Security Council

C o n t e n t s March 14 - March 18 2010

Introductory Letters

H I S TORY O F T H E Dear Delegates,

C O M M I TTEE
It is my pleasure and honor to welcome you to World Model United Na-
TO P I C A RE A A : tions 2010! My name is Ami Nash, and I am the Secretary-General of
Terrorism in the Middle East WorldMUN 2010. Within this document, you will find the study guide
-Statement of the Problem for your committee. The conference staff for WorldMUN 2010 has been
-History and Discussion of the Problem working tirelessly for the past eight months to provide you with an un-
-Proposed Solutions paralleled conference experience, starting with this guide. Each Chair has
-Past Actions worked to display his or her unique passion for the topics in each study
-QARMAS guide and researched extensively to provide you with the best possible over-
-Key Actors view of each committee’s topic areas.

TO P I C A RE A B : Please use this guide as a launching point for your exploration of your
Environmental Stability committee’s topics and of your country or leader’s policies. The World-
-Statement of the Problem MUN Spirit asks each delegate to step into the shoes of those from entirely
-History and Discussion of the Problem different cultures, to gain much better understanding across borders, and
-Current Situation that starts with your research. The more preparation you do for your com-
-Future Challenges mittee, the more WorldMUN will be able to offer you. Take the time to
-Proposed Solutions read carefully through the study guide, to complete additional research,
-Past Actions and to explore the various resources on our website; our Guide to Model
-QARMAS United Nations and Rules of Procedure, both of which have been updated
-Key Actors this year, are designed specifically to assist you in your preparations. Ad-
ditionally, updates to the study guide will be posted later in winter and will
P O S I T I ON P A P ER S provide information on recent news developments and more context to
each committee’s topics.
C L O S I N G RE M A R K S
Please enjoy reading this study guide, and I am excited to see all of you in
END NOTE S Taipei in March!

B I B L I O G R A P H I C E S S AY Sincerely,

Ami Nash
Secretary-General
World Model United Nations 2010
Secretary-General: secretarygeneral@worldmun.org
Ami Nash
secretarygeneral@worldmun.org
 Security Council

I n t r o d u c t o r y
L e t t e r : D S G S A

Dear Delegates of the Specialized Agencies,

As Deputy Secretary-General of the Specialized Agencies, I am very hon-

oured to welcome you to this fabulous organ! The Specialized Agencies
is home to WorldMUN’s smallest, yet most competitive and challenging
committees. Ranging from traditional UN committees like the Security
Council and the International Monetary Fund, to the innovative constant
crisis committees, the SA is where intense debate, crisis simulation and
diplomacy meet.

Each SA committee seeks the strongest delegates, and brings them together
in a variety of simulations. To that end, your Chair and Assistant Chairs
have been working hard to provide the very best experience for you in
Taipei. This study guide is the result of hours of work and research, and
is meant to guide you in your process of preparing for conference. Please
use this guide as a launching pad for your own research; research that will
be pivotal in ensuring you have as rewarding an experience as possible at
committee.

Finally, don’t forget to learn and interact with everyone in your commit-
tee – not just the Dais staff. WorldMUN brings thousands of incredibly
diverse and intelligent people together year after year. Being in a small
committee means that you will have the enviable opportunity of interact-
ing and forming deep bonds with all your fellow committee members. Get
to know them before on the forum online, and carry these conversations
on to committee, and further on, even after the last song at the Farewell
Party. WorldMUN would be nothing without the fabulous people you
meet – diplomacy always works better when served with a side of fun! If at
any point you encounter any difficulties, please feel free to reach out to me,
or your Chair – we’re here to make this a great experience for you!

Until we meet in Taipei!

Best Wishes,
Reihan Nadarajah
Deputy Secretary-General, Deputy Secretary-General, Specialized Agencies WorldMUN 2010
Specialized Agencies:
Reihan Nadarajah dsgcom@worldmun.org
dsgcom@worldmun.org

I n t
L e t
Security Council Chair:
Ricky Hanzich
hanzich@fas.harvard.edu
Security Council
r o d u c t o r y
t e r : C hai r
Dear Delegates,
I am thrilled to welcome you to the Security Council of WorldMUN
2010. My name is Ricky Hanzich and I will be your Chair for five days of
engaging debate in the most powerful body of the United Nations. I am
confident that your decision to tackle either Terrorism in the Middle East
or Environmental Security will make for an exciting week of maintaining
international peace and security. Fortunately, with the WorldMUN spirit
in mind, we also have many nights of international escapades to ease the
tension built up throughout the conference. I truly look forward to getting
to know each and every one of you come March.
Until then, I’ll just share a little bit about myself with you all. I am origi-
nally from Orange County, California and so it was quite a shock to see
snow fall for the first time when I entered Harvard my freshman year. As
a junior, I’m still not quite used to the weather, but that may be because I
keep trying to wear shorts and sandals in the winter. Anyway, I am concen-
trating in Government while pursuing a secondary field in Health Policy
and a language citation in Spanish. During the school year, I might spend
more time on extracurricular activities than my coursework, splitting my
time between the Harvard College Democrats, the International Relations
Council (IRC), and WorldMUN.
Within the IRC, the umbrella organization for seven different internation-
al relations programs at Harvard, I have worked as a tutor for high school
students under the Harvard Program for International Education (HPIE)
and I am a participant of our school’s travel team (Intercollegiate Model
United Nations). For Model Security Council, our conference designed
to introduce Harvard students to Model United Nations and other IRC
programs, I have served as a delegate within the Security Council in 2007
and was chosen as its Director in 2008. Within our high school confer-
ence, Harvard Model United Nations, I was an Assistant Director for the
Security Council in 2007 and a Director of Substantive Support in 2008.
Regarding Harvard’s college conference, Harvard National Model United
Nations, I Assistant Directed for the Security Council in 2008, served as
the Director of the same body in 2009, and I am currently the conference’s
Under-Secretary-General for Specialized Agencies. Finally, at last year’s
WorldMUN, I was the Director of the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA).

Before I entered Harvard, I participated in Model United Nations for all
four years of high school, directing the Security Council twice for our
conference and serving as the Secretary-General during my senior year. As
you might be able to tell, MUN has been an integral part of my life for over
six years and, moreover, I have dedicated myself to better understanding
the principles and goals of the United Nations’ most influential body, the
Security Council. I firmly believe in the importance of this committee’s
ability to protect the lives of countless innocents. And, even though we are
only modeling the actions of the real Council, I know that what we learn
from each other during this conference will help shape our actions and
beliefs for when we are poised to affect tangible change in our respective
nations. As you work with other delegates on forming comprehensive
resolutions, I urge you to dedicate yourselves to the spirit of diplomacy
and continually keep in mind the billions of people around the world who
depend on the United Nations for peace and security. I look forward to
protecting the world with you all in the spring.

Yours,

Ricky Hanzich
Chair, Security Council WorldMUN 2010
hanzich@fas.harvard.edu
105 Eliot Mail Center, Cambridge MA, 02138
 Security Council

Security Council international leaders is readily apparent. Considering the

responsibility of the Council to be involved with conflict
prevention, it is also clear that this body must support
the existing efforts of the international community by
Introduction
laying out the mechanisms necessary to deal with inter-
W ithin Chapter VII of the Charter of the United
Nations, Article 39 states that the Security Council
is responsible for identifying “the existence of any threat
state and intra-societal violence, border disputes, disease
proliferation, and even war. As the most powerful body of
the United Nations, it is critical that Member States aid in
to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression”
the prevention of such atrocities and create the framework
and for taking the steps necessary to “maintain or restore
for mitigating future crises.
international peace and security.” At the same time,
The following guide provides a basis for your
UNSCR 1625 stressed the importance of “strengthening
understanding of these two pressing issues. From
the effectiveness of the Security Council’s role in conflict
historical backgrounds to proposed solutions, I have
prevention.” Considering these vital tasks of the Council,
attempted to reveal the difficulty and gravity of both
I have presented Member States with the pressing issues of
topics, but hopefully I have also shown light upon the
Terrorism in the Middle East and Environmental Security,
areas in which the Security Council can affect real change.
topics that address existing crises while anticipating future
Both Terrorism in the Middle East and the Security
conflicts.
Implications of Climate Change present risk to the lives
For nearly ten years, the Counter-Terrorism
of countless innocents and must therefore be at the top
Committee, established pursuant to Security Council
of the Council’s agenda. Your work on these issues will
resolution 1373, has been dedicated to countering
play a significant part in achieving the Council’s goal of
terrorist activities around the world. Since the creation
maintaining international peace and security.
of this committee in the wake of the 11 September 2001
attacks in the United States, the Council created the
Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate in History of the Committee
2004 to bolster nations’ abilities to prevent terrorist acts
and adopted resolution 1624 in 2005 in order to gain the O n June 26, 1945, about a month after the end of
World War II in Europe, fifty nations presented
commitment of all states to the eradication of terrorist the culmination of a year’s work in creating an
activities. Despite continued efforts to combat terrorism, international organization. This Charter of the United
the Middle East region remains particularly troublesome Nations, adopting many of the principles laid out in its
for the Council, concerning both the threat posed to predecessor, the League of Nations, has endured for over
innocent civilians within the area and around the world. sixty-three years. Under the preamble of the UN Charter,
Keeping in mind the historical volatility of the region, the there is a commitment “to unite our strength to maintain
potential of terrorist actions to spark inter-state violence international peace and security.” The Security Council,
requires the Council to continue to rely on the work of the successor of the League’s Council, was created to fulfill
the Counter-Terrorism Committee to prevent conflict in this commitment.
the Middle East. Originally, the Security Council consisted
The topic of environmental threats to international of the five Allies of World War II, the Soviet Union,
peace and security is assuredly a more unconventional and the United Kingdom, France, China, and the United
unexplored dilemma for the Security Council to consider. States, and six other rotating members. The five victors
The first and last time the Council discussed the national were made permanent members and were given veto
security implications of environmental degradation was power. An amendment to Article 23 of the UN Charter
in April 2007. However, with a successor to the Kyoto expanded the membership of the Security Council to
Protocol hanging in the balance and the results of the fifteen members, establishing ten positions of two-year
Copenhagen talks of December 2009, the growing saliency terms. The amendment also indicated that decisions
of global climate change in the policy discussions of on all matters addressed by the Security Council would

Harvard WorldMUN 2010 Specialized Agencies 5

 Security Council

be passed by an affirmative vote from nine members,
granted that no veto power is invoked. The changing
dynamics of the international community and the wide
expansion of the UN membership since 1945 have caused
increasing concern over further Security Council reform.
However, considering the veto power of the Big Powers,
change is difficult to achieve. Finally, the most significant
aspect of the Security Council’s powers is the fact that its
decisions are the only commitments that are binding on
all members.1 Thus, the Security Council is truly the most
powerful body of the UN. Especially given its solemn duty,
as stated in Article 39 of the UN Charter, “to maintain or
restore international peace and security.”
Under the Security Council’s overarching
responsibility to maintain peace and security, there are
numerous powers and functions of the committee. The
Council must investigate situations or disputes that could
transform into international conflict and formulate courses
of action that would provide guidance for settlements.
Member States are also responsible for creating a system
designed to regulate armaments. The discretion of the
Council is called upon to determine what constitutes a
threat to peace and what must be done to halt aggression.
Power is given to the membership to enforce decisions
against aggressors by military means. Finally, the Council
serves to recommend admission of new Member States,
recommend appointments for the Secretary-General, and
help elect Judges of the International Court of Justice.2
In the over sixty years of the Security Council’s
existence, nearly 2,000 resolutions have striven to maintain

Security Council ambassadors for over half a century have worked to create nearly 2,000 resolutions maintaining interna-
tional peace and security.
http://www.un.int/wcm/webdav/site/lebanon/shared/images/146223%20-%20SC%20pm%20-%2031_05_2007%20-.jpg

Harvard WorldMUN 2010 Specialized Agencies 6

 Security Council

and restore international peace and security. However, it is Council have worked to pressure States into complying
with creation of certain commissions and committees that with the Council’s resolutions without having to use
the Council has been able to effectively tackle threats to military force.3 These are just some of the bodies created
peace and security on various fronts. The recently created by the Security Council, but it is evident that the work
Peacebuilding Commission is a UN intergovernmental performed by the Council and its subsidiary organizations
advisory body that works to assemble resources, propose is critical to ensuring a peaceful and more secure future.
strategies of peacebuilding in post-conflict situations, and
create a forum of all relevant actors. Particularly relevant
to this committee’s first topic is the Counter-Terrorism
Committee, established under resolution 1373, which
aids Member States in their ability to prevent terrorist
attacks and the successive Counter-Terrorism Committee
Executive Directorate created by resolution 1535. The
1540 Committee strives “to prevent the proliferation of
nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons” and to ensure
that non-State actors do not possess these weapons. Lastly,
the numerous Sanctions Committees of the Security

Stretching from North Africa to Central Asia, the Middle East remains a constant concern for the Security Council.
http://www.globalresearch.ca/articlePictures/Middle-East-map.gif`

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 Security Council

Topic Area A: fights for its existence while Palestine yearns for its own,
the Lebanese government struggles to secure the safety of
its people, and Iran and Syria provide the fuel for the fire.
TERRORISM IN THE Clearly, a new plan for establishing peace and security is
required.

