1.

Atoms and molecule

EXAMPLE 1

Nucleus of an atom has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Calculate atomic number, mass
number and number of electrons in neutral atom.What is thesymbol of atom?
Solution:

Calculate the atomic number, mass number and number of electrons in neutral atom.
and symbol of atom as shown below

Concept
For any element the atomic number of element is same as the number of proton.

Suppose element is Z
Therefore,
Atomic number of element Numbers of protons
6
Z =
=

Hence, the atomic number is 6

Concept
The number of electron isneutral stateis equal to the number ofproton.

Therefore,

Number of electron Numbers of protons
6
=
=

Hence, the number of electron is 6

Now calculate the mass number of element Z using the formula given below

Z p n
M N N = +
Here,
The mass number of the element Z is
z
M
The number of proton is
p
N
The number of neutron is
n
N
Substitute 6 for
p
N and 8 for
n
N
6 8
14
Z p n
M N N = +
= +
=

Hence, the molecular mass of the atom is 14
Since, the element Z can be represented as
14
6
Z therefore it resemble to the carbon
hence the symbol of the atom is
14
6
C



1.2 History of Atom

Although the credit for the first atomic theory is usually given to the ancient Greeks,
but the landmark in the process of chemistry took place with the advent of Daltons
atomic theory. However the research is done on the same topic by various eminent
scientists like J.J. Thomson, Goldstein, Rutherford, Chadwick, Bohr and others in the
later half of the 19
th
century and the beginning of the 20 th century.
The atom was not the smallest indivisible particle but had a complexparticle like
electron, protons, neutron etc.
At present 35 different subatomic particles are known but the three particles namely
electron, proton and neutron are regarded as the fundamental particles.
The table -1 given below gives the charge and mass of these fundamental particles.

Particle Charge Mass
Kg u
Electron
1
31
9.10939 10

0.000548596
Proton
1 +
27
1.67262 10

1.00727663
Neutron 0
31
9.10939 10

1.0086654

Table 1

10
19
one unit charge 4.80298 10 e.s.u.
=1.60210 10 coulombs

One u can also be represented in term of the mass of carbon atoms.

12
1
u th the mass of Catom
12
=


1.3 Discovery of the fundamental particles Electron (Study of Cathode Rays)

The discovery of the electron comesas a result ofthe study ofconduction of electricity
through gasesas explained below:
William Crookes in 1879 studied the conduction of electricity through gases at low
pressure for this purpose he took discharge tube which is a long glass tube about 60
cm long, sealed at both the side and fitted with two metal electrodes. It has a side tube
fitted with a stop-cock. This tube is connected to the vacuum pump and the pressure
inside the discharge tube is reduced as low as 0.01 mm.
Now when a high voltage approximately 10,000 Volts is applied between the
electrodes, it is found that invisible rays are emitted which later on named as cathode
rays. The presence of these rays is detected from the fact that the discharge tube
opposite to the cathode begins to glow with a faint greenish light.

1.3.1 Properties of Cathode Rays:

From the various experiment carried out by J.J. Thomson and othersthe cathode
rayshave been found to possess the following properties:-

i. They produce a sharp shadow of the solid object in their path. This showsthat
cathode rays travel in straightline.
ii. If a light paddle wheel (mica) mounted on an axle is placed in their path, the
wheel begin to rotate. This showsthat cathode rays are made up of
materialproperties.
iii. When anelectric field is appliedon the cathode rays, theyare deflected towards
thepositive plate of the electric field. This shows that cathode rays carry
negative charges.
iv. When cathode rays strikes a metal foil, the latter becomes hot, this indicates
that cathode rays produces heating effects.
v. They ionize the gasesthrough which they pass.
vi. They produce green flourscennce at the glass walls of the discharge tube as
well as on certain other substances such as zinc sulphide.
vii. They produces the X-Ray when strikes on the surface of material like tungsten
and molybdenum etc.
viii. They affects the photographic plates.
ix. They possess penetrating effects.

1.3.2 Experiment for finding the charge and mass of the electron

1. J.J. Thomson experiment (For determination of the ratio of charge/mass)
He used different charges tubes fitted with electrodes of different metals. He placed
different glasses in the tube. He found every time that the ratio of charges/mass was
the same.

