P

AVAl L ABI L l TY I S UNL I MI TED. DOCUMENT MAY B E REL EASED

T O T HE NATI ONAL TECHNI CA L I NFORMATI ON SERVI CE,
SPRI NGFI EL D, VI RGl Nl A 22151, FOR SA L E T O T HE PUBL I C.
1. Report No. 2. Government Accessi on No. I 3. Reci pi ent ' s Cat al og No.
4. Ti t l e and Subt i t l e
At mospher i c Tr ansmi ssi on Handbook: A Sur vey
of El ect r omagnet i c Wave Tr ansmi ssi on i n t he
Eart h' s At mospher e Over t he Fr equency ( Wave-
l engt h) Range 3 kHz ( 100 km) - 3, 000 THz
(0. 1 pm)
I Techni cal Report
5. Report Dat e
February 1971
. 6. Performi ng Organization Code
TER
14. Sponsoring Agency Code
Space Admi ni st r at i on
Washi ngt on, DC 20546
15. Supplementary Not es
7. Author(s)
Wi l l i amI . Thompson, I 11
9. Performing Or gani zat i on Name and Address
U. S, Depar t ment of Tr anspor t at i on
8. Perf ormi ng Organi zat i on Report No.
DOT- TSC- NASA- 71- 6
10. Work Uni t No.
- 164- 21- 10- 05- 25
Tr anspor t at i on Syst ems Cent er
Cambr i dge, MA 02142
11. Cont ract or Grant No.
13. Type of Report and Per i od Covered
17. Key Words
. Eart h- t o- Space Pat hs 0 I nf r ar ed
*Tr ansmi ssi on Fundament al s - Vi si bl e
*Tr ansmi ssi on Pr oper t i es . Radi o
. Transmi ssi on I nf or mat i on *Mi cr owave
*Pr opagat i on
*Ul t r avi ol et
18. Di st r i but i on Statement
Uncl assi f i ed - Unl i mi t ed
19. Securi t y Cl assi f . (of t hi s report)
Uncl assi f i ed
20. Securi t y Cl assi f . (of t hi s page) 21- No. of Pages 22. Pr i ce .
Uncl assi f i ed 1 300
CONTENTS
Sect i on
Page
PART I . ATMOSPHERI C TRANSMI SSI ON FUNDAMENTALS
1, l Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Transmi ssi on Pri nci pl es. . e e e e e . e e e
1.3 Concl usi ons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1
6
2. 0 CHARACTERI STI CS OF ELECTROMAGNETI C WAVES . a . a . e 6
2. 1 Summar y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2. 2 Wave Vel oci t y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2. 3 Frequency and Wavel engt h . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Space- Ti me Rel at i onshi p. . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 Pol ari zat i on 11
2.6 Rays and Wavef ront s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. 7 Spheri cal Waves and t he I nverse- Square Law . , e 13
2. 8 Fi el d I nt ensi t y and Power Densi t y. e e . . e . 16
2.9 Di spersi on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3. 0 THE ELECTROMAGNETI C SPECTRUM- e e e e e e e e e 18
3.1 Summar y. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2 El ect romagnet i c Spect rumNot at i on. . e . e e . 18
3. 3 Frequency Spect rumChart s. . . . e a e 18
3. 4 El ect romagnet i c Frequency Management e e . , . e 26
4. 0
GUI DE TO ATMOSPHERI C DATA, a e . e e . e e .
26
4- 1
4, 2
4. 3
4. 4
4. 5
4.6
4* 7
4, 8
Summar y, . e e . e e e . , e e e 26
Types of At mospheri c Data. . e . e m e 29
Bi bl i ographi es and Revi ews e (. e e e e 30
Books. e e o a o i. e e e e e s e e o a o m o e 32
Per i odi cal s, e a e (. e e e e e e 40
I nf ormat i on Cent ers, . e e e e * . . 42
Gl obal Dat a. I) a e e e e a e e e e e e 43
Comput at i onal Ai ds e . e e e e (. e , e 44
PART 11. ATMOSPHERI C TRANSMI SSI ON SOURCEBOOK
5. 0 I NFORMATI ON RETRI EVAL, e e -, - . e e e e e 45
45
46
5- 1 I nt roduct i on e e . e e e . a e e e
5. 2 I nf ormat i on Cent er s, a e e e e . e
i i i
CONTENTS ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page
46
51
52
53
53
59
59
5e3 BOOkSe e e a o e e e e e e e e e e e e e e o e
5,4 Per i odi cal s, e a e e e * e a e e e
5.5 Report s and Theses a e . e a a . e e e
5.6 Symposi ums and Conf erences e e e e I) e e e
5.7 Comput at i onal Ai ds e e e e e e . e e a e e
5.8 Pat ent s, a e e e e a e e e e e . a e e e . ,
6.0 I NFORMATI ON SOURCES FOR THE RADI O REGI ON e e a e e .
6. 1 I nt roduct i on e e e . e e . a a e . . , . a . ,
6.2 Bi bl i ographi es e e e . e e e e e e . e . e
6.3 R e v i e w s . . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ * ~ ~ ~ * . ~ . * . ~ . ~
6.4 Books. . * . e e * . - . e a * . e
6.5 Peri odi cal s. . . a e . a e e e e . e . e .
6.6 I nf ormat i on Cent ers. . e e a . e . . . . e .
6.7 Comput at i onal Ai ds e e e . e e e e . e . e e
7.0 I NFORMATI ON SOURCES FOR THE OPTI CAL REGI ON e e a e e
7.1 I nt roduct i on e . . e e . e . e e e . a e
7.2 Bi bl i ographi es e . e e e . e . a e * .
7.3 Revi ews. . e . . e . . e e e . e . . e .
7.4 Books. . e o . e * . . e e e . . . . . e . e
7.5 Peri odi cal s. e . a e . e . . , . . e e e
7.6 I nf ormat i on Cent ers. . . , . e e . e e
7.7 Comput at i onal Ai ds e . e e e . e e e . . e
PART 111. ATMOSPHERI C TRANSMI SSI ON DATA
8,1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8 45
8.6
8.7
8,8
8,9
8.10
I nt roduct i on e e e e a e e . e e . e e e
Compl ex I ndex of Ref ract i on. e e e a
Di spersi on e e e e . a . e e e e e e e a
Typi cal Ray Pat h Traj ect ory i n a
Transat mospheri c Pat h. a a e . .I a e e e e e
Regul ar I onospheri c Ref ract i on e e e .
Tropospheri c and I onospheri c Ref ract i on
Errors at 555 kmAl t i t ude. e e e .I a e
Opt i cal Ref ract i ve Modul us of t he
Troposphere. e e I) a e e e e e e e e
Radi o Ref ract i ve Modul us of t he
Troposphere. . , e e e e
Vert i cal Pr of i l es of Ref ract i ve Modul us.
Ast ronomi cal Ref ract i on: Measurement s and
Theor y. e e e e
59
60
60
60
109
109
109
109
109
112
113
113
154
154
154
157
157
157
159
159
162
164
164
166
168
171
i v
CONTENTS ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page
8. 11 A Nomogramf or At mospheri c Radi o Ref r act i on, e 172
8. 12 Opt i cal Ast ronomi cal Ref ract i on. . a e e e 178
8. 13 Comment s on I rregul ar Ref ract i on .) e e a e e e 178
8- 14 Summary. * . . . , e e e e e e . 180
9 e 0 ABSORPTI ON
9. 1 I nt r oduct i on e e e e . . e . e e . . . * e . 181
9. 2 Rel at i ve Transparency of t he Eart h' s At mospher e, 181
9. 3 Absorpt i on Coef f i ci ent s. a . e . . . . e . . 183
9. 4 I onospheri c Absorpt i on . . a . . e e e - . . , . 185
9. 5 Gaseous Absorpt i on . e . . . e e . e . . . a . 190
9. 6 At mospheri c Aerosol s . . . . . . , e . . e . e . 228
9. 7 At mospheri c Hydromet eors e . . . e - . . . e . 230
10. 0 SCATTERI NG
10. 1 I nt roduct i on . e . e . . e . e . e e . e . . 232
10. 2 Scat t eri ng Coef f i ci ent s. . e . a . . . e . a . 232
10. 3 Rayl ei gh Scat t eri ng Coef f i ci ent s . e . e . e . 234
10. 4 Mi e Scat t eri ng Coef f i ci ent s. e . . e . e . e . e 237
10, 5 I onospher i c Scat t eri ng . . e . e . . . . . . . 238
10. 6 Tr opospher i c Scat t eri ng. e . . e . , . . . e . 239
10. 7 At mospheri c Hydromet eor Scat t eri ng a . . e . . 240
10. 8 At mospheri c Aerosol Scat t eri ng . . . e . . . , e e 242
REFERENCES
Chapt er 1 e . e . e . . . e * . . e e * . . e a 244
Chapt er 2 * . . . * . . . , e e a a e . . * . o . e 245
Chapt er 3 . . . e * . e e e . . . e e . e * . e 245
Chapt er 4 . e I) e e e e e a e . e ' e e e 246
Chapt er 5 e . . e e e . e e e e e 253
Chapt er 6 e e a e e . e e * . 257
Chapt er 7 a . e e . , . . , a e . e e 264
Chapt er 8 . e e a e e e 270
Chapt er 9 e e e e * . e e e . e . 274
Chapt er l o. . e e e e e . e e e e 288
V
PREFACE
Thi s survey i s t he r esul t of a r equest of A. M. Greg Andr us,
J ohn J . Kel l eher*, J ul es Lehmann, and Theodore George of t he
Nat i onal Aeronaut i cs and Space Admi ni st rat i on Headquart ers. I t
was compi l ed whi l e t he aut hor was wi t h t he f ormer NASA El ect roni cs
Research Cent er i n Cambr i dge, Massachuset t s.
The basi c t ask was t o l ocat e and col l ect i nf ormat i on on t he
el ect romagnet i c propert i es of t he eart h' s at mosphere as t hey re-
l at e t o eart h- t o- space propagat i on pat hs. Thi s i nf ormat i on was t o
be present ed i n handbook f ormf or ready ref erence. The present
document are an at t empt t o f ul f i l l t hi s requi rement and i n addi -
t i on poi nt t o hundreds of ot her sources of pert i nent i nf ormat i on.
I wi sh t o acknowl edge t he suggest i ons, comment s and encourage-
ment of George G. Haroul es** and Al f red C. Hol l and*** of t he
El ect roni cs Research Cent er i n t he f ormul at i on and preparat i on of
t hi s handbook. I woul d al so l i ke t o t hank J udi t h Hubbard of
Shrewsbury Hi gh School , Shrewsbury, Massachuset t s, f or her proof -
readi ng ef f ort s.
Wi l l i amI . Thompson I 11
U,S. Depart ment of Transport at i on
Transport at i on Syst ems Cent er
Cambr i dge, MA 02142
February 5, 1971
*Nowwi t h Nat i onal Sci ent i f i c Laborat or, i es, I nc. , McLean, VA
**Nowwi t h DOT Transport at i on Syst ems Cent er , Cambri dge, MA
***Now wi t h t he NASA Wal l ops St at i on, Wal l ops I sl and, VA
vi i
PART I . ATMOSPHERI C TRANSMI SSI ON FUNDAMENTALS
1. 0 OVERVI EW
1. 1 SUMMARY
Thi s handbook present s mat eri al on el ect romagnet i c wave
t ransmi ssi on i n t he eart h' s at mosphere wi t h emphasi s on eart h-
t o- space pat hs up t o J anuary 1970. Thi s t ype of i nf ormat i on i s
needed i n such vari ed f i el ds as ai r pol l ut i on, ast ronomy, communi -
cat i ons, eart h r esour ces, geodesy, met eorol ogy, and navi gat i on.
Par t I present s basi c background i nf ormat i on deal i ng wi t h
t ransmi ssi on f undament al s, t he propert i es of el ect romagnet i c
waves, t he el ect romagnet i c spect rum, and t he eart h' s at mosphere.
Par t I 1 i s a gui de t o i nf ormat i on on t he t ransmi ssi on
propert i es of t he eart h' s at mosphere t o el ect romagnet i c radi at i on.
A maj or f eat ure of Par t I 1 i s t he l i st i ng of t abl es of cont ent s
of several books and maj or art i cl es on at mospheri c t ransmi ssi on.
Par t I 11 cont ai ns sel ect ed t ransmi ssi on i nf ormat i on on t he
f ol l owi ng observabl e quant i t i es: ref ract i on, absorpt i on, and
scat t eri ng.
Par t I V i s a bi bl i ography t o be publ i shed i n a separat e
vol ume ent i t l ed At mospheri c Transmi ssi on Bi bl i ography 1960- 1969:
A KWI C I ndex of El ect romagnet i c Wave Transmi ssi on i n t he Eart h' s
At mosphere Over t he Frequency ( Wavel engt h) Range 3 kHz ( 100 km)
- 3, 000 THz (0. 1 pm). The bi bl i ography covers t he f requency
regi ons: r adi o, mi cr owave, i nf rared, vi si bl e, and ul t ravi ol et .
Ther e i s a l i st i ng of ci t at i ons by l ocal accessi on number , a key
word i n cont ext i ndex ( KWI C) or permut ed t i t l e i ndex, and an
aut hor i ndex.
1. 2 TRANSMI SSI ON PRI NCI PLES
1. 2. 1 I nt roduct i on
A good r evi ewof r adi o wave propagat i on as i t rel at es t o
space communi cat i ons i s f ound i n Krassner and Mi chael s, ( ref . 1).
The probl emof space communi cat i on has recent l y been revi ewed on
several NASA cont ract s by Hughes ( r ef , 2) and Bel l Tel ephone
Laborat ori es ( ref . 3 ) . I n most cases i t i s t he i nverse of t rans-
mi ssi on or at t enuat i on whi ch i s consi dered. I n physi cs, at t enua-
1
t i on i s any process i n whi ch t he f l ux densi t y ( or power , ampl i -
t ude, i nt ensi t y, i l l umi nance, et c, ) of a "par al l el beam" of
energy decreases wi t h i ncreasi ng di st ance f romt he energy source.
At t enuat i on i s al ways due t o t he act i on of t he t ransmi t t i ng
medi umi t sel f ( mai nl y by absor pt i on and scat t eri ng) . I t shoul d
not be appl i ed t o t he di ver gence of t he f l ux due t o di st ance
al one, as descri bed by t he i nverse- square l aw ( Sect i ons 2. 7,
2.8) a
The space r at e of at t enuat i on of el ect romagnet i c r adi at i on
i s cust omari l y descri bed by Bouguer' s l aw ( Sect i on 1.2-2)
al t hough t hi s l awhas been quest i oned by Rozenberg ( ref . 4 ) . I n
met eorol ogi cal opt i cs t he at t enuat i on of l i ght i s cust omari l y
t ermed ext i nct i on ( ref . 5).
1. 2. 2 Bouguer' s Lawof Tr ansmi ssi on
Bouguer' s l aw ( or Beer' s l aw, somet i mes cal l ed Lambert ' s
l awof absorpt i on) i s a r el at i onshi p descri bi ng t he r at e of
decrease of f l ux densi t y of a pl ane- paral l el beamof monochr o-
mat i c r adi at i on as i t penet rat es a medi umwhi ch bot h scat t er s
and absor bs at t hat wavel engt h. Thi s l awmay be expressed:
or
wher e I h i s t he f l ux densi t y of t he r adi at i on and ah i s t he
at t enuat i on coef f i ci ent ( or ext i nct i on coef f i ci ent ) of t he
medi umat wavel engt hh; I h, i s t he f l ux densi t y at t he sour ce,
and x i s t he di st ance f romt he sour ce ( See Fi go 1- 1).
Thi s l awwas f i r st est abl i shed experi ment al l y by Bouguer
i n 1960. At a l at er dat e, Beer appl i ed i t t o t ransmi ssi on of
l i ght t hrough a t urbi d l i qui d. The l awwas redi scovered by
Lambert .
Rozenberg ( r ef , 4) has recent l y di scussed t he l i mi t at i ons
of Bouguer' s l awt o at mospheri c opt i cs. ( See Sect i on 10. 8).
1. 2. 3 Uni t s f or Expressi ng Tr ansmi ssi on
Vari ous uni t s used t o descr i be t ransmi ssi on (or at t enuat i on)
of el ect romagnet i c waves ar e present ed bel ow. An excel l ent der i -
vat i on of t hese basi c quant i t i es i s present ed i n Kraus (ref . 6).
2
Figure 1-1.- Absorbing medium (a) and attenuation of a wave
in it (b) I (After Krausp ref. 7) e
3
Def i ne t he f ol l owi ng symbol s:
I =observed f l ux densi t y (W m- 2 Hz-),
= f l ux densi t y at t he sour ce (W m- 2 Hz-) I
IO
T =opt i cal dept h or Nepers At t enuat i on, ( di mensi onl ess) .
Then t he f r act i onal at t enuat i on, y, i s def i ned by:
I t f ol l ows t hat f or an opt i cal dept h of uni t y t he f l ux densi t y
i s reduced t o l / e (36.8%) of i t s i ni t i al val ue ( Fi g. 1-1). Thi s
i s t he same as sayi ng t hat i n an opt i cal dept h of uni t y t he
f l ux densi t y has been decreased by 1 neper. Thus, f romEq. (1-3)
t he opt i cal dept h ( or at t enuat i on i n nepers) i s gi ven by
T = l n(I o/ I ) = 2.3 l og (Io/I)e
(1-4)
I n deci bel s t he at t enuat i on i s gi ven by
Deci bel At t enuat i on = 10 l og (I o/I ). ( 1- 5)
FromEq. (1-5) and Eq. (1-4) i t f ol l ows t hat
Deci bel At t enuat i on = 4.3 T * (1-6)
A number of val ues of f ract i onal absor pt i on, percent absorpt i on,
f ract i onal t r ansmi ssi on, percent t r ansmi ssi on, opt i cal dept h,
and deci bel s at t enuat i on ar e gi ven i n Tabl e 1- 1.
For exampl e, an absorbi ng cl oud t hat at t enuat es t he f l ux
densi t y t o 1 percent of i t s i nci dent val ue produces 20 deci bel
( dB) at t enuat i on, or has an opt i cal dept h of 4.6,
4
A I
CUCUO
n *
t;
h
2-
I
rl
v
0
0
rl
2-
0
0
rl
m w
e a 3 o o o o o
O m W d N m w l n
e a 3
0 .
m
m m
N l n m m m
m w m Q I m m
o w a 3 m m m m m
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
a . e . . e
rl
0 d o
m r l r l r l o o
c o r n * e 0
0 0 * 0 0 0
o w m
r l m r l
5
1,3 CONCLUSI ONS
I t seems appropri at e t o i ncl ude a bri ef summary at t hi s
poi nt . Sever al wor ks whi ch ar e especi al l y hel pf ul i n summari zi ng
present knowl edge i n vari ous f requency r egi ons wi l l be ment i oned.
Radi o Regi on ( 3 MHz - 3 THz; 100 m- 100 urn)
The mai n cause of el ect romagnet i c wave t ransmi ssi on
i rregul ari t i es i s absor pt i on by i onospheri c el ect rons and
pol ari zat i on r ot at i on caused by t he eart h' s magnet i c f i el d. Key
sources ar e Lawr ence, Li t t l e, and Chi ver s, 1964, ref . 7: Mi l l man,
1967, ref . 8, and var i ous chapt ers i n Val l ey, 19' 65, ref . 9
( out l i ned i n Sect i on 6. 4. 2).
The mai n causes of el ect romagnet i c wave t ransmi ssi on
i rregul ari t i es i n t he mi crowave- mi l l i met er wave r egi on
( 3 GHz - 3 THz; 10 cm- 100 pm) ar e r esonant absorpt i on by
at mospher i c oxygen and wat er vapor , and scat t eri ng by at mos-
pheri c hydromet eors. Key sour ces ar e Ker r , 1951, ref . 10;
At l as, et al . 1965, ref . 11; Hogg, 1968, r ef . 12; Lukes, 1968,
ref . 13; and Fowl er and LaGr one, 1969, ref . 14.