MIDDLE EAST The problems observed throughout the Middle

East have proven resistant to military solutions. The long-
term stability of the region and the elimination of terrorist
Statement of the Problem organizations can only be achieved through an approach

T errorist operations from within the Middle East

sparked the United Nations’ current counter-
terrorism efforts within that region and around the
focused on economic development and the strengthening
of political institutions. However, these goals are difficult
to obtain when conflicts continually emerge from North
world. The resultant Security Council Counter-Terrorism Africa to Central Asia. Although seemingly unattainable,
Committee (CTC) and its advising CTC Executive it is the duty of the Security Council to both react to
Directorate (CTED), produced by UN Security Council developing crises in the Middle East and develop an
Resolutions 1373 and 1535 respectively, continue to overarching plan for long-term success.
battle global terrorist threats. In the aftermath of the
U.S.-led invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq, extremist
organizations, criminal gangs, and militant groups seem
to have only gained momentum, requiring the continued
perseverance of the entire international community. Once
the impetus for the UN’s counter-terrorism strategy, the
Middle East remains at the center of efforts to stem the
tide of terrorist actions that threaten the lives of thousands
of innocent civilians and increase the chances of inter and
intra-state violence.
The issue of terrorism in the Middle East continues
to pose a threat to international peace and security due to
the region’s ethnic diversity, religious differences, economic
disparities, political turmoil, interplay of distinct state
actors, and high number of extremist organizations. The
myriad of complex dilemmas facing the Middle East, and
thus the Security Council, requires the body’s constant
vigilance and an ever-responsive strategy to the crises
emanating from the region. Conflict along the Lebanese-
Israeli border, sectarian violence in Iraq, suicide bombings
in the Gaza Strip, and attacks upon NATO forces in
Afghanistan constitute only a piece of the tragic story in
the Middle East.
Security Council resolutions that compel the
cooperation of all Member States have already called for
the cessation of funding for terrorist acts, the elimination Al-Qaeda’s attack on the United States on 11 Septem-
of safe havens for terrorist organizations, and the ber 2001 prompted the Security Council to establish the
collaboration of governments to prevent terrorist attacks. Counter-Terrorism Committee.
Yet Afghanistan and Iraq are still mired in war, Israel http://www.september11news.com/111wtcreutersitaly.jpg

Harvard WorldMUN 2010 Specialized Agencies 8

 Security Council
areas that have routinely been racked by violence and/or
History and Discussion of the contribute to the efforts of terrorist organizations. This
Problem background will not cover the significant actions that will
Introduction undoubtedly occur in the Middle East and Greater Middle

O perative 6 of United Nations Security Council

Resolution (UNSCR) 1373, in response to the 11
September 2001 attacks on the United States, established
East after this guide has been written and even after the
inclusion of updates. It will therefore be your task to stay
continually updated on the affairs of this region in order
the Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC).4 For almost to appropriately respond to terrorist activities during our
a decade, this body and the CTC Executive Directorate meeting in March. The following overview also recognizes
(CTED) have worked to buttress the efforts of Member the primary terrorist organizations (with more thorough
States in preventing terrorist actions in their respective descriptions in Section F: Key Actors and Positions)
nations and broader regions. The creation of this involved, but again, this is not an exhaustive list and the
committee was by no means the Council’s first step in quality of debate will depend upon the strength of your
combating the devastating effects of terrorism. In 1999, research
UNSC Resolution 1267, in accordance
with the same “rule 28” cited in UNSCR
1373, established a committee of the
Security Council charged with reporting
observations and recommendations
concerning efforts to halt the actions
of the Taliban in Afghanistan.5 Four
days later, UNSCR 1269 “unequivocally
condemned all acts, methods, and practices
of terrorism… in particular those which
could threaten international peace and
security” and called upon all states to
undertake a wide array of broad measures
designed to prevent terrorist attacks.6 The
failure of these resolutions to prevent the
tragedy of 11 September and the eventual Terrorist attacks have killed at least 100,000 innocent civilians in Iraq since 2003.
deterioration of international peace and http://www.economist.com/daily/news/displaystory.cfm?story_
security led to UNSCR 17373 and the id=14256816&fsrc=nwl
subsequent establishment of the Counter-
Terrorism Committee. Iraq

S
This body, of course, is concerned with eliminating oon after the United States’ invasion of Iraq on 20
the scourge of terrorism throughout the world, but March 2003, Iraq became the primary theatre of
considering that activity within the Middle East was the the War on Terrorism. Although Saddam Hussein’s
impetus for establishing the committee and waging the government collapsed less than a month later and on 1
“War on Terrorism” over the past decade, our debate will May 2003, President George W. Bush declared the end of
be rooted in the attempt to better secure this turbulent major combat operations in Iraq, the United States and
region. Tackling terrorism in the Middle East, however, its “coalition of the willing” found themselves mired in
still only marginally aids us in comprehending and guerilla war by July of 2003. During the next month, on
solving the complex issue of terrorism, as the Middle East 19 August 2003, a suicide bombing destroyed the United
itself lacks clear boundaries. Thus, in order to identify Nations Baghdad headquarters, killing 20 people and
and more sensibly forge solutions to the dilemmas of causing some international agencies to flee the capital.
the Middle East, discussion will be limited to five key Over the past six years, conflict between Sunni (the branch

Harvard WorldMUN 2010 Specialized Agencies 9


of Islam believing the leaders after Prophet Mohammed’s
death should be elected) and Shi’a (Muslims holding the
belief that leadership should have remained within the
Prophet’s family or among divinely-appointed Imams)
have combined with Arab/Kurdish political friction to
plague Iraq with suicide bombings, kidnappings, sectarian
violence, and ethnic cleansing.8 Relying solely on media
reports, it is estimated that over 100,000 civilian deaths
have occurred since the US-led invasion of Iraq.9 However,
researchers of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School
of Public Health, using a “cluster sample” approach,
estimated that 655,000 Iraqis (excluding combatants)
were killed during the initial three-and-a-half years of
the war.10 In 2006 alone, 34,000 people were murdered,
primarily due to suicide attacks. By this year, the death
toll of United States soldiers exceeded that of the victims
of 11 September.11 In an effort to spread democracy and
decrease the threat of terrorism in the Middle East, Iraq
instead found itself in violent turmoil. Despite a successful
multiparty election on 30 January 2005 (the first in half
a century) and over 100,000 U.S. troops stationed in
the region, violence continued to surge throughout Iraq.
There have been seemingly countless terrorist attacks
since 2003: Shiite politician Ayatollah Mohammed Baqr
al-Hakim along with 90 other people were killed in a car
bomb attack on 29 August 2003; more than 180 Iraqi
Shiites lost their lives due to attacks by Abu Musab al-
Zarqawi, a Jordanian with ties to al-Qaeda, on 2 March
2004; in the months surrounding the transfer of power to
an interim Iraqi government in 2004, a number of senior
Iraqi officials were assassinated; less than a month after
Iraq’s first general election of 30 January 2005, a suicide
car bombing killed at least 114 people; on 1 July 2006, 66
Shiites perished from a car bomb in Sadr City; over 500
members of the Yazidi religious minority were killed on
14 August 2007; AQI was responsible for the deaths of at
least 60 people on 15 April 2008; and on 23 April 2009,
suicide bombers took the lives of 87 Iraqis.12, 13
In order to understand the motives for these
atrocities and to begin developing a durable peace for
the future, it is important to outline the demographics
of Iraq. The nation is unique in that the Shi’a population
holds a 65% majority; whereas on a worldwide scale,
Shi’a believers constitute only 10 to 15% of the Muslim
population. Shi’a Muslims are found primarily in
southern Iraq, Iran, and southern Lebanon, but also have
Harvard WorldMUN 2010
Security Council
a significant presence in Syria, Pakistan, Afghanistan,
Saudi Arabia, and India.14 Although Shiites are commonly
in southern Iraq, they also form a majority in Baghdad,
leaving Sunni Muslims (20% Sunni Kurds and 15%
Sunni Arabs) to occupy northern Iraq. Despite a Shi’a
majority in Iraq, Sunni Arabs have historically dominated
political and economic affairs (a phenomenon stemming
from the Ottoman Empire and then British support of
the ruling Sunni Arab minority and the monarchy’s pan-
Arab ideology). Sunni minority rule continued even after
the fall of the monarchy and through the end of Saddam
Hussein’s government. For decades, Saddam’s government
killed and arrested Shiite religious leaders and followers and
during the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), tens of thousands
of Shiites were arrested and deported, while violence
surged in Iraqi Kurdistan.15 Now, with a democratic form
of government, there exists a Shi’a majority rule. However,
AQI (a Sunni extremist group) and other insurgents are
dedicated to continuing decades-long attacks on Shiite
Muslims while simultaneously undermining the nascent
Iraqi government.
Considering Iraq’s relatively rapid transfer of power,
a key problem in stemming the tide of conflict comes from
the difficulty in distinguishing between sectarian violence
(between Sunnis and Shiites, Kurds and Arabs) and terrorist
attacks committed by al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI), its “front”
organization, the Islamic State of Iraq, and other foreign
combatants entering through Iraq’s porous borders. The
Bush administration commonly blamed AQI, a Sunni
extremist group, for exacerbating violence throughout the
nation; and some have argued that this was done in an
effort to view the US-led invasion of Iraq as a reaction
to the attacks of 11 September. Regardless, the United
States was successful in disrupting the actions of AQI
after killing al-Qaeda leader al-Zarqawi on 8 June 2006
and capturing Islamic State of Iraq leader Khalid Abdul
Fatah Da’ud Mahmud al-Mashadani on 4 July 2007.16
In the last quarter of 2007, the U.S. State Department
claimed that there was a significant “decrease in civilian
casualties, enemy attacks, and improvised explosive
devices (IED) attacks.”17 Despite these accomplishments,
the National Intelligence Estimate indicates that AQI
“retains the ability to conduct high-profile attacks” and
Rear Admiral Gregory Smith of the U.S. military states,
“the regeneration capacity of al-Qaeda is still out there.”
AQI’s ability to foment civil unrest in Iraq, playing off
Specialized Agencies 10
 Security Council

Sunni/Shi’a and Arab/ and Syria. The Islamic

Kurdish conflicts, is of Revolutionary Guard
grave concern, but this Corps (IRGC) of Iran
group is unfortunately possesses an elite branch
only one of dozens named the Qods Force,
of extremist groups, which has provided
criminal gangs, and training, funding,
armed tribes helping and weapons for not
to proliferate violence only Iraqi combatants,
throughout Iraq. The18
but for Palestinian
United States considers terrorist groups such as
its War on Terror in HAMAS, the Taliban
Iraq to be focused on in Afghanistan, and
As a state sponsor of terrorism, Iran contributes millions of dollars each
AQI, the Islamic State of Lebanese Hezbollah’s
year to help fund the activities of various extremist organizations.
Iraq, militias and death militant wing (although
squads fueling intra- it is disputed whether
communal and sectarian violence, criminal organizations, this is a terrorist organization). Regarding Iraq, the Qods
and insurgents battling Coalition Forces (CF).19 Force has given Iranian-produced sniper rifles, mortars,
Under the Obama administration, control of automatic weapons, and advanced rockets to militants
the battle against these terrorist forces was given to Iraqi while working with Hezbollah to train Iraqi combatants in
leadership on 30 June 2009. Violence escalated in the weeks and outside of Iraq to use advanced weaponry.23 Ironically,
after this transition and less than two months later, on 19 documents seized from the IRGC indicated that this Shi’a
August 2009, AQI organized simultaneous rocket attacks dominated society has even provided financial support
and simultaneous car bombs near the cabinet office and for AQI (despite its Sunni ideology), in order to increase
six ministry offices, killing at least 95 people and injuring instability in the region.24
nearly 600.20 This attack constituted the worst Iraq has As the most active state sponsor of terrorism,
faced since the beginning of the U.S. withdrawal of troops Iran has also added fuel to fires in Lebanon, Israel, and
last year. Considering the extent of this bombing, some Afghanistan. In violation of UNSCR 1701, Tehran has
wonder whether the United States military left Iraq too helped Hezbollah rearm after the 2006 Israeli-Hezbollah
hastily.21 President Obama stated that the United States’ conflict and in 2008 alone, Iran provided the Shi’a political
combat mission in Iraq will end by 31 August 2010 and group with $200 million and extensive training in Iranian
that all U.S. troops will be removed, as agreed to under camps. In efforts to undermine the Middle East Peace
the Status of Forces Agreement, by the end of 2011.22 Process, HAMAS, the Popular Front for the Liberation
However, it is unclear if the United States will be able of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC), Palestine
to fulfill their promises in the face of escalating violence. Islamic Jihad (PIJ), and other Palestinian terrorist groups
Iraq is certainly a nation that the Security Council must have received substantial levels of training, weapons, and
continue to monitor as the fledgling democracy struggles funding. Finally, in Afghanistan, the IRGC Qods Force
to maintain peace and security for its people. The United has provided the Taliban with a wide array of weaponry
Nations may certainly play a more pivotal role as the (from rocket propelled grenades to plastic explosives) and
United States and CF cede full control of security issues training (regarding small arms, small unit tactics, and
to the Iraqi government. explosives). Furthermore, Tehran failed to bring to justice
al-Qaeda affiliates who fled to Iran after the collapse of
Iran and Syria the Taliban in Afghanistan.25

T he turmoil and tragic violence seen in Iraq over most While not as blatantly supportive of instability in
of the last decade have tragically been exacerbated by the Middle East as is the Islamic Republic of Iran, Syria
the involvement of two state sponsors of terrorism: Iran has been a principle state sponsor of terrorism, helping

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to in fact build defensive ties between these nations.
Syria has more subtly contributed to the violence in Iraq,
condemning terrorist acts and meeting with Iraqi leaders
to discuss the improvement of border security on the one
hand and then continuing to allow an influx of foreign
fighters and aid for AQI on the other. Prime Minister
al-Maliki has repeatedly called for Iraq’s neighbor to halt
the flow of militants and bring an end to the efforts of
Saddam Hussein loyalists.26 Syria has given Hezbollah
both material and political support in Lebanon and
provided a number of Palestinian terrorist organizations
a safe haven and base for external leadership. However,
the government of Syria has claimed that such groups as
PIJ and HAMAS have been limited to informational and
political actions.27 It is certainly a key responsibility of the
Council to determine what organizations truly commit
terrorist acts and whether nations such as Iran and Syria
are in fact aiding operations.
Lebanon
T he 2006 Israel-Hezbollah War and the subsequent
UN-brokered ceasefire carried out through UNSCR
1701 has highlighted Lebanon’s central role in the peace
and security of the Middle East. Beyond strengthening
the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL)
and calling for a “full cessation of hostilities,” UNSCR
1701 also recognizes in operative 18 the importance of
past UNSC resolutions spanning over 40 years, from
UNSCR 242 (in response to the Six-Day War) of 1967 to
UNSCR 1515 (endorsing the Roadmap to a Permanent
Two-State Solution to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict) of
2003.28 UNIFIL peacekeepers continue to monitor the
“Blue Line” (the border between Lebanon and Israel)
and work to ensure humanitarian aid gets to intended
civilians.29
A major difficulty of dealing with terrorism
in Lebanon revolves around the fact that the Lebanese
government recognizes Hezbollah as a legitimate political
party, while other nations, such as the United States, view
them as a powerful terrorist organization. Maintaining
strong ties with Lebanon’s southern Shi’a community,
Lebanon also receives support from Syria and Shi’a-
dominated Iran. Of course, this Shi’a political group is
not the only source of violence in the Middle East. Al-
Qaeda-associated Sunni extremist militants work within
Lebanon, attempting to exploit the friction between Israel
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and Hezbollah after the 2006 conflict. Palestinian refugee
camps are also used to recruit and train foreign combatants
on their way to Iraq.30 Although the United Nations has a
strong presence in Lebanon, more must be done in order
to prevent future conflicts with Israel and minimize the
influence of extremist groups in undermining the security
of Iraq.
Afghanistan and Pakistan
A QI and al-Qaeda groups within Lebanon are tied to
the central leadership of the international terrorist
network that originated during the 1980s under Osama
bin Laden. In the aftermath of 11 September and the U.S.-
led War in Afghanistan, al-Qaeda’s leadership relocated to
Pakistan’s tribal areas, along the Afghan border.31 From
1996 to November 2001, the Taliban seized control of
the Afghan government, repeatedly refusing to hand over
Osama bin Laden and purposefully harboring his followers.
Opposition forces led to the fall of the Taliban and the
establishment of an interim government in December of
2001, but the Taliban continued to work with al-Qaeda
and other insurgent groups to fight Coalition Forces in
Afghanistan.32 Currently, the instability of the border
between Afghanistan and Pakistan allows AQ leadership
to escape Coalition Forces (CF) and Pakistani security
forces, giving them greater ability to train combatants and
plan attacks. Although a number of top AQ leaders have
been killed or detained, remaining lieutenants (including
Ayman al-Zawahiri of Egypt and Abu Yahya al-Libi
of Libya) continue to advise bin Laden, plan terrorist
operations, and provide a public face for al-Qaeda to
spread its message of global jihad.33 Despite the presence
of over 100,000 Pakistani troops along the Afghan-
Pakistani border, al-Qaeda has even extended their reach
beyond the Middle East, strengthening connections with
affiliates in North Africa and Europe.
The instability of Pakistan’s Federally Administered
Tribal Areas (FATA) has provided al-Qaeda and other
foreign combatants with a more extensive safe haven that
allows for attacks on Afghanistan and the expansion of
anti-CF militants. These insurgents work with the Taliban
and other groups such as Hizb-e-Islami Gulbuddin
(HIG) to recruit local inhabitants for operations against
CF in Afghanistan. Beyond their success in the FATA,
extremists also maintain tenuous power in the North-West
Frontier Province (NWFP), areas of South Waziristan,
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and Baluchistan. However, CF have been inadvertently
aided by internal struggles within the Pakistani Taliban.
In the wake of Commander Baitullah Mehsud’s death,
some militants killed those close to Mehsud, believing
that they had worked with authorities opposed to the
Taliban. Moreover, Hakimullah Mehsud, the man set to
take control of the organization, is thought have been
injured or killed in a gunfight with a rival candidate.34
This power struggle certainly aids the counter-terrorism
efforts of the Pakistani government and its allies.
The security situation remains similarly
problematic on the Afghan side of the border. NATO
forces and Afghan forces struggle to secure contested
border areas that are plagued by terrorist and insurgent
attacks. Beyond al-Qaeda and Taliban involvement, the
international community also faces the extremist activities
of HIG and the Haqqani network. Moreover, the rise
of narcotics production and criminal organizations has
provided combatants with significantly more funds.35
However, with the election of President Barack Obama
in the United States, a new, more aggressive approach was
implemented by up to twenty NATO nations. In February
of 2009, President Obama called for the deployment of
17,000 extra troops to Afghanistan and during the next
month he dedicated 4,000 to the task of training and
supporting the Afghan army and police. Also, in July

