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Internal combustion engine
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%n automobile engine partl" opened and colored to show components
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel
occurs with an o&idiser 'usuall" air( in a combustion chamber. )n an internal
combustion engine the e&pansion of the high temperature and pressure gases! that are
produced b" the combustion! directl" appl" force to a movable component of the
engine! such as the pistons or turbine blades and b" moving it over a distance!
generate useful mechanical energ".
[*][+][,][-]
The term internal combustion engine usuall" refers to an engine in which combustion
is intermittent! such as the more familiar four.stroke and two.stroke piston engines!
along with variants! such as the Wankel rotar" engine. % second class of internal
combustion engines use continuous combustion$ gas turbines! /et engines and most
rocket engines! each of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle
as previousl" described.
[*][+][,][-]
The internal combustion engine 'or )01( is 2uite different from e&ternal combustion
engines! such as steam or 3tirling engines! in which the energ" is delivered to a
working fluid not consisting of! mi&ed with or contaminated b" combustion products.
Working fluids can be air! hot water! pressurised water or even li2uid sodium! heated
in some kind of boiler b" fossil fuel! wood.burning! nuclear! solar etc.
% large number of different designs for )01s have been developed and built! with a
variet" of different strengths and weaknesses. While there have been and still are
man" stationar" applications! the real strength of internal combustion engines is in
mobile applications and the" completel" dominate as a power suppl" for cars! aircraft!
and boats! from the smallest to the biggest. 4nl" for hand.held power tools do the"
share part of the market with batter" powered devices. 5owered b" an energ".dense
fuel 'nearl" alwa"s li2uid! derived from fossil fuels( the )01 delivers an e&cellent
power.to.weight ratio with few safet" or other disadvantages.
Contents
[hide]
* %pplications
+ 0lassification
o +.* 5rinciples of operation
, Histor"
- 1ngine configurations
o -.* our stroke configuration
-.*.* 4peration
-.*.+ 6asic process
-.*., 0ombustion
o -.+ Two stroke configuration
o -., Wankel
o -.- 7as turbines
o -.8 #et engine
8 1ngine c"cle
o 8.* Two.stroke
o 8.+ our.stroke
o 8., 9iesel c"cle
o 8.- 3i&.stroke
o 8.8 6ra"ton c"cle
o 8.: 9isused methods
: uels and o&idi;ers
o :.* uels
o :.+ 4&idi;ers
< 1ngine capacit"
= 0ommon components
o =.* 0ombustion chambers
o =.+ )gnition s"stem
=.+.* 3park
=.+.+ 0ompression
=.+., )gnition Timing
o =., uel s"stems
=.,.* 0arburetor
=.,.+ uel in/ection
=.,., uel pump
=.,.- 4ther
o =.- 4&idiser.%ir inlet s"stem
=.-.* >atural aspirated engines
=.-.+ 3uperchargers
=.-., Turbochargers?gas turbine powered compressors
=.-.- @i2uids
A 5arts
o A.* Valves
A.*.* 5iston engine valves
A.*.+ 0ontrol valves
o A.+ 1&haust s"stems
o A., 0ooling s"stems
o A.- 5iston
o A.8 5ropelling no;;le
o A.: 0rankshaft
o A.< l"wheels
o A.= 3tarter s"stems
o A.A @ubrication 3"stems
o A.*B 0ontrol s"stems
o A.** 9iagnostic s"stems
*B Ceasures of engine performance
o *B.* 1nerg" efficienc"
o *B.+ Ceasures of fuel?propellant efficienc"
** %ir and noise pollution
*+ Deferences
*, 6ibliograph"
*- 3ee also
*8 1&ternal links
[edit] Applications
% *AB: gasoline engine
)nternal combustion engines are most commonl" used for mobile propulsion in
vehicles and portable machiner". )n mobile e2uipment! internal combustion is
advantageous since it can provide high power.to.weight ratios together with e&cellent
fuel energ" densit". 7enerall" using fossil fuel 'mainl" petroleum(! these engines
have appeared in transport in almost all vehicles 'automobiles! trucks! motorc"cles!
boats! and in a wide variet" of aircraft and locomotives(.
)nternal combustion engines appear in the form of gas turbines as well where a ver"
high power is re2uired! such as in /et aircraft! helicopters! and large ships. The" are
also fre2uentl" used for electric generators and b" industr".
[edit] Classification
This section introduction does not cite any references or sources. 5lease
help improve this article b" adding citations to reliable sources.
Enverifiable material ma" be challenged and removed. (December 2008)
%t one time the word! F1ngineF 'from @atin! via 4ld rench! ingenium! Fabilit"F(
meant an" piece of machiner"Ga sense that persists in e&pressions such as siege
engine. % FmotorF 'from @atin motor! FmoverF( is an" machine that produces
mechanical power. Traditionall"! electric motors are not referred to as! F1nginesFH
however! combustion engines are often referred to as! Fmotors.F '%n electric engine
refers to a locomotive operated b" electricit".(
1ngines can and are classified in man" different wa"s! b" the engine c"cle used! b"
the la"out of the engine! b" the source of energ"! b" the use of the engine! or b" the
cooling s"stem emplo"ed.
[edit] Principles of operation
Deciprocating$
Two.stroke c"cle
our.stroke c"cle
3i& stroke engine
9iesel engine
%tkinson c"cle
Dotar"$
Wankel engine
0ontinuous combustion$ 6ra"ton c"cle$
7as turbine
#et engine 'including turbo/et! turbofan! ram/et! Docket etc.(
[edit] History
Cain article$ Histor" of the internal combustion engine
[edit] Engine configurations
)nternal combustion engines can be classified b" their configuration.
[edit] Four stroke configuration
Cain article$ our stroke engine
[edit] Operation
our.stroke c"cle 'or 4tto c"cle(
*. )ntake
+. compression
,. power
-. e&haust
[edit] Basic process
%s their name implies! operation of a four stroke internal combustion engines have -
basic steps that repeat with ever" two revolutions of the engine$
*. Intake
o 0ombustible mi&tures are emplaced in the combustion chamber
+. Compression
o The mi&tures are placed under pressure
,. Combustion?Epansion
o The mi&ture is burnt! almost invariabl" a deflagration! although a few
s"stems involve detonation. The hot mi&ture is e&panded! pressing on
and moving parts of the engine and performing useful work.
-. E!aust
o The cooled combustion products are e&hausted into the atmosphere
Can" engines overlap these steps in time! /et engines do all steps simultaneousl" at
different parts of the engines.
