UNIT II - COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES

Four stages of combustion in a CI engine

Herry Ricardo has investigated the combustion in a compression ignition
engine and divided the same into the following four stages:

1. Ignition delay or delay period.
2. Uncontrolled combustion.
3. Controlled combustion.
4. After burning.



Fig: Pressure time diagram illustrating in a compression ignition engine.

1. Ignition delay
2. Uncontrolled combustion
3. Controlled combustion
4. After burning.

The details of these stages of combustion are given below:

Pressure Vs crank angle of a CI engine in a simplified from is shown in fig.
The curved line ABCG represents compression and expansion of the air charge in the
engine cylinder when the engine is being motored, without fuel injection. This curve
is mirror symmetry with respect to TDC line. The curve ABCDEFH shows the
pressure trace of an actual engine.

Delay period

In an actual engine, fuel injection beings at the point B during the
compression stroke. The injected fuel does not ignite immediately.
It takes some time to ignite. Ignition sets in at the point C. During the crank
travel B to C pressure in the combustion chamber does not rise above the
compression curve. The period corresponding to the crank angle B to C is called
delay period or ignition delay (about 0.001 seconds).

During ignition delay, the following events take place. The injected spray
enters the combustion chamber and slowly (at about 55 m/min) bores hole in the air
mass, while the fuel particles are stripped away. Some of these particles are
vapourized. Thus, the main body of the spray is surrounded by vapour liquid
particle air envelope. In small combustion chambers, the spray body may impinge
on the walls. Some of the impinged fuel may bounce off the surface, while the rest
may glide on the walls. Vapourization of fuel particles tends to lower the
compression pressure and temperature slightly. At the same time, the energy
released in the preflame reactions tends to raise the pressure. Now in the outer
envelope of the spray, ingnition nuclei are formed. Mostly, the nuclei are cool flame
reactions, on the verge of autoignition. By oxidation or cracking reactions,
luminescent carbon particles are formed.

Uncontrolled combustion

At the end of the delay period i.e. at the point C, fuel starts burning. At this
point, a good amount of fuel would have already entered and got accumulated
inside the combustion chamber. This fuel charge is surrounded by hot air. The fuel
is finely divided and evaporated. Majority of the fuel burns with an explosion like
effect. This instantaneous combustion is called uncontrolled combustion. This
combustion causes a rapid pressure rise.

During uncontrolled combustion the following take place. Flame appears at
one or more locations and spreads turbulently, with glowing luminosity. Flame of
low luminosity marks regions of vapourized fuel and air (premixed flame. Flames
of higher luminosity marks regions of liquid droplets and air (diffusion flame). The
initial spreading of non luminous and luminous flame arises from autoignition and
flame propagation. This is the knock reaction with a high rate of energy release and
correspondingly high rate of pressure rise.

Combustion during crank travel C to D is called uncontrolled combustion.
This is because no control over this combustion is possible by the engine operator.
Since this combustion is more or les instantaneous, it is also called rapid combustion.

If more fuel is present in the cylinder at the end of delay period, and
undergoes rapid combustion when ignition sets in, the rate of pressure rise and the
peak pressure attained will be greater. During this combustion the piston is around
TDC, and is almost stand still.
Too rapid a pressure rise and severe pressure impulse at this position of the piston
will result in combustion noise called Diesel Knock.

The severity of the knock reactions is in proportion to the mass enflamed.
The regions of premixed flame are probably hotter (and older) than the regions
where liquid droplets are present. As such, the knock reaction may be propagated
mainly in the low luminosity state of the flame.

The rate at which the uncontrolled combustion takes place will depend upon
the following:

1. The quantity of fuel in the combustion chamber at the point C. This quantity
depends upon the rate at which fuel is injected during delay period and the
duration of ignition delay.
2. The condition of fuel that has got accumulated in the combustion chamber at
the point C.

The rate of combustion during the crank travel C to D and the resulting rate of
pressure rise determine the quietness and smoothness of operation of the
engine.

Controlled combustion

During controlled combustion, following thing happen. The flame spreads
rapidly (but less than 135 m/min), as a turbulent, heterogeneous or diffusion flame
with a gradually decreasing rate of energy release. Even in this stage, small
autoignition regions may be present. The diffusion flame is characterized by its high
luminosity. Bright, white carbon flame with a peak temperature of 2500
o
C is
noticed. In this stage, radiation plays a significant part in engine heat transfer.