Opt i cal Regi on ( 3 THz - 3, 000 THz; 100 vrn - 0. 1 vm)
The mai n causes of at mospheri c degr adat i on of el ect ro-
magnet i c waves i n t he opt i cal r egi on are absorpt i on and scat t er-
i ng by mol ecul ar const i t uent s and scat t eri ng by aerosol s such as
smoke, f og, and haze part i cl es. Mol ecul ar absorpt i on i s t reat ed
i n Howar d, Gar i ng, and Wal t er , 1965, ref . 15; and Lukes, 1968,
ref . 13. A di scussi on of at t enuat i on by scat t eri ng i s cont ai ned
i n El t erman and Tool i n, 1965, ref . 16: and Lukes, 1968, ref . 13.
2. 0 CHARACTERI STI CS OF ELECTROMAGNETI C WAVES
2..1 SUMMARY
A wave i s an osci l l at ory mot i on of any ki nd, t he most
f ami l i ar bei ng waves on t he sur f ace of wat er. Sound waves, anot her
common exampl e, ar e vi br at i ons of t he ai r or of var i ous mat er i al
subst ances. Bot h wave t ypes i nvol ve mechani cal mot i on. El ect ro-
magnet i c waves are el ect ri c and magnet i c f i el d vari at i ons.
Al l waves are charact eri zed by t he propert y cal l ed propaga-
t i o n , The vi brat i ons at a part i cul ar poi nt i n space exci t e
si mi l ar vi brat i ons at nei ghbori ng poi nt s, and t hus. t he wave
t ravel s or pr opagat e s . The part i cul ar subst ance or space i n whi chi t
exi st s i s t he pr opagat i on medi um.
6
I t was demonst rat ed by Hei nri ch Hert z i n 1887 t hat el ect ro-
magnet i c energy i n t he f ormof r adi o waves can be t ransmi t t ed
i nt o space, He post ul at ed t hat when energy i s del i vered t o an
ant enna, t wo f i el ds ar e i nduced t herei n: an i nduct i on f i el d and
a r adi at i on f i el d. The i nduct i on f i el d, bei ng a pr oduct of t he
energy st ored i n t he syst em, exi st s onl y i n cl ose proxi mi t y t o
t he radi at or. The r adi at i on f i el d i s deri ved f romel ect ri c
f l ux l i nes est abl i shed by charges movi ng i n t he syst emand pre-
vai l s out t hrough f ree space.
The r adi at i on f i el d consi st s of t wo component s, i n- phase
i n t i me, but 90 out - of - phase i n ori ent at i on: t he el ect ri c ( E)
f i el d and t he magnet i c ( H) f i el d. The t wo component s suppor t
each ot her.
The t i me vari at i on of t he E f i el d i s equi val ent t o a hypo-
t het i cal cur r ent f l owwhi ch produces t he H f i el d, and t he
vari at i on of t he H f i el d i nduces a vol t age di f f er ent i al whi ch
i s i ndeed t he E f i el d. Fi gur e 2- 1 i l l ust r at es t he i nst ant aneous
r el at i ons of t he E and H f i el ds. Phase and ampl i t ude vary
coherent l y wi t h t i me accordi ng t o t he f requency of t he propagat ed
wave. The wavel engt h i nt er val A , i ndi cat ed i n Fi gur e 2- 1, i s
rel at ed t o f requency i n f r ee space, as f ol l ows:
C
X =T
wher e
X =wavel engt h, m,
e = 2. 9979~10~ m/ sec, phase vel oci t y of l i ght i n a vacuum,
f = f r equency, Hz.
These concept s ar e di scussed i n more det ai l bel ow.
2. 2 WAVE VELOCI TY
El ect romagnet i c waves t ravel i n f ree space* at approxi mat el y
186, 000 st at ut e mi l es per second. I n ot her propagat i on medi a
t hei r speed may be l ess, but ordi nari l y i t i s very hi gh compared
wi t h t he speeds of t hi ngs observabl e wi t hout speci al i nst rument s.
*Fr ee Space i s a t ermmuch used i n di scussi on of el ect r omagnet i c
waves, I t i mpl i es not onl y empt y space (a vacuum) but al so r e-
mot eness f romany mat eri al subst ances f romwhi ch waves may be
r ef l ect ed,
7
Fi gur e 2-1.- Spat i al r el at i onshi ps of a pl ane el ect romagnet i c
wave i n f ree space
I n t he gases of t he eart h' s normal at mospher e, i n f act , t he
speed i s onl y sl i ght l y l ess t han i n empt y space ( vacuum) , and
f or pract i cal purposes t he di f f erence i s negl i gi bl e except over
very l ong pat hs. Even t hen i t i s ordi nari l y permi ssi bl e t o use
t he f r ee- space vel oci t y f i gure f or cal cul at i ng how l ong i t wi l l
t ake a r adi o wave t o t ravel f romone poi nt t o anot her i n t he
at mosphere.
An i mpor t ant except i on t o t hi s st at ement occurs when waves
at cer t ai n r adi o f r equenci es t r avel i n t he i onospher e, a l ayer
of charged part i cl es ( i ons) l yi ng above t he eart h bet ween t he
hei ght s of about 40 and 200 mi l es. At very l owr adi o f r equenci es,
r adi o waves cannot penet rat e t he i onospher e; t hey are ref l ect ed
f romi t. At very hi gh f r equenci es, waves pass t hrough t he
i onosphere uni mpeded at t he same speed t hey woul d have i n empt y
space. But i n a cri t i cal i nt ermedi at e f requency r egi on, dependi ng
on i onospheri c condi t i ons ( whi ch vary consi derabl y f romday t o
ni ght and wi t h t he season and ot her f act ors) , t he wave vel oci t y
i n t he i onospher e may be di f f er ent t han i t i s i n vacuum.
The speed of el ect romagnet i c propagat i on i n a vacuumi s of
f undament al i mport ance. Thi s val ue, commonl y cal l ed t he "speed
of l i ght " i n vacuum, i s desi gnat ed by t he symbol e . The val ue
of e i s 186,283 st at ue mi l es per second, or 299,793 ki l omet er s
per second, rounded of f f or most purposes t o 186,000 mi l es per
second or 3 x 108 met er s per second,
The vel oci t y of propagat i on i s t he r at e of f l owof el ect ro-
magnet i c r adi at i on, and i s somet i mes def i ned f or vari ous si t ua-
t i ons as f ol l ows:
8
( a) Phase Vel oci t y: Of a t ravel i ng pl ane wave at a si ngl e
f r equency, t he vel oci t y of an equi phase surf ace al ong
t he wave normal . , Al so cal l ed phase speed, wave speed,
and wave vel oci t y.
( b) Group Vel oci t y: The vel oci t y of propagat i on of
el ect romagnet i c r adi ant energy i n a nondi spersi ve or
normal l y di spersi ve medi um. For a compl ex wavef orm,
group vel oci t y r ef er s t o t he vel oci t y of propagat i on
of t he beat s bet ween t he component f requenci es of t he
wavef orm.
( c) Si gnal Vel oci t y: The vel oci t y of propagat i on of a
si gnal . I n a nondi spersi ve or normal l y di spersi ve
medi um, si gnal and group vel oci t y are t he same. For
pure CW( cont i nuous wave) syst ems, ut i l i zi ng no
modul at i on, phase vel oci t y i s appl i cabl e.
2. 3 FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
The osci l l at i ons of waves are peri odi c, or repet i t i ous.
They are charact eri zed by a f r e q ue nc y , t he r at e at whi ch t he
peri odi c mot i on repreat s i t sel f , as observed at a part i cul ar
poi nt i n t he propagat i on medi um. Compl ex waves may cont ai n
more t han one f requency. The f requency i s expressed i n cyc2e. s
p e r s e c ond, a cycl e bei ng one f ul l peri od of t he wave. I n t he
I nt ernat i onal Syst emt he cycl e per second i s cal l ed a hert z
( abbrevi at i on, Hz) .
Chapt er 3 bri ef l y descri bes t he wi de range of f requenci es
and wavel engt hs cont ai ned i n t he el ect romagnet i c spect rum. A
si ngl e- f requency wave mot i on has t he f ormof a si nusoi d.
The wavel engt h of an el ect romagnet i c wave i s t he spat i al
separat i on of t wo successi ve "osci l l at i ons", whi ch i s equal t o
t he di st ance t hat t he wave t ravel s duri ng one si nusoi dal cycl e
of osci l l at i on. Ther ef or e, i f t he wave vel oci t y i s v met ers
per second and t he f requency i s f cycl es per second, t he wave-
l engt h i n met ers i s
As has been not ed, v may have di f f erent val ues i n di f f erent
propagat i on medi a. When t he val ue i n f ree space ( vacuum) I e ,
i s used i n Eq. 2- 2, t he resul t i ng val ue of X i s t he f r e e - s p a c e
wav e t e ngt h, somet i mes denot ed by A , , (Eq. 2- 1).
9
2. 4 SPACE- TI ME RELATI ONSHI P*
An el ect romagnet i c wave has t wo component s, an el ect ri c
f i el d and a magnet i c f i el d. Each component vari es si nusoi dal l y
i n t i me at a f i xed poi nt of space, wi t h t i me peri od T = l/f
seconds, wher e f i s t he f requency i n Hz. Al so at a f i xed i nst ant
of t i me t here i s a si nusoi dal var i at i on i n space al ong t he
di rect i on of pr opagat i on, wi t h spat i al peri od ( wavel engt h)
A =v/f met er s, wher e v i s t he vel oci t y of propagat i on i n met er s
per second ( Eq. 2-2). I n t erms of a Cart esi an coor di nat e sys-
t em( rect angul ar coordi nat es x, y I z ) I i f t he el ect ri c f i el d E
of t he wave i s represent ed by vect or s par al l el t o t he x- axi s and
t he wave i s propagat i ng i n f ree space i n a di rect i on paral l el t o
t he y- axi s, as shown i n Fi g. 2- 1, t he space- t i me rel at i onshi ps
f or a pZane wave are expressed by t he f ol l owi ng equat i ons:
271.2
Ex( z, t ) =Eo si n ( 2 ~ f t -
+ 4 )
2TZ
Hy( z, t ) = Ho si n (271. f t - + 4 )
( 2- 3)
The not at i on Ex( z, t ) i ndi cat es t hat E, i s a vect or paral l el
t o t he x- axi s and has a magni t ude t hat depends on t he val ues of
t he vari abl es z and t .
cal l ed t he ampZi t ude of t he wave, t hat E,(z,t) at t ai ns when
l si n (271. ft - 271. z/A + 9 ) I = 1, whi ch i n t ur n wi l l occur
peri odi cal l y at t i me i nt erval s of T = 1/ 2f at a f i xed poi nt and
at z- i nt erval s of A/2 ( hal f - cycl e and hal f - wavel engt h i nt erval s) .
The paramet er 4 i s t he i ni t i al phase angl e of t he wave; t hat i s,
at t = 0 and z = 0, Ex( z, t ) has t he val ue Eo si n $ e
st at ement s appl y t o Hy( z, t ) . Fi gur e 2- 1 port rays t hese r el at i on-
shi ps schemat i cal l y.
The paramet er Eo i s t he maxi mumval ue,
Si mi l ar
As shownl bot h t he el ect ri c and magnet i c component s of t he
wave ar e "i n phase" i n spacep t hat i s, t hei r maxi ma and mi ni ma
occur f or t he same val ues of z , They ar e al so i n phase i n t i me,
at a f i xed val ue of z . However , t hey are bot h di rect ed at r i ght
angl es t o each ot her and t o t he di rect i on of pr opagat i on, a
rel at i onshi p t hat t hey al ways bear t o each ot her i n f ree- space
propagat i on. The desi gnat i on pZane wave means t hat t he pat t ern
shown, al t hough descri bed as exi st i ng onl y al ong t he z- axi s,
act ual l y exi st s everywhere i n space, t he wave vect ors at any
poi nt ( x r y r z ) bei ng exact l y l i ke t hose at t he poi nt ( O, O, z )
At a f i xed val ue of z t here i s no vari at i on of t he f i el d i n t he
"Af t er Le V. Bl ake, r ef , 1.
10
x and y- di r ect i ons, t hat i s, i n an xy- pl ane at t he poi nt z ;
hence t he name pl ane wave. ( Not al l el ect romagnet i c waves ar e
pl ane. A pl ane wave i s an i deal i zat i on never perf ect l y r eal i zed,
but i n pract i ce waves may of t en be consi dered pl ane, wi t h smal l
error and wi t h gr eat si mpl i f i cat i on of mat hemat i cal descri pt i on) .
The mot i on of t he wave may be vi sual i zed by i magi ni ng t hat
t he ent i r e set of f i el d vect or s, not onl y t hose shown but al so
t hose at al l ot her val ues of x and y, i s movi ng i n uni son i n
t he posi t i ve z- di r ect i on at vel oci t y c = 3 x 108 met er s per
second. An obser ver at a f i xed poi nt woul d see a si nusoi dal
t i me vari at i on of bot h E and H. On t he ot her hand, i f he coul d
somehow ( magi cal l y) "f r eeze" t he mot i on and t ake measur ement s of
E and H al ong t he z- axi s, he woul d obser ve t he pat t ern i n
Fi g. 2- 1.
2. 5 POLARI ZATI ON*
The pl ane wave shown i n Fi g. 2- 1 i s l i n e a r l y p o l a r i z e d ;
t hat i s, t he el ect ri c vect or has a part i cul ar di r ect i on i n space
f or al l val ues of , z, i n t hi s case t he x- axi s di rect i on. The
wave i s t heref ore sai d t o be pol ari zed i n t he x- di rect i on. I n
act ual space above t he ear t h, i f t he el ect r i c vect or i s ver t i cal
or l i es i n a vert i cal pl ane, t he wave i s sai d t o be vert i cal l y
pol ari zed; i f t he E- vect or l i es i n a hori zont al pl ane, t he wave
i s sai d t o be hori zont al l y pol ari zed. ( I t i s convent i onal t o
descri be pol ar i zat i on i n t er ms of t he E- vector).
The i ni t i al pol ari zat i on of a r adi o wave i s det ermi ned by
t he ant enna t hat l aunches t he waves i nt o space. The pol ar i zat i on
desi r ed, t her ef or e, i s one of t he f act or s ent eri ng i nt o ant enna
desi gn. I n some appl i cat i ons a part i cul ar pol ari zat i on i s pre-
f er abl e; i n ot her s i t makes l i t t l e or no di f f erence.
El ect romagnet i c waves ar e not al ways l i nearl y pol ari zed.
I n c i r c u l a r p o l a r i z a t i o n t he el ect ri c vect or of a wave i s
rot at i ng about t he z- axi s ( di rect i on of propagat i on) so t hat t he
wave advances wi t h a scr ewmot i on, maki ng one f ul l r ot at i on f or
each wavel engt h i t advances. Ext endi ng t he anal ogy wi t h a scr ew
t hread f ur t her , t he r ot at i on may be cl ockwi se or count er cl ockwi se,
correspondi ng t o ri ght - hand- ci rcul ar and l ef t - hand- ci rcul ar
pol ari zat i ons. A ci rcul arl y pol ari zed wave r esul t s when t wo
l i nearl y pol ari zed waves ar e combi ned, t hat i s, i f t hey ar e
si mul t aneousl y l aunched i n t he same di r ect i on f romt he same
ant enna, provi ded t hat t he t wo l i near pol ari zat i ons are at r i ght
angl es t o each ot her and t hei r phase angl es ( t he angl e (p i n Eqs,
2- 3 and 2- 4) di f f er by 90 degr ees or ~r/ 2 r adi ans, The r i ght - hand
Af t er L. V. Bl ake, ref . , 1.
*
11
or l ef t - hand r ot at i on depends on whet her t he phase di f f erence
i s pl us or mi nus. For t rue ci rcul ar pol ari zat i on i t i s necessary
al so t hat t he t wo l i nearl y pol ari zed component s be of equal
ampl i t ude. I f t hey ar e of di f f er ent ampl i t udes, eZZipticaZ
p o z a r i z a t i o n resul t s.
The pol ari zat i on i s random when t here i s no f i xed pol ari za-
t i on or pat t ern of pol ari zat i on- vari at i on t hat i s r epet i t i ve
al ong t he z- axi s, an ef f ect present i n l i ght waves emi t t ed f rom
an i ncandescent sour ce (e. g. , t he sun or an el ect ri c l i ght bul b).
I t i s sel domobserved i n man- made r adi o emi ssi ons, but t hese
waves woul d r esul t i f t wo i ndependent l y randomsour ces of r adi o
noi se ( used i n r adi o and r adar mi l i t ary count er measur es, or
"j ammi ng") ar e connect ed t o ri ght - angl e- pol ari zed el ement s of
a si ngl e ant enna.
Li near pol ari zat i on i s by f ar t he most commonl y empl oyed.
Ci rcul ar pol ari zat i on i s empl oyed f ai rl y of t en at t he very hi gh
f requenci es. I
2. 6 RAYS AND WAVEFRONTS"
Because t he det ai l ed st ruct ure of an el ect romagnet i c wave
i s i nvi si bl e, i t s nat ure can be det ermi ned onl y by i ndi rect
met hods. Di agr ams such as Fi g. 2- 1 ar e not t rul y pi ct ori al ;
t hey are purel y schemat i c, man- concei ved schemes of represent i ng
cert ai n aspect s of t he waves, namel y, t he magni t ude var i at i ons
of t he E and H component s. Anot her such scheme ut i l i zes t he
concept of r ays and wavef r ont s as an ai d i n i l l ust rat i ng t he
ef f ect of vari at i ons i n t he propagat i on medi um ( i ncl udi ng di s-
cont i nui t i es) on t he pr opagat i on of waves.
A r a y i s a l i ne dr awn al ong t he di r ect i on of propagat i on
of a wave. The z- axi s i n Fi g. 2- 1 i s an exampl e of a ray. Any
l i ne dr awn paral l el t o t he z- axi s i n t hi s di agrami s al so a r ay,
si nce t he wave i s pl ane and has t he same di r ect i on anywhere.
Ther ef or e, i f t he wave i s pl ane, t here i s no poi nt i n drawi ng
mor e t han one r ayl f or t hey ar e al l al i ke.
A wavef ront i s a surf ace of const ant phase of t he wave.
As ment i oned i n connect i on wi t h Fi g. 2- 1, such sur f aces ar e
pl anes perpendi cul ar t o t he di r ect i on of propagat i on when t he
wave i s pl ane. As al so ment i oned, not al l waves ar e pl ane. I n
f act , i n t he vi ci ni t y of t he sour ce f romwhi ch waves ar e emanat i ng
(an ant enna, f or exampl e) , r at her compl i cat ed wavef r ont s may exi st .
Of part i cul ar i mpor t ance, and onl y sl i ght l y more compl i cat ed t han
a pl ane wave, i s t he spheri cal wave. Any "poi nt " sour ce of waves
*Af t er L. V. Bl ake, ref . 1.
12
i n f r ee space wi l l gener at e a spheri cal wave, as i s readi l y
deduced f romt he f act t hat i f a cer t ai n part of t he wave t ravel s
out ward f roma poi nt , at t he same speed i n a11 di r ect i ons, i t
wi l l , af t er t ravel i ng a di st ance R, def i ne t he surf ace of a
sphere of r adi us R, wi t h i t s cent er at t he poi nt of or i gi n of
t he waves . ,
I n f ree space, at a suf f i ci ent di st ance f roma sour ce of
el ect romagnet i c waves f or t he si ze of t he source t o be very
smal l compared t o t he di st ance, t he wavef r ont s wi l l be spher i cal ,
t hat i s, t he sour ce may be consi dered equi val ent t o a poi nt
source. The syst emof r ays and wavef r ont s generat ed by a poi nt
source i s shown i n Fi g. 2-2.
I t i s appar ent t hat t he wavef ront s here ar e spher i cal
( appeari ng as ci rcl es i n t hi s t wo- di mensi onal dr awi ng) and t hat
al l t he r ays ar e di vergi ng f romt he common cent er or source.