[edit] Combustion
%ll internal combustion engines depend on the e&othermic chemical process of
combustion$ the reaction of a fuel! t"picall" with o&"gen from the air 'though it is
possible to in/ect nitrous o&ide in order to do more of the same thing and gain a power
boost(. The combustion process t"picall" results in the production of a great 2uantit"
of heat! as well as the production of steam and carbon dio&ide and other chemicals at
ver" high temperatureH the temperature reached is determined b" the chemical make
up of the fuel and o&idisers 'see stoichiometr"(.
The most common modern fuels are made up of h"drocarbons and are derived mostl"
from fossil fuels 'petroleum(. ossil fuels include dieselfuel! gasoline and petroleum
gas! and the rarer use of propane. 1&cept for the fuel deliver" components! most
internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas
or li2uefied petroleum gases without ma/or modifications. @arge diesels can run with
air mi&ed with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition in/ection. @i2uid and gaseous
biofuels! such as ethanol and biodiesel 'a form of diesel fuel that is produced from
crops that "ield trigl"cerides such as so"bean oil(! can also be used. 3ome engines
with appropriate modifications can also run on h"drogen gas.
)nternal combustion engines re2uire ignition of the mi&ture! either b" spark ignition
'3)( or compression ignition '0)(. 6efore the invention of reliable electrical methods
hot tube and flame methods were used.
7asoline )gnition 5rocess
7asoline engine ignition s"stems generall" rel" on a combination of a lead.acid
batter" and an induction coil to provide a high.voltage electrical spark to ignite the
air.fuel mi& in the engine's c"linders. This batter" is recharged during operation using
an electricit".generating device such as an alternator or generator driven b" the
engine. 7asoline engines take in a mi&ture of air and gasoline and compress it to not
more than *+.= bar '*.+= C5a(! then use a spark plug to ignite the mi&ture when it is
compressed b" the piston head in each c"linder.
9iesel )gnition 5rocess
9iesel engines and H00)'Homogeneous charge compression ignition( engines! rel"
solel" on heat and pressure created b" the engine in its compression process for
ignition. The compression level that occurs is usuall" twice or more than a gasoline
engine. 9iesel engines will take in air onl"! and shortl" before peak compression! a
small 2uantit" of diesel fuel is spra"ed into the c"linder via a fuel in/ector that allows
the fuel to instantl" ignite. H00) t"pe engines will take in both air and fuel but
continue to rel" on an unaided auto.combustion process! due to higher pressures and
heat. This is also wh" diesel and H00) engines are more susceptible to cold.starting
issues! although the" will run /ust as well in cold weather once started. @ight dut"
diesel engines with indirect in/ection in automobiles and light trucks emplo"
glowplugs that pre.heat the combustion chamber /ust before starting to reduce no.start
conditions in cold weather. Cost diesels also have a batter" and charging s"stemH
nevertheless! this s"stem is secondar" and is added b" manufacturers as a lu&ur" for
the ease of starting! turning fuel on and off 'which can also be done via a switch or
mechanical apparatus(! and for running au&iliar" electrical components and
accessories. Cost new engines rel" on electrical and electronic control s"stem that
also control the combustion process to increase efficienc" and reduce emissions.
[edit] "#o stroke configuration
Cain article$ Two.stroke engine
%nimated two stroke engine in operation
1ngines based on the two.stroke c"cle use two strokes 'one up! one down( for ever"
power stroke. 3ince there are no dedicated intake or e&haust strokes! alternative
methods must be used to scavenge the c"linders. The most common method in spark.
ignition two.strokes is to use the downward motion of the piston to pressuri;e fresh
charge in the crankcase! which is then blown through the c"linder through ports in the
c"linder walls.
3park.ignition two.strokes are small and light for their power output and
mechanicall" ver" simpleH however! the" are also generall" less efficient and more
polluting than their four.stroke counterparts. )n terms of power per cubic centimetre! a
single.c"linder small motor application like a two.stroke engine produces much more
power than an e2uivalent four.stroke engine due to the enormous advantage of having
one power stroke for ever" ,:B degrees of crankshaft rotation 'compared to <+B
degrees in a - stroke motor(.
3mall displacement! crankcase.scavenged two.stroke engines have been less fuel.
efficient than other t"pes of engines when the fuel is mi&ed with the air prior to
scavenging allowing some of it to escape out of the e&haust port. Codern designs
'3arich and 5aggio( use air.assisted fuel in/ection which avoids this loss! and are more
efficient than comparabl" si;ed four.stroke engines. uel in/ection is essential for a
modern two.stroke engine in order to meet ever more stringent emission standards.
Desearch continues into improving man" aspects of two.stroke motors including
direct fuel in/ection! amongst other things. The initial results have produced motors
that are much cleaner burning than their traditional counterparts. Two.stroke engines
are widel" used in snowmobiles! lawnmowers! weed.whackers! chain saws! /et skis!
mopeds! outboard motors! and man" motorc"cles. Two.stroke engines have the
advantage of an increased specific power ratio 'i.e. power to volume ratio(! t"picall"
around *.8 times that of a t"pical four.stroke engine.
The largest compression.ignition engines are two.strokes and are used in some
locomotives and large ships. These particular engines use forced induction to
scavenge the c"lindersH an e&ample of this t"pe of motor is the Wartsila.3ul;er
turbocharged two.stroke diesel as used in large container ships. )t is the most efficient
and powerful engine in the world with over 8BI thermal efficienc".
[citation needed]
or
comparison! the most efficient small four.stroke motors are around -,I thermal
efficienc" '3%1 ABB:-=(H si;e is an advantage for efficienc" due to the increase in the
ratio of volume to surface area.
0ommon c"linder configurations include the straight or inline configuration! the more
compact V configuration! and the wider but smoother flat or bo&er configuration.
%ircraft engines can also adopt a radial configuration which allows more effective
cooling. Core unusual configurations such as the H! E! J! and W have also been
used.
Cultiple crankshaft configurations do not necessaril" need a c"linder head at all
because the" can instead have a piston at each end of the c"linder called an opposed
piston design. This design was used in the #unkers #umo +B8 diesel aircraft engine!
using at either end of a single bank of c"linders with two crankshafts! and most
remarkabl" in the >apier 9eltic diesel engines. These used three crankshafts to serve
three banks of double.ended c"linders arranged in an e2uilateral triangle with the
crankshafts at the corners. )t was also used in single.bank locomotive engines! and
continues to be used for marine engines! both for propulsion and for au&iliar"
generators. The 7nome Dotar" engine! used in several earl" aircraft! had a stationar"
crankshaft and a bank of radiall" arranged c"linders rotating around it.
[edit] $ankel
Cain article$ Wankel engine
The Wankel c"cle. The shaft turns three times for each rotation of the rotor around the
lobe and once for each orbital revolution around the eccentric shaft.