8
Charge
1.76 10 coulombs/g
mass
e
m
= =

2. R.A. Millikan (For determination of charge)
The charge on the electron was found by R.A. Millikan with the help of his oil drop
experiment. The value was found to be

19
1.60 10 Coulombs e

=




1.4 Atomic Hypothesis (Dalton Atomic Theory)

Following are the assumptions of the Dalton Atomic theory.
- An atom cannot be broken down further, it is indivisible.
- Atom does not create or destroyed, during the course of chemical reaction.
- All atoms of a element have the same mass.
- Allatoms of different element have thedifferent masses.

1.5 Nature of Light and Electromagnetic Waves

- The earliest view of light, due to Newton, regarded it as a stream of particles
more commonly termed as corpuscles of light. It explained the laws of
reflection and refraction of light, but it failed to account for the phenomenon
of interference and diffraction. Hence, this theory was discarded.
- Interference is the phenomenon of interaction of two waves while diffraction
is the formation of light and dark bands.
- Wave theory considers light to be a form of wave motion of wavelength ,
related to frequencyv and the velocity of light c by equation.

c
v

=
Thus, velocity of light = frequencywavelength
- Light waves were also considered electromagnetic in nature (i.e. they are
oscillations of electric and magnetic filed in spaces) by James Maxwell in
1873. These two field components have the same wavelength and frequency
and travel in planes perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the electromagnetic wave. They constitute the so
called electromagnetic spectrum.
- In vacuum, all types of electromagnetic radiation regardless of their
wavelength travel at the same speed, i.e.
8 1
3 10 ms

.
- Atomic spectra are discrete, that is, certain specific frequencies are emitted by
each atom, and other frequencies are never emitted.
- When solids are heated they emit radiation over a wide range of wavelengths.
For example, when an iron rod is heated in furnace, it first turns a dull red and
then progressively becomes more and more red as the temperature increases.
As this is heated further, the radiation emitted becomes white and then
becomes blue as the temperature increases very high. In terms of frequency, it
means that the radiation emitted goes from a lower frequency to higher
frequency as the temperature increases. The red color rise in the lower
frequency region, white blue color belongs to the higher frequency region of
the electromagnetic spectrum. The ideal body which emits and absorbs all the
frequencies of radiation uniformly is called a black body and the radiation
emitted by the body is called black body radiation.

1.6 Energy Relationship:

- By Einsteins equation,
2
E mc =
- By quantum theory put forward by Planck

hc
E hv

= =
The energy is radiated or absorbed by a body not continuously but
discontinuously in the small form of the small packets called quantum. In
case of light, the quantum is called photon.
- The value of E in the equation above is said to be one quantum of energy of
the radiation having frequencyv . Each photon is associated with one
quantum of energy. Thus,

1
E v

- The greater the frequency (i.e., the shorter the wavelength) greater is the
energy of radiation. Thus,

1 1 2
2 2 1
E
E
v
v
= =
- Also
1 2
E E E = + hence,

1 2 1 2
1 1 1
or
hc hc hc

= + = +

1.7 Moseleys experiment

Moseley, working in Rutherfords team in 1913, studies the wavelength of the
characteristic X-rays using different metals as anti-cathode. He postulated that the
frequency of the X-rays produced in the manner was related to the charge present
onthe nucleus of an atomof the element used as anti cathode. By Moseleys equation

( )
a Z b v =
wherev refers to the frequency, Z the nuclear charge(atomic number) and a and b are
constants.

The number of unit positive charge on the nucleus of an atom is
the atomic number (Z) whichis numerically equal to the number of protons
present in the nucleus of an atom.
( ) Atomic number nuclear charge or number of protons
number of electrons(in neutral atom)
Mass number number of (protons+neutrons)
atomic number neutrons
Z =
=
=
= +






EXAMPLE 3.2

If the light radiation from neon atom has a wavelength of 640 nm, what isthe energy
of thephoton being emitted?

Solution:

By quantum theory put forward by Planck
hc
E hv

= =
Here,
The energy of the photon is E.
The frequency of the wave is v
The Plancks constant h is
34
6.626 10 Js

The speed of light c is
8 1
3 10 ms

The wavelength of radiation is
9
640 10 m

Substitute the above values and calculate E

34 8 1
9
19
6.626 10 Js 3 10 ms
640 10 m
3.106 10 J
E

=


EXAMPLE 3.3

A sodium street light gives off yellow light that has a wavelength of 589 nm(
9
1nm 1 10 m)

= .What is the frequency ofthis light?