Extremist groups in FATA and NWFP along the Afghan-Pakistani border continue to pose problems for CF and the
international community. http://www.khyber.org/images/maps/nwfpmap01.gif

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of 2009, the U.S. army commenced a major offensive
against the Taliban in the southern Helmand province.36
Clearly, the military operations of NATO and the United
States have constituted the primary fight against terrorists Israel at least ten times, killing twenty-seven civilians.
and insurgents throughout Afghanistan, but the United
Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (established
by UNSCR 1401) continues to help in providing security
advice, technical assistance, and humanitarian aid.
Ultimately, although Afghanistan and Pakistan are a part
of the Greater Middle East and are commonly considered
to be located in South Asia, the influence of terrorist
organizations within this region on the affairs of the
Middle East command the Council’s continued vigilance
in bringing peace to both nations.
Israel, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank
rise in 1982. Apart from these larger conflicts, Israel, the
West Bank, and especially the Gaza Strip continue to suffer
from frequent terrorist activities. In 2008, terrorists struck
However, Israel Defense Forces (IDF) and Israel Security
Services (ISA) were also successful in foiling a number
of other terrorist attacks. During the Israeli military’s
anti-terrorist operations of 2008, they killed nearly 800
Palestinians in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. Despite
Israel’s recent successes in the region, they still struggle
with Hamas terrorists who receive explosives, arms, and
funding via tunnels between Egypt and the Gaza Strip.
The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) estimated
that 1,528 mortars and about 1,750 rockets hit Israel
during the course of 2008. Israel has also claimed that
Hamas and other Palestinian terrorist organizations have

W hile Afghanistan and Pakistan remain on the received training from a newly strengthened Hezbollah
outskirts of the Middle East, Israel, the Gaza
Strip, and the West Bank are at the focal point of this
tumultuous region geographically and have been at the
center of international attention for half a century. In
1994, the Palestinian Authority (PA) was established in
the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, but fifteen years later,
it is still unclear how responsibilities and jurisdiction
within the West Bank are divided between the PA and
Israel. Security issues within Gaza are similarly complex
as Hamas (a Palestinian militant movement deemed a
terrorist organization by some nations) attained power
through the PA general legislative elections in 2006 and
seized control of Gaza in 2007.37
The most recent conflict in this region began on
27 December 2008, when Israel launched missile attacks
primarily on Hamas within the Gaza Strip; although
Gaza officials stated that women and children were also
among the victims of the attack.38 On 8 January 2009, the
Security Council called for “an immediate, durable and
fully respected ceasefire, leading to the full withdrawal of
Israeli forces from Gaza” under UNSCR 1860.39 It was
not until ten days later that Israel declared a unilateral
cease-fire, which was reciprocated by Hamas later that day.
However, rocket fire continued to strike Israel, resulting
in an Israeli air strike. Ultimately, the conflict took the
lives of 1,300 Palestinians and 13 Israelis.40 Israeli warplanes hit targets along the Gaza Strip’s border with
Tragically, such instances of violence have been all Egypt in 2009.
too common in this region for decades, especially since the http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/2009/images/02/26/isr.tunnel.
founding of Hamas in December of 1987 and Hezbollah’s airstrike.2.jpg

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in Lebanon.41 Moreover, it is estimated that Iran provides
Hamas with up to $30 million per year.42
Fortunately, the leaders of the PA, President
Mahmoud Abbas and Prime Minister Salam Fayyad have
been dedicated to counter-terrorism efforts. PM Fayyad
has struggled to halt the terrorist activities of Hamas, but
has faced stark resistance in the Gaza Strip. PA security
forces (PASF) have been more successful in securing the
West Bank. The abilities of the Palestinian Islamic Jihad
(PIJ), the al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades (AAMB), the Popular
Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), Hamas, and
other terrorist groups to plan attacks from the West Bank
have been limited. Considering Hamas’ establishment
of its own “Executive Force” organizations, intelligence
unit, and police, it is much more difficult for the PA to
put an end to violence between Israel and Palestinian
areas.43 This inability to secure the Gaza Strip helped with
current Israeli Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu’s bid
for the position, as he campaigned for a stronger stance
toward Palestinian militancy. The presence of this leader
of the right-wing Likud party has made it more difficult
to achieve a new Middle East peace agreement. Indeed, he
would only accept the establishment of a Palestinian state
if it were entirely demilitarized.44 Despite this, President
Abba (the primary Palestinian architect behind the 1993
Oslo Accords) and PM Fayyad have, time and again,
publicly denounced violence against Israeli civilians,
taken immediate action to apprehend those responsible,
and committed to a security program seeking to eliminate
terrorist actions.45 Effectively dismantling terrorist
organizations in this region will go a long way towards
securing a lasting peace between Israel and possibly a
future Palestinian state.
Conclusion
A ddressing the difficulties posed by these five areas
of the Middle East will by no means completely
end the suffering endured for too long by too many
innocent people. There are a number of other nations and
organizations that should be taken into consideration and
may very well be at the center of attention come time
for the Council’s session. For example, Turkey continues
to engage in violent conflict with Kurdish militants in
northern Iraq. Although Saudi Arabia recognized the
Taliban-led government of Afghanistan before 2001,
King Abdullah has been an important force behind
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counter-terrorism efforts throughout the Middle East,
helping to resolve crises surrounding Lebanon, securing
its border with Iraq, supporting Israeli-Palestinian peace
attempts, and eliminating Saudi-based senior leadership
of al-Qaeda.46 And, despite animosities of decades past,
Egypt has continued to work with Israel to eliminate
smuggling tunnels between the Gaza Strip and Egypt.
The path toward peace and security in the Middle East
remains long, but there is undoubtedly a strong, collective
will among nations in the region and throughout the
international community to see an end to extremist
violence, the senseless killing of innocent civilians, and
the dismantling of secure political institutions. And the
Security Council will be there every step of the way.
Past UN Actions
F or decades the United Nations has worked to prevent
terrorist attacks throughout the world. However, over
the last decade, the UN has taken extraordinary efforts
to create advisory bodies and facilitate the cooperation of
Member States to combat terrorism. Al-Qaeda’s attacks
on New York, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania on
11 September 2001 sparked a reinvigorated, international
commitment towards halting global terrorism and bringing
to justice those responsible for heinous crimes against
innocent civilians. Even before the attacks on the United
States, the UN Security Council recognized the danger
posed by al-Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan and
created the al-Qaeda and Taliban Sanctions Committee
in 1999 with UNSCR 1267.47
The inability of this committee to force the
Taliban to hand over Osama bin Laden and cease terrorist
operations led to the Council’s creation of the Counter-
Terrorism Committee (CTC) under UNSCR 1373 in
2001. UNSCR 1624 provided further guidance for the
CTC in 2005, encouraging the body to continue its
invaluable work in helping Member States to prevent
terrorist actions within their nations and throughout their
respective regions.48 As a part of the committee’s mission
to improve the institutional and legal abilities of Member
States to combat terrorism around the world, UNSCR
1373 urges nations to criminalize the transaction of funds
supporting terrorist acts (operative 1), freeze the funds
of those involved with terrorism (operative 1), refrain
from supporting and providing safe haven to terrorists
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(operative 2), prevent 2008.51 The visiting teams

the movement of conclude their work
terrorists through with reports providing
successful border control recommendations
measures (operative 2), in the areas of law
increase the exchange enforcement, technical
of information critical assistance, counter-
to preventing terrorist terrorism legislation,
attacks (operative 3), border control,
cooperate with other and international
Member States through cooperation.52 As a
various agreements broader goal, CTED
(operative 3), coordinate seeks to enhance
efforts from a national cooperation among
to global level to limit Member States, the
threats to international UN, other international
security (operative 4), organizations, and
and report to the CTC regional and sub-
A peacekeeper of UNIFIL monitors the border between Lebanon and
concerning what steps regional organizations.
Israel, known as the “Blue Line.”
they have taken to Beyond the
http://www.unmultimedia.org/photo/detail/290/0290684.html
implement the resolution counter-terrorism
(operative 6).49 Since the apparatuses established
Council’s passage of UNSCR 1373, over 600 reports have by the Security Council, the UN General Assembly also
been submitted, forming what is thought to be the world’s implemented the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy
largest source of information regarding the counter- on 8 September 2006 (with the support of all 192
terrorism capacities of all 192 UN Member States. members), while the Secretary-General created the UN
In order to aid in the implementation of these Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force (CTITF)
critical provisions, UNSCR 1535 established the Counter- in 2005. These were developed in order to coordinate
Terrorism Committee’s Executive Directorate (CTED) in all of the counter-terrorism resources of the entire UN
2004 and it became fully operational at the end of 2005. system and those of its Member States. CTITF consists of
The mandate of CTED was extended until 31 December twenty-four entities (including CTED) and organizes its
2010 under UNSCR 1805. CTED has produced two efforts through eight working groups and various projects
reports (the first in 2006 and the most recent in 2008) and initiatives.53 Working groups of CTITF were given
summarizing the information given to the CTC from the task in 2007 of implementing the provisions of the
less than half of the UN membership. Although more Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy.54
information is still needed, CTED made recommendations In addition to these counter-terrorism bodies, the
for how the international community could best focus United Nations is also involved in a number of critical
counter-terrorism efforts in the near future and analysts Assistance Missions in the Middle East. The UN Assistance
assessed the current condition of border control, funding Mission for Iraq (UNAMI) was established by UNSCR
of terrorism, human rights protection, international 1500 on 14 August 2003 in order to monitor the handover
cooperation, law enforcement, and counter-terrorism of the Oil-for-Food program.55 However, increasing
legislation. Finally, CTED is responsible for conducting violence in the nation necessitated its further involvement.
on-site visits to consenting countries to help determine UNSCR 1883 extended its mandate until 7 August 2010
the progress nations have made in implementing UNSCR and reaffirmed the importance of UNSCR’s 1770 and
1373 and what technical assistance they may require.50 1830, which outlined UNAMI’s current task to resolve
Saudi Arabia was one of six nations that CTED visited in boundary disputes, secure elections, protect human rights,

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and aid with reconstruction and development.56 The UN
Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) has played
a similar role in Afghanistan since 28 March 2002 when
the Council passed Resolution 1401. UNAMA’s mandate
was extended until 23 March 2010 through UNSCR
1868 in order to continue its dedication to promoting
peace and stability in the region.57 On the other side of the
Middle East, along the Lebanese, Israeli border, the UN
Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) has monitored the
“Blue Line” for over thirty years and works to ensure the
cessation of violence, the provision of humanitarian aid,
and the protection of civilians.58 Together with the efforts
of various counter-terrorism entities, the work of these
missions is critical to the reconstruction and development
of the Middle East.
Proposed Solutions
I f there is one thing to be learned from the turmoil
and tragedy that has consumed the Middle East for
decades, it is that violence is not the answer. A new path
focused upon diplomacy, economic development, and
political reconciliation must be developed in order to
provide the nations of this region any chance for lasting
peace and security. Gilles Kepel, the Chair of Middle
East Studies at the Institute of Political Studies in Paris,
proposes a plan of joint economic development between
Europe and the Middle East in his book Beyond Terror
and Martyrdom: The Future of the Middle East. In his
hypothetical vision of peace and prosperity, an economic
union of Iran and its Gulf neighbors would be linked
with Europe through a network of natural gas pipelines.
As the argument follows, the exportation of natural gas
to Europe would require the establishment of diplomatic
relations and trade agreements. Looking to a future of
scarce oil resources and climate change woes, an increased
presence of nuclear energy programs in the Middle East
would not be a threat considering nations’ commitments
to economic development and the catastrophic results of
an attack for the entire region. Kepel argues that Europe
would even provide technical and financial assistance for
nuclear power plants, enhancing the economies of the
Middle East and, in turn, dismantling the leadership and
influence of terrorist organizations. He concludes with the
belief that “purely political solutions, without economic
incentives, are bankrupt from the start.”59 Unfortunately,
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the reverse is also true, and the intersection of both
political and economic development is what remains so
hard to achieve. Indeed, Kepel essentially ignores the
former, recognizing the enmity between Arab nations and
Iran and the chasm between Europe and the Middle East,
but not offering any clear solution on how to bridge the
gap. The open forum of the United Nations may be a
critical starting point for the establishment of intra and
inter-regional cooperation.
Some scholars, such as Harvard political scientist
Samuel Huntington, have viewed post-Cold War violence
as an inevitable “clash of civilizations.” They posit that
“ancient hatreds” and diametrically opposed cultures
are primarily responsible for the conflict between the
Middle East and the West and between different ethnic
groups within nations. However, as Harvard Professor of
International Relations Jack Snyder argues, this theory
fails to take into consideration long periods of time
during which current foes lived in peace, concluding that
“cultural differences cannot in themselves be a sufficient
explanation for the recent fighting.”60 A.Z. Hilali, a
research scholar at the University of Hull in England,
emphasizes the importance of democracy in the deliberate
reduction of extremist influences. He argues that the
instability of political institutions and lack of democracies
form “an immediate cause of extremism.” However, he also
recognizes the deleterious effects of high illiteracy rates,
high unemployment, and weak economies.61 The United
Nations will certainly have to continue to play a leading
role in aiding development, rebuilding infrastructure, and
ensuring the legitimacy of democratic elections.
Beyond the efforts centered around economic and
political advancements, the future of the Middle East also
depends on the quality of educational systems and the
equality guaranteed for all citizens, regardless of ethnicity
or gender. Despite its controversial role in the region,
the United States launched the Middle East Partnership
Initiative (MEPI) in 2002, providing over US$530
million to 16 countries and the Palestinian territories.62
The business training, employment programs, and
legal reforms regarding gender equality have all worked
toward the goal of creating a more secure, prosperous
region.63 Although not specifically targeted toward the
enhancement of counter-terrorism efforts, these steps are
crucial to the long-term success of the Middle East and
the eventual dismantling of extremist groups.
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 Security Council