The Wankel engine 'rotar" engine( does not have piston strokes. )t operates with the
same separation of phases as the four.stroke engine with the phases taking place in
separate locations in the engine. )n thermod"namic terms it follows the 4tto engine
c"cle! so ma" be thought of as a Ffour.phaseF engine. While it is true that three power
strokes t"picall" occur per rotor revolution due to the ,?* revolution ratio of the rotor
to the eccentric shaft! onl" one power stroke per shaft revolution actuall" occursH this
engine provides three power 'strokes' per revolution per rotor giving it a greater
power.to.weight ratio than piston engines. This t"pe of engine is most notabl" used in
the current Ca;da DJ.=! the earlier DJ.<! and other models.
[edit] %as turbines
Cain article$ gas turbine
% gas turbine is a rotar" machine similar in principle to a steam turbine and it consists
of three main components$ a compressor! a combustion chamber! and a turbine. The
air after being compressed in the compressor is heated b" burning fuel in it. %bout
two.thirds of the heated air combined with the products of combustion is e&panded in
a turbine resulting in work output which is used to drive the compressor. The rest
'about one.third( is available as useful work output.
[edit] &et engine
Cain article$ #et engine
#et engines take a large volume of hot gas from a combustion process 't"picall" a gas
turbine! but rocket forms of /et propulsion often use solid or li2uid propellants! and
ram/et forms also lack the gas turbine( and feed it through a no;;le which accelerates
the /et to high speed. %s the /et accelerates through the no;;le! this creates thrust and
in turn does useful work.
[edit] Engine cycle
)dealised 5?V diagram for two stroke 4tto c"cle
[edit] "#o'stroke
Cain article$ Two.stroke c"cle
This s"stem manages to pack one power stroke into ever" two strokes of the piston
'up.down(. This is achieved b" making the e&haust and re.charging of the c"linder
happen simultaneousl".
The steps involved here are$
*. )ntake and e&haust occur at bottom dead center. 3ome form of pressure is
needed! either crankcase compression or super.charging.
+. 0ompression stroke$ uel.air mi& compressed and ignited.
,. 5ower stroke$ piston is pushed downwards b" the hot e&haust gases.
[edit] Four'stroke
Cain article$ our.stroke c"cle
)dealised 5ressure?volume diagram of the 4tto c"cle showing combustion heat input
Kp and waste e&haust output Ko! the power stroke is the top curved line! the bottom is
the compression stroke
1ngines based on the four.stroke 'F4tto c"cleF( have one power stroke for ever" four
strokes 'up.down.up.down( and emplo" spark plug ignition. 0ombustion occurs
rapidl"! and during combustion the volume varies little 'Fconstant volumeF(.
[8]
The"
are used in cars! larger boats! some motorc"cles! and man" light aircraft. The" are
generall" 2uieter! more efficient! and larger than their two.stroke counterparts.
The steps involved here are$
*. )ntake stroke$ %ir and vapori;ed fuel are drawn in.
+. 0ompression stroke$ uel vapor and air are compressed and ignited.
,. 0ombustion stroke$ uel combusts and piston is pushed downwards.
-. 1&haust stroke$ 1&haust is driven out. 9uring the *st! +nd! and -th stroke the
piston is rel"ing on power and the momentum generated b" the other pistons.
)n that case! a four c"linder engine would be less powerful than a si& or eight
c"linder engine.
There are a number of variations of these c"cles! most notabl" the %tkinson and
Ciller c"cles. The diesel c"cle is somewhat different.
[edit] (iesel cycle
Cain article$ 9iesel c"cle
5.v 9iagram for the )deal 9iesel c"cle. The c"cle follows the numbers *.- in
clockwise direction.
Cost truck and automotive diesel engines use a c"cle reminiscent of a four.stroke
c"cle! but with a compression heating ignition s"stem! rather than needing a separate
ignition s"stem. This variation is called the diesel c"cle. )n the diesel c"cle! diesel fuel
is in/ected directl" into the c"linder so that combustion occurs at constant pressure! as
the piston moves! rather than with the four stroke with the piston essentiall"
stationar".
[edit] )i'stroke
Cain article$ 3i& stroke engine
The si& stroke engine captures the wasted heat from the four.stroke 4tto c"cle and
creates steam! which simultaneousl" cools the engine while providing a free power
stroke. This removes the need for a cooling s"stem making the engine lighter while
giving -BI increased efficienc" over the 4tto 0"cle.
[edit] Brayton cycle
Cain article$ 6ra"ton c"cle
6ra"ton c"cle
% gas turbine is a rotar" machine somewhat similar in principle to a steam turbine and
it consists of three main components$ a compressor! a combustion chamber! and a
turbine. The air after being compressed in the compressor is heated b" burning fuel in
it! this heats and e&pands the air! and this e&tra energ" is tapped b" the turbine which
in turn powers the compressor closing the c"cle and powering the shaft.
7as turbine c"cle engines emplo" a continuous combustion s"stem where
compression! combustion! and e&pansion occur simultaneousl" at different places in
the engineGgiving continuous power. >otabl" the combustion takes place at constant
pressure! rather than with the 4tto c"cle! constant volume.
[edit] (isused met!ods
)n some old noncompressing internal combustion engines$ in the first part of the
piston downstroke! a fuel.air mi&ture was sucked or blown in! and in the rest of the
piston downstroke! the inlet valve closed and the fuel.air mi&ture fired. )n the piston
upstroke! the e&haust valve was open. This was an attempt at imitating the wa" a
piston steam engine works! and since the e&plosive mi&ture was not compressed! the
heat and pressure generated b" combustion was much less causing lower overall
efficienc".
[edit] Fuels and oidi*ers
Further information !"# fuel conversion
1ngines are often classified b" the fuel 'or propellant( used.
[edit] Fuels
>owada"s! fuels used include$
5etroleum $
o 5etroleum spirit '>orth %merican term$ gasoline! 6ritish term$ petrol(
o 5etroleum diesel .
o %utogas 'li2uified petroleum gas(.
o 0ompressed natural gas .
o #et fuel 'aviation fuel(
o Desidual fuel
0oal $
o Cost methanol is made from coal.
o 7asoline can be made from carbon 'coal( using the ischer.Tropsch
process
o 9iesel fuel can be made from carbon using the ischer.Tropsch
process
6iofuels and vegoils$
o 5eanut oil and other vegoils.
o 6iofuels$
6iobutanol 'replaces gasoline(.
6iodiesel 'replaces petrodiesel(.
6ioethanol and 6iomethanol 'wood alcohol( and other biofuels
'see le&ible.fuel vehicle(.