Solution:

Use equation

c
v

=
Here,
The frequency of the wave is v
The speed of light c is
8 1
3 10 ms

The wavelength of radiation is
9
589 10 m

Substitute the above values and calculate v

8 1
9
14 -1
3 10 ms
589 10 m
5.093 10 s
c
v

=


EXAMPLE 3.4

A F.M radio station broadcasts at a frequency of101.3 MHz . What is the wavelength
of these radio waves?

Solution:

Use equation

c
v
=
Here,
The frequency of the wave v is
6
101.3MHz 101.3 10 Hz =
The speed of light c is
8 1
3 10 ms

The wavelength of radiation is

Substitute the above values and calculate


8 1
6 1
3 10 ms
101.3 10 s
2.9615 m
c

=



Exercise 3.1

1. What is the charge on the nucleus of an atom of carbon?
2. What is the reduced mass if proton and electron are the particles?
3. How does
e
m
| |
|
\ .
value of an electron differ from that of a proton?
4. If Rutherford and his coworkers had used electrons instead of alpha particles
to probe the structure of the nucleus, what might have they discovered?
5. The radius ofthe nucleus, incm can be estimated by

1
13
3
1.4 10 R A

~
where A is the mass number of the atom. Calculate the approximate radius of
a polonium 210 nucleus.
6. For the unknown element, radius of the nucleus was found to be
approximately
13
7 10 cm

. What is the mass number of the element?

7. What is the relation between the mass of a neutron and that of an electron?



1.8 Photoelectric effect

J.JThomson observed that when the light of a certain frequency strikes the
surface of a metal, electrons are ejected from the cathode metal. They completed the
circuit through the gas in the tube which was otherwise a non conductor. This
phenomenon is called photoelectric effect. Only a few metals show this effect under
the action of visible light but many more show it under the action of more energetic
ultraviolet in a discharge tube at low voltage (100 V). Casesium with lowest
ionization energy among alkali metals is used in photoelectric cells.
Electrons were also emitted when the cathode was heated to incandescence by
subsidiary current. (Thermionic emission)
Einstein. Applying quantum theory showed that


2
1
2
h W mu v = +

Where W is threshold energy, v the frequency of the light falling on the metal andu
the velocity of the emitted electrons giving KE to it.


0
W hv =

where
0
v is called threshold frequency. Threshold energy W (also called work
function)enables the electron to break away from the atom by overcoming the
attractive influence of the nucleus. Thus,


( )
2
2
1
2
1 1 1
2
o
o
h mu
ch mu
v v

=
| |
=
|
\ .


The energy of an individual photon depends only on its frequencies and
not on the intensity of the light beam. The intensity of a light beam is a
measure of the number of photons in the beam and not of the energies of those
photons. A low intensity beam of high-energy photons might easily knock a few
electrons loose from a metal, but a high intensity beam of low-energy photons might
not be able to knock loose a single electron.


Work Book Exercise 3B

1. Which has the higher frequency, red light or violet light? Which has the larger
wavelength?
2. (a) What is the wavelength (in meters) of ultraviolet light with
15 1
5.5 10 s v

=
(b) What is the frequency of a microwave with
3
4.33 10 m

= ?
3. The MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) body scanners used in hospitals
operate with 400MHz radio frequency energy. What is wavelength
corresponding of this radio frequency?
4. What energy change per mole of atoms would be associated with an atomic
transition giving rise to radiation at1Hz ?
5. What is the relationship between the electron volt and the wavelength in nm of
the energically equivalent photon?
6. What is the equivalent of energy unit
1
1.000 cm

(a) J per photon
(b) KJ
1
mol

of photon
(c) kcal
1
mol

of photons
7. Consider two monochromatic rays of light, one orange
( )
5
6.2 10 cm

= , the
other violet
( )
5
4.2 10 cm

= . Which ray has the higher energy?
8. Heated lithium atoms emit photons of light with energy of
19
2.961 10 J

.Calculate the frequency and wavelength of the photon?