During the period D to E, combustion is gradual. Further by controlling the
rate of fuel injection, complete control is possible over the rate of burning.
Therefore, the rate o pressure rise is controllable. Hence, this stage of combustion is
called Gradual combustion or Controlled combustion.

The period corresponding to the crank travel D to E is called the period of controlled
combustion.





The rate of burning during the period of controlled combustion depends on the
following:

1. Rate of fuel injection during the period of controlled combustion.
2. The fineness of atomization of the injected fuel.
3. The uniformity of distribution of the injected fuel in the combustion chamber.
4. Amount and distribution of the oxygen left in the combustion space for reaction
of the injected fuel.

At the point E, injection of fuel ends, the period of controlled combustion
ends at this point. When the load on the engine is greater, the period of controlled
combustion is also greater.

During controlled combustion, the pressure in the cylinder may increase or
remain constant or decrease. Usually during this period, the combustion is more or
less at constant pressure (on a PV diagram) because the downward movement of the
piston (i.e. increase in volume) compensates for the effect of heat release and the
consequent pressure rise.

After burning

At the last stage, i.e. between E and F the fuel that is left in the combustion
space when the fuel injection stops is burnt. This stage of combustion is called After
burning (burning on the expansion stroke). In the indicator diagram, after burning
will not be visible. This is because the downward movement of the piston causes the
pressure to drop inspired of the heat that is released by the burning of the last
portion of the charge.

Increasing excess air, or air motion will shorten after burning i.e. reduce the
quantity of fuel that may undergo after burning).


THE PHENOMENON OF KNOCK IN CI ENGINES
In CI engines the injection process takes place over a definite interval of time.
Consequently, as the first few droplets to be injected are passing through the ignition
delay period, additional droplets are being injected into the chamber. If the ignition
delay of the fuel being injected is short, the first few droplets will commence the
actual burning phase in a relatively short time after injection and a relatively small
amount of fuel will be accumulated in the chamber when actual burning
commences.

Effect of Variables on the Delay Period
Increases in variable Effect on Delay
Period
Reason
Cetane number of fuel Reduces Reduces the self-ignition temperature
Injection pressure Reduces Reduces physical delay due to greater
surface volume ration
Injection timing advance Reduces Reduced pressures and temperatures
when the injection begins
Compression ration Reduces Increases air temperature and pressure
and reduces autoignition temperature
Intake temperature Reduces Increases air temperature
Jacket water temperature Reduces Increases wall and hence air
temperature
Fuel temperature Reduces Increases chemical reaction due to
better vaporization
Intake pressure
(Supercharging)
Reduces Increases density and also reduces
autoignition temperature
Speed Increases in terms
of crank angle.
Reduce in terms of
milliseconds
Reduces loss of heat
Load (Fuel air ratio) Decreases Increase the operating temperature
Engine size Decrease in terms of
crank angle. Little
effect in terms of
milliseconds
Larger engines operator normally at
low speeds
Type of combustion
chamber
Lower for engines
with precombustion
Due to compactness of the chamber.


Characteristics tending to reduce detonation or knock
S.No Characteristics SI Engines CI Engines
1. Ignition temperature of
fuel
High Low
2. Ignition delay Long Short
3. Compression ratio Low High
4. Inlet temperature Low High
5. Inlet pressure Low High
6. Combustion wall
temperature
Low High
7. Speed, rpm High Low
8. Cylinder size Small Large

Factors influencing diesel knock

The diesel combustion process which includes ignition delay, premixed
burning due to delay period and diffusion burning and injector needle lift and
pressure variation with respect to crank angle can be seen in fig. The premixed
burning is responsible for diesel knock.

The following are the factors which influence ignition delay and thereby
contribute to knock:

The different engine factors that control diesel knock can be seen in fig.



Fig: Diesel combustion and injector needle lift

Higher inlet air pressure, air temperature and compression ratio reduce
knock. Supercharging reduces knock. Increased humidity increases knock.

Combustion chamber design and associated air motion influence heat losses
from the compressed air. Tendency to knock will be lesser, with less heat losses. A
combustion chamber with a minimum surface to volume ratio and with lesser
intensity of air motion is desirable.