6iogas
H"drogen 'mainl" spacecraft rocket engines(
4&"h"drogen
@i2uid nitrogen
1ven fluidi;ed metal powders and e&plosives have seen some use. 1ngines that use
gases for fuel are called gas engines and those that use li2uid h"drocarbons are called
oil engines! however gasoline engines are also often collo2uiall" referred to as! Fgas
enginesF 'Fpetrol enginesF in the EL(.
The main limitations on fuels are that it must be easil" transportable through the fuel
s"stem to the combustion chamber! and that the fuel releases sufficient energ" in the
form of heat upon combustion to make practical use of the engine.
9iesel engines are generall" heavier! noisier! and more powerful at lower speeds than
gasoline engines. The" are also more fuel.efficient in most circumstances and are
used in heav" road vehicles! some automobiles 'increasingl" so for their increased
fuel efficienc" over gasoline engines(! ships! railwa" locomotives! and light aircraft.
7asoline engines are used in most other road vehicles including most cars!
motorc"cles! and mopeds. >ote that in 1urope! sophisticated diesel.engined cars have
taken over about -BI of the market since the *AABs. There are also engines that run
on h"drogen! methanol! ethanol! li2uefied petroleum gas '@57(! and biodiesel.
5araffin and tractor vapori;ing oil 'TV4( engines are no longer seen.
Hydrogen
%t present! h"drogen is mostl" used as fuel for rocket engines. )n the future! h"drogen
might replace more conventional fuels in traditional internal combustion engines. )f
h"drogen fuel cell technolog" becomes widespread! then the use of internal
combustion engines ma" be phased out.
%lthough there are multiple wa"s of producing free h"drogen! those methods re2uire
converting combustible molecules into h"drogen or consuming electric energ".
Enless that electricit" is produced from a renewable sourceGand is not re2uired for
other purposesGit seems h"drogen does not solve an" energ" crisis. The
disadvantage of h"drogen in man" situations is its storage. @i2uid h"drogen has
e&tremel" low densit" '*- times lower than water( and re2uires e&tensive insulationG
whilst gaseous h"drogen re2uires heav" tankage. 1ven when li2uefied! h"drogen has
a higher specific energ" but the volumetric energetic storage is still roughl" five times
lower than petrol. The 'H"drogen on 9emand' process 'see direct boroh"dride fuel
cell( creates h"drogen as it is needed! but has other issues such as the high price of the
sodium boroh"dride which is the raw material.
[edit] Oidi*ers
3ince air is plentiful at the surface of the earth! the o&idi;er is t"picall" atmospheric
o&"gen which has the advantage of not being stored within the vehicle! increasing the
power.to.weight and power to volume ratios. There are other materials that are used
for special purposes! often to increase power output or to allow operation under water
or in space.
0ompressed air has been commonl" used in torpedoes.
0ompressed o&"gen! as well as some compressed air! was used in the #apanese
T"pe A, torpedo. 3ome submarines are designed to carr" pure o&"gen.
Dockets ver" often use li2uid o&"gen.
>itromethane is added to some racing and model fuels to increase power and
control combustion.
>itrous o&ide has been usedGwith e&tra gasolineGin tactical aircraft and in
speciall" e2uipped cars to allow short bursts of added power from engines that
otherwise run on gasoline and air. )t is also used in the 6urt Dutan rocket
spacecraft.
H"drogen pero&ide power was under development for 7erman World War ))
submarines and ma" have been used in some non.nuclear submarines and
some rocket engines.
4ther chemicals such as chlorine or fluorine have been used e&perimentall"!
but have not been found to be practical.
4ne.c"linder gasoline engine 'ca. *A*B(.
[edit] Engine capacity
or piston engines! an engine's capacit" is the engine displacement! in other words the
volume swept b" all the pistons of an engine in a single movement. )t is generall"
measured in litres '@( or cubic inches 'c.i.d. or cu in or inM( for larger engines! and
cubic centimetres 'abbreviated cc( for smaller engines. 1ngines with greater
capacities are usuall" more powerful and provide greater tor2ue at lower rpm! but also
consume more fuel. %part from designing an engine with more c"linders! there are
two wa"s to increase an engines' capacit". The first is to lengthen the stroke$ the
second is to increase the pistons' diameter ($ee also $troke ratio). )n either case! it
ma" be necessar" to make further ad/ustments to the fuel intake of the engine to
ensure optimum performance.
[edit] Common components
[edit] Combustion c!ambers
Cain article$ 0ombustion chamber
)nternal combustion engines can contain an" number of combustion chambers
'c"linders(! with numbers between one and twelve being common! though as man" as
,: '@"coming D.<<88( have been used. Having more c"linders in an engine "ields
two potential benefits$ first! the engine can have a larger displacement with smaller
individual reciprocating masses! that is! the mass of each piston can be less thus
making a smoother.running engine since the engine tends to vibrate as a result of the
pistons moving up and down. 9oubling the number of the same si;e c"linders will
double the tor2ue and power. The downside to having more pistons is that the engine
will tend to weigh more and generate more internal friction as the greater number of
pistons rub against the inside of their c"linders. This tends to decrease fuel efficienc"
and robs the engine of some of its power. or high.performance gasoline engines
using current materials and technolog"Gsuch as the engines found in modern
automobiles! there seems to be a break.point around *B or *+ c"linders after which
the addition of c"linders becomes an overall detriment to performance and efficienc".
%lthough! e&ceptions such as the W*: engine from Volkswagen e&ist.
Cost car engines have four to eight c"linders with some high performance
cars having ten! twelveGor even si&teen! and some ver" small cars and trucks
having two or three. )n previous "ears! some 2uite large cars such as the 9LW
and 3aab A+! had two.c"linder or two.stroke engines.
Dadial aircraft engines 'now obsolete( had from three to += c"lindersH an
e&ample is the 5ratt N Whitne" D.-,:B. % row contains an odd number of
c"linders so an even number indicates a two. or four.row engine. The largest
of these was the @"coming D.<<88 with ,: c"linders 'four rows of nine
c"linders(! but it did not enter production.
Cotorc"cles commonl" have from one to four c"linders! with a few high
performance models having si&H although! some 'novelties' e&ist with =! *B! or
*+.
3nowmobiles Esuall" have one to four c"linders and can be both + stroke or -
stroke! normall" in the in.line configuration however there are again some
novelties that e&ist with V.- 1ngines
3mall portable appliances such as chainsaws! generators! and domestic lawn
mowers most commonl" have one c"linder! but two.c"linder chainsaws e&ist.
@arge reversible two c"cle marine diesels have a minimum of three to over ten
c"linders. reight diesel locomotives usuall" have around *+ to +B c"linders
due to space limitations as larger c"linders take more space 'volume ( per
kwh! due to the limit on average piston speed of less than ,B ft?sec on engines
lasting more than -BBBB hours under full power.