9. (a)Which has the greater energy- a photon of violet light or a photon of green
light?
(b) What is the effect on wavelength of light radiation if (I) energy is doubled,
(II) frequency is doubled?
10. (a) What is the nature of graph between v and Z in Mosleys equation?
(b) if the straight line is at an angle 45with intercept, 1 on v -axis, calculate
frequencyv when the atomic number Z is 50.
(c) What is atomic number Z when
1
2500 s v

= ?
11. Light of wavelength strikes on a metal surface with intensity X, and the
metal emits Y electrons per second of average energy Z. what will happen to
Y and Z.
(a) If is halved,
(b) If X is doubled?
12. For silver metal, the threshold frequency
o
v is
17
1.113 10 Hz . What is the
maximum KE of the photo-electrons produced by ultraviolet light of
wavelength15.0 A?
13. In a photoelectric effect experiment, irradiation of a metal with light
offrequency
16
2.00 10 Hz yieldselectrons with maximumKE
18
7.5 10 J

.
Calculate
o
v of metal.
14. What accelerating potential must be imparted to a proton beam to give it an
effective wavelength of
o
0.050 A?
15. A1.0 g projectileis shot from a gun witha velocity of
1
100ms

.What is the de
Broglie wavelength?
16. When would bewavelength associated with an electronbe equal tothe
wavelength associated with aproton?
17. Two particles A and B are in motion; if wavelength of A is
8
5 10 m

.
Calculate wavelength of B so that its momentum is double of A.
18. Which of the following equations describe particle like behavior? Which
describe wave like behavior? Do any involve both types of behavior?
(a) c v =
(b) p mu =
(c)
2
n a
r
Z
=
(d) E hv =
(e)
h
mu
=
19. Protons and electrons can be given very high energies in particle
accelerators.What is the wavelength of an electronthat has been accelerated to
99% of speed of light?
20. What experimental support is available for de Broglies concept?



1.9 Particle and wave nature (dual nature) of electron

De Broglie based on Millikans oil drop experiment (which showed wave
nature) and diffraction study (which showed wave nature) suggested the dual nature
of electron,both as amaterialparticle and as a wave.


2
1
2
(by particle nature)
(by wave nature)
E mc
hc
E hv

=
= =


Due to dual nature


1 2
2
E E
hc
mc
h
mc

=
=
=


According to de Broglies equation


2 (KE)
h h h
p mv m
= = =

Where
( ) ( )
2 KE p mv m = is called momentum of the particle of mass m moving with
velocity v. Using above equations and assuming that one circular path of radius r can
be divided into waves of wavelength each, it can be shown that angular momentum
is quantized in multiple of
2
h
t
,
Also circumference of the
th
n orbit is equal to n times the wavelength of the electron.


2
2
n
n
h
r n n
mv
nh
mvr
t
t
= =
=


where n stands for principle quantum number.

This shows that electron can moveonly in those orbitsfor which theangular
momentum is an integral multiple of
2
h
t
.
If the wave is to remain continuously in phase, the circumference of the circle is an
integral multiple of wavelength and if the circumference is bigger or smaller than
the value of
2
nh
t
, the wave will no longer remain in phase.

Diffraction effects have also been observed with neutrons, protons, hydrogen atom,
etc. including that dual nature is universal.

Frequency of matter wave
velocity u

=

2
2KE u
mu
h
h
mu
= = =

The experimental confirmation of the de Broglie relation was obtained when
Davission and Germer in 1927, observed that a beam of electrons is diffracted by a
nickel crystal. Experimental values of and that determined using the de Broglie
equation were in close agreement.

1.10 Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle

For large or macroscopic objects in motion, the exact position and velocity at
any instant of time can be expressed by the laws of Newtonian mechanics. But for a
very small (submicroscopic) object like electron, involvement of the wave character
does no more permit the application of Newtonian mechanics.

It is not possible to determine precisely both the position and the momentum
(or velocity) of a small moving particle (e.g. electron, proton etc.)

. where
2 2 2
.
4
h h h
x p h
h
x u
m
t t
t
| |
A A > = =
|
\ .
A A >

Where , x p A A and u A are the uncertainties with regard to position, momentum and
velocity respectively. The sign >means that the product of , x p A A can be greater than
or equal to but never smaller than
2
h
t
. If x A is made small, p A increases and vice
versa. For minimum uncertainties

.
4
h
x p
t
A A ~

In terms of uncertainty of energy, E A and uncertainty in time t A , this principle is
written as,
.
4
h
E t
t
A A >

Similar conclusions are arrived at from other considerations irrespective of the
design of the experiment to measure these parameters. This shows that these
uncertainties are inherent properties of the system itself resulting from wave particle
dualism; it does not arise from the limitations of our instruments.