Questions a Resolution Must training thousands of mujahideen to fight off the Soviet
invasion. Bin Laden, however, sought to extend his “holy
Answer
war” throughout the region and the world and created
Resolution Format
al-Qaeda around 1988, with the mission of ridding
Consider carefully how you wish to tackle the resolution
the Middle East of Western influences and establishing
writing process: Should you focus on a particular region
fundamentalist Islamic regimes. During the Gulf War,
in the Middle East recently racked by violence? Will you
bin Laden saw Saudi Arabia’s harboring of U.S. and allied
choose to create a broader framework of economic and
troops as a sacrilegious act and was subsequently exiled
political development to encourage long-term peace and
to Sudan for his public ridicule of the government. Since
security?
then, al-Qaeda has not only attacked Western and Jewish
targets, but also those of “immoral” Muslim governments,
Identification of Terrorist Organizations
including Saudi Arabia. In the aftermath of the U.S.-
One person’s terrorist could be another person’s leader of
led invasion of Afghanistan, the influence of the senior
a legitimate political party: In the months leading up to
leadership of al-Qaeda was seriously impeded, as they were
the conference, take into consideration the actions of all
forced to flee into Pakistani cities and along the Afghan-
parties to conflict (especially those threatening the lives of
Pakistani border. However, al-Qaeda is still connected to
innocent civilians); how will your nation respond to those
a number of other Sunni fundamentalist organizations,
responsible, directly or indirectly, for continued violence
including the Islamic Army of Aden in Yemen, the
and during times of crisis?
Egyptian Islamic Jihad, and Jama’at al-Tawhid wal Jihad
in Iraq and even cooperates with the Shi’a Lebanese
Stable Government
militia, Hezbollah.64 Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI), or al-Qaeda
How will you work to ensure the security of elections and
in Mesopotamia, serves as a prime example of how senior
the strength of political institutions in Afghanistan and
leaders of al-Qaeda still influence the actions of terrorists
Iraq?
throughout the Middle East. In 2007, U.S. General
David Petraeus labeled AQI “public enemy No.1” in Iraq,
State Sponsors of Terrorism
linking the group to the most visible suicide attacks and
UNSCR 1373 demands the cessation of “the financing
terrorist operations in the nation. Although the death of
of terrorist acts,” yet some nations and criminal
AQI’s leader al-Zarqawi led to the decentralization of the
organizations still fund attacks responsible for the deaths
organization, AQI offshoots such as the Islamic Army of
of countless innocents; what provisions can the Council
Iraq and the 1920 Revolution Brigades continue to pose
produce in order to achieve the full implementation of
a threat to Iraq’s security. Moreover, it is important to
this resolution?
keep in mind that AQI is only one of dozens of extremist
organizations, criminal gangs, and armed tribes fueling
Beyond the United Nations
sectarian violence and causing the deaths of countless
Within the framework of CTITF, how can the Security
civilians in Iraq.65
Council help coordinate the work of international,
regional, and sub-regional bodies in order to stem the tide
Taliban
of terrorist actions?
T
he Taliban in both Afghanistan and Pakistan have
been similarly instrumental in the efforts to battle
NATO forces and foster instability in the region. This
Key Actors and Positions Muslim extremist group seized control of Kabul in 1996
Al-Qaeda and AQI
and led Afghanistan until 2001, when it was forced to
T he Services Office of Afghanistan, designed to combat
the Soviet’s invasion in 1979, was led by Osama bin
Laden and Palestinian religious scholar Abdullah Azzam.
retreat to southern and eastern provinces, along the
Afghan-Pakistani border, and within Pakistan. The
Taliban is known to have harbored Osama bin Laden and
These men reached out to fifty nations, recruiting and
al-Qaeda followers. Despite this, during its rule, Saudi

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 Security Council

as Hezbollah’s secretary-general since 1992 and Sheikh

Mohammed Hussein Fadlallah acts as its spiritual leader.
The most recent major conflict between Lebanon and
Israel occurred in 2006, during which time more than
one thousand civilians died and hundreds of thousands
became displaced persons or refugees as a result of war
between Hezbollah and the Israeli army. Internally, the
Lebanese government faced further violence in 2008
when Hezbollah took control of West Beirut. This act
led to Hezbollah’s gain of veto power in the parliament,
but ultimately hurt the group’s credibility as seen with
its loss to the “March 14” coalition in the June 2009
parliamentary elections.67

Hamas

A s the most powerful Palestinian militant movement

and the victors of the 2006 Palestinian legislative
elections, Hamas is similarly positioned as a recognized
political organization with a militant, terrorist wing.
Intriguingly, “hamas” is simultaneously the Arabic word
meaning zeal and the Arabic acronym for the Islamic
Resistance Movement. Hamas originated out of the Muslim
Brotherhood of Egypt, but became independent in 1988,
Osama bin Laden is the leader of al-Qaeda, an internationally moving away from the Brotherhood’s commitment to
recognized terrorist organization responsible for numerous attacks nonviolence. Hamas carried out its first suicide bombing
over the past two decades. in April of 1993 and since then attacks have been targeted
http://tinypic.com/view.php?pic=2gse3v4&s=5 throughout Israel, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank.
As of 2007, Hamas is in control of the Gaza Strip and
Arabia, Pakistan, and the United Arab Emirates recognized continues to be in conflict with the rival Fatah movement
Taliban leadership of Afghanistan. Mohammed Omar, and Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas who remains
the leader of the Taliban in Afghanistan from 1996 to in control of the West Bank.68 Hamas’ rejection of peace
2001, is unlikely to be in control of current operations talks and refusal to recognize the state of Israel greatly
and it is presumed that Mullah Abdul Ghani Baradar undermines the Middle East Peace Process.
now commands most Afghan Taliban operations. The
Pakistani Taliban, an institutionally separate group, is Bloc Positions
currently plagued by a power struggle, but continues to
clash with Pakistani security forces.66 T he Council has unanimously passed the primary
UNSC resolutions regarding counter-terrorism
efforts, such as UNSCR 1269, 1373 and 1535. Turkey
Hezbollah has a particularly vested interest in seeing a stable Iraq,

W hile the international community widely recognizes as it continues to violently struggle with Iraqi Kurdistan.
al-Qaeda and the Taliban as facilitators of terrorist The permanent members of the Council, in particular the
actions, the status of Hezbollah’s militant wing is disputed. United States and the United Kingdom have long been a
This Shi’a political group, founded in 1982 after Israel’s central part in the affairs of the Middle East. Ultimately,
invasion of Lebanon, acts as a significant provider of social the economic potential of this region makes its security
services for thousands of Lebanese Shiites, largely located of utmost concern to the membership of the entire
in the south of the nation. Hassan Nasrallah has served Council.

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Suggestions for Further have found are globalsecurity.org, cfr.org, and un.org.
The first site provides comprehensive reports on the
Research
demographics, histories, and backgrounds of key
A lthough this topic is extremely complex, involves
seemingly countless actors, and provides more
questions than answers, you fortunately have a wealth
nations in the Middle East. Moreover, you can access
policy reports and analysis created by the Congressional
Research Service of the U.S. Library of Congress. The
of information out there to begin tackling the difficult
website of the Council on Foreign Relations is a think-
issues at hand. Since 2001, a deluge of scholars and
tank site that provides essential background information,
professors from universities around the world have
political analysis, and reports on the current crises facing
analyzed the past, present, and future of the Middle East
the international community. Finally, the United Nations
and you will assuredly find a plethora of resources at your
website is of course the first source you should turn to in
fingertips within your own university’s political science or
order to understand the mission and goals of the Security
international relations department.
Council, the past actions taken by the UN and other key
As Terrorism in the Middle East is an issue that is
players, and the bodies currently fighting against terrorist
constantly appearing in the news, I highly recommend
threats. The Security Council’s site gives you access to all
subscribing to unwire.org, which compiles the most
resolutions passed since 1946, the site of the Counter-
relevant articles of the day (from energy and environment
Terrorism Committee outlines its progress on the
to peace and security) and updates you every day of the
implementation of UNSCR 1373, and the website of the
week. Beyond this, I have found it extremely helpful to
Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force provides
consistently read the New York Times and the Economist,
links to all of its entities, working groups, and initiatives.
both of which you can follow online.
The United Nations website is certainly a good place to
The three most useful and informative websites I
start.

Hamas’ control of the Gaza Strip and hostility toward Israel complicates the ability of the PA and Israel to create a peace agreement.
http://www.rafahtoday.org/newsphotos/07/november/24/Hamas%20supporters.jpg

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Topic Area B:
Environmental
Security
Statement of the Problem
T he 15th United Nations Climate Change Conference
of Parties (COP15) will take place from 7 December
to 18 December 2009 in Copenhagen, Denmark. The
resultant agreement produced under the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) will succeed
the Kyoto Protocol, the first agreement of the UNFCCC
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. As
the timeline for targets expire in 2012, the December
negotiations will be the crucial next step in mitigating the
effects of global warming. Fortunately, the top emissions-
emitting nations from both the developing and developed
worlds show a renewed sense of urgency and seem to
recognize the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change’s Fourth Assessment Report, produced
in November 2007, which firmly and unequivocally states
that there exists a warming of the climate system with clear
“increases in global average air and ocean temperatures,
widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global
average sea level.”69 Indeed, at the July 2009 G8 Summit
of L’Aquila, Italy, nations agreed that a rise in global
temperature of more than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-
industrial temperatures was unacceptable. However, the
summit declaration did not include specific commitments
to match their rhetoric.
The IPCC’s report outlines likely scenarios if
these nations fail to forge an international and legally
binding agreement by December in Copenhagen. Some
African nations will face a 50% reduction in agricultural
production in ten years, endemic mortality due to diarrheal
disease will increase in Asia with changes in the frequency
of floods and droughts, European citizens will face more
heat waves and wildfires, small islands will suffer from
water scarcity, North America will encounter a shift in
the vectors of various diseases, and a significant number
of Latin American citizens are expected to go hungry
due to significant decreases in the production of crops.70
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Ultimately, as the think tank the Center for Strategic
and International Studies (CSIS) indicates, no country,
developing or developed, will benefit in the long-term
from environmental degradation.71 Besides the hundreds
of millions of people who will suffer from humanitarian
crises, global climate change will also have serious security
implications.
A report created by CSIS and the Center for a
New American Security (CNAS), outlines the national
security implications of global climate change. In the
expected scenario, likely results include: conflict over
scarce resources, especially within Africa; geopolitical
reordering; increased cross-border and internal tensions
due to large-scale migrations; and heightened spread
of disease caused by shifts in disease vectors. Under
the severe case, migration and water scarcity will cause
internal tension even within developed nations, armed
conflict will occur in response to resource scarcity, and
pandemic disease will threaten the lives of millions.
Finally, the catastrophic scenario would involve the
“strong and surprising intersections of […] global climate
change and international terrorism.” The report relates
that conflicts driven partly by environmental factors are
already occurring in the Middle East (water scarcity),
South Asia (monsoons), and Darfur (desertification).72
Climate change will likely exacerbate these situations and
spark new violence.
In the Security Council’s first-ever debate on the
impact of climate change on peace and security, China
and the “Group of 77” developing nations argued that
the Security Council did not have the expertise to handle
the situation. However, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon
was clear in stating that global warming has peace and
security implications that go beyond the social, economic,
and environmental effects.73 The Security Council must
seriously consider supporting the commitments outlined
in the Copenhagen agreements in order to play a pivotal
role in combating a primary root cause of social and
political crises and armed conflict.
Specialized Agencies 21
 Security Council

History and Discussion of the end this dependence on foreign oil.”75 Indeed, the United
States is held hostage by its dependence on foreign energy
Problem
sources. In exchange for environmentally deleterious oil,
Introduction of Environmental Degradation as a
the United States provides 700 million dollars each day
National Security Issue
to hostile and unstable nations.76 While this national
O n 23 June 2009, former United Nations Secretary-
General Kofi Annan warned the Global Humanitarian
Forum that “every year we delay, the greater the damage, the
security concern is a prime motivator for a sea change
in U.S. environmental policy, broader environmental
security issues endanger the fates of developing nations far
more extensive the human misery.”74 Fortunately, Annan
more severely. Lacking the adaptive capacity and political
sees a source of hope for future climate talks with a new
stability of the developed world, nations throughout
United States administration that understands the multi-
the Middle East, South Asia, and Africa will fight over
faceted and tragic implications of failing to act within
a diminishing supply of food and water. Resource wars
a progressive, international framework for mitigating
are likely to be unavoidable. It is difficult to ignore the
the effects of climate change. However, the reasons for
challenges the world faces with a limited supply of oil, but
a new willingness to invest in alternative energy sources
much more dangerous to fail to recognize the implications
and negotiate a successor to the Kyoto Protocol are based
of scarce food and water sources. Yet, in the academic
on more than just a desire to protect the environment.
world, there still exists controversy over the relation of
During his road to the White House in July of 2008,
environmental degradation and national security.
President Obama stated that “this is not just an economic
The most extreme opposition to the idea of
issue or an environmental concern – this is a national
environmental security comes from academics such as
security crisis. For the sake of our security […] we must
Herman Kahn and Julian Simon. These thinkers, a military

The July 2009 G8 Summit of L-Aguila, Italy failed to produce concrete commitments from the industrialized world.
http://www2.tbo.com/exposure/full/2009/07/09/6266_g-8-summit.jpg

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strategist for the RAND Corporation and a Professor of
Business Administration at the University of Maryland,
respectively, believe the connection between human
actions, environmental degradation, and the resultant
danger to human life is fallacious and exaggerated. They see
the purpose of framing climate change within the context
of national security as a ploy to gain resources from already
established institutions and will ultimately fund ineffective
bureaucracies. Others view the rise of environmental
politics as just a byproduct of the confusion that has
arisen with the end of the Cold War. Daniel Deudney, an
Associate Professor of Political Science at Johns Hopkins
University, argues that with the high cost of expansionist
wars, the ability to create substitutes for limited materials,
and the possibility to trade scarce resources, resource wars
of the past are unlikely. Deudney and others warn that
putting environmental problems within the language
of security could inhibit the realization of appropriate
solutions. Some security analysts even believe the concept
of environmental security could distract from national
security goals, diverting resources away from traditional
security objectives.77
Other scholars, such as Thomas Homer-Dixon, a
Professor of Political Science at the University of Toronto,
recognize that throughout history, resource scarcity has
been a primary factor in conflict. Jessica Mathews, the
President of the Carnegie Endowment for International
Peace, taking into consideration environmental
change, urged the international community to adopt a
broadened “definition of national security to include
resource, environmental and demographic issues.” As a
majority of the scientific community can attest and the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
clearly and definitively illustrates, human disregard for
the environment will almost certainly endanger the lives
of millions of people in both developing and developed
countries. Moreover, worsening climatic conditions
will strain international relations. Conflict over limited
resources is nearly inevitable.
A particularly significant component of the rise
of environmental security in the political sphere has
to do with the decline of a bipolar world. Two decades
have passed since the end of the Cold War and its era
of mutually assured destruction. Even in an age of
terrorism, rogue states, and weapons of mass destruction,
some would argue that environmental degradation
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increasingly poses the greatest danger to human lives
rather than the prospects of war. Richard Ullman, a
Professor of International Affairs at Princeton University,
provided an appropriate definition of national security
for a world no longer controlled by the whims of two
superpowers, but rather increasingly confronted by non-
traditional threats. Joseph Romm further developed
Ullman’s conclusion, attempting to confine the definition
to the most serious security threats, stating, “a threat to
environmental security is whatever threatens to drastically
1) degrade the quality of life for the inhabitants of a state,
or 2) narrow the range of policy choices available to the
government.”78 Some may argue, however, that with
terrorist attacks, from 11 September 2001, to suicide
bombings in Pakistan in July 2008, national defense
should be focused on the “War on Terror.” This fight
to protect the homeland ostensibly cannot be impeded
by costs related to predicted environmental concerns
when terrorism seems to pose much more imminent and
immediate dangers. This perspective, however, fails to
take into consideration the complete range of causes of
the problem. A report created by United States generals
entitled, “National Security and the Threat of Climate
Change,” in fact explained that environmental degradation
may “provide an avenue for extremist ideologies and create
the conditions for terrorism.”79 In 2007, the Center for
Strategic and International Studies and the Center for a
New American Security worked with leaders in the fields
of foreign policy, oceanography, national security, history,
political science, and climate science to produce “The
Age of Consequences: The Foreign Policy and National
Security Implications of Global Climate Change.” The
report indicates that under an expected climate change
scenario, large-scale migrations will heighten cross-border
and internal tensions while conflict over resource scarcity
is likely in many weak African states. Moreover, as security
analyst Elizabeth Chalecki, a professor concerned with
environmental security at Tufts University, points out,
terrorists will increasingly target scarce natural resources
to cause both deaths and political chaos.80 It is now
critical for developed nations to consider all threats to
the security of its citizens. Furthermore, these countries
must realize both the isolated impact of climate change
on its citizens and the implications of the developing
world’s inability to adapt. Ultimately, while considering
national security as conceived by Ullman and Romm, the
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 Security Council