[edit] Ignition system
Cain article$ )gnition s"stem
The ignition s"stem of an internal combustion engines depends on the t"pe of engine
and the fuel used. 5etrol engines are t"picall" ignited b" a precisel" timed spark! and
diesel engines b" compression heating. Historicall"! outside flame and hot.tube
s"stems were used! see hot bulb engine.
[edit] )park
Cain article$ )gnition s"stem
The mi&ture is ignited b" an electrical spark from a spark plugGthe timing of which
is ver" precisel" controlled. %lmost all gasoline engines are of this t"pe. 9iesel
engines timing is precisel" controlled b" the pressure pump and in/ector.
[edit] Compression
)gnition occurs as the temperature of the fuel?air mi&ture is taken over its autoignition
temperature! due to heat generated b" the compression of the air during the
compression stroke. The vast ma/orit" of compression ignition engines are diesels in
which the fuel is mi&ed with the air after the air has reached ignition temperature. )n
this case! the timing comes from the fuel in/ection s"stem. Ver" small model engines
for which simplicit" and light weight is more important than fuel costs use easil"
ignited fuels 'a mi&ture of kerosene! ether! and lubricant( and ad/ustable compression
to control ignition timing for starting and running.
[edit] Ignition "iming
Cain article$ )gnition timing
or reciprocating engines! the point in the c"cle at which the fuel.o&idi;er mi&ture is
ignited has a direct effect on the efficienc" and output of the )01. The
thermod"namics of the ideali;ed 0arnot heat engine tells us that an )01 is most
efficient if most of the burning takes place at a high temperature! resulting from
compressionGnear top dead center. The speed of the flame front is directl" affected
b" the compression ratio! fuel mi&ture temperature! and octane or cetane rating of the
fuel. @eaner mi&tures and lower mi&ture pressures burn more slowl" re2uiring more
advanced ignition timing. )t is important to have combustion spread b" a thermal
flame front 'deflagration(! not b" a shock wave. 0ombustion propagation b" a shock
wave is called detonation and! in engines! is also known as pinging or 1ngine
knocking.
3o at least in gasoline.burning engines! ignition timing is largel" a compromise
between an earlier FadvancedF sparkGwhich gives greater efficienc" with high octane
fuelGand a later FretardedF spark that avoids detonation with the fuel used. or this
reason! high.performance diesel automobile proponents such as! 7ale 6anks! believe
that
%here&s onl' so far 'ou can go with an air(throttled engine on )*(octane
gasoline+ !n other words, it is the fuel, gasoline, that has become the limiting
factor+ +++ While turbocharging has been applied to both gasoline and diesel
engines, onl' limited boost can be added to a gasoline engine before the fuel
octane level again becomes a problem+ With a diesel, boost pressure is
essentiall' unlimited+ !t is literall' possible to run as much boost as the engine
will ph'sicall' stand before breaking apart+ "onse-uentl', engine designers
have come to reali.e that diesels are capable of substantiall' more power and
tor-ue than an' comparabl' si.ed gasoline engine+
[:]
[edit] Fuel systems
%nimated cut through diagram of a t"pical fuel in/ector! a device used to deliver fuel
to the internal combustion engine.
uels burn faster and more efficientl" when the" present a large surface area to the
o&"gen in air. @i2uid fuels must be atomi;ed to create a fuel.air mi&ture! traditionall"
this was done with a carburetor in petrol engines and with fuel in/ection in diesel
engines. Cost modern petrol engines now use fuel in/ection too . though the
technolog" is 2uite different. While diesel must be in/ected at an e&act point in that
engine c"cle! no such precision is needed in a petrol engine. However! the lack of
lubricit" in petrol means that the in/ectors themselves must be more sophisticated.
[edit] Carburetor
Cain article$ carburetor
3impler reciprocating engines continue to use a carburetor to suppl" fuel into the
c"linder. %lthough carburetor technolog" in automobiles reached a ver" high degree
of sophistication and precision! from the mid.*A=Bs it lost out on cost and fle&ibilit"
to fuel in/ection. 3imple forms of carburetor remain in widespread use in small
engines such as lawn mowers and more sophisticated forms are still used in small
motorc"cles.
[edit] Fuel in+ection
Cain article$ uel in/ection
@arger gasoline engines used in automobiles have mostl" moved to fuel in/ection
s"stems 'see 7asoline 9irect )n/ection(. 9iesel engines have alwa"s used fuel
in/ection because the timing of the in/ection initiates and controls the combustion.
%utogas '@57( engines use either fuel in/ection s"stems or open. or closed.loop
carburetors.
[edit] Fuel pump
Cain article$ uel pump
Cost internal combustion engines now re2uire a fuel pump. 9iesel engines use an all.
mechanical precision pump s"stem that delivers a timed in/ection direct into the
combustion chamber! hence re2uiring a high deliver" pressure to overcome the
pressure of the combustion chamber. 5etrol fuel in/ection delivers into the inlet tract
at atmospheric pressure 'or below( and timing is not involved! these pumps are
normall" driven electricall". 7as turbine and rocket engines use electrical s"stems.
[edit] Ot!er
4ther internal combustion engines like /et engines and rocket engines emplo" various
methods of fuel deliver" including impinging /ets! gas?li2uid shear! preburners and
others.
[edit] Oidiser'Air inlet system
3ome engines such as solid rockets have o&idisers alread" within the combustion
chamber but in most cases for combustion to occur! a continuous suppl" of o&idiser
must be supplied to the combustion chamber.
[edit] ,atural aspirated engines
When air is used with piston engines it can simpl" suck it in as the piston increases
the volume of the chamber. However! this gives a ma&imum of * atmosphere of
pressure difference across the inlet valves! and at high engine speeds the resulting
airflow can limit potential power output.
[edit] )uperc!argers
% supercharger is a Fforced inductionF s"stem which uses a compressor powered b"
the shaft of the engine which forces air through the valves of the engine to achieve
higher flow. When these s"stems are emplo"ed the ma&imum absolute pressure at the
inlet valve is t"picall" around + times atmospheric pressure or more.
[edit] "urboc!argers-gas turbine po#ered compressors
% cutawa" of a turbocharger
Turbochargers are another t"pe of forced induction s"stem which has its compressor
powered b" a gas turbine running off the e&haust gases from the engine.
9uct /et engines use the same basic s"stem! but eschew the piston engine! and replace
it with a burner instead.
[edit] .i/uids
)n li2uid rocket engines! the o&idiser comes in the form of a li2uid and needs to be
delivered at high pressure 't"picall" *B.+,B bar or *O+, C5a( to the combustion
chamber. This is normall" achieved b" the use of a centrifugal pump powered b" a
gas turbine . a configuration known as a turbopump! but it can also be pressure fed.