Knocking tendency is lesser in engines where compressed air injects the fuel
into the combustion space. In the case of mechanical injection of fuel, finer the
atomization of fuel, lesser is the tendency to knock.
A fuel with a long preflame reactions (i.e. self ignition possible only at a
higher temperature) will result in the injection of a considerable amount of fuel
before the initial part ignities. This in turn results in a large amount or number of
parts of the mixture to ignite at the same time and produce knock. Thus, a good CI
engine fuel should have a short ignition delay and low self ignition temperature, if
knock is to be avoided.



Fig: Factors influencing combustion knock in the CI engine.

Ignition delay of fuels is generally measured in terms of cetane number. Fuels
of higher cetane number have shorter ignition delay and thus will have a lesser
tendency to knock.

The ignition delay of CI engine fuels may be decreased by the addition of
small amounts of certain compounds (called ignition accelerators or improves).
These compounds are ethyl nitrate and amyl thionitrate. These compounds affect
the combustion process by speeding the molecular interactions.

Direct injection engines These engines have a single, open combustion chamber
into which the entire quantity of fuel is injected directed directly. An open
combustion chamber is one in which the combustion space incorporates no
restrictions that are sufficiently small to cause large differences in pressure between
different parts of the chamber during the combustion process.

Indirect injection engines In these engines the combustion space is divided into
two parts and the fuel is injected into the auxiliary chamber which is connected to
the main chamber via a nozzle or one or more number of orifices. The main
chamber is situated above the piston. The restrictions or throat are so small to cause
considerable pressure differences between them during the combustion process.


Combustion chambers for CI engines

Combustion chamber is the space wherein combustion of fuel with air takes
place. In IC engines, combustion chamber is the closed space formed by three
engine components, namely, cylinder head, top portion of cylinder and piston
crown, when the piston is close to TDC, at the end of compression. This space is
more or less equal to the clearance volume in an engine.

Functions of the combustion chambers are as follows:

1. Efficient preparation of fuel air charge for combustion. This stipulates (i) an
even distribution of the injected fuel throughout the compressed air and (ii) a
thorough mixing of the fuel with air to ensure complete combustion, with
minimum excess air supply.

2. Efficient and smooth combustion. This stipulates (i) a sufficiently high air
temperature to cause ignition of fuel, (ii) a small ignition lag or delay period, (iii)
a moderate rate of pressure rise during uncontrolled combustion stage, (iv) a
controlled, even burning during controlled combustion stage, (v) a minimum of
after burning and (vi) minimum heat losses and energy losses to ensure high
thermal efficiency.


The open combustion chamber may be located either in the cylinder head or in the
piston crown as shown in fig.


Fig: Types of open combustion chambers, changing the shapes of the cavity in the
piston crown affects piston height and hence engine size.
It may also be partly in the cylinder head and partly in the piston crown.
Presence of valves and fuel injector in the cylinder head makes it difficult to locate
the combustion chamber in the cylinder head. Hence, it is usually located in the
piston crown, either centrally or so. Locating the chamber in the piston crown has
an advantage i.e. reduced heat losses from the working fluid.

Open combustion chamber is invariably circular in plan. This helps
organized rotational air movement to prevail. The cross section is of different
shapes. The chamber shape usually confirms to the shapes of the fuel spray used.

The shape of some of the open combustion chambers used in automotive
diesel engines can be seen in fig. How the combustion chamber design affects
weight and height of an engine can also be seen n this figure.

The fig. shows the performance results of some direct injection engines
having different shapes of open combustion chambers. The torroidal shape seems to
give better performance over the operating range.



Fig: Performance of D.I. engines having different open combustion chambers

In the open combustion chamber, air mass is more or less quiescent in nature.
As such atomization (i.e. disintegration of the fuel jet into drops of different sizes),
distribution of these drops and mixture formation (i.e. mixing of fuel with air) are to
be effected by the injection system. Hence, fuel must be injected at high velocity.
This means high injection pressure is required. Injector nozzle should also contain
more of holes of comparatively small diameter (dor = 0.15 to 0.25 mm)

In open combustion chamber even though there may be many sprays, still the
air between the sprays may be utilized fully, due to quiescent nature of the air
charge. As such, in this chamber the minimum possible excess air coefficient is amin>
1.5

The fuel injector is usually arranged along the chamber axis for effective
distribution of fuel spray. With a centrally located multihole injector nozzle, the
design goal is to keep the amount of fuel which may impinge on the piston bowl
walls to be a minimum.