But i f a smal l port i on of a spheri cal wave, at a gr eat di st ance
f romi t s sour ce, i s consi der ed, t hi s smal l port i on wi l l be
approxi mat el y pl ane. For exampl e, consi der a cubi c r egi on of
space, shown dot t ed i n Fi g. 2-2 near t he mi d- port i on of t he ar c
denot ed wavef r ont D. Thi s i s a spher i cal wavef ront . Wi t hi n
t he dot t ed r egi on, however , t he smal l port i on of t he wavef r ont
can hardl y be di st i ngui shed f romt he pl ane surf ace of t he cube
t o whi ch i t i s t angent . Mor eover , al l t he ray l i nes i nsi de
t hi s cube ar e approxi mat el y paral l el .
I f t he wavef r ont i s one mi l e f romt he sour ce, f or exampl e,
and i f t he cube edge- di mensi on i s LOO f eet , t he wavef r ont wi l l
devi at e f romperf ect pl aneness ( coi nci dence wi t h t he cube f ace)
by onl y about 3 i nches. For most pract i cal purposes t he wave-
f r ont i n t hi s 100- f oot r egi on may be regarded as pl ane. At a
di st ance of 10 mi l es, t he devi at i on i n 100 f eet woul d be onl y
0 . 3 i nch.
2.7 SPHERI CAL WAVES AND THE I NVERSE- SQUARE LAW"
One of t he f undament al l aws of physi cs i s t he Lawof
Conser vat i on of Energy. An el ect romagnet i c wave r epr esent s a
f l owof energy i n t he di r ect i on of propagat i on. The r at e at
whi ch energy f l ows t hrough a uni t ar ea of surf ace i n space
( energy per uni t t i me per uni t of ar ea) i s cal l ed t he power
d e n s i t y of t he wave, usual l y expressed i n wat t s per square
met er. The pri nci pl e of energy conser vat i on can be appl i ed t o
a uni f ormspheri cal wave i n t he f ol l owi ng t er ms, wi t h r ef er ence
t o Fi g. 2-2. I f t he sour ce r adi at es power at a const ant r at e
Af t er Le V. Bl ake, ref . 1.
*
13
WAVEFRONT 8-
WAVEFRONT &- CUBIC REGION
CIRCULAR ARC
TANGENT TO
CUBE FACE
Figure 2-2.- Point-source wavefronts and rays in free space
(After Blake, ref a 1)
14
uni f orml y i n al l di r ect i ons, t he t ot al power f l owi ng t hrough
any spheri cal sur f ace cent ered at t he sour ce wi l l be uni f orml y
di st ri but ed over t he surf ace and must ' equal t he t ot al power
r adi at ed, Such a source i s cal l ed an i sot ropi c r adi at or , or
isotrope e
I n Fi gur e 2- 2, wavef r ont B, f or exampl e, const i t ut es a
spher i cal surf ace. , Al t hough onl y a port i on of i t i s shown, t he
compl et e sphere may be vi sual i zed as surroundi ng t he source.
I f wavef r ont B i s at a di st ance RB met er s f romt he sour ce, t he
t ot al surf ace ar ea of t hi s spher e i s, f romel ement ary geomet r y,
4-rrRg2 square met ers. I f t he source i s radi at i ng a t ot al power
Pt wat t s, si nce t hi s t ot al power i s by hypot hesi s di st ri but ed
uni f orml y over t he spheri cal sur f ace at di st ance Rg, t he power
densi t y Pg must be
L
wat t s per square met er.
-
PB - -
4nRB 2
(2-5)
By si mi l ar reasoni ng t he power densi t y at t he great er
di st ance of wavef r ont C wi l l be
wat t s per squar e met er.
( 2- 6)
Thi s val ue i s obvi ousl y smal l er t han t he power densi t y at wave- l
f r ont B, si nce Rc i s gr eat er t han RB.
decreases as t he di st ance f romt he sour ce i ncreases.
Thus t he power densi t y
What i s t he l awof t hi s decrease? I t may be f ound by
di vi di ng Eq. 2-5 by Eq. 2- 6:
whi ch shows t hat t he power densi t y i s i nversel y proport i onal t o
t he squar e of t he di st ance f romt he source. Thi s i s t he cel ebrat ed
inverse-square Zaw of r adi at i on, observed experi ment al l y f or al l
f orms of el ect r omagnet i c waves i n f ree space or i n l i mi t ed
r egi ons whose char act er i st i cs appr oxi mat e t he uni f ormi t y of f r ee
space
15
I n deri vi ng t hi s r esul t i t has been assumed t hat t he sour ce
radi at es i sot ropi cal l y - uni f orml y i n al l di r ect i ons, Thi s
assumpt i on was made because i t si mpl i f i es t he r easoni ng, but
act ual l y i t i s not a necessary assumpt i on. The same r esul t i s
obt ai ned i f t he sour ce r adi at es nonuni f or ml y, t hat i s, i f i t
radi at es power pref erent i al l y i n cer t ai n di r ect i ons, as occur s
i n pract i ce wi t h di r ect i onal ant ennas. I t i s al ways necessar y,
however , t o assume t hat t he vel oci t y of el ect romagnet i c propaga-
t i on i s t he same i n al l out ward di rect i ons f romt he sour ce,
whi ch i s cert ai nl y t rue i n f ree space. ( Thi s assumpt i on i s
necessary i n or der t hat t he wavef ront s may be spher i cal , i . e. ,
t hat t he di st ance t o t he wavef r ont f romt he source at any
i nst ant may be equal i n al l di r ect i ons, correspondi ng t o t he
geomet ri cal def i ni t i on of a spher e) ,
A propagat i on medi umt hat sat i sf i es t hi s assumpt i on i s
cal l ed i sot r opi c, meani ng t hat t he propagat i on vel oci t y i s t he
same r egar dl ess of t he di rect i on of propagat i on. The i nv e r s e -
square Zaz3, t her ef or e, i s t he r esul t bot h of t he spher i cal
spreadi ng of t he wavef ront s i n an i sot ropi c propagat i on medium
and of t he l awof conservat i on of energy. Thi s very i mpor t ant
r esul t has many appl i cat i ons i n ant enna t heor y, as wel l as i n
wave- propagat i on t heory.
2.8 FI ELD I NTENSI TY AND POWER DENSI TY*
The power densi t y of t he f i el d i s rel at ed to t he val ues
of t he el ect ri c and magnet i c i nt ensi t i es i n t he same way t hat
power i n an el ect ri c ci r cui t i s rel at ed t o vol t age and cur r ent ;
i t i s t he product of t he t wo. ( Thi s assumes t he f ree- space
rel at i onshi p of t he f i el d vect ors depi ct ed i n Fi g. 2-1). The
product of t he i nst ant aneous val ues gi ves t he i nst ant aneous power ,
but t hi s quant i t y i s usual l y of l i t t l e i nt erest . The aver age
power densi t y over an rf cycl e i s ordi nari l y desi r ed, and, j ust
as i n comput i ng a- c power i n ci r cui t s, i t i s obt ai ned by
mul t i pl yi ng t he e f f e c t i v e val ues of E and H, equal t o l/fi t i mes
t he ampl i t udes, or 0. 707Eo = 0. 707Ho. Hence
P = (0. 707E0) x ( 0. 707H0) = 0. 5EoHo , (2-8)
where Eo and Ho ar e t he ampl i t udes as i n Eqs. 2- 3 and 2-4.
i s expressed i n vol t s per met er , Ho i s amper e- t ur ns per met er
t o gi ve P i n wat t s per square met er.
Eo
Af t er L. V, Bl ake, ref . 1,
*
16
J ust as vol tage and current i n ci rcui ts are rel ated through
the resi stance by Ohm's l aw, the el ectri c and magnetic i ntensi ti es
are related by the characteri sti c wave impedance of space. I n a
lossless propagation medium thi s impedance i s equal to the square
root of the rati o of i ts magnetic permeabi l i ty 1-1 to i ts el ectri c
permi tti vi ty E:
zp = J i p ohms (2-9)
I n a vacuum 1-1 has the val ue 1.26 x henrys per met er ,
and E i s 8.85 x 10-12 farad per met er . (These val ues are
customarily denoted po and E ~ ) . Consequently, Z, is about 377
ohms (actual l y 1 2 0 ~ ohms) i n f ree space, a value al so appl i cabl e
i n ai r, Hence i n these media
2
- 377 H wat t s per square met er
p =- - E2
377
(2-10)
where E and H are ef f ecti ve (rms) val ues, equal to 0.707E0 and
0.707H0, i n vol ts per met er and ampere-turns per meter,
respecti vel y. Thi s al so means that
H = - E ampere-turns per meter
377
(2-11)
f or any wave propagating i n free space or ai r; that i s, E and H
are related through thi s expressi on, and speci fyi ng one of them
i s equi val ent to speci fyi ng both. Ordi nari l y, therefore, only
the el ectri c i ntensi ty i s speci fi ed.
If Eq. 2-10 i s appl i ed to the inverse-square l aw, the resul t
i s
(2-12)
which states that the el ectri c i ntensi ty i s i nversel y proporti onal
to the f i rst power of the di stance f r om the source (subj ect to
the same sti pul ati ons that apply to the inverse-square l aw i n i ts
ori gi nal form)
17
Equations 2-7 and 2-12 are di f f erent ways of showing how
the el ectromagneti c wave i s attenuated wi t h i ncreasi ng di stance
f r om the source. Equation 2-7 expresses the attenuati on i n
terms of the power-density rati o, Equation 2-12 i n t er ms of the
el ectri c-densi ty rati o.
2.9 DI SPERSI ON
The di spersi on i s the vari ati on of phase vel oci ty with
frequency. Dispersion resul ts when a process, such as di f f rac-
ti on, ref racti on, or scatteri ng, vari ed according to frequency.
3.0 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
3.1 SUMMARY
The el ectromagneti c spectrum i s the enti re range of wave-
l engths or frequenci es of el ectromagneti c radi ati on. T hi s
chapter di scusses vari ous aspects of the el ectromagneti c
spectrum.
The notati on used to describe the el ectromagneti c spectrum
of i nterest i s di scussed. Two detai l ed frequency spectrum
charts are presented and several related charts.are cited. Some
fundamentals and information of frequency management are outl i ned.
3.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM NOTATI ON
A breakdown of the el ectromagneti c frequency spectrum of
i nterest i n thi s handbook i s presented i n Table 3-1. I n Table
3-1 the following mul ti pl es of uni ts for frequency are used:
k = 103; M = 106; G = lo9; and T = 1012e The notati on i n the
VLF-EHF frequency regi on i s after Booker and L i t t l e (ref . 1).
3 3 FREQUENCY SPECTRUM CHARTS
Fi gure 3-1 presents a chart descri bi ng the frequency spec-
trum f r om 4 x 10-4 Hz to 6 x 1022 HZ (7.5 x 10l1 m to S x loa9 vm) s
The chart i s reproduced wi th the permission of North American
Rockwel l . This frequency spectrum chart consi sts mostly of the
electromagnetic spectrum, but to create a sti mul ati ng comparison,
mechanical and soni c frequenci es are al so included on the lower
porti on of the scale. The chart i s adequately descri bed by the
remarks contained thereon.
18
0 0 r l 0 0 d 0 r l r l 0 r - m m c u
o r l o r l rl 0 . e 0 e
rl r l r l o o o o
N N N N N N N N N N N N N
x x x x x x x x
m O O m O O m O O m O O O O
m o m o m o 0 0 0 0
m m m T r ' c o o m
r l r l
b u
n
Fr
u s
[I)
a,
TI
a,
5
w
a,
k
Fr
3
0
l=l
h
k
B
h
Err
x
rn
a,
-d
u
FI
a,
7
w
a,
k
Fr
A
m
-4
x
u
n
Er
X
3
u
rn
a,
4
u
c
a,
5
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a,
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Fr
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m
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x
rd
k
c,
rl
3
n
Fr
x
m
m
a,
.d
u
c
a,
7
k
Fr
A
m
TI
x
k
a,
CL
7
m
W
r
n
Fr
x
w
0
a,
.rl
u
5
w
a,
k
Fr
A
m
-4
x
3.1
rl
a,
k
u
x
w
u
5
E
n
g
2
W
19
Fi gur e 3-2 present s a f requency spect rumchar t whi ch i s an
expansi on of a port i on of t he f requency spect rumchar t i n Fi gur e
3-1. Fi gur e 3-2 i s used wi t h t he permi ssi on of t he J oi nt Tech-
ni cal Advi sory Commi t t ee ( ref . 2) and Nort h Ameri can Rockwel l .
The char t i s di vi ded i nt o t wo sect i ons: ( 1) man' s use of
el ect romagnet i c ener gy, and (2) nat ural phenomena wi t h a sub-
sect i on t i t l ed si de ef f ect s, showi ng t he i nt eract i on bet ween t he
two.
The present at i on of t he spect rumi n t hese t wo cat egori es i s
an at t empt t o suggest a si mpl e means f or showi ng man' s use and
nat ural phenomena i n si mpl e t er ms of a common denomi nat or:
f requency. Al t hough ext reme care was t aken t o pl ace act i vi t i es
i n t hei r proper f requency r el at i onshi p, t hi s char t shoul d not
be used as a basi s f or t echni cal ref erence.
The f i r st sect i on, man' s use i s made up of ( 1) f requency
al l ocat i ons, and (2) a l i st i ng of mi scel l aneous i t ems of general
appl i cat i ons. I n (1) t he Of f i ce of Tel ecommuni cat i ons Management
al l ocat es t hese f r equenci es f or f ederal gover nment use, and t he
Feder al Communi cat i ons Commi ssi on f or al l ot her uses, These are
current al l ocat i ons f or usage i n t he Uni t ed St at es.
Man' s uni nt ended use, broadband i nt er f er ence, i s al so
pl aced i n t he mi scel l aneous sect i on. Thi s not at i on i ndi cat es
the f requency r anges at whi ch t here i s gener at i on of spuri ous
or unwant ed el ect romagnet i c energy resul t i ng f romman' s use of
el ect ri c and el ect roni c product s. These f r equenci es woul d i ncl ude
t he radi at ed and conduct ed si gnal s.
The i nci dences of such si de ef f ect s whi ch have been ent ered
on t he char t i ndi cat e f r equenci es at whi ch experi ment s have been
perf ormed and do not i mpl y evi dence of a uni que f requency ef f ect
or t he i nt ensi t y and dur at i on of exposure necessary t o i nduce
t he ef f ect .
A number of char t s have been prepared by vari ous or gani za-
t i ons whi ch consi der vari ous aspect s of t he el ect romagnet i c
spect r um, These ar e l i st ed i n Tabl e 3-2. These t ypes of chart s
are usef ul f or obt ai ni ng order of magni t ude numbers f or many
physi cal paramet ers.
20
2
3
m
n
l-i
I
w
cn
*
z
4
z
Z
P
s
$
YI
z
-!J
k
Id
5
1
M
ai
2 2
:
m
W
m
rl
E:
.rl
N
x
W
0
0
m
I
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x
k4
m
0
0
rl
I
PI
PI
cn
E;I
d
2
-I-,
k
rd
s
u
c,
E:
i!
0
k
*rl
w
a,
u
rd
0
k
$
i?
2
16
k
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U
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a
m
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P
a,
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:
i3
k
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u
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va
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Q)
Sc,
P k
a,@
Li s
Fru
E:
0
.rl
c,
U
a,
c,
a,
CI
a
a,
k
rd
k
w
E:
H
a,
4
a
E:
rd
a,
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Oa,
-4s
c,a
a m
.rl 0
ffi4
45
n h n n n n n h n
m
Y
03
U
P
W
m w
Y W
*
Y
(v m
W W
rl
Y
25
3. 4 ELECTROMAGNETI C FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT
The el ect r omagnet i c f r equency spect r umi s, f r omt he poi nt
of vi ew of admi ni st r at i on and ut i l i zat i on, a nat ur al r esour ce.
I nt er f er ence among r adi at i ons of var i ous user s can i mpar e or
di sabl e ef f ect i ve use. I t i s a uni que r esour ce i n t hat i t i s
not depl et ed or depr eci at ed by use. However , i t s val ue at any
t i me may be dr ast i cal l y r educed by over use or mi suse , (ref . 31,
Radi o f r equency al l ocat i on and assi gnment have been out -
l i ned i n Si l i ng ( r ef , 4). Ref . 2 pr esent s t he most r ecent
st udy of t he over al l pr obl emof f r equency management , The
Feder al Communi cat i ons Commi ssi on ( FCC) r egul at es t he el ect r o-
magnet i c f r equency spect r umf or t he ci vi l i an Uni t ed St at es. The
FCC has many document s descr i bi ng t he r ul es and t ar i f f s ( ref s.
5, 6). Pr esent f r equency al l ocat i ons i n t he Uni t ed St at es ar e
out l i ned i n ( ref . 7) and ar e shown gr aphi cal l y i n Char t Number 7
i n Tabl e 3- 2.
I nt er nat i onal f r equency al l ocat i on i s accompl i shed t hr ough
an agency of t he Uni t ed Nat i ons, t he I nt er nat i onal Tel ecommuni ca-
t i on Uni on ( I TU) . The I TU per i odi cal l y hol ds Admi ni st r at i ve
Radi o Conf er ences whi ch r evi se t he Tabl e of Al l ocat i ons t hr ough
negot i at i ons based on needs expr essed by t he Gover nment s of I TU
member count r i es.
4. 0 GUI DE TO ATMOSPHERI C DATA
4. 1 SUMMARY
The pur pose of t hi s chapt er i s t o i ndi cat e wher e at mospher i c
dat a r el evant t o el ect r omagnet i c wave pr opagat i on pr obl ems can be
l ocat ed
The at mospher e i s t he envel ope of ai r sur r oundi ng t he ear t h.
The at mospher e may be subdi vi ded ver t i cal l y i nt o a number of
at mospher i c shel l s, but t he most common basi c subdi vi si on i s t hat
whi ch r ecogni zes a t r opospher e f r omt he sur f ace t o about 10 km,
a st r at ospher e f r omabout 10 kmt o about 80 km, and an i onospher e
above 80 km. Each of t hese r egi ons i s of t en subdi vi ded ( ref s.
e
For conveni ence i n st udy and descr i pt i on, t he ear t h' s l ower
at mospher e i s usual l y di vi ded i nt o t wo r egi ons: t he t r opospher e
and t he St r at ospher e, The t r opospher e ext ends f r omt he ear t hPs
sur f ace up t o an al t i t ude of , ver y r oughl y, 10 km, but i t may
vary f r omas l owas 7 kmat hi gh l at i t udes t o as hi gh as 18 km
at t he equat or , Thr oughout t he t r opospher e t he mean t emper at ur e
26
decr eases appr oxi mat el y l i near l y wi t h al t i t ude, f r oma sur f ace
val ue near 290' K t o one of about 220' K at t he t r opopause, i oeDg
t he upper al t i t ude l i mi t of t he l i near t emper at ur e pr of i l e, The
mean t emper at ur e t ends t o r emai n mor e or l ess i nvar i ant wi t h
al t i t ude up t o about 30 km ( st r at ospher e) . Subsequent l y t he
t emper at ur e i ncr eases wi t h hei ght , and cont i nues t o do so up t o
some 50 kmwher e i t r eaches a maxi mumcal l ed t he t her mopause,
Thr oughout t he t r opospher e and st r at ospher e t he mean
absol ut e pr essur e, P, decr eases appr oxi mat el y exponent i al l y
wi t h hei ght ; i t has decr eased t o about one- quar t er of i t s gr ound
l evel val ue at t he t r opopause. The aver age wat er vapor cont ent ,
5, al so f al l s of f very r api dl y f r omt hat at gr ound l evel , becomi ng
very smal l above t he t r opospher e.
Good appr oxi mat i ons t o t hese exponent i al decays ar e gi ven
by :
P/Po =exp ( - h/ a)
wher e a = 7 km, and
( 4- 1)
wher e b = 2 km, and h i s t he hei ght i n km. ( Sect i on 10. 3).