[edit] Parts
%n illustration of several ke" components in a t"pical four.stroke engine.
or a four.stroke engine! ke" parts of the engine include the crankshaft 'purple(!
connecting rod 'orange(! one or more camshafts 'red and blue(! and valves. or a two.
stroke engine! there ma" simpl" be an e&haust outlet and fuel inlet instead of a valve
s"stem. )n both t"pes of engines there are one or more c"linders 'gre" and green(! and
for each c"linder there is a spark plug 'darker.gre"! gasoline engines onl"(! a piston
'"ellow(! and a crankpin 'purple(. % single sweep of the c"linder b" the piston in an
upward or downward motion is known as a stroke. The downward stroke that occurs
directl" after the air.fuel mi& passes from the carburetor or fuel in/ector to the
c"linder! where it is ignited. This is also known as a power stroke.
% Wankel engine has a triangular rotor that orbits in an epitrochoidal 'figure = shape(
chamber around an eccentric shaft. The four phases of operation 'intake! compression!
power! and e&haust( take place in what is effectivel" a moving! variable.volume
chamber.
[edit] 0al1es
Cain article$ valve
%ll four.stroke internal combustion engines emplo" valves to control the admittance
of fuel and air into the combustion chamber. Two.stroke engines use ports in the
c"linder bore! covered and uncovered b" the piston! though there have been variations
such as e&haust valves.
[edit] Piston engine 1al1es
Cain article$ 5iston engine valve
)n piston engines! the valves are grouped into 'inlet valves' which admit the entrance
of fuel and air and 'outlet valves' which allow the e&haust gases to escape. 1ach valve
opens once per c"cle and the ones that are sub/ect to e&treme accelerations are held
closed b" springs that are t"picall" opened b" rods running on a camshaft rotating
with the engines' crankshaft.
[edit] Control 1al1es
0ontinuous combustion enginesGas well as piston enginesGusuall" have valves that
open and close to admit the fuel and?or air at the startup and shutdown. 3ome valves
feather to ad/ust the flow to control power or engine speed as well.
[edit] E!aust systems
Cain article$ e&haust s"stem
)nternal combustion engines have to manage the e&haust of the cooled combustion gas
from the engine. The e&haust s"stem fre2uentl" contains devices to control pollution!
both chemical and noise pollution. )n addition! for c"clic combustion engines the
e&haust s"stem is fre2uentl" tuned to improve empt"ing of the combustion chamber.
or /et propulsion internal combustion engines! the 'e&haust s"stem' takes the form of
a high velocit" no;;le! which generates thrust for the engine and forms a colimated /et
of gas that gives the engine its name.
[edit] Cooling systems
Cain article$ 1ngine cooling
0ombustion generates a great deal of heat! and some of this transfers to the walls of
the engine. ailure will occur if the bod" of the engine is allowed to reach too high a
temperature! either the engine will ph"sicall" fail! or an" lubricants used will degrade
to the point that the" no longer protect the engine.
0ooling s"stems usuall" emplo" air 'air cooled( or li2uid 'usuall" water( cooling
while some ver" hot engines using radiative cooling 'especiall" some Docket
engines(. 3ome high altitude rocket engines use ablative cooling where the walls
graduall" erode in a controlled fashion. Dockets in particular can use regenerative
cooling which uses the fuel to cool the solid parts of the engine.
[edit] Piston
Cain article$ piston
% piston is a component of reciprocating engines. )t is located in a c"linder and is
made gas.tight b" piston rings. )ts purpose is to transfer force from e&panding gas in
the c"linder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and?or connecting rod. )n two.stroke
engines the piston also acts as a valve b" covering and uncovering ports in the
c"linder wall.
[edit] Propelling no**le
Cain article$ 5ropelling no;;le
or /et engine forms of internal combustion engines a propelling no;;le is present.
This takes the high temperature! high pressure e&haust and e&pands and cools it. The
e&haust leaves the no;;le going at much higher speed and provides thrust! as well as
constricting the flow from the engine and raising the pressure in the rest of the engine!
giving greater thrust for the e&haust mass that e&its.
[edit] Cranks!aft
% crankshaft for a - c"linder engine
Cain article$ 0rankshaft
Cost reciprocating internal combustion engines end up turning a shaft. This means
that the linear motion of a piston must be converted into rotation. This is t"picall"
achieved b" a crankshaft.
[edit] Fly#!eels
Cain article$ fl"wheel
The fl"wheel is a disk or wheel attached to the crank! forming an inertial mass that
stores rotational energ". )n engines with onl" a single c"linder the fl"wheel is
essential to carr" energ" over from the power stroke into a subse2uent compression
stroke. l"wheels are present in most reciprocating engines to smooth out the power
deliver" over each rotation of the crank and in most automotive engines also mount a
gear ring for a starter. The rotational inertia of the fl"wheel also allows a much slower
minimum unloaded speed and also improves the smoothness at idle. The fl"wheel
ma" also perform a part of the balancing of the s"stem and so b" itself be out of
balance! although most engines will use a neutral balance for the fl"wheel! enabling it
to be balanced in a separate operation. The fl"wheel is also used as a mounting for the
clutch or a tor2ue converter in most automotive applications.
[edit] )tarter systems
%ll internal combustion engines re2uire some form of s"stem to get them into
operation. Cost piston engines use a starter motor powered b" the same batter" as
runs the rest of the electric s"stems. #et engines and gas turbines need spinning
electricall"! sometimes b" an e&ternal batter" or an %5E. 3mall )01's are often
started b" pull cords. Cotorc"cles of all si;es were traditionall" kick.started! but all
but the smallest are now electric.start. @arge stationar" and marine engines ma" be
started b" the timed in/ection of compressed air into the c"linders . or occasionall"
with cartridges. #ump starting refers to assistance from another batter" 't"picall"
when the fitted batter" is discharged(! while bump starting refers to an alternative
method of starting b" the application of some e&ternal force! eg rolling down a hill.
[edit] .ubrication )ystems
)nternal combustions engines re2uire lubrication in operation that moving parts slide
smoothl" over each other. )nsufficient lubrication sub/ects the parts of the engine to
metal.to.metal contact! friction! heat build.up! rapid wear often culminating in parts
becoming friction welded together eg pistons in their c"linders. 6ig end bearings
sei;ing up will sometimes lead to a connecting rod breaking and poking out through
the crankcase.
3everal different t"pes of lubrication s"stems are used. 3imple two.stroke engines are
lubricated b" oil mi&ed into the fuel or in/ected into the induction stream as a spra".