In some engines, injector and combustion chamber are located away from the
cylinder axis. This arrangement helps to increase the size of the valves, inlet
manifold and exhaust manifold.

In the case of open combustion chambers the injection timing, rate of
injection, injection pressure, engine speed, size of each fuel orifice and viscosity and
ignition quality of the fuel dictate the pressure rise and completeness of combustion.
Pre-combustion chamber

In some CI engines, combustion space is divided into two parts, namely,
precombustion chamber and main combustion chamber. Precombustion chamber is
always located in the cylinder head. Main combustion chamber is enclosed between
the piston and cylinder head. The two combustion chambers are interconnected by
one or more number of orifices.

Precombustion chamber is built in various shapes and relative sizes.
Precombustion chamber volume is about 30 to 40 percent of the total combustion
space. The manner in which combustion of fuel in this type of engine is taking place
is discussed below:

During compression, part of the air in the cylinder enters the precombustion
chamber. At the end of compression, the whole of the fuel is injected into the
precombustion chamber. The hot air ignitives the fuel. Combustion starts in this
chamber. Pressure rises in it. Rise of pressure in the precombustion chamber forces
out the products of combustion, partially burned and unburned fuel and remaining
air into the main combustion chamber.

These constituents flow out at high velocity into the main chamber. As such,
these constituents mix thoroughly with the air in the main chamber. The orifices
connecting the two chambers are so sized, and shaped and located to effect good
mixing. Air motion thus created is called combustion induced swirl or combustion
turbulence.

In the precombustion chamber engine, ignition and combustion starts in the
precombustion chamber. But the combustion of the entire quantity of the injected
fuel will not be completed in this chamber itself. This is because only a smaller
quantity of total air sucked in is present in this chamber. About 20 percent of the
fuel injected during each cycle, burns in the precombustion chamber and the
reminder burns in the main combustion chamber.




Merits and demerits of pre-combustion chamber-the merits and demerits of the
ecombustion chamber engines are as follows:

1. There is better mixing of air and fuel due to combustion induced swirl. Air
movement is one of turbulence in character. As such, lower fuel injection
pressure (60 to 100 kscm) can be used. Lower injection pressure eliminates
dripping of fuel from the injector tip. Lower injection pressure necessitates the
use of fairly large injection orifices to deliver with carbon particles. Such
injectors, therefore, require less frequent maintenance. Because of larger orifices
and lower injection pressures, higher viscosity fuels can be used.
2. Brake mean effective pressures are much lower in these engines.
3. Only a fraction of the fuel is burnt in the precombustion chamber. Thus
combustion process proceeds at a slower rate. As such, rate of pressure rise and
peak pressure (seldom exceeds 90 kscm) will be lower. The engine will be very
smooth running. The cycle becomes almost a constant pressure cycle.
4. During compression , at any instant, pressure and temperature of air in the
precombustion chamber will lag behind in magnitude compared to those in the
main combustion chamber. Throttling effect of orifices is responsible for this.
As such, at the start of fuel injection, pressure and temperature of air in the
precombustion chamber will be lesser. This factor increases ignition delay.
Possibility of knock of knock occurring is greater, especially during cold
weather and while starting.
5. Heat losses through the orifices are greater during compression. Hence, cold
starting is difficult. To effect easy cold starting, electric heater or starting
cartridges or higher compression ratios are used. Using higher compression
ratio (usually from 16 to 19) results in a relatively heavier engine.
6. Air flows from the main chamber into the precombustion chamber during
compression. During combustion and expansion, burning gases flow out from
the precombustion chamber into the main combustion chamber. These fluid
flow through the orifices result in higher fluid friction, and energy and heat
losses. These aspects reduce power output by about 10 to 15 percent and also
reduce thermal efficiency. Specific fuel consumption is more by about 10 to
12percent compared to that of a open combustion chamber.
7. Precombustion chamber imprisons the first combustion shock. This prevents
high, knocking pressure from being applied on the piston and through the
connecting rod to the engine knock on the eningecomponents, inferior ignition
quality fuels can be used.
8. Precombustion chambers are suitable and are being used in engines operating at
relatively high speed. This becomes possible because of reduced or elimination
of the ill effect of knock.
9. Scavenging the precombustion chamber is difficult. This causes inefficient
combustion.
10. Considerable amount of fuel that is injected burns after the same entering the
main combustion chamber. This combustion occurs relatively late in the
expansion stroke. This aspect reduces thermal efficiency.
11. Precombustion chamber utilizes the energy of initial combustion for creating air
movement in the main chamber. Greater will be the air movement if greater
amount of fuel is burnt in the precombustion chamber. The amount of fuel that
is burnt initially does not depend upon the speed. As such this type of
combustion chamber is very much suitable for engines meant for constant speed
operation.