The r el at i ve concent r at i on of t he maj or gas const i t uent s,
except f or uncondenced wat er , r emai n essent i al l y const ant up t o
an al t i t ude of about 20 km. I mmedi at el y above t hi s gener al
r egi on, t he r el at i ve concent r at i on of mol ecul ar oxygen begi ns
t o decr ease somewhat , and ozone appear s ( see Fi g. 4- l l e
I t wi l l be appr eci at ed t hat t he f or egoi ng st at ement s ar e,
of necessi t y, qual i t at i ve i n nat ur e. Ther e ar e var i at i ons i n
absol ut e par t i al wat er vapor pr essur e and t emper at ur e wi t h t i me,
l ocat i on, and al t i t ude. Over shor t di st ance and t i me scal es
such var i at i ons can be l ar ge and i nt ense. Al so, much of t he
l ower at mospher e of t en cont ai ns at mospher i c hydr omet eor s ( cl oud,
f og, r ai n, et c. ) . The occur r ence, concent r at i on, and ext ent of
t hese l at t er at mospher i c const i t uent s can usual l y be descr i bed
onl y i n very appr oxi mat e and/ or st at i st i cal t erms. Al l of t hese
var i at i ons i nf l uence el ect r omagnet i c wave pr opagat i on i n t he
ear t h! s l ower at mospher e - somet i mes i n an abr upt and mar ked
manner
27
28
The upper at mospher e i s di scussed i n books deal i ng wi t h
i onospher i c physi cs and t he l i ke. Sever al of t hese t ext s ar e
out l i ned i n t he f ol l owi ng sect i ons,
Thi s gui de, whi l e not exhaust i ve, i s r epr esent at i ve of t he
t ype of i nf or mat i on avai l abl e on t he ear t h' s at mospher e, Ther e
i s speci al emphasi s on gl obal di st r i but i on of at mospher i c
pr oper t i es and on hydr omet eor s, i n par t i cul ar ,
4- 2 TYPES OF ATMOSPHERI C DATA
The physi cs of t he ear t h' s at mospher e i s conveni ent l y di vi ded
i nt o t r opospher i c and i onospher i c physi cs. Gener al i nf or mat i on
on t r opospher i c physi cs i s f ound i n Bean and Dut t on, 1964,
( ref . 4) , ( out l i ned i n Sect i on 6, 4, 4) , and Por t man et al a 1965,
( r ef . 5) , ( out l i ned i n Sect i on 4. 4, 2) , I nf or mat i on on i onos-
pher i c physi cs i s cont ai ned i n Davi es, 1965, ( r ef . 6) , ( out l i ned
i n Sect i on 6- 4. 3) ; J ones, 1965, ( r ef , 7) , ( out l i ned i n Sect i on
4, 4, 3) ; Cor mi er , et al e 1965, ( r ef . 8), ( out l i ned i n Sect i on
4, 4, 5) ; and Davi es, 1969, ( r ef . 9) , ( out l i ned i n Sect i on 6. 4. 24) .
The mean pr oper t i es of t he ear t h' s at mospher e have been
st udi ed and pr esent ed i n var i ous model at mospher es. Gener al
descr i pt i ons of model at mospher es have been pr esent ed by Al l en,
1965, ( ref . 2) and Fai r br i dge, 1967, ( r ef . 10). Speci f i c
i nf or mat i on on t he most r ecent model at mospher es i s gi ven i n
Col e, et al . 1965, ( r ef e 11) , ( out l i ned i n Sect i on 4. 4, 12) and
i n r ef . 12.
The Range Commander s Counci l ( ref . 71) have pr epar ed
r ef er ence at mospher es f or many mi ssi l e r anges bot h wi t hi n and
wi t hout t he cont i nent al Uni t ed St at es. I nf or mat i on on t hese
r ef er ence at mospher es can be obt ai ned by wr i t i ng t o t he addr ess
gi ven i n r ef . 71.
The t ypes of at mospher i c dat a ar e t emper at ur e, densi t y,
pr essur e, wat er vapor p wi nds, composi t i on, hydr omet eor s, and
aer osol s. Si nce many of t hese pr oper t i es have r at her l ar ge
spat i al and t empor al var i at i ons, many t ypes of at l ases ar e
devel oped t o ai d i n syst ems desi gn and eval uat i on, Thus t he
Handbook of Geophysi cs and Space Envi r onment s, edi t ed by
S. L. Val l eyp 1965, ( r ef . 13) , ( out l i ned i n Sect i on 6. 4. 2) wi l l
be r ef er r ed t o heavi l y i n t hi s chapt er . Sect i on 4. 7 t r eat s
gl obal dat a.
Tabl e 4- 1 l i st s t he t ypes of at mospher i c dat a and i n t he
second col umn pr esent s some r epr esent at i ve sour ces cont ai ni ng
i nf or mat i on on t he var i at i on of t he dat a wi t h space and t i me,
29
TABLE 4-P,- TYPES AND SOURCES OF REPFESENTATI VE
Dat a
Temper at ur e
Densi t y
Pr essur e
Wat er Vapor
( Moi st ur e)
Wi nds
Composi t i on
Hydr omet eor s
At mospher i c )
Aer osol s
ATMOSPHERI C PHYSI CI LL DATA
Sour ces
Gr i ngor t en, Kant or , et al e 1965,
r ef , 14, ( Out l i ned i n Sect i on 4.4,7),
Gr i ngor t en, Kant or , et al . 1965,
r ef , 14, ( Out l i ned i n Sect i on 4,4,7),
Gr i ngor t en, Kant or , et al . 1965,
r ef , 14, ( Out l i ned i n Sect i on 4.4.7).
Gr i ngor t en, Kant or , et al , 1965,
Gr i ngor t en, Sal mel a, et al e 1965,
ref . 14, ( Out l i ned i n Sect i on 4.4.7).
ref . 15,
Gr i ngor t en, Lenhar d, et al . 1965,
ref . 16, ( Out l i ned i n Sect i on 4.4.9).
St er gi s, et al . 1965, ref . 17.
Col e, et ale 1965, ref . 18, ( Out l i ned i n
Sect i on 4 4. LO) e
Col e, et al . 1965, ref . 18, ( Out l i ned i n
Lodge, 1962, r ef , 19.
Sect i on 4.4.10) .
4,3 BI BLI OGRAPHI ES AND REVI EWS
Tabl e 4-2 l i st s sever al bi bl i ogr aphi es and r evi ews on t he
eart h' s at mospher e and r el at ed t opi cs.
par t i cul ar l y per t i nent ,
magnet i c wave ef f ect s ar e gi ven i n Sect i ons 6,2 and 7- 2.
Revi ews ar e t r eat ed i n Sect i ons 6,3 and 7.3.
I t ems 1, 4, and 6 ar e
Bi bl i ogr aphi es deal i ng wi t h el ect r o-
30
TABLE 4-2,- BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND RIWIEWS DEALI NG WI TH
THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHEIZE
~
T i t l e
1.
2.
3,
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11 e
12
13,
14 e
15 e
Meteorology and Atmospheric
Preci pi tati on
Satel l i te Meteorology
Physi cs
Meteorology and Atrnosplleric
Physi cs
Preci pi tati on
Meteorological Satel l i tes
Meteorology and Atmospheric
Physi cs
Preci pi tati on
Meteorological Satel l i te
Achievement
A Sel ecti ve Bibliography
i n Meteorology
Cl ear A i r Turbul ence:
A Bibliography
Weather, Astronomy, and
Meteorology
An Annotated Bi bl i ography
of Dynamic Cloud Modeling
An Annotated Bi bl i ography
on Cloudiness i n the
U.S.S.R.
Bi bl i ography on Preci pi ta-
ti on Stati sti cs and
Rel ated Subj ects
~
Source
Huff, 1960, ref . 21,
Fri tz, 1960, ref. 22,
AGU, 1963, ref. 23,
Hershfi el d, 1963, ref. 24.
Fri tz, 1963, ref. 25,
AGU, 1967, ref, 26.
Hershfi el d and Schl eusener,
1967, ref. 27.
Widger, 1967, ref. 28.
AMs, 1967, ref, 29,
Bul ford, 1968, ref. 30.
GPO, 1967, ref . 31.
Murray, 1968, ref, 32.
Stepanova, 1967, ref. 33.
Thompson, 1968, ref, 3 4 .
31
4,4 BOOKS
4, 4. 1 I nt r oduct i on
To l ocat e books deal i ng wi t h var i ous phases of met eor ol ogy
consul t r ef . 29. Sever al books of a handbook nat ur e deal i ng
wi t h t he ear t h' s at mospher e ar e out l i ned bel ow,
4- 4- 2 The Lower At mospher e, Chapt er 5, Syst emEngi neer i ng
Handbook ( r ef . 5).
Sect i on Page i n
or i si nal
5. 1 Pl anet ar y At mospher es . . e e 5-2
Physi cal Char act er i st i cs of t he Pl anet s (L 5-2
Ther modynami cs and Dynami c Pr oper t i es
of Pl anet ar y At mospher es. . . . . . . . . 5-2
5. 2 At mospher i c Ther modynami cs. . . . . . . . 5- 3
Radi at i on Pr ocesses . e e . e e e . e 5-3
Ther modynami c Syst ems i n t he At mospher e 5-5
5.3 Lar ge- scal e Ci r cul at i on Feat ur es. a . 5- 5
Undul at i ng Hor i zont al Fl ow, . . a . 5- 5
Var i at i ons i n t he Ver t i cal . e e . e 5- 7
Ai r Masses and Fr ont al Syst ems. . . . . . 5-7
5.4 Cl ouds and Pr eci pi t at i on. . . . . . . . . 5-7
Cl ouds. e . a e e e e * e . 5- 8
Rai n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5- 8
Snow. e e . e a * . a e . . e * . e e 5-9
Hai l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
Weat her Modi f i cat i on. e . e e . . e e 5-10
5.5 The At mospher e Near t he Ear t h' s Sur f ace 5- 11
Sur f ace- Layer Char act er i st i cs a e e e e 5- 11
Temper at ur e Pr of i l es. e . , e a . e e 5- 11
Shear St r ess i n Neut r al Condi t i ons. . a e 5-12
Condi t i ons, e e I) e e e e . e e e 5-13
Flow Pr oper t i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5- 12
Tur bul ent Tr ansf er i n Non- neut r al
5, 6 Synopt i c Met eor ol ogy and Weat her For ecast i ng 5- 14
Dat a Acqui si t i on, Pr ocessi ng, and
Tr ansmi ssi on. e e e . , a a e e 5- 1
For ecast i ng Pr ocedur es, e e e e e 5-15
Anal ysi s Techni ques e a e 5- 15
32
5-7 St at i st i cal Pr oper t i es: Dat a Sour ces and
Ser vi ces e a a e e a e 5-17
St at i st i cal Pr oper t i es, e e e e e e 5-17
Dat a Sour ces, e e e e .) e a e a e 5-18
4.4.3 The Upper At mospher e, Chapt er 6, Syst emEngi neer i ng
Handbook, ( ref . 7).
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
6.1 At mospher i c Sci ences. e e e e e e a 6-2
6.2 At mospher i c Regi ons e e e e . - . e 6-2
6.3 Char act er i st i cs of St r uct ur al Regi ons a a
Tr opospher e e . . e . e . . e
St r at ospher e. . e . e e e . e e . . .
Mesospher e. e e e . , e . . , a e e .
Ther mospher e. e e . e a . e . . e
Exospher e e e (I . . e e e e .
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6,8
6.9
Char act er i st i cs of Composi t i on Regi ons. .
Homospher e , , e e e e e e e e . e
Het er ospher e. e . e e e e . e e
The St r uct ur e of t he At mospher e e . e e
Scal e Hei ght , e . . a - I( e a a
Geopot ent i al Al t i t ude e e . e .
Mol ecul ar Scal e Temper at ur e e e . .
Mean Fr ee Pat h, e . e e . e a e
Number Densi t y ( Concent r at i on) . * *
Par t i cl e Vel oci t y ( Speed) e e e a e e .
Col l i si on Fr equency e e e e e . -.
Sound Vel oci t y ( Speed) . e e e
Vi scosi t y e e e e e e
6-2
6-3
6-3
6-3
6-3
6-3
6-4
6-4
6-5
6-5
6-6
6-6
6-7
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
St andar d At mospher es, . e a e 6-9
Lar ge- Scal e Var i at i ons, . , e e e 6-10
Aer odynami c Regi ons e a e
Cont i nuumFl ow, e e e e - a
Sl i pFl ow. e e e e e e e
Tr ansi st i on Fl ow. . e e a e e e e
Fr ee Mol ecul ar Fl ow e e e e
6-12
6-13
6-13
6-13
6-13
The I onospher e, e e I) e e 6-13
D Regi on. e e FI e e e 6-14
E Regi on, e a e e e e 6-15
F Regi on, a e e e a e e II 6-15
33
4.4.4 At mospher i c St r uct ur e and Composi t i on, Chapt er 3,
Tent at i ve, Opt i cs of t he At mospher e: Scat t er i ng,
Absor pt i on, Ref r act i on, ( r ef . 35).
Sect i on
3. 1 The At mospher i c Envel ope
3. 2 Mol ecul ar Fact or s f r omKi net i c Theor y
3. 3 Anal yt i c Model s of t he At mospher e
3. 4 The U. S. St andar d At mospher e
3. 5 Di st r i but i ons of Gases
3. 6 Char act er i st i cs and Di st r i but i ons of Haze and Fog
3. 7 Char act er i st i cs and Di st r i but i ons of Cl oud
3 . 8 Gases and Par t i cl es i n Smog
3. 9 Physi cal Par amet er s of Opt i cal Pat hs
4.4,5 I onospher i c Physi cs, Chapt er 12, Handbook of Geophysi cs
and Space Envi r onment s, ( r ef . 8).
Sect i on Page i n
or i ai nal
12, l I onospher i c Regi ons and Di st ur bances. . a 12- 1
12. 1. 1 Sudden I onospher i c Di st ur bance . , . 12- 1
12, 1. 2 Hi gh Lat i t ude Absor pt i on Event s, 12- 2
12. 1. 3 F- Regi on Ef f ect s e e . . e I) 12- 2
12. 2 El ect r on and I on Densi t y and Temper at ur e, 12- 2
12. 2. 1 Densi t i es, e a e e e . a e e 12- 2
12. 2. 2 El ect r on and I on Temper at ur es. 12- 6
34
12- 2 12. 3 El ect r on and I on Densi t y and Temper at ur e,
12- 3. 1 Lunar Ref l ect i ons, Cr oss Sect i on,
12. 3. 2 Far aday Rot at i on of Pl ane of
and Li br at i on. e a . e e . (I e 12- 6
Pol ar i zat i on .I a e a a 12- 15
12. 3. 3 Var i at i ons i n El ect r on Cont ent 12- 15
12. 4 Non- Devi at i ve Absor pt i on. . . . 12- 15
12, 4. 1 Absor pt i on i n an I sot r opi c Medi um. 12- 17
12. 4. 2 Ef f ect of t he Geomagnet i c Fi el d. 12- 21
12, 4, 3 Ef f ect of El ect r on Col l i si ons
12. 4. 4 Absor pt i on Due t o Col l i si ons of
wi t h I ons. e e o. e e . . e . 12- 25
I ons wi t h Neut r al Par t i cl es. e e . 12- 25
12. 5
12. 6
I onospher i c Wi nds . . . . e . e 12- 28
12. 5. 1 Dr i f t Di r ect i ons . . . . 12- 28
12. 5. 2 Dr i f t Vel oci t i es e . . e e . . a 12- 34
12. 5. 3 Char act er i st i c Vel oci t y. e . . e e 12- 35
El l i pse. e e e . . . . . a e . . . 12- 35
12. 5. 4 Or i ent at i on of t he Cor r el at i on
12. 5. 5 Axi al Rat i o of Cor r el at i on El l i pses 12- 35
12. 5. 6 Ar ea of t he 0. 5- Cor r el at i on El l i pse 12- 36
Spor adi c E. e e e . . e (I (I e e . e e . 12- 36
12. 6. 1 Wor l d- wi de Occur r ence of E,. e . e 12- 37
Dat a. * . . . a e e . * 12- 37
12. 6. 2 Resul t s of Anal ysi s of Radi o Amat eur
12, 7 Ref er ences. . e e . e . . . . . 12- 53
4. 4. 6 At mospher i c Composi t i on, Sect i on 6. 1. 4, Handbook of
Mi l i t ar y I nf r ar ed Technol ogy, ( r ef . 36).
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
6. 1, 4 At mospher i c Composi t i on e e . a 178
6. 1. 4. 1 Car bon Di oxi de Di st r i but i on 180
6. 1. 4, 2 Wat er - Vapor Di st r i but i on. e 181
6, 1, 4, 3 Ozone Di st r i but i on, . e 185
6. 1, 4. 4 Met hane, Ni t r ous Oxi de, and
Car bon Monoxi de Di st r i but i ons e 187
35
4,4,7 At mospher i c Temper at ur e, Densi t y, Pr essur e, and Moi st ur e,
Chapt er 3, Handbook of Geophysi cs and Space Envi r onment s,
( r ef . 14) .
Sect i on
Page i n
or icr i nal
3 - 1 Ther mal Pr oper t i es up t o 90 Km. e e e 3-1
3,l.l
Ener gy Suppl y and Tr ansf or mat i on. 3- 1
3,1.2
St at i on Temper at ur es, e a e a e 3-2
3.1.2-1 Pr obabi l i t y Di st r i but i ons 3-7
3,1,2,2 Hi ghest and Lowest
Temper at ur es. . e e e . e e 3-8
3.1.3 Upper Ai r Temper at ur es. I). . . . 3-11
3.1.3.1 Var i abi l i t y Bel ow
30 Km . . 3-12
3.1.3.2 Var i abi l i t y Above
30 Km e . 3-12
3.1.4 Speed of Sound vs Temper at ur e e e . 3-14
3.1,5 The. Lowest Level Ai r Temper at ur es e 3-14
3-1.6 Eart h/ Ai r I nt er f ace Temper at ur es.
. 3-19
3.1.7 Subsoi l Temper at ur es. e e e e a 3-20
3,1.8 Mi scel l aneous . . e e . e e . . 3-23
3.2 At mospher i c Densi t y up t o 90 Km a a 3-23
3.2-1 Di st r i but i on Bel ow 30 Km. e e e 3-23
3.2.1.1 St at i st i cal Appl i cat i ons t o
Re- ent r y Pr obl ems e (I a 3-23
3.2,1.2 Lat i t udi nal Var i at i ons. 3-23
3.2,1.3 Seasonal Var i at i ons e . e 3-25
Var i at i ons, . , e 3-25
3,2,1,5 I nt er - l evel Cor r el at i ons, 3-26
3.2.1.6 Densi t y- Wi nd Cor r el at i on. e 3-27
3-2.1.4 I nt er di ur nal and Di ur nal
3.2.2 Di st r i but i on Bet ween 30 and 90 Km e 3-27
3,2,2.1 Lat i t udi nal and Seasonal
3,2.2,2 I nt er di ur nal and Di ur nal
Var i abi l i t y e , , a 3-28
Changes a e e e 3-28
36
3- 3 At mospher i c Pr essur e up t o 90 Km. 3- 29
3. 3, 1 Sea- Level Pr essur e. e e e e e 3- 29
Pr essur e Sur f aces e . e e 3- 30
3, 3, 2 Var i at i ons i n Hei ght of Const ant
3. 3, 2, 1 Seasonal and Dai l y
3- 3. 2. 2 Di ur nal and Semi di ur nal
Var i at i ons. e e e 3- 30
Var i at i ons. e . e 3- 31
3. 4 At mospher i c Wat er Vapor e e e e e 3- 31
3, 4. 1 Pol ar Model e e e e e e e 3- 34
3. 4. 2 Mi dl at i t ude Model e . e e 3- 34
3. 4. 3 Tr opi cal Obser vat i ons . , e e . e a 3- 34
3. 5 Temper at ur e, Densi t y, and Pr essur e
( 90 t o 300 K m) . . . e e * . . * . . e 3- 34
3. 6 Var i at i ons Above 200 Km e e . e . . , a e 3- 38
3. 6. 1 Di ur nal Densi t y Var i at i ons. e . e
3, 6. 2 Densi t y as a Funct i on of Sol ar Fl ux
3. 6. 3 Annual and Semi annual Densi t y Var i a-
t i ons. . , . . e Io e e e . , . a e e
3. 6. 4 Ef f ect s of Magnet i c St or ms on Densi t y
3, 6. 5 Lat i t ude Ef f ect s. e e . e e . . ,
3. 6. 6 Di ur nal Temper at ur e Var i at i ons.