In view of uncertainty principle, Bohrs model in which electrons are
considered as particles revolving in definite orbits with definite velocities becomes
untenable. It is not possible to know exactly the position of electron moving with a
particular velocity is implied in Bohrs model. Instead, it is possible only to state or
predict the probability of locating an electron moving with a particular velocity in a
given region of space around the nucleus at a given time.

Uncertainty principle is also called principle of indeterminacy. One of the
important implications of this principle is that it rules out existence of definite paths
or trajectories.

EXAMPLE 3.5

Calculate the wavelength of a soft ball of mass of100 g travelling at a velocity
1
35 ms

.

Solution:

Using de Broglie Equation

34 1
1
34
6.626 10 Js
100
kg 35 ms
1000
1.893 10 m
h
mu

= =
| |

|
\ .
=


EXAMPLE 3.5

If uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum are equal,
calculateuncertainty in themeasurement of velocity?

Solution:

Use Heisenbergs uncertainty principle for minimum uncertainty.
.
4
h
x p
t
A A ~
Here,
The uncertainty in the position is x A
The Plancks constant h is
34
6.626 10 Js

The uncertainty in the momentum is p A

Given x p A = A ,

( )
( )
2 2
4
4
1
2
1
2
h
p x
h
p
h
m u
h
u
m
t
t
t
t
A = A =
A =
A =
A =


EXAMPLE 3.6

Calculate the uncertainty in the velocity ofwagon of mass 2000 kg whose position is
known to an accuracy of 10 m .

Solution:

Use Heisenbergs uncertainty principle for minimum uncertainty.
.
4
h
x p
t
A A ~
Here,
The uncertainty in the position x A is 10 m
The uncertainty in the momentum is p A
p m v A = A
Here,
Mass of the wagon m is 2000 kg
The uncertainty in the velocity is v A

Since position is known to accuracy of 10 m ,
hence

34
39 1
10 m
.
4
6.626 10
22
4
4 2000 10
7
2.64 10 ms
x
h
x u
m
h
u
m x
u
t
t


A =
A A ~

A = =
A

A =




1.11 Bohrs theory of H-Atom:

To calculateradius r and energy E of a permissible orbit for one electron
specieslike
+ 2
H,He , Li
+
etc Bohr gave his theory in 1913.

Postulates:
- The electrons continue revolving in their respective orbits without losing
energy. Thus each orbit is associated with a definite energy hence; it is also
called as energy level.
- Angular momentum of an electron of mass m revolving in a given orbit is
quantized,

2
n
nh
mvr
t
=
Where v is the velocity of the electron of mass m revolving around the nucleus
in a circular path of nth orbit of radius
n
r .
- Energy is emitted or absorbed by an atom only when an electron moves from
one level to another. Thus,

( )
2 2
n n
hc
E E E

A = =
Where
2
n
E = Energy of the
2
n level

1
n
E = Energy of the
1
n level
Thus, wave number
1 E
hc
v

A
= =

1.11.1 Results from Bohrs Theory

Following results are to be sued with values of the different constants in SI units.
We have used following constants

1
4
o
k
tc
=
Where
o
c is called absolute permittivity of the medium (viz. the vacuum in this case)

9 2 2
1
8.99 10 Nm C in CGS unit, 1
4
o
o
k c
tc

(
= = =
(


Here, mass of electron is m
The tangential velocity is v
The number of orbit (principle quantum number) is n
The atomic number is Z
The charge on electron is e
The charge on nucleus is
e
Z
The Planckss constant is h
Radius of n
th
orbit is
n
r

A hydrogen atom (or hydrogen like species
+ 2+
He ,Li ) having Z protons in the nucleus
atomic number Z = and one electron outside the nucleus.

Centripetal force
1
F acting on the electron (which tends to pull the electron towards
nucleus)
2
1 2
n
kZe
F
r
=

Centrifugal force
2
F acting on the electron (which tends to make it away from its orbit

2
2
n
mv
F
r
=

1 2
2 2
2
2
2
n n
n
F F
kZe mu
r r
kZe
u
mr
=
=
=

Also
2 2
2
2 2 2
2
2
4
n
n
n
nh
mvr
nh
v
mr
n h
v
m r
t
t
t
=
=
=


Therefore,

2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
4
4
n n
n
kZe n h
mr m r
n h
r
mkZe
t
t
=
=


For H-atom Z 1 = and in ground state 1 n =

2
1 2 2
4
o
h
r a
me k t
= =
Radius of n
th
orbit
2
o
n
n a
r
Z
=
Where
o
a is called Bohrs radius of H-atom in its first orbit (i.e. ground state)

2
2 2
o
4
0.529A
o
h
a
me k t
=
=


Thus, greater the value of n, larger the size of the atom. Greater the value of Z,
smaller the size of atom. While moving along a period atomic number Z increases
with constant value of n, hence, atomic radius decreases. While moving along a group
n and Z, both increase. But screening effect makes Z almost constant (we shall cut Z
as effective nuclear charge Z*) due to screening. Hence, increase in n would increase
atomic radius along a group.