Swirl combustion chamber

The swirl combustion chamber is also a divided type combustion chamber
with certain differences and modifications. Swirl chamber is usually located in the
cylinder head. In one case, it is located in the cylinder block itself, by the side of the
engine cylinder.

Swirl chamber is spherical or cylindrical in shape. Volume of the swirl
chamber is greater than that of the precombusiton chamber. Volume of the chamber
over the piston ranges from a minimum to usually not more than half the total
clearance volume. A much larger passage called transfer passage or throat connects
the swirl chamber with the chamber in the cylinder. This connection passage is
tangential to the swirl chamber. The figure shows the location of the swirl
combustion chamber either in the cylinder head or in the cylinder block and the air
motion created in them.


Fig: Different arrangements of swirl combustion chambers

During compression, air from the cylinder is forced through the throat into
the swirl chamber. A tangential velocity of swirl is produced in the swirl chamber.
This swirl is called compression swirl.

At the end of compression, fuel is injected into the swirl chamber. Vigorous
swirl in the chamber helps the injected fuel and air to mix well. Fuel injector is so
located and fuel sprays are so aimed to achieve this goal.

Ignition and combustion of fuel starts in the swirl chamber. Bulk of the
injected fuel burns in the swirl chamber itself. This becomes possible because of the
presence of the major portion of air in it. Combustion causes pressure rise. This
pressure rise forces combustion products and air fuel mixture into the engine
cylinder. Piston is also pushed outward on the working stroke. Further mixing of
unburned and partially burnt fuel with air occurs and this results in efficient
combustion. Hence, a swirl chamber engine uses both compression induced swirl
and combustion induced swirl.



M Combustion system

DrMeurer of MAN, Germany has developed a simple but a peculiar diesel
combustion chamber based upon the following three rules:

1. The fuel must be allowed to oxidize slowly and gradually and must be heated
only as vapour in the mixed state.
2. The fuel quantity undergoing autoignition must be minimized
3. The mixture of fuel vapour and air must be done faster as combustion proceeds
and the mixture must never be richer than the stoichiometric ratio.

The M combustions chamber is located in the piston crown as shown in fig. It
is open type and is somewhat shallower. It has a recess at the top just below the
injector nozzle. The nozzle directs the fuel towards the combustion chamber walls,
tangentially. The intake port is inclined. The intake valve has a mask. These create
an air swirl about the axis of the cylinder. The direction of the swirl is in the same
direction as that of the fuel jet.

The fuel particles injected at the first instance meet high resistance due to the
dense hot air in the chamber. Hence, these particles get well dispersed into the hot
air. The succeeding particles due to lesser air resistance get deposited on the
combustion chamber walls, in the form of a thin film. At full load, the thickness of
the fuel film be about 0.150 mm. The fuel dispersed into the air mass is only about
5% of the total fuel injected.

The bottom surface of the combustion chamber is cooled by the lubricating oil
that is splashed continuously from the crankcase. The combustion chamber wall
temperature is maintained at about 330
o
C.

The combustion of the 5% of the fuel which gets injected into air mass starts.
It undergoes, usual droplet combustion. But the combustion of the fuel sprayed on
the cooled combustion chamber walls does not follow immediately. The wall
deposited fuel starts evaporating in the absence of the hot air and moves towards the
center. The swirling air removes the fuel vapours from the zone evaporation.



Fig: M Combustion chamber

The fuel vapours mix with air and after slow oxidation burns. The
combustion of the air fuel vapour mixture is initiated by the red hot carbon particles
produced by combustion of air deposited fuel (that act like spark produced in a
spark ignition engine). As combustion proceeds, the chamber temperature increases.
This in turn increase the rate of vapourization and mixture formation. By this
controlled evaporation and slow combustion, the fuel has little or no chance to crack
resulting in diesel knock and smoky exhause. Hence, combustion is smooth and
efficient in this system. A comparison of the indicator diagrams of the conventional
diesel engine and the M combustion chamber diesel can also be seen in fig which
will reveal this fact. Rate of pressure rise and peak pressure are lesser in the M
combustion chamber engine.