3, 6. 7 Temper at ur e as a Funct i on of Sol ar
Fl ux. e e . . , e . e
3. 6. 8 Ef f ect s of Magnet i c St or ms on
Temper at ur e e . e e e
3- 39
3- 39
3- 40
3- 40
3- 41
3- 41
3- 43
3- 43
3. 7 Ref er ences, * e e . e e e e a e 3- 43
4. 4. 8 Pr oper t i es of t he At mosphere, . Sect i on 6. 1, Handbook of
Mi l i t ar y I nf r ar ed Technol ogy, ( r ef , 36).
Sect i on Page i n
or i si nal
6, l . l Temper at ur e e e e .) e I) 177
6, 1. 2 Pr essur e, a . , e a e a e e e 178
6- 1. 3 Densi t y a e e I) e 178
37
4 e 4 e 9 Wi nds , Chapt er , Handbook of Geophysi cs and Space
Envi r onment s, ( r ef 16) e
Sect i on
Page i n
or i gi nal
4. 1 Mean Wi nd as a Funct i on of Hei ght . e . 4- 1
4. 1. 1 Var i at i on of Mean Wi nd Speed
4. 1. 2 Wi nd Di r ect i on Shi f t s
4. 1. 3 Di ur nal Var i at i on and Low- Level J et
( Lowest 300 Ft . ) . , . e . , e e . 4- 1
( Lower 10, 000 Ft . ) . . . e e . . 4- 2
St r eams ( Lower 6000 Ft , ) a . a 4- 4
4- 2
4. 3
4. 4
4. 5
Lar ge- Scal e Wi nd St r uct ur e . . . e e . . 4- 6
4. 2. 1 Ti me Var i abi l i t y up t o 30 Km e . . 4- 6
4. 2. 2 Spat i al Var i abi l i t y up t o 30 Km. e 4- 8
4. 2. 3 Var i abi l i t y Above 30 Km. I) . . . 4- 8
4, 2. 3. 1 Seasonal Var i at i on . * e e 4- 15
4. 2. 3. 2 Di ur nal Var i at i on. . e e 4- 17
Wi nds hear . . . e e . . a e 4- 17
Tr opospher i c Wi nd Pr of i l es f or Vehi cl e
Desi gn e . a e . . . . . . . e e . . . . 4- 20
4. 4. 1 Synt het i c or Di scr et e Wi nd Pr of i l es
4. 4. 2 Ot her Met hods of Pr edi ct i ng Wi nds
f or Pr el i mi nar y Desi gn e e . . 4- 21
f or Desi gn Pur poses. . e . a . 4- 27
4. 4. 3 Fi nal Desi gn Cal cul at i ons. e e . . 4- 27
4, 4, 4 Bal l i st i c Pr of i l es e . . 4- 28
Desi gn Dat a on Wi nds e e a .. 4- 29
4. 5. 1 Hour l y Sur f ace Wi nd Speeds . e e e 4- 33
4. 5, 2 Ext r eme Sur f ace Wi nd Speeds. 4- 33
4. 5. 4 St r uct ur e of J et St r eams . a e a 4- 44
4. 5, 5 Obser ved Wi nds Above 100, 000 Ft . e 4- 45
4. 5, 3 Wi nd Di r ect i on, Speed, and
Var i abi l i t y Bel ow 100, 000 Ft . e 4- 38
4. 6
Ref er ences e .) e e 4- 45
38
4. 4. 10 Pr eci pi t at i on, Cl ouds, and Aer osol s, Chapt er 5, Handbook
of Geophysi cs and Space Envi r onment s, ( r ef , 18).
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
5. 1 Pr eci pi t at i on . , e e e . . e e 5- 1
5e1e1 Sur f ace Rat es of Pr eci pi t at i on. e e 5- 1
5. 1. 1. 1 Cl ock Hour l y Rat es. . a . - 5- 1
5. 1. 1. 2 I nst ant aneous Rat es of
Pr eci pi t at i on e a e e a . 5- 2
5, 1. 1. 3 Separ at i on of Rai nf al l and
Snowf al l . . . . e . . . . e 5- 4
5. 1. 1. 4 Ext r eme Rat es of Rai nf al l 5- 4
5. 1. 2 Hai l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5- 5
5. 1. 2. 1 Hor i zont al Ext ent e . . . 5- 5
5. 1. 2. 2 Ver t i cal Ext ent . . . . e e 5- 6
5. 1. 2. 3 Si ze of Hai l . e e . . . . 5-6
5. 2 Model At mospher es f or Pr eci pi t at i on . . e 5- 6
5. 2. 1 Wi despr ead Pr eci pi t at i on. . e e e e 5- 6
5. 2. 1. 1 Wat er Cont ent of Cl ouds e 5- 9
5. 2. 1. 2 Par t i cl e Si ze Di st r i but i on. 5- 10
5. 2. 1. 3 I nt egr al s of Di amet er over
t he Si ze Di st r i but i on . . 5- 10
5. 2. 2 Thunder st or mRai nf al l e e e . . , , . 5- 10
5. 2. 3 Real Pr eci pi t at i on Di st r i but i ons. 5- 11
5. 3 Cl ouds. . . e e e e . . . . . * . . . e 5- 11
5. 3, 1 Dat a Avai l abl e f r omSur f ace
Obser vat i ons, e . a e a . , 5- 11
5. 3, l . l Summar i es of Sur f ace
5, 3, 1. 2 Li mi t at i ons i n t he Use of
Obser vat i ons. . e e 5- 12
Summar i es f or a Par t i cul ar
St at i on e . . . , e e 5- 12
5. 3- 2 Dat a Avai l abl e f r omAi r cr af t and
Radar e e e e - . * e e 5- 14
5, 3. 3 Ver t i cal Ext ent of Ci r r us Cl ouds, e 5- 14
39
5.3.4 Fr equency of Occur r ence of Cl oud
For mat i ons Above 20,000 Ft , e ,. 5-14
5.3.5 Hor i zont al Ext ent of Ci r r us Cl ouds. 5-15
5- 3. 6 Maxi mumWat er Cont ent of Cl ouds e e 5-15
5.4 Noct i l ucent Cl ouds, . a a e e e 5-20
5.5 Aer osol s. a e e e e e a e . e e 5-22
5. 5. 1 Si ze Range and Fi el d of I mpor t ance. 5-22
5.5.2 Si ze Di st r i but i on . e . . e (. 5-23
Var i ous Al t i t udes e . a e . . , e e e 5-24
Mat er i al . . e e . e . . e e . e e 5-25
Ai r cr af t . e e . , e . . . . e e 5-25
5,5,3 Char act er i st i cs of Aer osol s at
5.5.4 I nt er act i on wi t h Radi oact i ve
5.5.5 I mpact i on of Aer osol Par t i cl es on
5.6 Ref ereri ce . . . . e e . . . . e a . e 5-25
4. 4. 11 Backgr ound, Chapt er 5, Handbook of Mi l i t ar y I nf r ar ed
Technol ogy, ( r ef , 3 6 ) .
The t abl e of cont ent s of t hi s chapt er i s f ound i n
Sect i on 7.4.19 of t hi s handbook. Not e par t i cul ar l y Sect i on 5.6
of t he chapt er whi ch di scusses cl oud met eor ol ogy.
4,4.12 Model At mospher es, Chapt er 2, Handbook of Geophysi cs
and Space Envi r onment s, ( r ef e 11) e
Sect i on Page i n
or i ai nal
2,l At mospher i c St r uct ur e and Def i ni t i ons a e 2- 1
2.2 U.S. St andar d At mospher e, 1962. e ,. . 2-2
2.3 Suppl ement al At mospher es. . . FI e 2-2
2,4 Ext r eme At mospher es e e e 2-6
2.5 Ref er ences. (. e e e . + . e . 2-6
4 e 5 PERI ODI CALS
Var i ous per i odi cal s whi ch t r eat met eor ol ogy ar e l i st ed
i n Tabl e 4-3.
40
TABLE 4-3.- PERI ODI CALS WHI CH TREAT THE
EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE,
Meteorol ogi cal and Geoastrophy-
si cal Abstracts (monthly) e
J ournal of the Atmospheric
Sci ences (bimonthly)
J ournal of Applied Meteorology
(bi monthl y)
Weatherwise (bi monthl y)
Bul l eti n of the American
Meteorol ogi cal Soci ety
(monthly) . ,
(i rregul ar)
Bul l eti n.
Meteorol ogi cal Monographs
Weekly Weather and Crop
Hourly Preci pi tati on Dat a
(monthly and annual , by
Local Cl i matol ogi cal Data
(monthly and annual , for
states) e
pri nci pal ci ti es or ai rports)
Cl i matol ogi cal Dat a (monthly
and annual , by states) e
Cl i matol ogi cal Dat a, Nati onal
Summary (monthly and annual )
Monthly C l i mat i c Dat a f or the
World
Decenni al Census (cl i matol og-
i cal )
Publ i sher
American Meteorol ogi cal
45 Beacon Street
Boston, MA 02108
Soci ety
(617) 227-2425
Environmental D at a Servi ce
Environmental Sci ence Ser-
Gramax Bui l di ng
8060 13th Street
Si l ver Spri ngs, MD 20910
vi ces Admi ni strati on
(301) 495-2410
41
4 6 INFORMATION CENTERS
T here are a number of places where i nformati on on the
earth's atmosphere can be located. T abl e 4-4 l i sts several.
TABLE 4-4,- SEVERAL CENTERS WHERE INFORMATION OF THE
EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE MAY BE LOCATED.
T i t l e
I nterdepartmental Commi t tee
f or A tmospheri c Sciences
(I CAS)
National Weather Records
Center, (NWRC)
National Center for A tmospheri c
Research, (NCAR)
Envi ronmental T echni cal
A ppl i cati ons Center
American Meteorological
Society, (AMs)
L ocati on
Capt. S o W. B et t s
Executi ve Secretary
Room 5896
Department of Commerce
Washington, DC 20230
U. S . Department of Commerce
Envi ronmental Science Ser-
Envi ronmental D at a Service
Nati onal Weather Records
Center
A shevi l l e, NC 28801
( r ef . 37)
vices A dmi ni strati on
Boul der, CO 80301
(ref. 38) .
A i r Weather Service
U.S. A i r Force
Bui l di ng 159
Navy Yard Annex
Washington, DC 20333
45 Beacon Street
Boston, MA 02108
(617) 227-2425
42
4, 7 GLOBAL DATA
T hi s secti on gi ves many sources of gl obal atmospheric
data, T hi s i s presented i n T abl e 4-5.
TABLE 4-5.- SOME SOURCES OF GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC DATA
Type of Data
A erosol s
Cl ouds and Cl oud
Cover
Cl i mate
P r eci pi t at i on
Sources
Col e, et al , 1965, ref. 18.
A rki ng, 1964, ref. 39.
Bl ackmer, et al . 1968, ref. 40.
Quayl e, et al . 1968, ref. 41.
Sherr, et al . 1968, ref. 42.
Fean, 1961, ref. 43.
Bunker and Chaf f ee, 1969, ref. 44,
A t l as, 1966, ref. 45.
Young, 1967, ref. 46.
Kauth and Penqui te, 1967, ref. 47,
Kauth, 1965, ref. 48.
Edson and Daye, 1968, ref. 49.
Murray, 1968, ref. 32.
Sadl er, 1969, ref. 50,
Stephanova, 1967, ref. 33.
Col e, et al . 1965, ref, 18.
Brown, 1969, ref. 57,
NAVY, 1955, ref. 51; 1956, ref. 52;
USWB, 1959, ref. 55.
1958, ref, 53; 1959, ref. 54.
Thompson, 1968, ref. 34.
Rumney, 1968, ref. 56,
Col e, et al . 11965, ref. 18.
Gr antham and Kantor, 1967, ref. 58,
Essenwanger, 1960, ref. 59,
Hershfi el d, et al e 1961, ref, 60.
43
TABLE 4-5 e - Continued
Type of D at a
P r eci pi t at i on
Temperature
Thunders toms
Water Vapor
(Moisture)
Winds
General T abl es
Sources
Thompson, 1968, ref. 34,
PI -0. 1958, ref. 61.
Schirmer and Manig, 1965, ref, 62,
M.O. 1958, ref, 61.
Gri ngorten, et al e 1965, ref, 14,
Blackmer, 1963, ref. 63.
Cole, et al , 1965, ref. 18.
WMO, 1953, ref. 64.
WMO, 1956, ref. 65.
Gri ngorten, et al . 1966, ref. 15.
Kuznetsova, 1967, ref. 66,
M,O. 1958, ref. 61.
Per shi na, 1968, ref. 67.
Gringorten, et al . 1965, ref. 14.
Bul ford, 1968, ref. 30,
L etestu, 1966, ref. 68.
Nicholson, 1969, ref. 69.
Conwayp et al e 1963, ref. 70.
4.8 COMPUTATIONAL AIDS
T here are a large number of computation ai ds i n the f i el d
of meteorology and more are becoming avai l abl e. Several of
these are discussed i n Secti ons 5.7, 6- 7, and 7.7 of thi s hand-
book *
44
PART 11. ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMISSION SOURCEBOOK
5 0 INFORMATION RETRI EVAL
5 1 I NTRODUCTI ON
Thi s chapter consi ders i nformati on retri eval i n a general
way. Chapters 6 and 7 di scuss speci f i c sources of i nformati on
i n the radi o and opti cal regi ons respecti vel y.
The transf er of knowledge to a user i s i l l ustrated i n
Fi g. 5-1, where secti on numbers are shown i n the appropri ate
boxes. Si nce, i n some cases the user w i l l al so be a contri butor
of knowledge, thi s i s i ndi cated by arrows i n both di recti ons,
I n addi ti on, the vari ous means of communication i nteract wi th
each other.
A cl assi c gui de t o the l i terature of mathematics and physi cs
by Parke (ref. 1) i s recommended. The basi c pri nci pl es of
study and of l i terature search are descri bed i n some detai l . A
book descri bi ng the more recent aspects of techni cal i nformati on
has been wri tten by Dyke (ref . 21, where he descri bes the use
and management of techni cal i nformati on.
Fi gure 5-1,- A schemati c diagram of the transf er
of techni cal knowledge
45
5 2 I NFORMATI ON CENTERS
I nf or mat i on cent er s i ncl ude l i br ar i es, document st or age
and r et r i eval cent er s, speci al l i br ar i es, and r ef er r al cent er s.
A f ewdocument st or age and di st r i but i on cent er s ar e l i st ed
i n Tabl e 5- 1. Sour ces of i nf or mat i on i n var i ous f i el ds can be
l ocat ed i n r ef s. 3- 8,
I nf or mat i on cent er s deal i ng pr i mar i l y wi t h at mospher i c
ef f ect s on wave pr opagat i on do not exi st at pr esent . However ,
many exi st i ng agenci es have i nf or mat i on ser vi ces whi ch can
obt ai n usef ul i nf or mat i on on t hi s subj ect . For exampl e, t he
Ai r For ce Cambr i dge Resear ch Labor at or i es (AFCRL) pr ovi des advi ce
and consul t at i on i n r esponse t o r equest s f or t echni cal i nf or ma-
t i on on subj ect s cover ed i n t he Handbook of Geophysi cs and
Space Envi r onment s ( Tabl e of cont ent s i n Sect i on 6.4.2). Speci f i c
and def i nabl e pr obl ems i n t hese ar eas shoul d be di r ect ed by
gover nment agenci es and t hei r cont r act or s t o t he Eval uat i ons
Di vi si on, Deput y f or Techni cal Pl ans and Oper at i ons, AFCRL,
L. G. HanscomFi el d, Bedf or d, MA. 01371.
Tab. l e. 5- 2 l i st s i nf or mat i on cent er s whi ch do consi der
el ect r omagnet i c wave pr opagat i on i n t he ear t h' s at mospher e.
5. 3 BOOKS
Books ar e a pr i mar y sour ce of di sest ed or gani zed i nf or ma-
t i on. The subj ect or abt hor i ndex t o- Books i n- Pr i nt ( r ef s. 9,
10) i s i nval uabl e i n t he l ocat i on of books on speci f i c subi ect s.
Of cour se, br owsi ng t he shel ves of a good l i br aky under th;!
appr opr i at e subj ect cl assi f i cat i ons can be a ver y qui ck sour ce
of r el evant i nf or mat i on.
Ther e ar e sever al t ypes of books usef ul i n t he st udy of
at mospher i c ef f ect s on el ect r omagnet i c wave pr opagat i on. These
i ncl ude di ct i onar i es, encycl opedi as, handbooks, t ext books,
t r eat i ses, and monogr aphs. Mor e r ecent l y, conf er ence pr oceedi ngs
ar e becomi ng mor e usef ul as r ef er ence wor ks as t hey ar e publ i shed
soon af t er a conf er ence i s compl et ed, ( These ar e consi der ed
i n Sect i on 5. 6).
Tabl e 5- 3 l i st s r ef er ence books of a gener al nat ur e
al phabet i cal l y by t i t l e. Each of t hese wor ks has i nf or mat i on
on at mospher i c ef f ect s on el ect r omagnet i c wave pr opagat i on.
46
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TABLE 5-2 - I NFORMATI ON CENTERS WHI CH CONSI DER ELECTROMAGNETI C
WAVE PROPAGATI ON I N THE EARTH*S ATMOSPHERE
TI TLE
Eval uat i ons Di vi si on and t he
Envi r onment al Consul t at i on Ser vi ce
U,S. Army El ect r oni cs Command
I nst i t ut e f or Tel ecommuni cat i on
Sci ence and t he Wave Pr opaga-
t i on Labor at or y
RECON Cent r al
The Cent er f or Remot e Sensi ng
I nf or mat i on and Anal ysi s
I nf r ar ed I nf or mat i on and Anal ysi s
Cent er ( I RI A)
ADDRESS
Ai r For ce Cambr i dge Resear ch
Labor at or i es,
L. G, HanscomFi el d
Bedf or d, MA 01730
(617) 274-6100.
Techni cal I nf or mat i on Di vi si on
For t Monmout h, NJ 07703
(201) 535-2160
Envi r onment al Sci ence Ser vi ces
Admi ni st r at i on
Resear ch Labor at or i es
Boul der , CO 80302
(303) 447-1000
Ai r For ce Avi oni cs Labor at or y
Reconnai ssance Di vi si on
Reconnai ssance Appl i cat i ons
Wr i ght Pat t er son Ai r For ce
Br anch
Base, OH 45433
Wi l l ow Run Labor at or i es
I nst i t ut e of Sci ence and
Technol ogy
The Uni ver si t y of Mi chi gan
P. O. Box 618
Ann Ar bor , MI 48107
Wi l l ow Run Labor at or i es
( see above) .
49
TABLE 5-3.- SELECTED GENERAL BOOKS TREATI NG THE PROPAGATI ON OF
ELECTROMAGNETI C WAVES I N THE EARTH' S ATMOSPHERE
I Ast r ophysi cal Quant i t i es
I Aer ospace Gl ossar y
I
Al l en, 1963, ref . 13
I
Hef l i n, 1959, ref . 11
I
I
Ai r For ce Di ct i onar y 1 Hef l i n. , 1956, ref . 12
I
I
Mal one, 1959, ref . 14
I
I Compendi umof Met eor ol ogy
Di ct i onar y of Techni cal Ter ms f or
Aer ospace Use
Encycl opedi c Di ct i onar y - of
Physi cs (7 vol umes)
Encycl opedi a of At mospher i c
Sci ences and Ast r oqeol oqy
Fr equency Al l ocat i ons
10 kc/ s - 90 GC/ S
Gl ossar y of Met eor ol ogy
Handbook of Geophysi cs and
Space Envi r onment s
I nt er nat i onal Di ct i onar y of
Geophysi cs
Smi t hsoni an Met eor ol oqi cal Tabl es
Smi t hsoni an Physi cal Tabl es
Sour cebook on t he Space Sci ences
The Encycl opedi a of El ect r oni cs
The Encvcl oDedi a of Phvsi cs
The Met eor ol ogi cal Gl ossar y
Al l en, 1965, ref . 15
Thewl i s, 1962, r ef , 16
Fai r br i dge, 1967, ref . 17
RCA, 1956, ref . 18
Huschke, 1959, ref . 19
Val l ey, 1965, ref . 20
Runcor n, 1967, ref . 21
Li st , 1963, ref . 22
For syt he, 1964, ref . 23
Gl asst one, 1965, r ef , 24
Susski nd, 1962, r ef , 25
Besancon, 1966, r ef , 26
McI nt osh, 1963, ref . 27
5
5.4 PERIODICALS
The vari ous peri odi cal s which treat atmospheri c transmi ssi on
w i l l be consi dered i n Chapters 6 and 7. However, several services
usef ul i n l ocati ng i nformati on i n the peri odi cal l i terature are
l i sted i n Tabl e 5-4.