Defines an atomic unit of length called the Bohr is
o
a

2
2
1
KE of electron
2
1
2
n
mv
Zke
r
=
=


PE of the electron which is the work done when an electron is bought from an infinite
distance to the orbit of the atom at a distance
n
r from the nucleusis

2
2
2
n
r
n
n
kZe
r
kZe
r

=
=
}

-ve sign indicates work done against force of attraction.

- Total energy,

2 2 2 4 2
2 2
2
2
n
n
E KE PE
Zke mZ e k
r n h
t
= +
= =


- For H-atom, Z 1 = , its energy in the n
th
level is


2 2 4 2
2 2
2
n
mZ e k
E
n h
t
=


Take 1 k = (in CGS unit)

2 4
2 2
2
n
me
E
n h
t
=

Inthe ground statesubstitute,
31
19 1
34
9 2 -2
1
9.1 10 kg,
1.6 10 J atom
6.626 10 Js,
8.99 10 Nm C
n
m
e
h
k

=
=
=
=
=


Therefore,

18 -1
1
18 23 -1
6 -1
2.17 10 Jatom
2.17 10 6.02 10 J mol
1.312 10 J mol
E

=
=
=


Since,


19
1eV 1.6 10 J

=

Hence,
-1
1
13.6 eV atom E =

1
E corresponds to energy of the electron of H-atom in its ground state.
The potential energy of an electron in the first Bohrs orbit in the hydrogen atom

18 -1
-1
4.34 10 J atom
27.12 eVatom

=
=

This energy defines an atomic unit of energy called hartree.
Ionization energy
Energy required to remove the electron from theoutermost orbit of the atom in
gaseous phase is called ionization energy (IE).
( ) ( ) H g H g e
+
+

If an electron is sufficiently far from the nucleus there can be no interaction between
them thus, for n =
0 E

=

Compared to this situation the energy of the electron in a H-atom is =negative
indicating the electron in a H-atom is bound to the nucleus.

Theenergy difference between the ground state ofthe atom and the excited state that
corresponds to limit of convergenceof the spectralline( )
2
n = is called ionization
energy.

For H-atom,
( ) ( )
H
1
IE H E =

1
18 -1
13.6 eVatom
2.17 10 Jatom

=
=


and for atom of atomic number Z


( )
( )
2
H
2
IE
IE
Z
Z
n
=



-------------------------------------SAMPLE CONTENT----------------------------------------
----


Chapter at a glance
1. Mass of electron at high speed,
( ) { }
2
1
m
m
u
c
=

(m is mass in rest, u is velocity of electron and c is velocity of the light)

2. Frequency,
c
v

=

3. Energy/photon,
hc
E hv

= Also,
12375
eV E

= .if is in A

.

4. Electronic energy change during transition,
2 1
n n
E E E A =
2 1
n n > , emission spectra if electron jumps from
2
n to
1
n shell
And absorption spectra if electron excites from
1
n to
2
n shell

5. Radius of th n Bohr orbit of H atom,
2 2
2 2
4
n
n h
r
me t
= , (in C.G.S)
1
r for
o
H 0.529A = ;
1
r for H
1
for H
atom
r
Z
=

6. Velocity of electron in nth Bohr orbit of H atom,
2
2
n
e
u
nh
= (in C.G.S)
1
u for
8 1
H 2.1847 10 cmsec

= ,
1
u for H like atom
1
u = for H Z .