1arl" slow.speed stationar" and marine engines were lubricated b" gravit" from small
chambers similar to those used on steam engines at the timeGwith an engine tender
refilling these as needed. %s engines were adapted for automotive and aircraft use! the
need for a high power.to.weight ratio led to increased speeds! higher temperatures!
and greater pressure on bearings which in turn re2uired pressure.lubrication for crank
bearings and connecting.rod /ournals. This was provided either b" a direct lubrication
from a pump! or indirectl" b" a /et of oil directed at pickup cups on the connecting rod
ends which had the advantage of providing higher pressures as the engine speed
increased.
[edit] Control systems
Cost engines re2uire one or more s"stems to start and shutdown the engine and to
control parameters such as the power! speed! tor2ue! pollution! combustion
temperature! efficienc" and to stabilise the engine from modes of operation that ma"
induce self.damage such as pre.ignition. 3uch s"stems ma" be referred to as engine
control units.
Can" control s"stems toda" are digital! and are fre2uentl" termed %910 'ull
%uthorit" 9igital 1lectronic 0ontrol( s"stems.
[edit] (iagnostic systems
Cain article$ 4n 6oard 9iagnostics
1ngine 4n 6oard 9iagnostics 'also known as 469( is a computeri;ed s"stem that
allows for electronic diagnosis of a vehicles' powerplant. The first generation! known
as /0D*! was introduced *B "ears after the E.3. 0ongress passed the 0lean %ir %ct
in *A<B as a wa" to monitor a vehicles' fuel in/ection s"stem. /0D2! the second
generation of computeri;ed on.board diagnostics! was codified and recommended b"
the 0alifornia %ir Desource 6oard in *AA- and became mandator" e2uipment aboard
all vehicles sold in the Enited 3tates as of *AA:.
[edit] 2easures of engine performance
1ngine t"pes var" greatl" in a number of different wa"s$
energ" efficienc"
fuel?propellant consumption 'brake specific fuel consumption for shaft
engines! thrust specific fuel consumption for /et engines(
power to weight ratio
thrust to weight ratio
Tor2ue curves 'for shaft engines( thrust lapse '/et engines(
0ompression ratio for piston engines! 4verall pressure ratio for /et engines and
gas turbines
[edit] Energy efficiency
4nce ignited and burnt! the combustion productsGhot gasesGhave more available
thermal energ" than the original compressed fuel.air mi&ture 'which had higher
chemical energ"(. The available energ" is manifested as high temperature and
pressure that can be translated into work b" the engine. )n a reciprocating engine! the
high.pressure gases inside the c"linders drive the engine's pistons.
4nce the available energ" has been removed! the remaining hot gases are vented
'often b" opening a valve or e&posing the e&haust outlet( and this allows the piston to
return to its previous position 'top dead center! or T90(. The piston can then proceed
to the ne&t phase of its c"cle! which varies between engines. %n" heat that isn't
translated into work is normall" considered a waste product and is removed from the
engine either b" an air or li2uid cooling s"stem.
1ngine efficienc" can be discussed in a number of wa"s but it usuall" involves a
comparison of the total chemical energ" in the fuels! and the useful energ" e&tracted
from the fuels in the form of kinetic energ". The most fundamental and abstract
discussion of engine efficienc" is the thermod"namic limit for e&tracting energ" from
the fuel defined b" a thermod"namic c"cle. The most comprehensive is the empirical
fuel efficienc" of the total engine s"stem for accomplishing a desired taskH for
e&ample! the miles per gallon accumulated.
)nternal combustion engines are primaril" heat engines and as such the phenomenon
that limits their efficienc" is described b" thermod"namic c"cles. >one of these
c"cles e&ceed the limit defined b" the 0arnot c"cle which states that the overall
efficienc" is dictated b" the difference between the lower and upper operating
temperatures of the engine. % terrestrial engine is usuall" and fundamentall" limited
b" the upper thermal stabilit" derived from the material used to make up the engine.
%ll metals and allo"s eventuall" melt or decompose and there is significant
researching into ceramic materials that can be made with higher thermal stabilities
and desirable structural properties. Higher thermal stabilit" allows for greater
temperature difference between the lower and upper operating temperaturesGthus
greater thermod"namic efficienc".
The thermod"namic limits assume that the engine is operating in ideal conditions. %
frictionless world! ideal gases! perfect insulators! and operation at infinite time. The
real world is substantiall" more comple& and all the comple&ities reduce the
efficienc". )n addition! real engines run best at specific loads and rates as described b"
their power curve. or e&ample! a car cruising on a highwa" is usuall" operating
significantl" below its ideal load! because the engine is designed for the higher loads
desired for rapid acceleration. The applications of engines are used as contributed
drag on the total s"stem reducing overall efficienc"! such as wind resistance designs
for vehicles. These and man" other losses result in an engines' real.world fuel
econom" that is usuall" measured in the units of miles per gallon 'or fuel
consumption in liters per *BB kilometers( for automobiles. The miles in miles per
gallon represents a meaningful amount of work and the volume of h"drocarbon
implies a standard energ" content.
Cost steel engines have a thermod"namic limit of ,<I. 1ven when aided with
turbochargers and stock efficienc" aids! most engines retain an average efficienc" of
about *=I.+BI.
[<][=]
Docket engine efficiencies are better still! up to <BI! because
the" combust at ver" high temperatures and pressures and are able to have ver" high
e&pansion ratios.
[A]
There are man" inventions concerned with increasing the efficienc" of )0 engines. )n
general! practical engines are alwa"s compromised b" trade.offs between different
properties such as efficienc"! weight! power! heat! response! e&haust emissions! or
noise. 3ometimes econom" also pla"s a role in not onl" the cost of manufacturing the
engine itself! but also manufacturing and distributing the fuel. )ncreasing the engines'
efficienc" brings better fuel econom" but onl" if the fuel cost per energ" content is
the same.
[edit] 2easures of fuel-propellant efficiency
or stationar" and shaft engines including propeller engines! fuel consumption is
measured b" calculating the brake specific fuel consumption which measures the
number of pounds of fuel that is needed to generate an hours' worth of horsepower.
energ". )n metric units! the number of grams of fuel needed to generate a kilowatt.
hour of energ" is calculated.
or internal combustion engines in the form of /et engines! the power output varies
drasticall" with airspeed and a less variable measure is used$ thrust specific fuel
consumption 'T30(! which is the number of pounds of propellant that is needed to
generate impulses that measure a pound an hour. )n metric units! the number of grams
of propellant needed to generate an impulse that measures one kilonewton per second.
or rocketsG T30 can be used! but t"picall" other e2uivalent measures are
traditionall" used! such as specific impulse and effective e&haust velocit".