TABLE 5-4 - SELECTED ABSTRACTING SERVICES WHICH
COVER PERI ODI CAL LITERATURE:
I nternati onal Aerospace Abstracts
(I AA). (See Ref. 28).
Electrical and El ectroni cs Abstracts
Sci ence Abstracts, Seri es Be
Engi neeri ng Abstracts
Meterol ogi cal and Geoastrophysi -
cal Abstracts
Physi cs Abstracts, Sci ence
Abstracts Seri es A
Pandex Current Index to Sci enti f i c
and Techni cal L i terature
American I nsti tute f or Aero-
nauti cs and Astronauti cs (AI AA)
750 Thi rd Avenue
New YOrk, NY 10017
The' I nsti tuti on of El ectri cal
Engi neers (I EE)
Savoy Place
London- WC2, England
The I nsti tute of Electrical
and El ectroni cs Engi neers
I nc. (I EEE)
345 E. 47 Street
New York, NY 10017
Engi neeri ng I ndex, I nc.
345 E. 47 Street
New York, NY 10017
American Meteorol ogi cal
Soci ety (AMs)
45 Beacon Street
Bostonl MA 02108
I EEF I EEE, (See Above) e
CCM I nformati on Sci ences, I nc,
866 Thi rd Ave.
New York, NY 10022
51
To keep one abr east of t he cur r ent l i t er at ur e i n any f i el d
t her e ar e cur r ent sur vei l l ance ser vi ces pr ovi ded by pr of essi onal
soci et i es and pr i vat e compani es, Sever al ar e l i st ed i n Tabl e 5-5.
TABLE 5-5 - SELECTED CUFtRENT SURVEI LLANCE SERVI CES
TI TLE I PUBLI SHER
Cur r ent Cont ent s - Physi cal Sci ences I nst i t ut e f or Sci ent i f i c
I nf or mat i on
325 Chest nut St r eet
Phi l adel phi a, PA 19016
Engi neer i ng I ndex Car d Ser vi ce and Engi neer i ng I ndex, I nc,
Mont hl y Bul l et i n 345 E. 47 St r eet
New Yor k, NY 10017
Cur r ent Paper s Ser i es I nst i t ut e of El ect r i cal and
El ect r oni cs Engi neer s, I nc,
345 E. 47 St r eet
New Yor k, NY 80017
5.5 REPORTS AND THESES
I nf or mat i on ser vi ces. f or r epor t s and t heses ar e l i st ed i n
Tabl e 5-6.
TABLE 5-6.- I NFORMATI ON SERVI CES FOR REPORTS AND THESES
Di sser t at i on Abst r act s
Sci ent i f i c and Techni cal
Aer ospace Repor t s ( STAR)
( See r ef , 28).
Techni cal Abst r act Bul l et i n
( TAB 1
U e S e Gover nment Resear ch and
Devel opment Repor t s ( USGRDR)
Uni ver si t y Mi cr of i l ms
A Xer ox Company
300 N e Zeeb Road
Ann Ar bor , MI 48106
NASA Sci ent i f i c and Techni cal
I nf or mat i on Faci l i t y ( STI F)
P, O. Box 33
Col l ege Park, . MD 20740
Def ense Document at i on Cent er ( DDC)
Camer on St at i on
Al exandr i a, VA 22314
Cl ear i nghouse for Feder al
Sci ent i f i c and Techni cal I nf or ma-
t i on ( CFSTI )
Nat i onal Bur eau of St andar ds
Spr i ngf i el d, VA 22151
I
52
5.6 SYMPOSIUMS AND CONFERENCES
Conference proceedi ngs provi de an excel l ent source of up-
to-date i nformati on on the state-of -the-art i n many f i el ds. The
American I nsti tute of Aeronauti cs and Astronauti cs (AI AA) i ncl udes
the tabl es of contents of many conferences i n thei r I nternati onal
Aerospace Abstracts (I AA) publ i shed under a contract from the NASA
(see Table 5-3), Table 5-7 l i sts many of the perti nent con-
ferences and the accessi on number of the tabl e of contents (see
Table 5-1 f or an expl anati on of the accessi on numbers), The
I AA can al so be searched to l ocate earl i er conferences. A
di rectory of publ i shed proceedi ngs i s al so avai l abl e (ref . 29) .
To f i nd out about f uture conferences the Techni cal Meetings
I ndex of the Techni cal Meetings I nformati on Servi ce (TMI S)*
shoul d be consul ted. Many usef ul meeti ngs are abstracted i n
the Bul l eti n of the American Meteorol ogi cal Soci ety.
Three parti cul ar i nternati onal agenci es known to the author
have some very speci al reports. These agenci es are gi ven i n
Table 5-7 under I t ems 10, 11, and 14. The U.S. Committees of
these agenci es prepare bri ef reports wi th excel l ent bi bl i ographi es
i n such f i el ds as radi o propagati on, i onospheri c propagati on,
radi ati on transf er, meteorol ogi cal satel l i tes, preci pi tati on,
atmospheric opti cs, etc. These are very worthwhile beginning
pl aces i n l i terature searches.
5,7 COMPUTATIONAL AI DS
5.7.1 Nomographs and Sl i de Rules
A nomograph or nomogram i s a graph that enabl es one by the
ai d of a strai ghtedge to read of f the val ue of a dependent
vari abl e when the val ues of two or more independent vari abl es
are gi ven. An example of a nomograph i s gi ven i n Secti on 8,7.
Graphi cal methods i n research and engi neeri ng problems have
been consi dered by Levens (ref. 30) I Burrows (ref . 31) , and
Heacock (ref , 32), Nomography has been presented by Kuong
(ref. 33) and Sl aby (ref . 34) e Recently Richards (ref, 35)
di scussed how to construct nomograms wi thout equati ons.
Sl i de rul es are actual l y a di f f erent mode of presentati on
for a nomograph. Vari ous types of speci al rul es are avai l abl e.
*
79 Drumlin Road, Newton Centre, MA 02159
53
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Computational devi ces of a general nature are l i sted i n
Addi ti onal ai ds are di scussed i n
Table 5-8. A l arge number of techni cal ai ds f or desi gn are now
of f ered by many companies.
Secti ons 6.7 and 7.7.
5.7.2 Tabl es and Charts
A tabl e i s an arrangement of words, f acts, or f i gures i n
some systemati c order f or ease of ref erence and comparison.
Long tabl es may f i l l several volumes, e.g. the "I nternati onal
Cri ti cal Tabl es", 7 volumes. A short tabl e may requi re a l i ne
or two.
Tabl e 5-9 l i sts several di rectori es or i ndexes of tabl es
al ong wi th a few recent compi l ati ons of tabl es that coul d not
have appeared i n the di rectori es.
A chart i s a sheet gi vi ng i nformati on i n an ordered form.
Charts deal i ng wi th the el ectromagneti c spectrum are l i sted i n
Table 3-2. Two examples are gi ven i n Fi gs. 3-1 and 3-2.
TABLE 5-9.- REPRESENTATIVE TABLES AND INDEXES
TI TLE
~~ ~~
An I ndex of Mathematical Tabl es
T abl es of Higher Functi ons
Handbook of Mathematical
Functi ons wi th Formulas, Graphs,
and Mathematical Tabl es
Mathematical Handbook f or
CRC Handbook of Tabl es f or Prob-
Guide to Tabl es i n Mathematical
Stati sti cs
Handbook of Stati sti cal Tabl es
SOURCE
Fl etcher, M i l l e r , Rosenhead,
and Comri e (ref . 36)
J ahnke, Emde, and Losch
(ref . 37)
Abramowitz and Stegun ( r eZe 38)
Korn and Korn (ref 39)
Beyer (ref e 40)
Greenwood and Hartl ey (ref, 41)
Owen (ref. 42)
5%
5.7.3 Comput er s
A comput er i s def i ned her e as an aut omat i c el ect r i c and/ or
el ect r oni c machi ne f or per f or mi ng cal cul at i ons. These machi nes
r ange f r omdesk t op si ze t o r oomsi ze. Wher e avai l abl e, t he
comput er has t o a l ar ge ext ent obvi at ed t he f r equent use of
sl i de r ul es and t abl es. The comput er and associ at ed equi pment
can cr eat e t he t abl es, gr aphs, nomogr aphs, et c. t hat may be
r equi r ed e
Ther e ar e sever al ways i n whi ch comput er pr ogr ams can be
l ocat ed. One i s t he Comput er Sof t war e Management I nf or mat i on
Cent er ( COSMI C) l ocat ed at Bar r ow Hal l gt t he Uni ver si t y of
ceor gi a at At hens.
i nf or mat i on.
The comput er manuf act ur er s al so have pr ogr am
Recent l y an I nt er nat i onal J our nal of Numer i cal Met hods i n
Engi neer i ng was st ar t ed by Wi l ey- I nt er sci ence. Thi s t ype of
publ i cat i on can ai d i n maki ng mor e ef f i ci ent use of comput er s.
.5.8 PATENTS
Pat ent s ar e an ext r emel y usef ul sour ce of t echni cal
i nf or mat i on on i nst r ument at i on and t echni ques. Newman ( ref . 43)
descr i bes how t he U. S. Pat ent Of f i ce can be used as an
i nf or mat i on sour ce.
The j our nal Appl i ed Opt i cs has a sect i on on pat ent s i n
each i ssue.
Pr i nt ed copi es of Uni t ed St at es Pat ent s may be or der ed
f r omt he Commi ssi oner of Pat ent s, Washi ngt on, D. C. 20231
( $0. 50 each) .
6.0 I NFORMATI ON SOURCES FOR THE RADI O REGI ON
6. 1 I NTRODUCTI ON
An i nf or mat i ve f r equency spect r umchar t bet ween t he f r e-
quenci es of 30 kHz ( 100 m) and 300 GHz ( l mm) i s pr esent ed and
descr i bed i n Chapt er 3 ( Fi g. 3- 2) . Thi s char t i s an expanded
sect i on of t he f r equency spect r umchar t pr esent ed i n Fi g, 3- 1,
These char t s pr ovi de an over vi ewof t he f r equency spect r umso
necessar y i n pr ogr ampl anni ng and i n br ai nst or mi ng sessi ons.
Sect i on 6. 2 pr esent s i nf or mat i on on bi bl i ogr aphi es deal i ng
wi t h t he pr opagat i on of r adi o waves. Sect i on 6 . 3 di scusses
59
vari ous reviews of radi o wave and microwave propagati on i n the
earth's atmosphere. Secti on 6.4 deal s wi th booksl and i n
parti cul ar, presents the tabl e of contents of many books and
book chapters, Secti on 6.4.23 i s the si ngl e excepti on, as it
i s a report. Secti on 6.5 consi ders peri odi cal s and, i n
parti cul ar, l i sts several peri odi cal s which usual l y contai n
arti cl es on atmospheri c effects on radio waves, Secti on 6,6
mentions i nformati on centers and Secti on 6.7 covers computati onal
ai ds
6.2 BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Table 6-1 presents bi bl i ographi es on the propagati on of
radiowaves i n the earth' s atmosphere and Table 6-2 presents
bi bl i ographi es i n the microwave regi on.
6- 3 REVI EWS
Revi ew documents on radi o wave and microwave propagati on
i n the earth's atmosphere are presented i n Tabl es 6-3 and 6-4,
respecti vel y
6.4 BOOKS
6.4.1 I ntroducti on e . * e e e e a e . e . 67
6.4.2 Handbook of Geophysics and Space Environments,
(Val l ey, 1965, ref. 40) . e . . . . . . . e e e 67
6.4.3 I onospheri c Radio Propagati on, (Davies, 1965,
ref. 41) e a e * e e * . . , e * e 72
6.4.4 Radio Meteorology, (Bean and Dutton, 1966,
ref., 42) * . . e e e e e * . e . , e . , e 72
6.4.5 Radio Wave Propagati on Through the Earth's
Neutral Atmosphere and I onosphere, Chapter 2,
Radar Astronomy, (Evans and Hagfors, 1968,
ref , 43) I. e e e . . . e e e e . , 73
6,4.6 Some Aspects of El ectromagneti c Wave Propagati on,
Chapter 9, Handbook of Geophysics and Space
Environments, ( A t l as, et ale, 1965, ref. 27) 75
6.4.7 Propagati on of Short Radio Waves, [ K er r , 1951,
ref . 44) e e e e a e 76
(conti nued on page 66)
60
d
ID
m
rl
N
ID
m
rl
M
ID
m
rl
In
ID
m
rl
QP
4
0
LD
m
rl
rl
W
m
rl
4
Ei
62
TABLE 6-3.- SELECTED REVIEWS ON THE PROPAGATION OF
DIO WAVES I N THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE
WITH EMPHASIS ON EARTH-TO-SPACE
PROPAGATION PATHS
TI TLE
A Survey of I onospheric E f f ect s on
Earth- Space Radi o Propagation
Radi o Wave Propagation
Report of the Uni ted States of
America Nati onal Commi ttee to
the XI V General Assembl y of the
I nternati onal Sci enti fi c Radi o
Union (URSI )
A tmospheri c E f f ect s on Radi o Wave
Propagation
Report of the USA to the XVth
General Assembl y of URSI
A survey of T ropospheri c,
I onospheric, and E xt r at er r est r i al
E f f ect s on Radi o Propagation Be-
tween the E ar t h and Space V ehi cl es
(6.4.9)
Study of Meter, Deci met er , Centi -
met er , and Submi l l i met er Radi owave
Propagation
Propagation i n the I onosphere (6.4 e 5)
REFERENCE
L awrence, L i t t l e, and
Chi vers, 1964, ref. 10, etc,
Krassner and Michaels,
1964, ref. 11
URSI , 1964, ref. 12
Mi l l man, 1965, ref. 13
URSI , 1966, ref. 14
Mi l l man, 1967, ref. 15
V vedenski y, Kolosox, and
Sokolov, 1967, ref. 16
Evans, 1968, ref. 17
63
t
TABLE 6-4,- SELECTED REVIEWS ON THE PROPAGATION OF
MICROWAVES I N THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE WITH
EMPHASIS ON EARTH-TO-SPACE PROPAGATION
PATHS
TI TLE
Factors for Systems Consi der ati ons
of E ar t h Satel l i tes
The Radio Spectrum from 10 Gc to
300 Gc i n A erospace Communi cati ons
(6.4.23)
Propagati on of Radar Waves
Propagati on of Radio Waves
Advances i n Radar Meteorology
Survey of Propagati on E f f ect s
(6.4.11)
T ropospheri c Propagati on A f f ecti ng
Space Communications
Radio-Wave Propagati on
T ropospheri c Propagati on
Report of the Uni ted States of
America Nati onal Commi ttee to the
XIV General Assembl y of URSI
Earth- to- Space Communi cati ons at
M i l l i met er Wavelengths
Some Aspects of El ectr omagneti c
Wave Propagati on
Communications i n Space
Atmospheric E f f ect s on Radio Wave
Propagati on (6,4,12)
REFERENCE
Si ewers, et ale, 1960,
ref, 18,
Evans, Bachynski , and Wacker,
1962, ref. 19,
Skol ni k, 1962, ref. 20,
Harvey, 1963,. ref. 21,
A tl as, 1964, ref, 22.
Barton, 1964, ref, 23.
Hogg, 1964, ref. 24.
Krassner and Michaels, 1964,
ref. 11.
Ri ce and Herbstrei t, 1964,
ref. 25,
URSI , 1964, ref, 12.
A l tshul er , 1965, 'ref. 26.
A tl as, et al e, 1964, ref. 27,
Haviland and House, 1965,
ref, 28,
Mi l l man, 1965, ref, 13
(conti nued on page 65)
64
TABLE 6-4.- Cont i nued
TI TLE
Repor t of t he Uni t ed St at es of
Amer i ca Nat i onal Commi t t ee t o t he
XV Gener al Assembl y of URSI
I nf l uence of t he Non- I oni zed
Regi ons of t he At mospher e on t he
Pr opagat i on of Waves, Ear t h- Space
Pr opagat i on
Fact or s Af f ect i ng t he Sel ect i on of
Fr equenci es f or Tel ecommuni cat i ons
wi t h and Bet ween Spacecr af t
A Sur vey of Tr opospher i c, I ono-
spher i c, and Ext r at er r est r i al
Ef f ect s on Radi o Pr opagat i on
Bet ween t he Ear t h and Space
Vehi cl es"
St udy of Met er , Deci met er , Cent i -
met er , and Submi l l i met er Radi owave
Pr opagat i on
Mi l l i met er Communi cat i on Pr opagat i on
Pr opagat i on
Advanced Deep Space Communi cat i on
Syst emSt udy
I nvest i gat i on i n and Resear ch of
Aer ospace Rel at ed Mi cr owave
Techno l ogy
Si gnal At t enuat i on Due t o Neut r al
Oxygen and Wat er Vapour l Rai n,
and Cl ouds
Deep Space Communi cat i on and
Navi gat i on St udy
Mi l l i met er - Wave Communi cat i on
Thr ough t he At mospher e
Pr opagat i on i n t he Neut r al At mos-
pher e
FEFERENCE
URSI , 1966, r ef , 14.
CCI R, 1967, ref . 29,
CCI R, 1967, r ef , 30,
Mi l l man, 1967, r ef , 15,
Vvedenski y, Kol osov and
Sokol ov, 1967, ref . 16,
Rayt heon, 1965, 1967, r ef s;
31, 32.
Hei sl er and Hewi t t , 1966,
r ef , 33.
Hughes, 1967, ref . 34.
Uni ver si t y of Penn, , 1967,
r ef , 35,
Benoi t , 1968, r ef , 36,
BTL, 1968, r ef , 37,
Hogg, 1968, ref . 38,
Roger s, 1968, ref . , 39,
65
6 4 conti nued
6 e 4 8 Propagati on Factors i n Space Communications ,
(Blackband, 1967, ref , 45). e e e , , 79
6,4,9 A Survey of Tropospheri c, I onospheri c and
Extraterrestri al Ef f ects on Radio Propagati on
Between the Earth and Space Vehi cl es, Chapter
1-1, Propagati on Factors i n Space Communica-
ti ons, (Millman, 1967, ref , 15) . . . e e 83
6.4,l O I nfl uence .of the Earth's Atmosphere, Secti on
1,5, Landol t-Bornstei n, New Series,
(Si edentopf, et al ., 1965, ref . 46) e e e e 85
6,4.11 Survey of Propagati on Ef f ects, Chapter 15,
Radar System Anal ysi s, (Barton, 1964, ref .