7. Energy of electron in nth Bohr orbit of H atom,
2 4
2 2
2
n
me
E
n h
t
= (in C.G.S)
1
E for
12
21.72 10 erg 13.6 eV H

= = ,
1
E for H like
1
atom E = for
2
H Z

8. Wavelength emitted during transition in H atom,

2 4
2 2 3 2 2
1 2 1 2
1 1 1 2 1 1
H
me
R
n n ch n n
t

( (
= =
( (

(in C.G.S)

9. Mosleys law,
( )
a Z b v = , where v is frequency of X-rays given out
by metal of at. no. Z.

10. Average atomic weight
1 1
total
A X
X

11. Photo electric effect
2
1
2
h w mu v = + or I.E K.E hv = +

12. Possible transitions for a jump from
2
n to
1
n
( )
2 1
n n =

13. Angular momentum of electron in an orbit
( )
. / 2 n h t =


14. Angular momentum of electron in an orbital
( ) ( ) | | / 2 1 h l l t = +

15. Total spin
1
2
n
| |
=
|
\ .
; where n is no. of unpaired electron.

16. Magnetic moment of an atom
( ) | | 2 n n = + B.M; where n is no. of unpaired
electrons.

17. Nodal planes:

( )
1
angular nodes
radius n
total nodes
odes
1
n l
l
n
=
=
=


18. de Broglie equation:
2
2 KE
h h
mu m
= =


where is wavelength, m is mass and u is velocity of particle.

19. Heisenberg uncertainty principle:

.
4
.
4
h
p x
h
u x
m
A A >
A A >

Where , p u A A and x A are uncertainties in momentum, velocity and position
respectively h is Plancks constant and m is mass of subatomic particle.

20.
A
z
X , A Z n = +
21.
( )
1
2 2
/ 1
o
v
m m
c
(
=
(


22. Reduced mass
1 1 1 mM
M m m+M
= + = m= mass of electron; M= mass of nucleus.
23. Photon is considered mass less bundle of energy.But to find its mass use
h
m
c
=
24.
2
, / E mc E h hc hc v v = = = =
25. Quantum efficiency orquantum Yield
no. of molecules reacting
no. of quanta absorbed
=
26.
( )
1
13
3
n 1 1
R R A , R 1.33 10 cm

= =
27.
2 e e e
nucleus 2
3
A
Z .2e K.z Z A 1 1
d , m v K ; tan
4
N 2 r 2 mv .b
r
3
= = =
Number of particles at
4
1
K ; b

sin
2
= = impact parameter
28. Rydbergs Equation
2
H 2 2
1 2
1 1 1
R Z
n n
(
= =
(


29. Limiting spectral line (series limit) means n, =
30.

H line means we know

1 2
n , n (longest , shortest v , least E)

H ,H ,H ,H (


31. No. of wavelengthobserved in the spectrum
( )
n n-1
2
=
32. When electron de-excitesto ground state, n= no.of higher orbit
33.
( )
2 0
1
mv h h w
2
= (work function or B.E.)
0
v =threshold frequency
o
0
hc
W hv

= =
34. Accelerating potential
2
1
eV KE mv
2
= = =
35.
hc
= 1240 eV.nm
E
=
36.
2KE
=
h

37.
1 2 1 2
2
o
q q Kq q K 1
F= ; K= ; P.E= ; dielectric comnstant
D r 4 r
D = , centrifugal force
2
mv
r
=
38.
h
mvr n. n.h
2
= =
39.
2 4
2 2 1
n 2 2 2
E 2 me
E = z z
n n h


Energy conversion factors
7
19 12
1erg 10 J
1cal 4.184J
1eV 1.602177 10 J 1.602177 10 erg 23.0605 kcal/mol

=
=
= = =


Physical constants

Constants and
symbol
SI value Gaussian Value
Speed of light in
vacuum
c
8
2.99 10 m/s
10
2.99 10 cm/s
Proton &electron
charge
e
19
1.60 10 C

10
4.8 10 statC

Permittivity
o

12 2 2
8.85 10 C /N-m

Avogadro constant
A
N
23 -1
6.02 10 mol
23 -1
6.02 10 mol
Electron rest mass
(0.000548 amu)
e
m
31
9.10 10 kg

28
9.10 10 g

Proton rest mass
(1.00757 amu)
p
m
27
1.67 10 kg

24
1.67 10 g

Neutron rest mass
(1.00893 amu)
n
m
27
1.67 10 kg

24
1.67 10 g

Planck constant h
34
6.62 10 Js

27
6.62 10 erg s

Permeability
ofvacuums
o

7 -2 2
4 10 NC s

Bohr radius
o
a
11
5.29 10 m

8
0.529 10 cm

Bohrs velocity
6
2.188 10 m/sec
Z
n

8
2.188 10 cm/sec
Z
n

Bohrs energy
( ) 13.6 eV/atom

2
19
2
Z
21.8 10 J/atom
n

12
21.8 10 erg/atom

Bohr magneton
(BM)
e

24
9.27 10 J/T

Gas constant R 8.3145 J/mol-K
7
8.3145 10 erg/mol-K
Gravitational
constant
k
23
1.38 10 J/K