Merits and demerits of M combustion system: The advantages of the M combustion
system are as follows:

1. In the M combustion system, complete and effective burning of the fuel takes
place. This controlled burning eliminates diesel knock and free carbon particles
in the exhaust.
2. About 5 10 % higher power output is realized.
3. Specific fuel consumption is lesser.
4. Smooth running of the engine even during idling becomes possible which is
very rare in normal diesel engines.
5. Much lower smoke density upto three fourths full load and almost identical
with that of a conventional diesel engine at full load. Smoke density is the ratio
of carbon present in the exhaust to the amount of carbon in the quantity of fuel
injected.
6. Lesser contamination of insoluble in the lubricating oil. In the bohr test, in an
ordinary diesel engine, the insolubles were about 0.9% and in the M combustion
engine, the insolubles where only about 0.25%.
7. M combustion system is more adaptable for multi fuel operation because of the
elimination of diesel knock.

Turbo charging

In turbo charging, the supercharger or blower is being driven by a gas turbine
which uses the energy in the exhaust gases. In this case, there is no mechanical
linkage between the engine and the supercharger. The major parts of a turbocharger
are turbine wheel, turbine housing, turbo shaft, compressor wheel, compressor
housing and bearing housing.



During engine operation, hot exhaust gases blow out through the exhaust
valve opening into the exhaust manifold. The exhaust manifold and the connecting
tubing route these gases into the turbine housing. As the gases pass through the
turbine housing, they strike on the fins or blades on the turbine wheel. When the
engine load is high enough, there is enough gas flow and this makes the turbine
wheel to spin rapidly. The turbine wheel is connected to the compressor wheel by
the turboshaft. As such, the compressor wheel rotates with the turbine. Compressor
wheel rotation sucks air into the compressor housing. Centrifugal force throws the
air outward. This causes the air to flow out of the turbocharger and into the engine
cylinder under pressure.

In the case of turbocharging, there is a phenomena called turbolag. It refers to
the short delay period before the boost or manifold pressure increases. This is due to
the time the turbocharger assembly takes the exhaust gases to accelerate the turbine
and compressor wheel to speed up.

If the supercharger is driven directly by the engine, part of the power developed by
the engine will be used in running the supercharger.


Fig: Comparative heat balance of naturally aspirated and supercharged diesel
engines.
If is found that the gain in the power output of an engine due to
supercharging will be many time the power required to drive the supercharger. Of
course, this is possible only with increased fuel supply to the engine. It is to be
noted that at full loads, the compression of the supercharger is not fully utilized.
This will result in greater loss. Therefore, the specific fuel consumption of a
mechanically driven supercharged engine will be more at part loads when compared
to that of a naturally aspirated engine.

In the case of the exhaust gas turbine driven supercharger, the engine is not
required to supply any power to run the supercharger turbine. This type of
supercharging is called turbo charging. The turbo charging gives about 5% higher
thermal efficiency at full load. This increase in efficiency results in reduced fuel
consumption compared to that of a naturally aspirated engine for the same power
output.

Effects of turbocharging:

The following are the effects of supercharging engines. Some of the points refer to
CI engines:

1. Higher power output
2. Mass of charge inducted is greater
3. Better atomization of fuel
4. Better mixing of fuel and air
5. Combustion is more complete and smoother
6. Can use inferior (poor ignition quality) fuels.
7. Scavenging of products is better
8. Improved torque over the whole speed range
9. Quicker acceleration (of vehicle) is possible
10. Reduction in diesel knock tendency and smoother operation
11. Increased detonation tendency in SI engines
12. Improved cold starting
13. Eliminates exhaust smoke
14. Lowers specific fuel consumption, in turbocharging
15. Increased mechanical efficiency
16. Extent of supercharging is limited by durability, reliability and fuel economy
17. Increased thermal stresses
18. Increased turbulence may increase heat losses
19. Increased gas loading
20. Valve overlap period has to be increased to about 60 to 160 degrees of crank
angle
21. Necessitates better cooling of pistons and valves.