23) e e e e e a e e m e e e o e e a e e e e 86
6.4.12 Atmospheric Ef f ects on Radi o Wave Propagati on,
Par t V, Secti on 1, Modern Radar Anal ysi s,
Eval uati on and System Design, (Millman, 1965,
ref . 13) a . e . . . . . e e . . . e e 87
6,4.13 Propagati on of Radar Waves, Chapter 11,
I ntroducti on to Radar Systems, (Skol ni k, 1962,
ref . 20) . . . . . 89
6.4.14 Radio-wave Propagati on, Chapter 4, I ntroduc-
ti on to Space Communication Systems, (Krassner
and Mi chael s, 1964, ref . 11) e e e . e a 90
6.4-15 The Propagati on of Radio Si gnal s at the Lower
Frequenci es, Chapter 10, Meteorol ogi cal and
Astronomical I nfl uence on Radio Propagati on,
(Landmark, 1963, ref . 47) e a e e . . e . e a 92
6.4,16 Propagati on of Decameter Waves (HF Band),
Chapter 11, Meteorol ogi cal and Astronomical
I nfl uences on Radio Propagati on, (Landmark ,
1963, ref , 47) e e e e e e 93
6,4,17 Tropospheri c Refracti on, Chapter 3, Radio
Meteorology, (Bean and Dutton, 1965, ref . 42) 94
6,4.18 Attenuati on of Radio Waves, Chapter 7, Radio
6, 4, 19 Dielectric Constant, Absorpti on, and Scatter-
Meteorology, (Bean and Dutton, 1965, ref . 42) e 95
i ng, Chapter 5, Radio Wave Propagati on,
(Burrows and Atwood, 1949, ref . 48) e e e 96
(conti nued on page 67)
66
6 e 4 cont i nued
6. 4. 20 Pr opagat i on, Sect i on VI , I nt er f er ence Not ebook,
( Hei sl er and Hewi t t , 1966, ref . 33) e e e 97
6. 4. 21 El ect r omagnet i c Wave Pr opagat i on, Chapt er 26,
Ref er ence Dat a f or Radi o Engi neer s, ( West man,
1968, r ef , 49) 0 . * . . 0 e 0 0 0 . . . 0 0 0 101
6. 4, 22 Ul t r a Hi gh Fr equency Pr opagat i on, ( Reed and
Russel l , 1953 , rei . 50) . . 0 0 0 * . * . . * * 103
6. 4. 23 The Radi o Spect r umf r om10 Gc t o 300 GC i n
Aer ospace Communi cat i ons, Vol . I V, ( Evans,
Bachynski , and Wacker , 1962, ref . 19) e e e . 104
6. 4. 24 I onospher i c Radi o Waves, ( Davi es, 1969,
r ef . 51) . . . . . . . . . . 107
6. 4. 25 Sel ect ed Por t i ons f r omEl ect r omagnet i c
Scat t er i ns, ( Ker ker . 1963, ref . 75) . . e e e . 10 8
.,. .
6 e 4 e 1 I NTRODUCTI ON
A l i st of books cont ai ni ng i nf or mat i on on t he pr opagat i on
of r adi owaves and mi cr owaves i n t he eart h' s at mospher e i s f ound
i n Tabl e 6- 5. I n Tabl e 6- 5 t he t i t l es ar e ar r anged al phabet i cal l y.
I f any par t of t he cont ent s of t hese books i s l i st ed i n t hi s hand-
book, t he number of t he sect i on wher e i t appear s can be f ound i n
col umn 3 of t he Tabl e. Al t hough t he mai n emphasi s of t hi s gui de
i s on ear t h- t o- space pat hs, some gr ound- t o- gr ound mat er i al i s i n-
cl uded i n Tabl e 6- 5. Tabl e 5- 3 shoul d be consul t ed f or a sel ect -
ed l i st of gener al books t r eat i ng t he pr opagat i on of r adi o waves
i n t he eart h' s at mospher e.
I n t he l i st i ng of t he t abl es of cont ent s i n Sect i ons 6, 4. 2 -
6. 4, 24, sect i on headi ngs and pages ar e t hose of t he or i gi nal
document a
6.4.2 HANDBOOK OF GEOPHYSI CS AND SPACE ENVI ORNMI ENT, ( Val l ey,
1965, ref . 40)
Thi s handbook i s a compr ehensi ve col l ect i on of dat a, f or mu-
l as, def i ni t i ons, and t heor i es about t he eart h' s envi r onment .
Thi s i nf or mat i on was obt ai ned by many e pert s: Ai r For ce Sci en-
t i st s of ot her gover nment or gani zat i ons, i ndust r i al and uni ver si t y
cont r act or s, and pr i vat e i ndi vi dual s,
( cont i nued on page 70)
TABLE 6-5,- SELECTED BOOKS DISCUSSING THE PROPAGATION OF
RADI O WAVES AND ICROWAVES I N THE EARTH'S
ATMOSPHE RE
TI TLE
Communi cati on Systems
-
Handbook
Documents of the X I t h
Pl enar y
I nternat i o Con-
---
of the
7-
sul tati ve Commi ttee
El ectromagneti c Sensing
of the E ar t h From
S at el l i t es
--
Handbook of Geophysics
and SDace-kvironments
Handbook of T el emetrv and
a -
Remote Coi i &ol
I nterference Notebook
I ntroducti on to Radar
Systems
-
I ntroducti on to Space
Commun i c a t i onSvs t ems
I onospheric Radio Waves
I onospheric Radi o Wave P
Propagati on
L andol t- Bornstei n ,
Numeri cal D at a and
Functi onal Rel ati onshi ps
--
i n Science - and Technol ogy,
New Series
Meteorological - and A str o-
nomical I nfl uence on
Radio Wave
s_
REFERENCE
Hamsher, 1967,
ref, 52
CCI R, 1967,
ref, 53
Zi rki nd, 1967,
ref, 54
V al l ey, 1965,
ref. 40
Gruenberg, 1967,
ref, 55
Heisler and Hewi tt,
1966, ref, 33
Skol ni k, 1962 ,
ref. 20
Krassner and
Michaels, 1964,
ref. 11
Davies, 1969 ,
ref, 51
Davies, 1965
ref. 41
Siedentopf , et
1965, ref, 46
L andmark, 1963,
ref. 47
al .,
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.4.2, 6.4.6
6.4,20
6.4,13
6.4.14
6.4.24
6.4.3
6.4,l O
604. 158 6,4,16
,
(conti nued on page 69)
68
TABLE 6-5 e - Continued
TI TLE
Microwave Enai neer i na
a a
Modern Radar A nal ysi s,
E mt t ' i o n . a
Proceedi ngs -- of the Tropo-
spheri c Wave Propagati on
Conference
Propagati on Factors i n
Space Communi cati ons-
Propagati on of Radio
Waves at Frequencies
Bel ow 300 kc/s
-.__
7-
Pr ogr ess - i n Radio Sci ence
Propagati on of _I Short
Radi o Waves
Radar Astronomy
Radar Handbook
Radar Meteorology
Radar Sys t ems
Radio A stronomi cal - and
Satel l i te Studi es of the
Atmosphere
--
Radi o
Radio Wave
mFERENCE
Harvey, 1963,
ref, 21
Berkowi tz , 1965,
ref. 56
I EE, 1968, ref, 57
Bl ackband, 1964,
ref, 45
Bl ackband, 1964,
ref, 58
Beaty, et al e, 1967
ref. 59
K er r , 1951,
ref. 44
Evans and Hagfors,
1968, ref, 43
Skol ni k, ref, 60
Battan, 1959,
ref. 61
Barton, 1964,
ref, 23
Aarons, 1963, (59)
ref. 62
Bean and Dutton,
1966, ref, 42,
Burrows and Atwood,
1949, ref, 48
'ABLE OF CONTENTS
6.4.12
6.4.8, 6.4.9
---
6. 4- 7
6,4.5
---
--e
6. 4, 11
6.4,4, 6* 4, 17,
6, 4, 18
6.4.19
(continued on page 70)
69
TABLE 6-5,- Continued
TI TLE
Radio Wave Propagati on
i n the I onosphere
I I -
Reference Data f or Radio
Engi neers
__.-
Spread-F and I ts Ef f ects
Upon Radiowave Propaga-
ti on and Communication
--
- I _
S stems Engi neeri ng
b
Transmi ssi on Loss Pre-
'ijtictions f or TroDo-
--
--
sphertc Communication
Ci rcui ts
Ul tra High Frequency
Propagati on
VLF - Radio Engi neeri ng
Wave Propagati on -- i n a
Turbul ent Meaium
-
REFERENCE
Kelso, 1964,
ref . 63
Westman, 1968,
ref. 49
Newman, 1966,
ref . 64
Machol, 1965,
ref . 65
Ri ce, et al ., 1966
ref. 66
Reed and Russel l ,
1953, ref . 50
W a t t , 1967, ref . 67
Tatarski , 1961,
ref . 68,
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6,4.21
-e-
---
6.4.22
-e-
---
The handbook was wri tten by sci enti sts of the A i r Force
Cambridge Research Laboratori es (AFCRL) to serve a broad spectrum
of users: the pl anner, desi gner, devel oper, and operator of aero-
space systems; the sci enti st who w i l l f i nd the tabl es and f i gures
a conveni ent reference i s hi s own f i el d; the speci al i st who needs
rel i abl e envi ronmental data i n another di sci pl i ne; and sci enti -
fic-minded peopl e who need a summary of space-age envi ronmental
research,
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
70
1.
2,
38
Geodesy and Gravi ty
Model Atmospheres
Atmospheric Temperature, Densi ty, Pressure and
Moi sture
Winds
Chapt er 5. Pr eci pi t at i on, Cl ouds, and Aer osol s*
Chapt er 6. At mospher i c Composi t i on
Chapt er 7, At mospher i c Opt i cs ( Sect i on 7. 4. 2 of t hi s Handbook)
Chapt er 8, At mospher i c El ect r i ci t y
Chapt er 9, Some Aspect s of El ect r omagnet i c Wave Pr opagat i on**
Chapt er 10, Tr ansmi ssi on and Det ect i on of I nf r ar ed Radi at i on
( Sect i on 7. 4. 18 of t hi s Handbook)
Chapt er 11. The Geomagnet i c Fi el d
Chapt er 12, I onospher i c Physi cs
Chapt er 13. Ai r gl ow and Ar uor ae
Chapt er 14. Met eor i t i c Phenomena
Chapt er 15, The Sun
Chapt er 16, Sol ar El ect r onagnet i c Radi at i on
Chapt er 17, Cor puscul ar Radi at i on
Chapt er 18.
Chapt er 19, The Lunar Envi r onment
I nt er pl anet ar y Space and t he Sol ar At mospher e
Chapt er 20. Pl anet ar y Envi r onment s
Chapt er 21. Ast r ophysi cs ahd Ast r onomy
Chapt er 22. Radi o Ast r onomy***
Appendi x A Uni t s, Const ant s and Conver si on Fact or s
Appendi x B Bl ackbody Radi at i on
* Revi sed by Col e, et . al e, 1969, ( r ef . 77) .
** Revi sed by Fal cone and Dyer , 1970, ( ref . 76) .
*** Revi sed in Gui di ce, 1967, ( r ef . 69) ,
71
6, 4, 3
Chapt er
I onospher i c Radi o Pr opaqat i on, ( Davi es 8 1965, r ef e
Page i n
Or i gi nal
1. The Ear t h' s At mospher e, Geomagnet i sm, and
t hes un. e e e e e e e a e e 1
2. Theor y of Wave Pr opagat i on m m (. 45
3 . Synopt i c St udi es of t he I onospher e e 101
4. Obl i que Pr opagat i on e e , e e e e e . (L -, e 159
5. Si gnal St r engt h e e e e e e e e . e 217
6, I onospher i c Di st ur bances e e e . e e e 257
7. I onospher i c Pr opagat i on Pr edi ct i ons . . e e 289
8, Scat t er Pr opagat i on on Ver y Hi gh Fr equenci es e 343
9, Pr opagat i on of Low and Ver y LowFr equenci es e e 393
6, 4, 4 Radi o Met eor ol ogy, ( Bean and Dut t on, 1968, ref . 42)
Chapt er
Page i n
Or i gi nal
1. The Radi o Ref r act i ve I ndex of Ai r e e e 1
2. Measur i ng t he Radi o Ref r act i ve I ndex e e e 21
3. Tr opospher i c Ref r act i on (. e e ,, e e e e e 49
4, N e Cl i mat ol ogy . + m e a m a 0 0 e 89
5. Synopt i c Radi o Met eor ol ogy e e e e e e 173
6, Tr ans- hor i zon Radi o- Met eor ol ogi cal Par amet er s a 229
7, At t enuat i on of Radi o Waves e e e e (I e 269
8,
Appl i cat i ons of Tr opospher i c Ref r act i on and
Ref r act i ve I ndex Model s e , e e e e e 311
9, Radi o- Met eor ol ogi cal Char t s, Gr aphs, Tabl es,
and Sampl e Comput at i ons e e e e e e e e 375
72
Chapt er s 3 and 7 of Radi o ar e f ur t her out l i ned i n
Sect i ons 6,4.17 and 6.4.18, r espect i vel y,
6,4,5 Radi o wave pr opagat i on t hr ough t he ear t h' s neut r al at mo-
spher e and i onospher e, Chapt er 2, Radar Ast r onomy,
( Evans and Hagf or s, 1968, ref . 43).
Sect i on Page i n
Or i ai nal
I nt r oduct i on a e . * e e e . . e e e I) e 79
Par t I : Pr opagat i on i n t he Neut r al At mospher e
2-1 The Ear t h' s Lower At mospher e . . . a e e e e e 81
2-2 Radi o Wave Ref r act i on e e . e * e e a . . e a 82
2-3 Radi o Wave Absor pt i on i n At mospher i c Cases . . . 88
2-4 Radi o Wave Absor pt i on and Scat t er i ng by Rai nf al l ,
Fog, and Cl ouds e e e e e . e . e e . . . e 95
Par t 11: Pr opagat i on i n t he I onospher e
2-5 The I onospher e e e e . e e e . . . . e e e . 99
2-6 Mot i ons and I r r egul ar i t i es i n t he I onospher e e e 104
2-6A Spor adi c E ( Es) .. e e e e e . . e 107
2-6B Spr ead F e a e e e .e e e . e . .) e . 107
2-6C Tr avel l i ng I onospher i c Di st ur bances e e . 107
2-7 The Pr opagat i on of Radi o Waves i n t he
Ear t h' s I onospher e e e e e e e e e 107
2-8 The Pol ar i zat i on of Radi o Waves i n t he Ear t h' s
I onospher e ( Far aday Ef f ect ) I ) e . e e 109
2- 9 Pr opagat i on Del ays I. e a e e e e 112
2- 10 Ref r act i on by t he Whol e I onospher e e a e 114
2- 11 Ef f ect s of Lar ge- Scal e I r r egul ar i t i es a e 117
73
6 4 5 ( Cont i nued)
Page i n
Or i gi nal
2- 12 Ef f ect s of Smal l - scal e I r r egul ar i t i es e e (I e 118
2- 12A Obser vat i ons e e e e e e e 118
2- 12B Phase Sci nt i l l at i ons a e e e 121
2- 12C Ampl i t ude Sci nt i l l at i ons e e . a e 122
2- 12D Angul ar Sci nt i l l at i ons e e . . e e 124
2- 13 Absor pt i on e e e e e e e e a . . . . . . . . 125
2- 13A Theor y e e a e e e e e . a rn e I) 125
2- 13B D Regi on Absor pt i on I) e * . . . e e . a e 126
2- 13C F Regi on Absor pt i on e . e . . . e e e e 127
2- 14 Ef f ect s of t he I nt er pl anet ar y Pl asma e . e e e . 128
2- 15 Ray Pat hs Cl ose t o t he Sun . e e e e . . e e 130
2- 15A Model s of t he Cor onal El ect r on Densi t y . . 130
2- 15B Scat t er i ng and Ref r act i on i n t he Sol ar
Cor ona e . e - e e e . . . . e 131
2- 15C Cor onal Gr oup Del ay Ef f ect s e e e e e e . 132
2- 15D Far aday Rot at i on a e . e e e e e e e 132
2- 15E Absor pt i on i n t he Sol ar Cor ona e e e a . 133
Ref er ences e e e e a e e rn 135
6.4,6
Some Aspect s of El ect r omagnet i c Wave Pr opagat i on,
Chapt er 9, Handbook of Geophysi cs and Space Envi r onment s,
( At l as et al . , 1968, ref . 27)
Sect i on
Page i n
or i ai nal
9. 1 REFRACTI VE MODULUS I N THE TROPOSPHERE. a 9- 1
9. 1. 1 Opt i cal Wavel engt hs. e . . 9- 1
9. 1, 2 Radi o Wavel engt hs. * e . e . e 9- 1
9. 1. 3 St andar d Pr of i l es of Ref r act i ve Modul us. 9- 2
9. 1. 4 Var i at i ons of Ref r act i ve Modul us . . . . 9- 2
9. 2 ATTENUATI ON AND BACKSCATTERI NG I N THE
TROPOSPHERE. e e e e . , e e e . . . . e 9- 2
9. 2. 1
9. 2. 2
9. 2. 3
9. 2. 4
9. 3
9. 3. 1
9. 3. 2
9e4
9. 4. 1
9. 5
Di el ect r i c Pr oper t i es. e e e . a e e
Backscat t er i ng and At t enuat i on Cr oss
Sect i ons . e . . e . e . .
Tot al Ref l ect i vi t y . . . . . e . . e .
Tot al At t enuat i on. . . . e . e e e e
I ONOSPHERI C I NTERACTI ONS . . . . e e .
Some Magnet o- I oni c For mul as. . . a e a .
I onosondes and I onogr ams . e - e a . e
RADI O REFLECTI ONS FROMMETEOR TRAI LS a
Char act er i st i cs of a Met eor Tr ai l , e e e
9, 4, 4. 1 The Under dense. Tr ai 1 e . e . e e
9. 4. 4. 2 The Over dense Tr ai l . e e . , .
WHI STLERS, I ONOSPHERI CS, AND HYDROMAGNETI C
WAVES. a e a e e e a 0 e o e o m a . m e e
Def i ni t i ons, . e m
Theor y of Whi st l er s and I onospher i cs a
9- 2
9- 3
9- 9
9- 14
9- 14
9- 14
9- 17
9- 17
9- 17
9- 19
9- 19
9- 19
9- 20
9- 22
75
6 4 a 6 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i si nal
9. 5. 2. 1 Phase Ref r act i ve I ndex, Negl ect i ng
Col l i si on Ef f ect s. e e a a . 9- 22
9. 5. 2. 2 Ecker sl ey Di sper si on Law e 9- 22
9. 5, 2. 3 Noi se Fr equency. . e e (I e . 9- 22
9. 5. 2. 4 Ef f ect of I ons, Negl ect i ng
Col l i si ons e . e e * . e e 9- 22
9. 5. 3 Theor y of Hydr omagnet i c Waves. . . . a 9- 23
9. 5. 4 Whi st l er s Obser vat i ons e e e e . . . e 9- 23
9. 5. 5 Occur r ence St at i st i cs of I onospher i cs. . 9- 24
9. 6 REFERENCES e e . . . e e . . . e e . . 9- 26
6, 4. 7 Pr opagat i on of Shor t Radi o Waves, ( Rer r , 1951, r ef . 44).