16
1.30 10 erg/K

G
11 3 2
6.67 10 m /kg-s

8 3 2
6.67 10 cm /g-s

Answers

Exercise 3A
1.
19
9.6 10 C

2. If is reduced mass then

31
1 1 1
9.104 10 kg
e p
m m

= +
=

3.
6 1
11 1
(proton) 9.5783 10 Ckg
(electron) 1.7589 10 Ckg
e
m
e
m

=
=

4. They might have discovered the wave properties of electrons.
5.
13
8.3 10 cm

6. 125
7. Mass of neutron 1839 = mass of electron.

Exercise 3B
1. higher : v violet, larger : red
2. (a) 54.55 nm (b)
10 -1
6.93 10 s
3. 0.75 m
4.
23 34 10 -1
6.02 10 6.626 10 1 3.99 10 Jmol
o
E N hv

= = =
5.
19
34 8
7
19
1 1.6022 10
6.626 10 3 10
12.407 10 m
1.6022 10
=1240.7 nm
eV J
hc
E

=

= = =

1240.7 nmeV E hc = =
6. (a) v (wave number)=
1 1
1cm 100m

=

34 8
23
6.626 10 3 10 100
1.99 10 J per photon
hc
E h hc v v

= = =
=
=


(b)
23 23 -1
1.99 10 6.00 10 J mol photons E

=

-1
2 -1
12 j mol photons
1.2 10 KJ mol photons

=
=

(c)
3
8.3143 10 kJ 0.002kcal

=

2
2 1
3
3 -1
0.002 1.2 10
1.2 10 kJmol
8.3143 10
2.89 10 kcal mol photons

=

7.
hc
E

=
1
; E

smaller the wavelength, higher the energy hence, violet rays have
higher energy.
8. E hv =
19
14 1
34
8
7
14
2.961 10 J
4.469 10 s
6.626 10 Js
3. 10
6.713 10 m
4.469 10
=671.3 nm
E
h
c
v

= = =

= = =

9. (a) violet light
(b)
2 1 1
1 2 1
1
I.
2 2
E E hc
E h
E E

v

= = = = =

2 1 1
1 2 1
1
II.
2 2
v v
v v
= = =
Wavelength is halved in each case.

10. (a) By Moseleys equation

( )
a Z b aZ ab v = =
(b)
-1
tan 45 1
1
50 1 49
2401s
ab
v o
v
v
= = =
=
= =
=

(c)
2500 1
51
Z
Z
=
=

11. (a) Y and Z doubled (b) Y doubled, Z remains same
12. KE
o
h h v v = +
( )
8
34 17 17
10
3 10
6.626 10 1.13 10 5.76 10 J
15 10
O o
c
KE H h v v v

| |
= =
|
\ .
| |
= =
|
\ .

13.
o
h h KE v v = +
15
8.68 10 Hz
o
o
h h KE
h KE
v
h
v v
v
=

= =








14.
( )
2
h h
mu
m KE
= =
( )
( )
2
2
2
34
2
27 10
19
2
6.626 10
2 1.67252 10 0.050 10
52.50 10 J
32.77 eV
h
KE
m

=

=
=

15.
33
6.63 10 m
h
mu

= =
16. (proton) (electron) =
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
27 31
1.67252 10 9.1091 10
1836
h h
m p p m e e
m p p m e e
p e
e
p
v v
v v
v v
v
v

=

=
=
=

When velocity of electron is 1836 times that of proton, then their wavelengths
are equal.
17.
8
8
2
2
5 10
2.5 10 m
2
A
A
B
B A
A
B
B
h
p
h h
p p

=
= =
1
=

= =

18. Wave like: (a), (d), particle like: (b), (c), both (e)
19.
12
2.452 10 m

20. The experimental confirmation of the de Broglie concept was obtained when
Davisson and Germer, in 1927, observed that a beam of electrons is diffracted
by a nickel crystal. The wavelengthsof the electrons determined by the
diffraction experiments were found to be in agreement with the
valuespredicted by the de Broglie relation.