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change was honored with the Nobel Peace Prize, along with former Vice-Presi-
dent Al Gore, in 2007.
http://www.ipcc.ch/img/photos/ipcc-deleg-nobel-peace-big.jpg

developed world must recognize the dangers to human to effectively release tension. On the other hand, many
health posed by climate change and the decreased capacity fear that, when dealing with essential resources of
to respond to the instability of neighboring developing water, timber, and oil, little can be done besides pursing
nations. Environmental degradation is likely to relocate sustainable development. Moreover, when natural
military forces to areas suffering from more frequent disasters have struck, storms of the 21st Century have
and intense natural disasters and may seriously impede shown how little prepared even developed nations are in
both the progress of peacekeeping missions and efforts providing temporary humanitarian relief. By outlining
to stabilize failing states. Agreement on the definitions past instances of disputes over oil, water, timber, and
of environmental and national security may help focus minerals, and previous responses to natural disasters, the
the committee on addressing the root causes of threats to international community may realize what can be done to
international peace and security. mitigate the impending violence of the future.
Currently, the first and foremost material
History of Civilization Reacting to Resource Scarcity connected to resource wars is petroleum. With its pivotal
and Natural Disasters position in the global economy, international violence

A lthough the world is becoming increasingly developed, to control its sources has been and will continue to be
important lessons may still be learned from society’s a dilemma. The intense battle over oil became clear
past reactions to resource scarcity and natural disasters. during World War II. Many major battles began with the
Some argue that in an increasingly industrialized and Axis Powers’ desire to control petroleum supplies. More
interconnected world, substitutes may be developed recently, the Persian Gulf War of 1990 began with Iraq’s

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invasion of Kuwait to attain more oil. The United States
has enacted embargos on oil exports to various nations
during times of war whereas during in the 1970s, Arab
states ceased petroleum exports to the United States and
the Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries
(OPEC) instituted a fourfold increase in the price of oil.81
Shifting to the Caspian Sea basin, which contains the
second or third largest reserves of oil in the world, history
suggests future conflict as well. Although little violence is
directly attributable to disputes over petroleum, there are a
number of authoritarian regimes and a history of regional
rivalries, ethnic tension, and territorial disputes.82 As time
passes, the reserves located in the Caspian Sea basin will
become more significant and contentious, providing the
spark for conflict. A similar situation exists in the South
China Sea, but is aggravated by the rapid economic growth
in Asia, which demands increased amounts of energy.83 As
sources of petroleum continue to dwindle, the willingness
of nations to go to war over the remaining oil will only
Iraq’s conflict with Kuwait in 1990 was fueled by a desire to attain a dwindling source of oil in the Middle East.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Kuwait_burn_oilfield.png
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increase. The situation is also exacerbated by the fact
that petroleum supplies are often located across several
nations and oil is transported by ship or pipeline through
areas of instability. Dealing with a resource of such global
importance, any interference with the flow of oil will
almost certainly be met with foreign involvement.84
Oil truly drives the global economy. However,
its disastrous effect on the climate and the predicted
outcomes of environmental degradation reveal that water
may soon overtake petroleum as the primary cause of
conflict. With rising temperatures, shrinking supplies
of drinkable water, and rapid industrialization, disputes
over this essential element are imminent. Possibly even
more distressing is the fact that this resource has been
fought over for centuries. Enemies destroyed dikes and
canals during times of war millennia ago. Now, with the
clear division of nation-states, two or more countries
often access a major source of water. For example, the
Nile passes through eight countries before entering Egypt
Specialized Agencies 25

and the Mediterranean Sea. Thus, it is not surprising
that during the 1980s, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, the then
minister of state for foreign affairs of Egypt, warned that
“The next war in our region will be over the waters of
the Nile, not politics.”85 In the case of the Jordan, Tigris-
Euphrates, and Indus basins, there have been attempts to
appropriately allocate water. However, many negotiations
have failed or been suspended. In the 1960s, Arab plans to
divert water from the Jordan River led to intense conflict
with Israel, involving the Israeli obstruction of Jordanian
dam construction. In 1975, the Tabqa Dam crisis, sparked
by Syria’s filling up of the Tabqa Dam reservoir, led to
preparations for war by Iraq and Syria, but fortunately
ended with peaceful negotiations and the Syrian release
of 200 million m3 of water into the Euphrates River. The
Indus basin has been and will continue to be a major source
of conflict between India and Pakistan. Ten years ago, the
Director-General of the United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) stated
that as water becomes scarcer, the more “capable of
unleashing conflicts” it would become.86 Those words are
no less true today.
Finally, the fight for timber and minerals is most
typically scene within states. Over the past decades, Sierra
Leone has seen the deaths of tens of thousands and the
displacement of hundreds of thousands due to conflict
over diamonds. At the same time Angola has been ravaged
by conflict over oil and diamonds between the government
and the National Union for the Total Independence of
Angola (UNITA). Borneo contains one of the world’s
largest tropical forests and happens to be divided between
the three nations of Brunei, Indonesia, and Malaysia.
Since 1987, conflict has existed between the indigenous
groups of the island and the Malaysian government.87
As environmental degradation worsens and the world’s
supply of timber diminishes, conflicts like these will only
worsen. Moreover, as hostilities surrounding minerals
and timber are commonly restricted within the borders
of particular nations, the Security Council has a unique
responsibility in maintaining peace and security different
from issues concerning oil or water. Serious consideration
of the Responsibility to Protect, a concept expounded
by the General Assembly involving the international
community’s duty to protect people from genocide and
crimes against humanity, may even come into play to
ensure the safety of minority populations that happen to
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maintain limited resources.
Beyond exacerbating the situation of resource
scarcity, global climate change is predicted to dramatically
worsen the strength and frequency of natural disasters. In
the CSIS report “The Age of Consequences,” the most
common, but not necessarily constructive, lesson learned
is that natural disasters are “both socially divisive and
unifying at the same time.”88 This was recently and most
readily seen when Hurricane Katrina slammed into New
Orleans, Louisiana in August 2005. The emergence of a
million environmental refugees put strain on neighboring
states, such as Arkansas and Texas, creating social
tensions, while at the same time, the United States saw
an outpouring of sympathy that worked to provide much
needed humanitarian aid. The report admits that it will
be difficult to predict future responses to natural disasters,
especially if a global disaster occurs affecting multiple places
at once.89 However, as populations increase, especially
within developing nations with less adaptive capacities,
it will only be more difficult to mitigate the effects of
natural disasters. Hopefully the analysis of past responses
to such crises will aid the committee in developing the
mechanisms necessary to prevent social strife in the wake
of natural disasters.
Proliferation of Disease Due to Environmental
Degradation
A t the dawn of the 21st century, a person can travel
to the other side of the globe in a matter of hours,
news is dispersed to hundreds of millions of people in less
than a second, and technological advancements continue
to work to improve and extend the lives of all individuals.
These three aspects of contemporary society undoubtedly
have beneficial aspects. However, with over 2 billion air-
borne passengers per year, the threat of a swift international
proliferation of an infectious disease is more perceptible
than ever; Internet access can spread panic faster than
the infectious agent itself; and, most worryingly, despite
the efforts of microbiologists, new cures are not being
produced fast enough to replace failing ones.90 In fact the
spread of infectious diseases is at its highest rate in history
while the world faces the unprecedented emergence of
one new disease every year.91 As a part of the broader
issue of environmental degradation, the issue of disease
proliferation is undoubtedly disastrous for developing
nations. A primary social determinant of health is
Specialized Agencies 26

socioeconomic status and as one-fourth of the population
lives in “dire poverty,” as indicated by the World Health
Organization (WHO), billions of people are vulnerable
to the spread of water-borne and air-borne diseases such
as cholera, infectious hepatitis, malaria, diphtheria,
yellow fever, tuberculosis, and typhoid.92 As Dr. Jim Kim
points out in Dying for Growth, far too many people in
the developing world, from Central America to Africa,
are suffering from diseases that are mistakenly considered
uncommon today and “more typical of life in previous
centuries.”93 It is clear that developing nations lack the
adaptive capacities of wealthier nations. However, as the
Director-General of the WHO Dr. Margaret Chan points
Borneo’s rain forests remain a continual source of conflict be- infectious diseases will undoubtedly limit the possible
tween indigenous groups and the Malaysian government.
http://image09.webshots.com/9/6/54/63/154565463AtuoZW_ the quality of life for humans throughout the world.
fs.jpg
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out, “vulnerability is universal.”94
The CSIS argues that the developed world will face
numerous environmental-related dilemmas, including
endemic disease. The IPCC indicates in its AR4 Synthesis
Report from 17 November 2007 that with the advent of
global climate change, transformations will occur in the
vectors of infectious diseases, causing the introduction
of diseases to populations lacking the medicine and
natural immunity to survive.95 The World Meteorological
Organization, the United Nations Environment
Programme, and the WHO sponsored the book, Climate
Change and Human Health – Risks and Responses,
that explicitly outlines the impact of environmental
degradation on the health of humankind. In the sixth
chapter titled Climate Change and Infectious Diseases,
it is made clear that “climatic conditions affect
epidemic infections” and, moreover, this is not a new
phenomenon. The question is not whether climate
change will affect the spread of infectious diseases, but
rather what can we do to mitigate the great risks posed
to the world’s population.
Environmental degradation and the spread of
various infectious diseases are assuredly linked, but for
some, the last connection to national security remains
tenuous. Some may argue that this issue is being
handled and should be handled by bodies such as the
World Health Organization and the United Nations
Environment Programme. Making climate change a
national security issue, it is argued, only distracts from
the true goal of national security in dealing with violent
conflict. However, with the end of the Cold War, and the
fear of mutually assured destruction largely mitigated,
a redefined concept of national security should and
must be created. Now, more than ever, it is important
to look at national security in terms of the individual’s
well-being. It is becoming increasingly apparent that
environmental degradation and the increased spread of
disease take more lives than armed conflict. In a multi-
polar world in which non-traditional threats to national
security are gaining prominence, Ullman and Romm’s
definition of an environmental security threat must be
adopted. Global climate change’s effect on the spread of
policy choices for nations and significantly degrade
Beyond the fact that pandemic disease could wipe out
Specialized Agencies 27
 Security Council

tens of millions of lives without the push of a trigger, pain in the joints, diarrhea, and repeated vomiting.97
such a humanitarian crisis would divert the attention of Malarial parasites are transmitted through the bite of an
military personnel and effectively weaken the power of infective female Anopheles mosquito (vector) and further
military forces used to handle traditional security issues cases of malaria can arise through congenital transmission
of armed conflict. Ultimately, the Security Council was and exposure to infected blood products.98 Each year, 350
established to maintain international peace and security, to 500 million people are infected and one million are
as directed by Article 24 of the United Nations Charter. unsuccessfully treated and die.99 Of those who die, 80%
The most effective way to accomplish this task is to are from sub-Saharan Africa.100 In the developed world,
prevent the breaching of peace and security in the first the implementation of water and case management, the
place. Fortunately, dealing with a security issue driven improvement of housing and socioeconomic conditions,
by environmental degradation, the opportunity for and a focus on vector-control helped to interrupt
eliminating the cause of the dilemma is considerable. the transmission of malaria by the middle of the 20th
However, with millions of lives at stake and the ability Century.101 However, the capacity for preventing and
of the developing world to control outbreaks severely controlling this disease in developing nations is vastly
limited, the Security Council must deal with this issue inferior. Once environmental degradation is added to the
swiftly. equation, the limited adaptive capacity of the developing
Although the World Health Organization and the world will be highlighted while risks will be opened to the
United Nations Environment Programme are primary citizens of developed nations. Not only will environmental
forces in preventing and limiting the spread of diseases, the degradation cause the malarial vector to shift, the limited
Security Council must provide support when considering supply of food, water, and land, especially in Africa, causes
diseases that could infect tens of millions of people and conflict over resources and the displacement of millions of
consequently strain tensions between nations struggling people. Twenty-six million people were displaced in 2007
to protect their respective citizens. To provide focus for alone by resource wars and the situation will only worsen
the member states of the Council, it is appropriate to as supplies dwindle. These displaced peoples are often
focus attention on one especially destructive, but
treatable disease that may pose a grave security threat
in the near future. Malaria provides only a glimpse
into the new and transforming diseases the world
must increasingly address. However, it does reveal
a clear picture of how environmental degradation
affects the spread of disease and what implications
this has for the well-being of people throughout the
world. The limited adaptive capacity and instability
of neighboring developing nations will have grave
implications for the health of their people and
the citizens of the developed world. By presenting
the possible shifts in location and prevalence of
this disease, as well as its predicted affects on both
developing and developed nations, hopefully some
light will be shed on how the Security Council can
improve the impending situation.
Currently, Plasmodium falciparum is the most
Global warming may shift the vector of malaria and even help
life threatening of the four species of malarial parasites
transform the disease, exposing previously unexposed and thus
and it is responsible for a majority of malarial deaths in
extremely vulnerable populations to the malarial parasites.
developing countries.96 The symptoms of malaria are
http://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/+2004/williams-mosquito.jpg
characterized by headache, backache, fever, shivering,

