, were more complex and comprised a number of sections that included some or all of the following; erosion, deposition, outwash, or channelized debris flow. The run-out length of these trails was typically in the range of 35 to 450 m. Lau & Woods (1997) have examined the relationship between the run-out lengths of the landslides in the study area, as defined by the angle of reach met hod (Corominas 1996), and landslide source volumes. The relationship is shown in Fig. 6 and confirms that many of the landslides fall within the bounds typical of debris flows and translational slides. However, some have a much shorter run-out length than would be predicted using Corominas' met hod and this is considered to be the result of local obstructions to downslope transport due to gross morphological changes or obstructions along the debris flow path. Hazard zones for downslope development The primary hazard zone for any downslope develop- ment lies within the debris transport and deposition areas as debris impact will result in injury, fatality or economic losses. The landslide trail defines this zone and extends from the landslide main scarp to the end of the deposition fan. About 96% of all landslide trails associ- ated with both unconstrained and constrained landslides were found within slope classes that correspond to 15 to 40 and 71% were found on slopes within the range of 15 to 30 . Debri s deposi t i on fan Al t hough mi nor deposits of debris were formed along many of the lateral boundaries of the landslide trails, in the absence of any obstacles to the debris flow path, much of the mobilized debris was transported downs- lope until deposition occurred as the slope angle reduced to some critical value. At this critical value of slope angle (deposition point), a deposition fan of material started to form in the trail. The limited data from the study area indicates that a lower bound for deposition is 10 without channel confinement and 8 for channelized debris flows landslides. 256 C. A. M. FRANKS 4O 30 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A, - ~ . . . . . L , * * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ Lower bound envel ope for 1992 & 1993 Tung Chung dat a sets. Rockfal i s (Coromi nas, 1996). . . . . . . Transl at i onal l andsl i des (Coromi nas, 1996). . . . . Debri s fl ow l andsl i des (Coromi nas, 1996). ~ Eart hfl ows and mudfl ows (Coromi nas, 1996). 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 Log La nds l i de Sour c e Vo l u me ( m) Fig. 6. The lower bound envelope of angle of reach for landslide source volumes in the Tung Chung study area (after Lau & Woods 1997). Hungr e t al . (1984) in his st udy of debris aval anches in Canada, report ed a l i mi t i ng angle of 8 to 12 wi t h channel confi nement and 10 to 14 in its absence, for the deposi t i on poi nt . Fur t her mor e Hungr e t al . (1987) con- cluded t hat the presence of channel confi nement is crucial to the mai nt enance of flow for slopes less t han 18 and t hat a wi dt h to dept h rat i o of less t han 5 is requi red for confi ned flow. Wi t hi n the Tung Chung st udy area, channel wi dt h to dept h rat i os t ypi cal l y ranged from 10 to less t han 3. In general, most unconst r ai ned landslides formed deposi t i on fans on slope angles in the range of 20 to 32 , t ypi cal l y wi t h more t han 30% of the mai n scarp vol ume bei ng deposi t ed in the debris fan. For channel i zed debris flows, erosi on al ong some sections of the l andsl i de trail provi ded addi t i onal debris to t hat from the ori gi nal mai n scarp. In some cases this addi t i onal debris was est i mat ed to be close to 50% of the ori gi nal scarp volume. Preliminary hazard zoning A prel i mi nary hazar d zoni ng for the st udy area was developed based on slope angle classification and inden- tification of drai nage gullies wi t h the pot ent i al for channel i zi ng debris flows. Beari ng in mi nd the accuracy of the field observat i ons the fol l owi ng four slope classes have been adopt ed; <10 , 10 to 20 , 20 to 30 and >30 . Fi gure 7 shows the hazar d zone map produced from a digital t errai n model of the st udy area, t oget her wi t h the identified drai nage gullies wi t h the pot ent i al for channel i zi ng debris flows. Most of the l andsl i de sources will ori gi nat e from the >30 slope angle zone and t hose debris flows t hat are unconfi ned will t ypi cal l y form debris fans on slope angles in the range of 20 to 30 . However, a few uncon- st rai ned debris flows wi t h a source vol ume greater t han 400 m 3 resulted in debris fan deposi t i on on lower slope angles in the range of 10 to 20 . At those l ocat i ons where drai nage gullies wi t h the pot ent i al for channel i zi ng debris flows intersect slope classes < 10 t hen the forma- t i on of a debris fan is likely, the di mensi ons of whi ch can be est i mat ed by appl yi ng the appropri at e values for deposi t i on in Tabl e 2 to a suitable source volume. For example assumi ng a maxi mum source vol ume of 1500 m 3 and addi t i onal ent r ai nment of debris of say 2000 m 3 (assumi ng erosi on al ong the complete l engt h of the l ongest drai nage line), this will give a maxi mum likely channel i zed debris flow of 3500 m 3. I f 30% of this combi ned vol ume deposits as a debris fan, t hen the debris fan will be 70 m l ong f r om the deposi t i on poi nt , i f an average deposi t i on t hi ckness of 0. 7m and a maxi mum 30 m wide debris fan is assumed. RAI NFALL- I NDUCED LANDSLIDES 257 Sl ope angl e Hazard Zone Descri pt i on < 10 Limit of debris fan deposition for potential channelised debris flows 10-20 20-30 Limit of debris fan deposition for potential non channelised debris flows > 3 0 Zone of most landslide sources f J Main drainage The most likely flow path for potential channelised debris flows gullies Scal e 0 400m I , I [ . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' A i : ! : i : ! : ! : ! : ! : ! : ! : ! : i : i t on. J Fig. 7. Preliminary hazard zone map for the Tung Chung study area. D i s c u s s i o n The landslide characteristics from the 1992 and 1993 rainstorms have been compared with those landslide characteristics that can be obtained from interpretation of the available aerial phot ographs over the 50-year period 1945 to 1995. This indicates that intense rain- storms during this period in Hong Kong have resulted in widespread landsliding in the study area. The results of the study indicate t hat channelized debris flows generally result in a greater magnitude of mobilized debris with consequent longer debris run-out t han non-channelized debris flows. Consequentially this larger volume of debris will produce a greater deposition fan area. 258 C. A. M. FRANKS Review of all the aerial phot ogr aphi c evidence and compar i son wi t h the field evidence of landslides gener- ated duri ng the 1992 and 1993 rai nst orms indicates t hat a channel i zed debris flow mobi l i zi ng about 2300 m 3 of mat eri al , wi t h a debris r un- out (trail length) of 450 m is likely to be the maxi mum debris flow landslide t hat has occurred duri ng the last 50 years. However, based on the average erosi on rate of about 3.7 m3/m (Table 2) estab- lished for channel i zed debris flow in the study area the pot ent i al for the ent r ai nment of addi t i onal debris of about 2000 m 3 is a possibility for the longest drai nage gullies. For downsl ope devel opment s at the footslopes (i.e on slopes less t han about 20 ) of nat ur al t errai n t hat is drai ned by gullies wi t h steep slope gradients this type of landslide is pot ent i al l y the most hazardous. However, devel opment s on slope gradients greater t han about 20 will also be at risk to hazards resulting from non-channel i zed debris flows. The Tung Chung devel opment area is bounded to the southwest by nat ur al t errai n wi t h slope gradients generally greater t han 20 . However, a number of gullies wi t h steep downsl ope gradi ent intersect this develop- ment boundar y and provi de pot ent i al flow pat hs for channel i zed debris flows. This study has exami ned the characteristics of rain- st orm i nduced landslides on nat ur al t errai n above the Tung Chung New Town and defined those criteria influencing the debris flow pat hs and deposi t i on areas of these landslides and hence the zones of hazard for downsl ope developments. These criteria are: the maxi mum likely landslide source volume, whet her the likely landslide trail is const rai ned or non-const rai ned, and the downsl ope gradi ent al ong the likely debris trail. Al t hough recent regional studies (Evans et al. 1997) have concl uded t hat relative landslide susceptibility at a part i cul ar l ocat i on is also influenced by bedr ock geology, this coul d not be confi rmed in this st udy area where most of the landslide sources were underl ai n by a single rock type. The assessed maxi mum likely channel i zed debris flow and trial length is based on the assumpt i on t hat lands- liding duri ng the previous 50-year peri od is an i ndi cat i on of fut ure pot ent i al hazards in the cat chment . The possi- bility of larger landslides occurring wi t hi n the cat chment duri ng the next 50 to 100 years cannot be di scount ed on the basis of the 50-year timescale exami ned using aerial phot ogr aphi c i nt erpret at i on. However, detailed gr ound i nvest i gat i on and t opogr aphi c survey al ong all drai nage lines and hollows woul d be required to i mprove the hazard definition. Conclusions Most of the rai nfal l -i nduced landslides t hat have occurred on the nat ur al slopes above the Tung Chung New Town Devel opment are unconst r ai ned wi t h debris volumes generally less t han 400 m 3. These landslides generat ed relatively short trails, generally less t han 50 m in length, with deposi t i on on slope gradients >20 . The largest magni t ude rai nfal l -i nduced landslides were those t hat were const rai ned resulting in chan- nelized debris flows. These are the events t hat produced the longest trails and debris run-out s and hence are pot ent i al l y the most hazar dous to downsl ope develop- ments. Some rai nfal l i nduced channel i zed debris flow landslides have occurred wi t h debris volumes >2000 m 3. These landslides generat ed l ong trail lengths some of which have reached the boundar y areas of the Tung Chung New Town Devel opment . Wi t hi n the limits of the accuracy of the field dat a, baseline values for defining the zones of hazard for downsl ope devel opment have been established as follows: Most landslide sources ori gi nat e from areas wi t h slope angles greater t han 30 . Typi cal l y unconst r ai ned landslides have a source vol- ume of less t han 400 m 3 and are likely to f or m a debris fan on slope angles less t han about 20 . A relatively few unconst rai ned landslides have a source vol ume greater t han 400 m 3 and are likely to f or m a debris fan on more gentle slope angles havi ng a lower bound of about 10 . For const rai ned landslides, the source vol ume is typi- cally greater t han 400 m 3 and the limit of debris fan f or mat i on is likely to be on slope angles less t han 10 . 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Received 23 June 1997; accepted 20 November 1998 EUROPEAN GEOPHYSICAL SERVICES BORE HOL E GE OP H Y S I C A L L OGGI NG AND T E L E V I S I ON S URV E Y S C o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d h i g h q u a l i t y s e r v i c e s f o r : Wa t e r Wel l s a nd Bor e hol e s Ge o t e c h n i c a l Si t e I nv e s t i ga t i ons Env i r onme nt a l A s s e s s me n t s Coal and Mi ner al Ex pl or a t i on European Geophysical Services (UK) Ltd 22 Hardwicke Stables, Hadnall, Shrewsbury, SY4 4AS, UK Tel: ++ 44 1939 210710 Fax: ++ 44 1939 210532 Email: eurogeophys @compuserve. com Web Site: http:l/www.egs.lu Ent ec is one of t he UK' s l argest envi r onment al and engi neer i ng consul t anci es, offeri ng a t r ul y mul t i - di sci pl i nary appr oach. Ou r services i ncl ude geot echni cal consul t ancy and design, gr ound engi neeri ng, archaeol ogy, c ont a mi na t e d l and r emedi at i on and hydrogeol ogy. 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