[edit] Air and noise pollution
)nternal combustion engines such as reciprocating internal combustion engines
produce air pollution emissions! due to incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel.
The main derivatives of the process are carbon dio&ide 04
+
! water and some sootG
also called particulate matter '5C(. The effects of inhaling particulate matter have
been studied in humans and animals and include asthma! lung cancer! cardiovascular
issues! and premature death. There are however some additional products of the
combustion process that include nitrogen o&ides and sulfur and some uncombusted
h"drocarbons! depending on the operating conditions and the fuel.air ratio.
>ot all of the fuel will be completel" consumed b" the combustion processH a small
amount of fuel will be present after combustion! some of which can react to form
o&"genates! such as formaldeh"de or acetaldeh"de! or h"drocarbons not initiall"
present in the fuel mi&ture. The primar" causes of this is the need to operate near the
stoichiometric ratio for gasoline engines in order to achieve combustion and the
resulting F2uenchF of the flame b" the relativel" cool c"linder walls! otherwise the
fuel would burn more completel" in e&cess air. When running at lower speeds!
2uenching is commonl" observed in diesel 'compression ignition( engines that run on
natural gas. )t reduces the efficienc" and increases knocking! sometimes causing the
engine to stall. )ncreasing the amount of air in the engine reduces the amount of the
first two pollutants! but tends to encourage the o&"gen and nitrogen in the air to
combine to produce nitrogen o&ides '>4
1
( that has been demonstrated to be
ha;ardous to both plant and animal health. urther chemicals released are ben;ene
and *!,.butadiene that are also particularl" harmfulH and not all of the fuel burns up
completel"! so carbon mono&ide '04( is also produced.
0arbon fuels contain sulfur and impurities that eventuall" lead to producing sulfur
o&ides '34( and sulfur dio&ide '34
+
( in the e&haust which promotes acid rain. 4ne
final element in e&haust pollution is o;one '4
,
(. This is not emitted directl" but made
in the air b" the action of sunlight on other pollutants to form Fground level o;oneF!
which! unlike the Fo;one la"erF in the high atmosphere! is regarded as a bad thing if
the levels are too high. 4;one is broken down b" nitrogen o&ides! so one tends to be
lower where the other is higher.
or the pollutants described above 'nitrogen o&ides! carbon mono&ide! sulphur
dio&ide! and o;one( there are accepted levels that are set b" legislation to which no
harmful effects are observedGeven in sensitive population groups. or the other
three$ ben;ene! *!,.butadiene! and particulates! there is no wa" of proving the" are
safe at an" level so the e&perts set standards where the risk to health is! Fe&ceedingl"
smallF.
inall"! significant contributions to noise pollution are made b" internal combustion
engines. %utomobile and truck traffic operating on highwa"s and street s"stems
produce noise! as do aircraft flights due to /et noise! particularl" supersonic.capable
aircraft. Docket engines create the most intense noise.
[edit] 3eferences
*. P
a

b
1nc"clopedia 6ritannica$ )nternal 0ombustion engines
+. P
a

b
%nswers.com )nternal combustion engine
,. P
a

b
0olumbia enc"clopedia$ )nternal combustion engine
-. P
a

b
http$??www.infoplease.com?ce:?sci?%B=+8,,+.html
8. 4 [*]
:. 4 9iesel G The 5erformance 0hoice! 6anks Talks Tech! **.*A.B-
<. 4 5h"sics )n an %utomotive 1ngine
=. 4 )mproving )0 1ngine 1fficienc"
A. 4 Docket propulsion elements <th edition.7eorge 3utton! 4scar 6iblar; pg ,<.
,=
[edit] Bibliograp!y
3inger! 0harles #osephH Daper! Dichard! 2 3istor' of %echnolog' %he
!nternal "ombustion #ngine! edited b" 0harles 3inger ... [et al.]! 0larendon
5ress! *A8-.*A<=. pp.*8<O*<: [+]
Hardenberg! Horst 4.! %he 4iddle 2ges of the !nternal combustion #ngine!
3ociet" of %utomotive 1ngineers '3%1(! *AAA
[edit] )ee also
Energy portal
%diabatic flame temperature
%ir.fuel ratio
0rude oil engine . a two stroke engine
9"namometer
1lectric vehicle
1ngine test stand G information about how to check an internal combustion
engine
1&ternal 0ombustion 1ngine
ossil fuels
7as turbine
Heat pump
9iesel engine
orced induction
)ndirect in/ection
9irect in/ection
Turbocharger
9ieselisation
7asoline direct in/ection
H"brid vehicle
#et engine
5etrofuel
5iston engine
Deciprocating engine
3team engine
William 6arnett G an earl" patentee '*=,=(
[edit] Eternal links
Wikimedia 0ommons has media related to$ Internal combustion engine
%nimated 1ngines . e&plains a variet" of t"pes
)ntro to 0ar 1ngines . 0ut.awa" images and a good overview of the internal
combustion engine
Walter 1. @a" %uto @ab . Desearch at The Eniversit" of Cichigan
"outube . %nimation of the components and built.up of a -.c"linder engine
"outube . %nimation of the internal moving parts of a -.c"linder engine
H"pervideo showing construction and operation of a four c"linder internal
combustion engine courtes" of ord Cotor 0ompan"
>e&t generation engine technologies retrieved Ca" A! +BBA
C)T 4verview . 5resent N uture )nternal 0ombustion 1ngines$ 5erformance!
1fficienc"! 1missions! and uels
[hide]
v Q d Q e
"!ermodynamic cycles
Cycles normally #it!
eternal combustion
%as cycles #it!out p!asec!ange
'
!ot air engine cycles
6ell 0oleman c"cle 5
6ra"ton?#oule c"cleH
'1&ternall" heated( 5 0arnot
c"cle 5 1ricsson c"cle 5
5orted constant volume
c"cle [,] 5 3tirling c"cle 5
5seudo 3tirling c"cle 'same
as %diabatic 3tirling c"cle( 5
3toddard c"cle 5
Vuilleumier c"cle
Cycles #it! p!asec!ange
Lalina c"cle 5 Dankine
c"cle 'encompasses 4rganic
Dankine 0"cle( 5
Degenerative c"cle 5 Two
phased 3tirling c"cle [-]
Cycles normally #it!
internal combustion
%tkinson c"cle 5 6ra"ton?#oule c"cle 5 9iesel c"cle 5
Homogeneous 0harge 0ompression )gnition 5 @enoir c"cle 5
Ciller c"cle 5 4tto c"cle
Cycle miing 0ombined c"cle 5 H1H0 c"cle 5 Ci&ed?9ual 0"cle
,ot categori*ed
0laude c"cle [8] 5 0laude dual.pressure c"cle 5 ickett.#acobs
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