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 Security Council

forced into regions abandoned because of malaria and, nations will only become more ineffective while the
under terrible living conditions, die at rates higher than developed world becomes more concerned about its citizens
the victims of the conflicts that caused them to flee.102 and reduces aid contributions to those in greatest need.
In Climate Change and Infectious Diseases, the The health implications of environmental degradation,
World Health Organization indicates that malaria is which both degrade the quality of life of individuals and
“probably the vector-borne disease most sensitive to constrict the range of policy options, certainly have the
long-term climate change.”103 Destructive agricultural potential to spark international confrontations. It will be
practices, deforestation, and water development the responsibility of the Security Council to establish the
projects have increased the prevalence of malaria in the tools necessary to avoid such conflict and ensure peace
developing world.104 Moreover, high altitude regions that and security worldwide. Moreover, with potentially tens
have normally been protected from malaria due to low of millions of lives in the balance, Member States should
temperatures and thus inhospitable environments for consider formulating future responses to health crises.
vector development will be increasingly at risk.105 The rise Certainly legitimate concerns arise out of organizational
in global temperatures due conflict with the work
to climate change will performed by other
“The feeble health systems of developing
introduce malaria to international bodies such
nations will only become more ineffective
populations that have as the WHO and UNEP,
while the developed world becomes more
never been exposed and but it will be a significant
concerned about its citizens and reduces
thus lack the organization, task for the Security
aid contributions to those in greatest
resources, and immunity Council to determine
need”
to fight the disease. The when the binding
world has already seen the decisions of the body must
affects of higher global be exercised to protect the
temperatures with the shifting of the mosquito vector lives of countless innocents.
to cooler environments of the African highlands.106 The
CLIMEX model (a statistical based model to show the Conflicts Regarding Resource Scarcity
“climatic constraints… for various vector-borne diseases”)
of Sutherst and others indicates that the malaria vector of G lobal demand for water, food, timber, and energy
is increasing at an unsustainable rate. Explosive
Australia could extend its reach 330 km south.107 Moreover, population growth and the spread of industrialization
in the expected climate change scenario outlined by the have combined to drastically increase the demand for
CSIS in the Age of Consequences, an increased frequency resource-intensive commodities.113 The development of
in heavy rainfall events and more intense storms is global climate change has and will continue to seriously
predicted.108 These extreme climatic events are closely impede the world’s ability to provide clean water and
linked to the spread of malaria. In the Punjab region of the food. Nations throughout the Middle East and Southwest
Indian subcontinent, it was determined that the malaria Asia utilize the Tigris-Euphrates, Indus, and Jordan River
epidemic increased five times in the year after El Niño basins. This area, likely to be inhabited by one billion
hit.109 Finally the malaria vector may, in order to adapt people by 2050, has experienced disputes over water for
to increased temperatures, undergo microevolution.110 centuries and the likelihood of future conflict is strong.
In a study performed by Bradshaw and Holzapfel, it was African nations from Sierra Leone to Angola have been
determined that the pitcher-plant mosquito can adapt embroiled in tragic conflict over timber and minerals for
genetically in response to the longer growing seasons decades. Finally, regarding energy, mounting military
produced by climate change.111 Diseases like malaria forces in the Middle East, a permanent United States
have been around for centuries and with increased military infrastructure in the Persian Gulf, Russian forces
global temperatures, the natural processes of mutation in the Caspian Sea basin, and a strong Chinese presence
and bolstered resistance to antimicrobials will only be in the South China Sea, lead to the one conclusion that it
accelerated.112 The feeble health systems of developing is only a matter of time before conflict rages over oil.114

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 Security Council

Struggles of African Nations The foreboding future of Africa is made more

T he Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC) asserts in its AR4 Synthesis Report from 17
November 2007, that global climate change is unequivocal
and clearly predicts disastrous effects for Africa. By 2020,
75 to 250 million people will struggle to get sufficient
amounts of water. By the same year, the predicted drastic
decrease in agricultural production (up to 50%) will
“further adversely affect food security and exacerbate
malnutrition.” Nearing the 22nd century, the rise in sea
level may force 5 to 10% of GDP to be used to adapt to
the dangers posed to low-lying coastal areas. Finally, the
amount of arid and semi-arid land will increase by 5 to
8% by 2080.115
ominous by the conflicts over resources that have already
existed for centuries. Major sources of water throughout
Africa are shared by two or more countries and with
demand surpassing the dwindling supply, conflict is
highly plausible. The situation is exacerbated by the fact
that resource scarcity may put stress on the already existing
dilemmas of ethnic tensions, poverty, migration, and
weak governmental institutions.116 Both the increase in
population and industrialization of developing nations will
cause further tension over sources of water. The situation
is particularly acute in the Nile Basin. The Nile reaches
nine countries before exiting to the sea. As Egypt is the
last country to receive water from the Nile before entering

With a diminishing supply of water for nine nations, the Nile River Basin is a likely source of future conflict over scarce
resources.
http://mapmaker.rutgers.edu/355/nile_basin_lrg.gif

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the Mediterranean, it is firmly against the construction
of dams on the upper Nile. Thirty years ago, Egyptian
President Anwar el-Sadat proclaimed, “The only matter
that could take Egypt to war again is water.” However,
Cold War needs limited conflict between Egypt, Ethiopia,
and Sudan. With the end of the Cold War and dramatic
increases in the populations of nations all along the Nile,
the likelihood of a peaceful solution, such as a region-
wide development plan, seems difficult to achieve.117 To
avoid or prepare for conflict, the Security Council should
remain aware of such strained regions.
Past UN Actions
A s environmentalism is a relatively recent movement
from the 1960s, the concept of environmental security
has only been considered in national and international
politics for a few decades. A significant beginning may be
found with the “Earth Day” established by Gaylord Nelson
in 1970. Although involving millions of Americans, this
monumental environmental demonstration revealed the
United States’ recognition of the significance of global
climate change to the international community. Two
years later in Stockholm, Sweden, the issue was clearly
recognized on a global scale at the United Nations
Conference on the Environment. Decades before this,
conferences concerning the conservation and equitable
distribution of resources were held, but beginning with
the conference at Stockholm, environmental issues
were earnestly and formally considered. In fact, the
United Nations Conference on the Environment led to
the establishment of the United Nations Environment
Programme. The Stockholm conference also recognized
the importance of involving NGOs and fostering North-
South cooperation.
In 1983, the United Nations General Assembly
created the World Commission on Environment and
Development. Four years later, the Commission produced
the report Our Common Future that suggested policy
options for dealing with increased industrialization,
population growth, heightened energy utilization, and
food scarcity. Most importantly, the report emphasized the
necessity of sustainable development. The United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development of 1992
furthered the Commission’s efforts and offered solutions
that attempted to address the concerns of developing and
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developed nations.118
The negotiations of the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development led to
the Kyoto Protocol of 1997. This document involved
developed nations reducing six types of greenhouse gas
emissions by 5.2 percent. Moreover, greenhouse gas levels
would be cut to 1990 levels by 2012. Although 182
nations are a part of the Kyoto Protocol, the United States
has not ratified because the document does not require
developing countries to significantly reduce emissions.119
As the 2012 benchmark quickly approaches, little time
remains to negotiate a Kyoto successor. Fortunately, a
number of UNFCCC Conference of Parties and Meetings
of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol have occurred since
1997 in order to be prepared to create a document in
December 2009 in Copenhagen. Although the Kyoto
Protocol was a critical international step in fighting global
climate change, it was still just the first, and the UNFCCC
has recognized the importance of developing a successor
to the agreement. The Protocol went beyond simply
encouraging certain measures, as the UNFCCC has done,
and committed members to specific targets for greenhouse
gas emission reductions.120 As the Security Council has
the power to bind Member States to the provisions of its
resolutions, representatives may wish to consider creating
operatives that would ensure participating nations abide
by commitments to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
This regulatory power of the Council will certainly be a
controversial and significant issue to discuss within a body
that has heretofore avoided the issue of environmental
security.
Since the Stockholm conference, nearly one
hundred multilateral conventions have been created
that cover topics from sea and air pollution to the
utilization of nuclear materials. Problems have occurred
with nations failing to ratify conventions and it remains
difficult to observe, analyze, and enforce the requirements
of the conventions. However, emerging international
environmental law will increasingly aid in ensuring that all
nations participate in the mitigation of climate change.121
The UNEP works to further develop and implement
these laws that stress the importance of cooperative
action in meeting the challenges posed by environmental
degradation. Moreover, tens of thousands of NGOs, from
Greenpeace to Friends of the Earth, have been critical in
complementing the work accomplished by international
Specialized Agencies 31
 Security Council

conferences and the United Nations. South Asia’s bilateral water accords, and the North
The European Union, the Organization for American Free Trade Agreement’s (NAFTA) side
Economic Cooperation and Development, the African agreements) have all been created in the last two decades
Union, the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation, and the and firm conclusions would be presumptuous. Thus far,
North Atlantic Treaty Organization have all been involved
however, progress has been made. The Aral Sea accords
in lessening environmental degradation. Moreover, the have seen the reduction of tensions in Central Asia
World Bank, the International Labour Organization, despite water scarcity and ethnic differences. At the same
the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural time, the observation is made that while regional stability
Organization, the International Maritime Organization,is bolstered by bilateral water accords, these agreements
the United Nations Development Programme, the World do little to alleviate intra-societal disputes. Ultimately,
Health Organization, and the Food and Agricultural Conca and Dabelko conclude that “the mere existence of
Organization discuss environmental issues.122 cooperation is less important than the content, scope, and
In its first and last debate on the subject, the Security
orientation of that cooperation.”123
Council discussed the impact of climate change on peace An important analysis surrounds the fact that different
and security in April 2007. Although no resolution wasregions require different methods of cooperation. In the
formed, the Council began an important discussion on the
Aral and Caspian cases, intergovernmental environmental
issue of environmental security. Developing nations failed
cooperation was found to create more robust trans-
to see the role the Security Council could and should play
societal linkages. On the other hand, the southern African
in an issue already dealt with by so many international
and South Asian cases draw little connection between
organizations, with arguably more professional expertise.
intergovernmental dynamics and the improvement of
However, small island nations, the developed world, trans-societal bonds. The situation, however, may improve
and Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon acknowledged the with a focus on sustainable watershed management rather
security implications of climate change and recommended
than water-sharing agreements. Finally, in the Baltic case,
the Council to continually review the matter. Althoughthere seems to be simply an “interplay of trans-societal
developing countries desired to frame the topic as a and intergovernmental channels” in which states respond
sustainable development issue, the purpose of presenting
to societal changes and the strategic climate at the same
the Security Council with the dilemma was based on time.124
the security implications of global climate change. The Ultimately, environmental cooperation does not
Representative of the United Kingdom, who called for the
necessarily produce peace, but leaders should keep the
meeting, stressed the importance of addressing the risks of
wide range of methods of environmental cooperation in
resource scarcity and environmental refugees. Ultimately,
mind. Environmental peacemaking efforts from various
the Security Council’s debate on this issue revealed the
nations, the European Union, and NGOs should be
necessity and difficulty of properly identifying security
the model for what the Security Council can support.
threats. Developed and developing nations, North and South,
must work together to look beyond traditional security
Proposed Solutions threats and see the potential of policies focusing on
Expanding the Range of Policy Choices: Methods of environmental peacemaking and cooperation. In an
Environmental Peacemaking increasingly interdependent world, it is critical that

I n “The Problems and Possibilities of Environmental the South’s concerns are discussed and addressed in a
Peacemaking,” Ken Conca and Geoffrey D. Dabelko productive dialogue between North and South.
outline the successful paths from environmental
125

cooperation to peace. The authors warn that the cases Enforcement

analyzed (the Aral Sea accords, the Southern African
Development Community (SADC) protocol on water- A
primary difficulty in realizing environmental
cooperation rests upon the enforcement of
courses, the Caspian Environmental Program (CEP), environmental peacemaking agreements. The People’s
Republic of China’s representative to the Security Council

Harvard WorldMUN 2010 Specialized Agencies 32


stated in the first-ever debate on the impact of climate
change on peace and security that “the developing
countries believe that the Security Council has neither
the professional competence in handling climate change
– nor is it the right decision-making place for extensive
participation leading up to widely acceptable proposals.”
Citation.He argued that the Kyoto Protocol and the
UNFCCC had provided sufficient principles for nations
to follow in limiting environmental degradation. However,
as the representative from Papua New Guinea indicated,
global climate change is just as dangerous to small islands
as bombs are to large countries. The Security Council may
be needed to ensure that all nations contribute to halting
the degradation of the environment. As was pointed out
by the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Slovakia, Security
Council resolution 1625 calls for the Council to respond
to the root causes of threats to peace and security.126 With
the increasing scarcity of resources and the escalating
frequency and strength of natural disasters due to global
climate change, conflict is imminent. The UNSC must
act.
The Kyoto Protocol was severely undermined by the United
States’ refusal of ratification.
http://www.macalester.edu/environmentalstudies/students/
projects/citizenscience2008/cleandevmechanism/images/
kyoto%2520protocol-jj-001.jpg
Harvard WorldMUN 2010
Security Council
Questions a Resolution Must
Answer
1) In what ways, if any, can the Security Council aid
states, regional bodies, and international organizations in
mitigating climate change?
2) What mechanisms should the Security Council
implement to appropriately react to conflict over resource
scarcity?
3) How can the concept of environmental peacemaking
be used to link environmental cooperation and future
stability and peace?
4) In what ways, if any, should the Security Council
aid the World Health Organization in preparing for an
increased spread of infectious disease?
5) What should the Council’s role be in encouraging
technological developments that would help to avoid
nearly inevitable conflict over limited supplies of oil?
6) How can weak or failing states, such as those found
in Africa, be protected from conflict over scarce water
sources?
7) Given the commitments garnered in the Copenhagen
talks, how can the Security Council best help ensure
all nations do their part in the mitigation of climate
change?
Key Actors and Positions
T he primary blocs are divided between developing
nations and developed ones. The position of the
“Group of 77” developing countries was clearly articulated
in the Security Council’s first debate on the impact of
climate change on peace and security. On 17 April 2007,
the Chinese representative to the Security Council argued
against discussing the topic of global climate change
believing the Council did not have the “professional
competence” and was not the correct venue by which
“extensive participation” should take place. Speaking
on behalf of developing countries, China indicated that
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change and the Kyoto Protocol were sufficient in
dealing with this issue primarily focused on sustainable
development. Pakistan added to China’s statements,
arguing that discussion of climate change within the
Security Council constituted an infringement on the
authorities of the General Assembly and the Economic
and Social Council.
Specialized Agencies 33

On the other side of the spectrum, Papua New
Guinea, speaking on behalf of the Pacific Islands Forum,
emphasized the security implications of global climate
change. The representative related that environmental
degradation would soon pose risks as threatening as
conventional weaponry and would create numerous
environmental refugees. Papua New Guinea, however,
does not expect the Security Council to get involved in
current climate change negotiations and simply desires
the Council to keep the issue in mind and ensure that
all nations comply with their duties to improve the
situation.
As a developed nation, Singapore recognized that
although the developing world would be hardest hit
by climate change, developed countries would also be
at risk. Thus, Singapore’s representative stated that the
developed world needs to participate in stopping what
“we are ourselves are responsible for.” Ultimately, the only
successful effort to halt and reverse the effects of climate
change would involve the collaboration of all nations.127
Going along more specific geographical lines,
African nations will most likely be exposed to armed
conflict over resource scarcity. With already weak and
failing states, the strain on the environment will only
exacerbate tensions between and within nations. By
2050, possibly 250 million people will face water scarcity
and food production could be cut in half.128 Conflict
already exists in the Nile Basin between Egypt, Sudan,
and Ethiopia, while tragic violence has been exhibited
in Sierra Leone and Angola. Climate change’s affect
on the availability of food and water will make future
conflict nearly certain. Africa is in desperate need of the
international community’s cooperation and the Security
Council’s involvement concerning climate change.
Even the developed nations of Europe and North
America will face more frequent and intense heat waves
and wildfires.129 Some nations throughout the world
may experience benefits in the short-term. However, in
the long-term, all countries will suffer.130 Conflicts and
humanitarian crises in developing nations will put pressure
on the supplies and military forces of the developed world.
Countries from all blocs must come together to arrest
climate change and eliminate a significant threat to peace
and security.
Considering a new concept of national security
within the framework of environmental degradation, the
Harvard WorldMUN 2010
Security Council
World Health Organization (WHO) plays a key role in
improving human well-being. If an environmental security
threat constitutes the dramatic decrease in the quality of
life of a nation’s citizenry, then the WHO must work
with the Security Council and the entire international
community to mitigate the risks posed by global climate
change. In particular, the WHO may provide expertise
concerning climate change’s effect on the proliferation of
disease.
The United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) is an essential organization in tackling a
significant root cause of conflict and social and political
crises. The UNEP’s struggle with climate change began
in the late 1980s when the UNEP worked with the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) to create
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
The UNEP also gave support to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
which came into effect in 1994. More specifically, the
UNEP has increased the monitoring and assessment of
global climate change, helped nations incorporate clean
energy techniques and technologies, and aided adaptation
work in the developing world. Moreover, projects of the
UNEP work to help the private sector and governments
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, accomplish regional
and national environmental goals, and mitigate risks to
communities and ecosystems.131
As aforementioned, the IPCC is a crucial partner
in understanding and responding to the effects of
global climate change. From 1990 to the present, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has produced
four assessments regarding the science of climate change,
the impact of environmental degradation, and possible
solutions. The IPCC provided critical information for the
Kyoto Protocol and it continues to aid negotiations of the
UNFCCC.132
Suggestions for Further
Research
T o adequately address this issue, you will have to first
look at the academic battle over the redefinition of
national security. Depending on your nation’s perspective
of climate change’s effect on security issues, particular
authors may be helpful in providing strong theoretical
arguments throughout debate. Daniel Deudney’s “The
Specialized Agencies 34
 Security Council

Case Against Linking Environmental Degradation and mac.com/rhanzich, and I urge you to contact with me
National Security” and Mark Levy’s “Is the Environment with helpful sites, reports, and articles you find during
a National Security Issue?” reveal a view common your research so I can share these resources with the entire
with most developing nations in that environmental Council. I look forward to working with you to learn
degradation poses different security risks that should be more about the national security implications of climate
handled by other bodies of the United Nations. However, change in the months ahead.
this topic has been discussed by the Security Council in
2007 and will be on the table at WorldMUN 2010. Thus,
it is clear that the international community is seriously
considering the concept of environmental security. Lester Position Papers
Brown’s “Redefining National Security,” Joseph Romm’s
analysis in Defining National Security: The Nonmilitary T he previous discussion of Terrorism in the Middle
East and Environmental Security was only the
beginning to better understanding these crucial issues
Aspects, and Richard Matthew’s “Environmental Security:
Demystifying the Concept, Clarifying the Stakes” all facing our world in the 21st Century. In order to enhance
provide a powerful window into a world that increasingly our comprehension of underlying causes of the problems
faces nontraditional threats. Finally, in Environmental and to seek possible solutions, you will have to come to the
Peacemaking, by Ken Conca and Geoffrey D. Dabelko,
an argument is made for focusing on avenues from
environmental cooperation to lasting peace.
Moving from the theoretical to the practical,
you will find it particularly helpful to review the CNA
Corporation’s report “National Security and the Threat of
Climate Change” and the CSIS and CNAS’ “The Age of
Consequences: The Foreign Policy and National Security
Implications of Global Climate Change.” In regards to
the proliferation of disease, you should use Andrew T.
Price-Smith’s The Health of Nations: Infectious Disease,
Environmental Change, and Their Effects on National
Security and Development. Lastly, to fully comprehend
past and future conflicts over scarce resources, Michael T.
Klare’s Resource Wars is a necessity.
Apart from the wealth of information you can
find in your University’s libraries, you also have access
to invaluable sources on the Internet. The Institute for
Environmental Security, an NGO established in 2002,
maintains a website at envirosecurity.org. The Woodrow
Wilson International Center for Scholars is in and of itself
a great policy tool, but also provides links to programs
such as the Environmental Change and Security Program,
which is directed by the aforementioned Geoff Dabelko.
The United Nations provides a useful site at envsec.org,
pooling together the resources of UNEP, UNDP, NATO,
and other organizations. Further information can be Those in nations with less adaptive capacities will increas-
found at the site of the Harvard University Center for the ingly suffer from drought, famine, and conflict.
Environment and that of the Earth Policy Institute. Links http://hopeethiopia.org/images/famine-relief03.jpg
to all of these sites may be found at my own website, web.

Harvard WorldMUN 2010 Specialized Agencies 35


Security Council session prepared to discuss, negotiate,
and compromise. The quality of information you find
regarding your nation’s position on conflict within Israel
or the responsibility of the developed world in reducing
carbon emissions will be the true determinate of the
success of the conference.
In order to be prepared for debate in March, you
should conduct research within three basic sections for
each issue. The first must be an historical background of
the topics, recognizing the key sources of conflict and the
current dilemmas facing the international community.
China’s level of commitment to combating pollution and
reducing carbon emissions will be a large determinant of the
success of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol.
http://employees.oneonta.edu/allenth/environmental%20is-
sues/ChinaAirPollutionTracyAllen.JPG
Harvard WorldMUN 2010
Security Council
The second will be past national action, which should
shine light upon your nation’s actions domestically and
internationally concerning each issue. Finally, the most
important section, and thus the longest, will be your
country’s policies and proposed solutions. The delineation
of your nation’s plans, objectives, and principles will be
crucial for engaging debate and quality resolutions.
The three sections must be written within at least
one page (per topic), single-spaced, Times New Roman,
font size 12. Historical background and past national
actions should constitute one half of the page while your
solutions will take up the other half. Look to the Questions
a Resolution Must Answer section as a guideline for what
to address in your third section. If you have questions at
any point during the research process or while writing the
position paper, please feel free to contact me.
Closing Remarks
A fter reading this study guide, it is my sincere hope
that you not only have a greater understanding of
the serious implications of Terrorism in the Middle East
and Environmental Security, but that you are intrigued
by these complex issues and seek to find solutions to these
dilemmas even after our meeting in March. As we get
closer to that time, please check the committee website
to obtain updates discussing more recent developments.
Considering the volatility of the issues at hand, it will
be crucial that you stay abreast of the most current
developments. The quality of debate, working papers, and
resolutions will largely depend upon the effort you put
in before we all meet for the first time. Thank you very
much for reading this study guide, and I look forward to
learning much more from all of you in Taiwan!
Specialized Agencies 36

Endnotes
1 “The United Nations: An Introduction for Students.”
United Nations Cyberschoolbus. 2000. United Nations. 9 Oct.
2008 <http://cyberschoolbus.un.org/unintro/unintro4.htm>.
2 “Functions and Powers.” UN Security Council. United
Nations. 9 Oct. 2008 <http://www.un.org/docs/sc/unsc_functions.
html>.
3 “Main Bodies.” Main Bodies. United Nations. 9 Oct.
2008 <http://www.un.org/aboutun/mainbodies.htm>.
4 United Nations, Security Council, Resolution 1373
(2001) 3.
5 United Nations, Security Council, Resolution 1267
(1999) 3.
6 United Nations, Security Council, Resolution 1269
(1999) 2.
7 25 “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 3: State
8 Gilles Kepel, Beyond terror and martyrdom the future
of the Middle East (Cambridge, MN: The Belknap P of Harvard
UP, 2008) 2.Iraq Body Count, 22 Aug. 2009 <http://www.
iraqbodycount.org/>.9 Iraq Body Count, 22 Aug. 2009
<http://www.iraqbodycount.org/>.
10 “BBC NEWS | Middle East | ‘Huge rise’ in Iraqi death
tolls,” BBC NEWS | News Front 22 Aug. 2009 <http://news.bbc.
co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6040054.stm>.
11 Kepel, 8.
12 “BBC NEWS | Middle East | Timeline: Iraq after
Saddam,” BBC NEWS | News Front Page, 24 Aug. 2009 <http://
news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4192189.stm>.
13 “95 killed on Iraq’s deadliest day since U.S. handover
- CNN.com,” CNN.com - Breaking News, U.S., World, Weather,
Entertainment & Video News, 24 Aug. 2009 <http://www.cnn.
com/2009/WORLD/meast/08/19/iraq.violence/index.html>.
14 “The Origins of the Shi’a-Sunni Split : NPR,” NPR :
National Public Radio : News & Analysis, World, US, Music &
Arts : NPR, 24 Aug. 2009 <http://www.npr.org/templates/story/
story.php?storyId=7332087>.
15 “Religious Structures.” GlobalSecurity.org - Reliable
Security Information. 24 Aug. 2009 <http://www.globalsecurity.
org/military/world/iraq/religion.htm>.
16 “Islamic State of Iraq – an al Qaeda front -,” The Long
War Journal, 23 Aug. 2009 <http://www.longwarjournal.org/
archives/2007/07/islamic_state_of_ira.php>.
17 “State Department on Terrorism in the Middle East,
North Africa,” America - Engaging the World - America.gov, 23
Aug. 2009 <http://www.america.gov/st/texttrans-english/2008/Ap
ril/20080430121233eaifas0.4066278.html>.
18 “Profile: Al-Qaeda in Iraq (a.k.a. al-Qaeda in
Mesopotamia) -,” Council on Foreign Relations, 23 Aug. 2009
<http://www.cfr.org/publication/14811/>.
19 “State Department on Terrorism in the Middle East,
North Africa.”
20 Sam Dagher, “2 Blasts Expose Security Flaws in Heart
of Iraq,” The New York Times - Breaking News, World News &
Multimedia, 24 Aug. 2009 <http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/20/
Harvard WorldMUN 2010
Security Council
world/middleeast/20iraq.html?_r=3&ref=global-home>.
21 “Bombs in Baghdad: Blasted, again | The Economist.”
Economist.com. 23 Aug. 2009 <http://www.economist.com/daily/
news/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14256816&fsrc=nwl>.
22 “Foreign Policy,” OCTYPE html PUBLIC “-//W3C//
DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN” “http://www.w3.org/TR/
xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd” Welcome to the White
House, 23 Aug. 2009 <http://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/
foreign_policy/>.
23 “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 3: State
Sponsors of Terrorism,” U.S. Department of State, 24 Aug. 2009
<http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2008/122436.htm>.
24 “Profile: Al-Qaeda in Iraq (a.k.a. al-Qaeda in
Mesopotamia) -,” Council on Foreign Relations, 24 Aug. 2009
<http://www.cfr.org/publication/14811/>.
Sponsors of Terrorism.”
26 Dagher.
27 “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 3: State
Sponsors of Terrorism.”
28 United Nations, Security Council, Resolution 1701
(2006) 2, 4.
29 “UNIFIL: United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon,”
Welcome to the United Nations: It’s Your World, 24 Aug. 2009
<http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/unifil/>.
30 “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 5:
Terrorist Safe Havens (7120 Report)-- 5.1. Terrorist Safe Havens/
Strategies, Tactics, Tools for Disrupting or Eliminating Safe
Havens,” U.S. Department of State, 24 Aug. 2009 <http://www.
state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2008/122438.htm>.
31 “Al-Qaeda (a.k.a. al-Qaida, al-Qa’ida) -,” Council
on Foreign Relations, 24 Aug. 2009 <http://www.cfr.org/
publication/9126/>.
32 “BBC NEWS | South Asia | Country profiles | Timeline:
Afghanistan,” BBC NEWS | News Front Page, 24 Aug. 2009
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1162108.stm>.
33 “Al-Qaeda (a.k.a. al-Qaida, al-Qa’ida).”
34 “Killings Rattle Pakistan Taliban - WSJ.com.”
Business News & Financial News - The Wall Street Journal
- WSJ.com. 25 Aug. 2009 <http://online.wsj.com/article/
SB125103758449251853.html?mod=dist_smartbrief>.
35 “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 5:
Terrorist Safe Havens (7120 Report)-- 5.1. Terrorist Safe Havens/
Strategies, Tactics, Tools for Disrupting or Eliminating Safe
Havens,” U.S. Department of State, 24 Aug. 2009 <http://www.
state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2008/122438.htm>.
36 “BBC NEWS | South Asia | Country profiles | Timeline:
Afghanistan.”
37 “Israel, the West Bank and Gaza,” Welcome to Travel.
State.Gov, 24 Aug. 2009 <http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/
cis/cis_1064.html>.
38 “BBC NEWS | Middle East | Gaza conflict: Timeline,”
BBC NEWS | News Front Page, 25 Aug. 2009 <http://news.bbc.
co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7812290.stm>.
39 United Nations, Security Council, Resolution 1860
Specialized Agencies 37

(2009) 1.
40 “Middle East Israel - Palestinian Conflict TimeLine,”
Middle East: MidEastWeb, 25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.
mideastweb.org/timeline.htm>.
41 “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 2.
Country Reports: Middle East and North Africa Overview,” U.S.
Department of State, 24 Aug. 2009 <http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/
crt/2008/122433.htm>.
42 “Hamas -,” Council on Foreign Relations, 24 Aug. 2009
<http://www.cfr.org/publication/8968/>.
43 “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 2.
Country Reports: Middle East and North Africa Overview.”
44 “BBC NEWS | Middle East | Country profiles | Country
profile: Israel and Palestinian territories,” BBC NEWS | News
Front Page, 24 Aug. 2009 <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_
east/country_profiles/803257.stm>.
45 “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 2.
Country Reports: Middle East and North Africa Overview.”
46 “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 5.
Terrorist Safe Havens (7120 Report) -- 5.3. Collaboration with
Saudi Arabia,” U.S. Department of State, 27 Aug. 2009 <http://
www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2008/122440.htm>.
47 Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee, Rep.,
26 May 2009, United Nations, 25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.un.org/
sc/ctc/pdf/CTC_joint_Statement_19may09.pdf>.
48 “Counter-Terrorism Committee,” Welcome to the
United Nations: It’s Your World, 25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.
un.org/sc/ctc/>.
49 United Nations, Security Council, Resolution 1373
(2001) 2-3.
50 “Counter-Terrorism Committee,” Welcome to the
United Nations: It’s Your World, 25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.
un.org/sc/ctc/aboutus.html>.
51 “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 5:
Terrorist Safe Havens (7120 Report)-- 5.1. Terrorist Safe Havens/
Strategies, Tactics, Tools for Disrupting or Eliminating Safe
Havens.”
52 “Counter-Terrorism Committee.”
53 “UN Action to Counter Terrorism,” Welcome to the
United Nations: It’s Your World, 25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.
un.org/terrorism/cttaskforce.shtml>.
54 “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 5:
Terrorist Safe Havens (7120 Report)-- 5.1. Terrorist Safe Havens/
Strategies, Tactics, Tools for Disrupting or Eliminating Safe
Havens.”
55 “About UNAMI,” Welcome to UNAMI Web Portal for
UN Agencies Working in Iraq! 25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.uniraq.
org/aboutus/aboutus.asp>.
56 “Security Council extends UN mission in Iraq for
one more year,” Welcome to the United Nations: It’s Your
World, 25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.
asp?NewsID=31714&Cr=Iraq&Cr1=>.
57 “Mandate,” United Nations Assistance Mission in
Afghanistan, 25 Aug. 2009 <http://unama.unmissions.org/
Default.aspx?tabid=1742>.
Harvard WorldMUN 2010
Security Council
58 “UNIFIL: United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon,”
Welcome to the United Nations: It’s Your World, 25 Aug. 2009
<http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/unifil/>.
59 Gilles Kepel, Beyond terror and martyrdom the future
of the Middle East (Cambridge, MN: The Belknap P of Harvard
UP, 2008) 273-274.
60 Jack Snyder, From Voting to Violence: Democratization
and Nationalist Conflict (New York: W. W. Norton & Company,
Inc., 2000) 19.
61 Auriana Ojeda, Current Controversies - The Middle
East (paperback edition) (Current Controversies) (New York:
Greenhaven P, 2003) 29.
62 Middle East Partnership Initiative, 26 Aug. 2009
<http://mepi.state.gov/>.
63 “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 5:
Terrorist Safe Havens (7120 Report)-- 5.1. Terrorist Safe Havens/
Strategies, Tactics, Tools for Disrupting or Eliminating Safe
Havens.”
64 “Al-Qaeda (a.k.a. al-Qaida, al-Qa’ida) -,”
65 “Profile: Al-Qaeda in Iraq (a.k.a. al-Qaeda in
Mesopotamia).”
66 “The Taliban in Afghanistan -,” Council on
Foreign Relations, 26 Aug. 2009 <http://www.cfr.org/
publication/10551/>.
67 “Hezbollah (a.k.a. Hizbollah, Hizbu’llah) -,” Council
on Foreign Relations, 26 Aug. 2009 <http://www.cfr.org/
publication/9155/>.
68 “Hamas -.”
69 Bernstein, Lenny, et al. Climate Change 2007:
Synthesis Report. Valencia: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, 2007, 2.
70 Bernstein, 11-12.
71 Campbell, Kurt, et al. (2007)”The Age of
Consequences: The Foreign Policy and National Security
Implications of Global Climate Change.” Center for Strategic &
International Studies, and Center for a New American Security.
Washington, DC. 8.
72 Campbell, 6-9.
73 United Nations. Security Council. Department of Public
Information. Security Council Holds First-Ever Meeting on
Impact of Climate Change on Peace, Security. 17 Apr. 2007. 12
July 2009 <http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/sc9000.
doc.htm>.
74 MacInnis, Laura. “Annan Optimistic About Climate
Pact Prospects.” Reuters AlertNet 23 June 2009. AlertNet. 12
July 2009 <http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/LN1823.
htm>.
75 Obama, Barack H. “A New Strategy for a New World.”
Washington, D.C. 15 July 2008.
76 Ibid.
77 Matthew, Richard A. “Environmental Security:
Demystifying the Concept, Clarifying the Stakes.” 14-20.
78 Romm, Joseph J. Defining National Security. Council
on Foreign Relations P, 1993, 36.
79 Sullivan, Gordon R., et al. National Security and the
Specialized Agencies 38
 Security Council

Threat of Climate Change. Alexandria: The CNA Corporation, Nursing Journal 15 (2007).
2007, 13. 113 Klare, 15.
80 Campbell, 7. 114 Klare, 28-191.
81 Klare, Michael T. Resource Wars: the New Landscape 115 Bernstein, Lenny, et al. Climate Change 2007:
of Global Conflict. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2001: Synthesis Report. Valencia: Intergovernmental Panel
27-32. on Climate Change, 2007, 11.
82 Klare, 81. 116 Claussen, Eileen. “Environment and Security:
83 Ibid, 110. the Challenges of Integration.” Woodrow Wilson Center’s
84 Ibid, 29. Environment and Security Discussion Group. International
85 Ibid, 153. Conference on Climate Change. Woodrow Wilson Center,
86 Klare, 138-185. Washington, D.C. 27 July 1994: 40.
87 Ibid, 190-205. 117 Klare, 138-159.
88 Campbell, 29. 118 Matthew, “Environmental Security”:16.
89 Campbell, 29-33. 119 Knight, Matthew. “A Timeline of Climate Change
90 Chan, Margaret. The World Health Report 2007: a Science.” Cnn.Com/Technology. 2008. CNN. 12 July 2009
Safer Future. World Health Organization. Geneva: World Health <http://www.cnn.com/2008/TECH/science/03/31/Intro.timeline/
Organization, 2007, vi. index.html>.
91 Ibid. vi. 120 “Kyoto Protocol.” UNFCCC. United Nations. 13 July
92 Millen, Joyce V., Alec Irwin, and Jim Y. Kim. Dying for 2009 <http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php>.
Growth: Global Inequality and the Health of the Poor. Monroe: 121 Matthew, “Environmental Security”: 15.
Common Courage P, 2000. 608. 122 Ibid, 16.
93 Ibid. 608. 123 Conca, Ken, and Geoffrey D. Dabelko. Environmental
94 Chan, Margaret. The World Health Report 2007: a Peacemaking. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center P,
Safer Future. World Health Organization. Geneva: World Health 2002. 220-222.
Organization, 2007, vi. 124 Conca, 229-230.
95 Bernstein, Lenny, et al. Climate Change 2007: 125 Ibid, 230-232.
Synthesis Report. Valencia: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 126 United Nations. Security Council. Department of Public
Change, 2007, 3. Information. Security Council Holds First-Ever Meeting on
96 “Malaria Background Information.” Internet Journal of Impact of Climate Change on Peace, Security. 17 Apr. 2007. 12
Infectious Diseases 4. July 2009 <http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/sc9000.
97 Ibid. doc.htm>.
98 Thwing, Julie, et al. “Malaria Surveillance - United 127 Ibid.
States, 2005.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 56 (2007): 128 Bernstein, 11.
23. 129 Ibid, 11.
99 Ibid. 24. 130 Campbell, 8.
100 Ibid. 24. 131 “UNEP and Climate Change.” United Nations
101 Thwing, Julie, et al. “Malaria Surveillance - United Environment Programme. UNEP. 12 July 2009 <http://www.
States, 2005.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 56 (2007): unep.org/Themes/climatechange/UNEPCC/index.asp>.
24. 132 “About IPCC.” Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
102 “War Fever: Malaria in Conflict.” BBC 25 Apr. 2008. Change. IPCC. 12 July 2009 <http://www.ipcc.ch/about/index.
12 July 2009 <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7365573. htm>. Bibliographic Essay
stm>.
103 World Health Organization, Climate Change and
Human Health (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2003) 112.
104 Ibid. 119.
105 Ibid. 119.
106 Ibid. 108.
107 Ibid. 115.
108 Campbell, 42.
109 World Health Organization, Climate Change and
Human Health (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2003) 112-
113.
110 Ibid. 108.
111 Ibid. 108.
112 “Infectious Diseases a World Threat.” Australian

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 Security Council

Bibliographic Essay
Topic Area A

Key Actors
“Al-Qaeda &#40;a.k.a. al-Qaida, al-Qa&#039;ida&#41; -.” Council on Foreign Relations. 24 Aug. 2009 <http://www.cfr.org/
publication/9126/>.
“BBC NEWS | Middle East | Country profiles | Country profile: Israel and Palestinian territories.” BBC NEWS | News Front Page. 25
Aug. 2009 <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/803257.stm>.
“Hamas -.” Council on Foreign Relations. 25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.cfr.org/publication/8968/>.
“Hezbollah &#40;a.k.a. Hizbollah, Hizbu&#039;llah&#41; -.” Council on Foreign Relations. 26 Aug. 2009 <http://www.cfr.org/
publication/9155/>.
“Islamic State of Iraq ? an al Qaeda front -.” The Long War Journal. 23 Aug. 2009 <http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2007/07/
islamic_state_of_ira.php>.
“Israel, the West Bank and Gaza.” Welcome to Travel.State.Gov. 24 Aug. 2009 <http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1064.
html>.
Middle East Partnership Initiative. 26 Aug. 2009 <http://mepi.state.gov/>.
“Profile: Al-Qaeda in Iraq &#40;a.k.a. al-Qaeda in Mesopotamia&#41; -.” Council on Foreign Relations. 23 Aug. 2009 <http://www.
cfr.org/publication/14811/>.
“The Taliban in Afghanistan -.” Council on Foreign Relations. 26 Aug. 2009 <http://www.cfr.org/publication/10551/>.

News Articles
“BBC NEWS | Middle East | ‘Huge rise’ in Iraqi death tolls.” BBC NEWS | News Front Page. 22 Aug. 2009 <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/
hi/middle_east/6040054.stm>.
“Bombs in Baghdad: Blasted, again | The Economist.” Economist.com. 23 Aug. 2009 <http://www.economist.com/daily/news/
displaystory.cfm?story_id=14256816&fsrc=nwl>.
Dagher, Sam. “2 Blasts Expose Security Flaws in Heart of Iraq.” The New York Times - Breaking News, World News & Multimedia.
24 Aug. 2009 <http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/20/world/middleeast/20iraq.html?_r=3&ref=global-home>.
“Killings Rattle Pakistan Taliban - WSJ.com.” Business News & Financial News - The Wall Street Journal - WSJ.com. 25 Aug. 2009
<http://online.wsj.com/article/SB125103758449251853.html?mod=dist_smartbrief>.
“Security Council extends UN mission in Iraq for one more year.” Welcome to the United Nations: It’s Your World. 25 Aug. 2009
<http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=31714&Cr=Iraq&Cr1=>.
“95 killed on Iraq’s deadliest day since U.S. handover - CNN.com.” CNN.com - Breaking News, U.S., World, Weather, Entertainment
& Video News. 24 Aug. 2009 <http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/08/19/iraq.violence/index.html>.
“OCTYPE html PUBLIC “-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN” “http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.
dtd” Foreign Policy.” OCTYPE html PUBLIC “-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN” “http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/
xhtml1-transitional.dtd” Welcome to the White House. 23 Aug. 2009 <http://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/foreign_policy/>.

Reports and Analysis

“Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 5. Terrorist Safe Havens (7120 Report) -- 5.3. Collaboration with Saudi Arabia.” U.S.
Department of State. 27 Aug. 2009 <http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2008/122440.htm>.
“Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 5: Terrorist Safe Havens (7120 Report)-- 5.1. Terrorist Safe Havens/Strategies,
Tactics, Tools for Disrupting or Eliminating Safe Havens.” U.S. Department of State. 24 Aug. 2009 <http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/
crt/2008/122438.htm>.
“Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 3: State Sponsors of Terrorism.” U.S. Department of State. 24 Aug. 2009 <http://www.
state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2008/122436.htm>.
“Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 Chapter 2. Country Reports: Middle East and North Africa Overview.” U.S. Department of State.
25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2008/122433.htm>.
Iraq Body Count. 22 Aug. 2009 <http://www.iraqbodycount.org/>.
Kepel, Gilles. Beyond terror and martyrdom the future of the Middle East. Cambridge, MN: The Belknap P of Harvard UP, 2008.
Ojeda, Auriana. Current Controversies - The Middle East (paperback edition) (Current Controversies). New York: Greenhaven P,
2003.
“The Origins of the Shi’a-Sunni Split : NPR.” NPR : National Public Radio : News & Analysis, World, US, Music & Arts : NPR. 24
Aug. 2009 <http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7332087>.

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 Security Council

“Religious Structures.” GlobalSecurity.org - Reliable Security Information. 24 Aug. 2009 <http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/

world/iraq/religion.htm>.
Snyder, Jack. From Voting to Violence: Democratization and Nationalist Conflict. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2000.
“State Department on Terrorism in the Middle East, North Africa.” America - Engaging the World - America.gov. 23 Aug. 2009
<http://www.america.gov/st/texttrans-english/2008/April/20080430121233eaifas0.4066278.html>.
“What’s the Difference Between Shi’a and Sunni Muslims?” About.com Islam. 22 Aug. 2009 <http://islam.about.com/cs/divisions/f/
Shi’a_sunni.htm>.

Timelines
“BBC NEWS | Middle East | Gaza conflict: Timeline.” BBC NEWS | News Front Page. 25 Aug. 2009 <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
middle_east/7812290.stm>.
“BBC NEWS | Middle East | Timeline: Iraq after Saddam.” BBC NEWS | News Front Page. 24 Aug. 2009 <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/
hi/middle_east/4192189.stm>.
“BBC NEWS | South Asia | Country profiles | Timeline: Afghanistan.” BBC NEWS | News Front Page. 24 Aug. 2009 <http://news.
bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1162108.stm>.
“Middle East Israel - Palestinian Conflict TimeLine.” Middle East: MidEastWeb. 25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.mideastweb.org/timeline.
htm>.

United Nations
“About UNAMI.” Welcome to UNAMI Web Portal for UN Agencies Working in Iraq! 25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.uniraq.org/aboutus/
aboutus.asp>.
“Counter-Terrorism Committee.” Welcome to the United Nations: It’s Your World. 25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/aboutus.
html>.
“Mandate.” United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan. 25 Aug. 2009 <http://unama.unmissions.org/Default.
aspx?tabid=1742>.
Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee. Rep. 26 May 2009. United Nations. 25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/pdf/
CTC_joint_Statement_19may09.pdf>.
“UN Action to Counter Terrorism.” Welcome to the United Nations: It’s Your World. 25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.un.org/terrorism/
cttaskforce.shtml>.
“UNIFIL: United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon.” Welcome to the United Nations: It’s Your World. 25 Aug. 2009 <http://www.
un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/unifil/>.
United Nations. Security Council. Resolution 1269. 1999.

Topic Area B

Health Security Concerns

Chan, Margaret. The World Health Report 2007: a Safer Future. World Health Organization.
Geneva: World Health Organization, 2007.
“Infectious Diseases a World Threat.” Australian Nursing Journal 15 (2007).
“Malaria Background Information.” Internet Journal of Infectious Diseases.
Millen, Joyce V., Alec Irwin, and Jim Y. Kim. Dying for Growth: Global Inequality and the
Health of the Poor. Monroe: Common Courage P, 2000. 608.
Thwing, Julie, et al. “Malaria Surveillance - United States, 2005.” Morbidity and Mortality, Weekly Report 56 (2007).
“War Fever: Malaria in Conflict.” BBC 25 Apr. 2008. 12 July 2009
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7365573.stm>.
World Health Organization, Climate Change and Human Health (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2003).

National Security Defined

Claussen, Eileen. “Environment and Security: the Challenges of Integration.” Woodrow Wilson Center’s Environment and Security
Discussion Group. International Conference on Climate Change. Woodrow Wilson Center, Washington, D.C. 27 July 1994.
Matthew, Richard A. “Environmental Security: Demystifying the Concept, Clarifying the Stakes.”
Obama, Barack H. “A New Strategy for a New World.” Washington, D.C. 15 July 2008.

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 Security Council

Romm, Joseph J. Defining National Security. Council on Foreign Relations P, 1993.

Predictions and Proposals for Climate Change Crisis

Campbell, Kurt, et al. (2007)”The Age of Consequences: The Foreign Policy and National Security Implications of Global Climate
Change.” Center for Strategic & International Studies, and Center for a New American Security. Washington, DC.
Conca, Ken, and Geoffrey D. Dabelko. Environmental Peacemaking. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center P, 2002. 220-222.
Klare, Michael T. Resource Wars: the New Landscape of Global Conflict. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2001.
Knight, Matthew. “A Timeline of Climate Change Science.” Cnn.Com/Technology. 2008. CNN. 12 July 2009
MacInnis, Laura. “Annan Optimistic About Climate Pact Prospects.” Reuters AlertNet 23 June 2009. AlertNet. 12 July 2009 <http://
www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/LN1823.htm>.
Sullivan, Gordon R., et al. National Security and the Threat of Climate Change. Alexandria: The CNA Corporation, 2007.

United Nations
“About IPCC.” Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC. 12 July 2009 <http://www.ipcc.ch/about/index.htm>.
Bernstein, Lenny, et al. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Valencia: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007.
“Kyoto Protocol.” UNFCCC. United Nations. 13 July 2009 <http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php>.
“UNEP and Climate Change.” United Nations Environment Programme. UNEP. 12 July 2009 <http://www.unep.org/Themes/
climatechange/UNEPCC/index.asp>.
United Nations. Security Council. Department of Public Information. Security Council Holds First-Ever Meeting on Impact of Climate
Change on Peace, Security. 17 Apr. 2007. 12 July 2009 <http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/sc9000.doc.htm>.

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