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
1. ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM. e , , e e e 1
Evol ut i on of t he Pr esent Pr obl eme . e . 1
Tr opospher i c Ref r act i on. e e e e e . e 9
At mospher i c Scat t er i ng and At t enuat i on a 22
2. THEORY OF PROPAGATI ON I N A HORI ZONTALLY
STRATI FI ED ATMOSPHERE. . e e a . . e 27
Fundament al Concept s e a . , e . e e 27
Geomet r i cal Opt i cs . e . , .I e * e e 41
Physi cal Opt i cs. e a e e e . . 58
The Li near Modi f i ed- I ndex Pr of i l e. e e 87
Met hods f or Cal cul at i ng Fi el d St r engt h
wi t h St andar d Ref r act i on e 112
76
6 4 e 7 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
The Bi l i near Modi f i ed- I ndex Pr of i l e, e e 140
Nonl i near Modi f i ed- I ndex Pr of i l es. e e . , 174
3. METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTI ON PROBLEM, e 181
Humi di t y and Ref r act i ve I ndex. . e 181
Ver t i cal l y Homogeneous Ai r and Adi abat i c
Changes. e . . . . . e a . . e . . 193
Repr esent at i on and Descr i pt i on of
Soundi ngs, . . . e e . . . e e e a . 202
Eddy Di f f usi on e e e e e . . . n e 208
Ver t i cal Di st r i but i ons i n Neut r al and
Unst abl e Equi l i br i um e . . e . a a 219
Ver t i cal Di st r i but i ons i n St abl e
Equi l i br i um, e e . . . e . , e e e 228
Ot her At mospher i c Pr ocesses and Thei r
Ef f ect on M- Pr of i l es . e e e e . e e 260
I nst r ument s to Measur e Temper at ur e and
Humi di t y i n' t he Lower At mospher e e e 272
Met eor ol ogi cal Const ant s e . , . e e 292
4. EXPERI MENTAL STUDI ES, OF REFRACTI ON a 294
One- way Tr ansmi ssi on Over Wat er . a a e 29
One- way Tr ansmi ssi on Over Land a . 336
Radar Tr ansmi ssi on e e e e e I) a 353
Space Var i at i ons i n Fi el d St r engt h e 3'73
Angl e Measur ement s on Shor t Opt i cal Pat hs 385
5. REFLECTI ONS FROMTHE EARTH' S SURFACE e 396
Theor y of Specul ar Ref l ect i on. e a I) 396
77
6 4 7 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
Ref l ect i on Coef f i ci ent of t he Ocean, 418
Ref l ect i on Coef f i ci ent of Land e . e e e 430
Er r or s i n Radar Hei ght Measur ement s. e 436
6. RADAR TARGETS- AND ECHOES . . . e . . e 445
The Radar Cr oss Sect i on of I sol at ed
Tar get s, . . . . . . . . . . e . e . 445
Compl ex Tar get s. . . . . . . e . . . e 469
Sea Echo e . . . a e . . . . e . . e 481
The Or i gi ns of Echo Fl uct uat i ons . e 527
The Fl uct uat i ons of Cl ut t er Echoes a . e 550
7. METEOROLOGI CAL ECHOES. . . . . . e e . 588
Or i gi n of t he Echo a e e . . . . e e . 588
The I nt ensi t y of Met eor ol ogi cal Echoes 607
Gener al Pr oper t i es of Pr eci pi t at i on
Echoes . e e . . . . e e e . e e e e . 621
Pr eci pi t at i on Echo Pr oper t i es and
Met eor ol ogi cal St r uct ur e e . . . e . 626
8. ATMOSPHERI C ATTENUATI ON. e . a a e . 641
Theor y of Absor pt i on by Uncondensed Gases 646
Measur ement of At mospher i c Absor pt i on. e 664
At t enuat i on by Condensed Wat er a e e . a 671
78
Q,4.8 Pr opagat i on Fact or s i n Space Communi cat i ons, ( Bl ackband,
1967, r ef . 45).
1- 1
2-1
2-2
2-3
PART 1
GENERAL SURVEY OF PROPAGATI ON FACTORS
Page i n
Or i gi nal
A sur vey of t r opospher i c, i onospher i c and
ext r a- t er r est r i al ef f ect s on r adi o pr opa-
gat i on bet ween t he ear t h and space vehi cl es
( Thi s chapt er i s out l i ned i n sect i on 6. 4, 9
of t hi s handbook)
G. H. Mi l l man e e e e e e e 3
PART 2
PROPAGATI ON I N THE I NTERPLANETARY SPACE
The ef f ect of t he i nt er pl anet ar y medi um
on S- band t el ecommuni cat i ons
M. East er l i ng and
R. Gol dst ei n . . a e e * . e 59
At mospher i c and i nt er pl anet ar y r ef r act i on
ef f ect s on hi gh pr eci si on pl anet ar y r adar
measur ement s
D. O. Muhl eman and
P. Rei chl ey. . . e a e e e 73
A summar y of pr el i mi nar y r esul t s of t he
Mar i ner I V r adi o- occul at i on exper i ment
A. J . Kl i or e, D. L. Cai n,
G. S. Levy, V. R. Eshl eman,
G. Fj el dbo and
F. D. Dr ake a e e e e e e 75
PART 3
I ONOSPHERI C EFFECTS
3- 1 I onospher i c r ef r act i on of H. F. r adi o waves
pr opagat i ng bet ween t he ear t h and or bi t i ng
sat el l i t es
R. G. Mal i phant e e e e 85
79
6 a 4 e 8 ( Cont i nued)
Page i n
or i gi nal
Et ude de 1 ampl i t ude du champ r adi o6l ect r i que
dBun sat el l i t e a l @hor i zont al de l a st at i on
J . F, Aur ej ac et
J. Paper - Lepi ne. a e . 105
3- 2
3- 3
3- 4
3- 5
3- 6
3- 7
3- 8
3- 9
3- 10
I onospher i c r esonance phenomena at V. H. F.
and H. F. and t hei r ef f ect s on space t el e-
communi cat i ons
I r vi ne Paghi s. e e . a 133
I r r egul ar i t i es and pl asma r esonances
obser ved by t he f i xed f r equency t opsi de
sounder sat el l i t e
W. Cal ver t and
T, E. Van Zandt . a e 161
El ect r on cont ent measur ement s wi t h a
st at i onar y sat el l i t e
E. Har ni schmacher . e e e e e 163
Usi ng i onospher i c pr edi ct i on char t s t o
t ent at i vel y f or ecast V. L. F. si gnal i nt ensi t y
i n sat el l i t e communi cat i ons
H. J . Al br echt . . . a . . 175
Lar ge- scal e i r r egul ar i t i es and hor i zont al
gr adi ent of t he i onospher e f r omact i ve
sat el l i t e t r ansmi ssi on measur ement s
M. Anast assi ades and
D. Mat soukas e . a 181
Di f f r act i on of r andomwaves i n a homogeneous
ani sot r opi c medi um
K.C. Yeh . , e e e 195
Topsi de spr ead- F and sat el l i t e r adi o
sci nt i l l at i ons
J . L. J esper sen e . e 203
Pol ar i zat i on var i at i ons of sat el l i t e-
emi t t ed r adi o si gnal s
H. Soi cher , G. Yogt ,
P. R. Ar endt , W,H, Fi scher
and J, Gr au, a e e e 209
80
6 4 e 8 ( Cont i nued)
Page i n
or i gi nal
3- 11 Ef f ect s of i onospher i c i r r egul ar i t i es on
space dat a acqui si t i on i n t he aur or al zone
E. J . Fr emouw . . . . (. e 225
3- 12 Aur or al zone r adi o st ar sci nt i l l at i on
measur ement s and i nt er pr et at i ons
J . M. Lansi nger . e 241
3- 13 Ef f ect s of non-inverse-frequency-squared
absor pt i on event s
S,M. Bennet t and
G, F. Rour ke. e e e e e 261
PART 4
RE- ENTRY PLASMA SHEATH EFFECTS
4- 1 I onospher i c ef f ect s of sol ar x- r ay
enhancement s
Tudor B e J ones . a . . e e 275
4- 2 Radi o- wave pr opagat i on t hr ough r e- ent r y
pl asma sheat hs
M. P. Bachynski . e e I. e 287
4- 3 El ect r o- magnet i c wave pr opagat i on t hr ough
an i oni zed gas l ayer as an opt i mal pr ocess
M.Z.V. Kr zywobl ocki . e a 309
4- 4 Met hods of i mpr ovi ng r adi o- wave pr opagat i on
t hr ough t he pl asma sheat h
Re Rawhouser e e D o . m e 327
4- 5 Sur f ace wave pr opagat i on al ong a di el ect r i c
r od i mmer sed i n an unmagnet i aed pl asma and
i t s appl i cat i on t o measur i ng el ect r on
densi t y
P. N, Robson and
R,D. St ewar t e e e 337
4- 6 Ef f ect s of t he pl asma sheat h on ant enna
per f or mance
C, T, Swi f t and
H, Hodar a, * . I) 351
81
6 4 8 ( Cont i nued)
Page i n
or i gi nal
Noi se pr oduced by t er r est r i al sour ces i n
t he near - ear t h space
K. Rawer e . . e a . e a 383
4- 7
5- 1
5- 2
5- 3
5- 4
5- 5
5- 6
5- 7
5- 8
PART 5
TROPOSPHERI C EFFECTS
Absor pt i on of r adi o waves i n t he
t r opospher e
Tr opospher i c r ef r act i on and i t s i nf l uence
on t he cover age of l ong r ange r adar s .
D. T. Gj essi ng. . . . . e . . 411
D. T. Gj essi ng. . a . . . . . 423
I
Et ude exper i ment al e de l a bai sse de gai n
d' ant enne dans l es l i ai sons t r anshor i zon
L. Boi t hi as and
J . Bat t est i . . . . . . . . . 431
The i nf l uence of wave- f r ont coher ence on
t he r adi at i on par amet er s of l ar ge- si ze
ant ennas
C. Col avi t o. . e . . . . e e 433
Laser wave pr opagat i on t hr ough t he
at mospher e
H. Hodar a. . . i. e e e . . 445
Pr opagat i on f act or s at 3, 2 mi l l i met r es
L. A. Hof f man e e - e a e 475
Space communi cat i ons pr opagat i on st udi es
at Li ncol n Labor at or y
L. J . Ri car di . e . a 523
A r evi ewof r ef r act i on ef f ect s on t he
appar ent angl e of ar r i val of r adi o
si gnal s
B. R. Bean and
R. E. McGavi n (I e e (. e e e 529
CLOSI NG REMARKS M. Anast assi ades e . , 547
82
6 4 e 8 ( Cont i nued)
Page i n
or i gi nal
SUPPLEMENT- TRANSLATI ONS
3-2 St udy of t he ampl i t ude of t he r adi o
el ect r i c f i el d of a sat el l i t e at t he
hor i zon of a r ecei vi ng st at i on
J . F, Aur ej ac and
J . Papet - Lepi ne, e . . e 551
6. 4. 9 Gener al Sur vey of Pr opagat i on Fact or s, Chapt er 1- 1,
Pr opagat i on Fact or s i n Space Communi cat i ons, ( Mi l l man,
1967, ref . 15)
Thi s book i s out l i ned i n Sect i on 6. 4. 8.
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
Summar y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
I nt r oduct i on. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Ref r act i on Ef f ect s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Tr opospher i c Ref r act i on. . . . . . . . . .
I onospher i c Ref r act i on . . . . . . . . . .
4
7
Exper i ment al Measur ement s. . e e e - e . 8
Ti me Del ay Ef f ect s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Tr opospher i c Ti me Del ay. . . . . . . . . . 13
I onospher i c Ti me Del ay . e e e e e 13
Doppl er Ef f ect s . e . , a . , e a e e e e . . 14
Tr opospher i c Ef f ect . a e e e e a . e 19
I onospher i c Ef f ect e e e e e e e e 19
Sci nt i l l at i on Ef f ect s I) .) e e e e 20
Angl e- of - Ar r i val Sci nt i l l at i on e 20
83
6 .) 4 9 (Continued)
Page in
original
The Troposphere. e e e e e e e 20
The Ionosphere e e a . . . a 23
Phase Scintillation e e e e . e e e
The Troposphere. . , . e e e
The Ionosphere a e e e a e e
Range Scintillation e . . . a a e . ,
24
24
24
24
24 The Troposphere. . , e . . . . e e .
The Ionosphere e e e a . . . e e e e 27
Amplitude Scintillation e e a e e 27
The Ionosphere e . . . . . . a 27
Attenuation of Radio Waves e . . . . e e e . e
Tropospheric Attenuation. . . . e e . . .
Ionospheric Attenuation . . . . e e
Ionospheric Polarization Rotation. e . . e e e
Ionospheric Dispersion Effects . . . . e e
CosmicNoise e e e e e . . , e I) e e e
Conclusions. e e e . e e a . , . e a e
Discussion. e * . e e . e e e . .
References e . e e e e e e e e .
28
28
35
37
43
44
46
50
53
84
6. 4- 10 I nf l uence of t he Ear t h' s At mospher e, Sect i on 1, 5, Landol t -
Bor nst ei n, New Ser i es, ( Si edent opf , et al . 1965, r ef , 46)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
1. 5, 1 Ast r onomi cal r ef r act i on and ext i nct i on, 48
1. 5, l . l Ref r act i on of opt i cal r adi at i on 48
1. 5, 1. 2 Ext i nct i on of opt i cal r adi at i on . 50
1. 5. 1. 2. 1 Tr anspar ency of t he
at mospher e. e . e e e e 50
1, 5. 1, 2. 2 Rayl ei gh scat t er i ng e 51
1. 5. 1. 2. 3 Haze ext i nct i on e 52
1. 5. 1. 2. 4 Zeni t h r educt i on. e . 52
Ref er ences f or 1. 5. 1. 1
and 1. 5. 1. 2 . . . e . . 53
1. 5. 1. 3 Ref r act i on of r adi o waves e e e 53
a) I onospher i c r ef r act i on e e . 53
b) Tr opospher i c r ef r act i on. e e . 53
Ref er ences f or
1. 5. 1. 3 e . . . e 54
1. 5- 1. 4 The ext i nct i on of r adi o- f r equency
r adi at i on e a . I) a . 54
Ref er ences f or
1. 5. 1. 4 . e e e . e 56
1. 5. 2 I nf l uence of at mospher i c t ur bul ence e e 56
1. 5, 2. 1 Opt i cal sci nt i l l at i on e 56
a) Fl uct uat i on of t he r ef r act i ve
i ndex An and t he t emper at ur e
A T O . . . . . e O P . . . . . 57
b) Qual i t y of i mages ( seei ng) 57
85
6 4 ~ 10 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
c) Sci nt i l l at i on, e . e e e e e 57
d) Col or ed sci nt i l l at i on. 58
1. 5. 2. 2 Sci nt i l l at i on of t he r adi at i on of
di scr et e r adi o sour ces. e . e e a 58
1. 5. 2. 3 Ref er ences f or 1. 5. 2. e a e e, . , 59
1. 5. 3 Br i ght ness of t wi l i ght and of t he ni ght sky 60
Br i ght ness of t he ni ght sky e e . . . . 60
Ai r gl ow. e * . e e e . . e . . . . . 61
Ref er ences f or 1. 5. 3. . . . . . e . e 61
6. 4. 11 Sur vey of Pr opagat i on Ef f ect s, Chapt er 15, Radar Syst em
Anal ysi s, ( Bar t on, 1964, r ef . 23) e
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
15. 1 At mospher i c At t enuat i on . . . . . . . 468
At t enuat i on i n t he Nor mal Tr opospher e a 468
At t enuat i on i n Cl ouds and Rai n. e . . 469
I onospher i c At t enuat i on . e e e a e . e 470
At mospher i c Noi se Temper at ur e e . . e * e 473
15. 2 Sur f ace Ref l ect i on, . . a e e 475
15, 3 Tr opospher i c Ref r act i on e e . . , 476
Exponent i al Ref er ence At mospher e. . . . e 477
Range and El evat i on Er r or s. e e e * e 479
Var i at i ons i n Ref r act i vi t y, . e e ". e 481
Cor r ect i on of Ref r act i ve Er r or s a e 482
Tr opospher i c Fl uct uat i ons . e e e e e 485
86
6 a 4 e 11 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
15. 4 I onospher i c Ref r act i on. e . , e e e * 490
I onospher i c Pr of i l es. a . . e e e . . e 490
I onospher i c Er r or s, e . e e . e a 492
6. 4. 12 At mospher i c Ef f ect s on Radi o Wave Pr opagat i on, Par t V,
Sect i on 1 , Moder n Radar Anal ysi s, Eval uat i on, and
Syst emDesi gn, ( Mi l l man, 1965, r ef . 13) ,
Sect i on Page i n
ori cri nal
1- 1 I NTRODUCTI ON. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
1- 2 ATMOSPHERI C MODELS. . . . . . . . . . . . 318
The Tr opospher e . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
The I onospher e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
1- 3 MATHEMATI CAL TECHNI QUES FOR REFRACTI ON AND
TI ME DELAY COMPUTATI ONS . . . . . . . . . 322
I nt egr al Met hod . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Ref r act i on Er r or . . . . . . . . . 322
Ti me Del ay Cor r ect i on . . . . . . . . . . 325
The Tr opospher e . . . . . . . . . 325
The I onospher e. e e e e . , 325
St r at i f i ed Layer Met hod e e e . e ., 326
Ref r act i on Er r or . e . e e e 326
Ti me Del ay Cor r ect i on e e e e e e 328
The Tr opospher e e e e 328
The I onospher e. e e e e e 328
87
12 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
1- 4 ATMOSPHERI C REFRACTI ON EFFECTS. . 329
Aver age Ref r act i ve Er r or s . ., . e e 330
Tr opospher i c Ref r act i on e * a e 330
I onospher i c Ref r act i on. e e . e 333
Tot al At mospher i c Ref r act i on, . . 334
RandomRef r act i ve Er r or s. * . . e e 335
1- 5 TI ME DELAYS I N THE ATMOSPHERE . e e 340
Tr opospher i c Ti me Del ay e e . e . e e e 340
I onospher i c Ti me Del ay. . e a e e 341
1- 6 DOPPLER EFFECTS DUE TO THE ATMOSPHERE . 342
Tr opospher i c Ef f ect e e e e e e 344
I onospher i c Ef f ect . . e e e e . e . . 348
1- 7 PROPAGATI ON OF RADI O WAVES THROUGH AN
I ONI ZED MEDI UMWI TH APPLI CATI ON TO THE
I ONOSPHERE. - . . . . . e e e e e . . e . 349
I n t he Absence of t he Ear t h' s Magnet i c
Fi el d and El ect r on Col l i si ons e e . e 349
I n t he Absence of t he Ear t h' s Magnet i c
Fi el d; El ect r on Col l i si ons Pr esent . e e e 353
I n t he Pr esence of t he Ear t h' s Magnet i c
Fi el d and El ect r on Col l i si ons e e a e 354
Case 1. Quasi - l ongi t udi nal
Pr opagat i on a e e e e 357
Case 2, Quasi - t r ansver se
Pr opagat i on e e 359
1- 8 I ONOSPHERI C POLARI ZATI ON EFFECTS. e 360
Theor et i cal Consi der at i ons. e 360
88
6 e 4 e 12 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i a i nal
1- 9 I ONOSPHERI C DI SPERSI ON EFFECTS. e e e e 364
Theor et i cal Consi der at i ons. . e . , 364
Pul se Degr adat i on . e e e . 364
Phase Shi f t s. e a e e e e e . 369
1- 10 ATMOSPHERI C ATTENUATI ON OF RADI O WAVES. . 371
Tr opospher i c At t enuat i on. e e . . . 371
I onospher i c At t enuat i on . . . a . . . a . 373
REFERENCES . . . . . . e . e e a . . . e . e e 377
6. 4. 13 Pr opagat i on of Radar Waves, Chapt er 11, I nt r oduct i on t o
Radar Syst ems, ( Skol ni k, 1962, r ef . 20)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
11. 1 I nt r oduct i on. a . . . e . . e e . . . 501
11. 2 Pr opagat i on over a Pl ane Ear t h. e e e . 501
11. 3 The Round Ear t h e e e e . , . . . a e e . 5 0' 6
11. 4 Ref r act i on. e . e . e . e e e e e . 506
11. 5 Anomal ous Pr opagat i on e I) e . e 509
11. 6 Low- al t i t ude Cover age e e e e e . e 512
11. 7 Radar Di f f r act i on Scr een. e e . e . 516
11, 8 At t enuat i on by At mospher i c Gases. . e . e 517
11. 9 Mi cr owave- r adi at i on Hazar ds . e e . , a e 518
REFERENCES e e e e 519
89
6.4,14 Radi o- wave Pr opagat i on, Chapt er 4, I nt r oduct i on t o Space
Communi cat i on Syst ems, ( Kr assner and Mi chael s, 1964,
r ef , 11)
Sect i on
4- 1 I NTRODUCTI ON. e .. * e e a
4-2 FUNDAMENTALS. e e . . e . , . e e
I sot r opi c Ant enna e e e e e e . . e e
Gai n and Di r ect i vi t y. e e e . e e .
Wave Mot i on and Fi el ds. . . . . . e e -, .
Pol ar i zat i on. e e e e . e e e .
Pr opagat i on i n Fr ee Space . . . e .
Fr esnel Di f f r act i on * . . . e . . e . . e
Ant enna Noi se Temper at ur e e e . . e e e
4- 3 EXTERNAL NOI SE SOURCES. e e e e a . .
Man- made Noi se. . . e e e e . . . .
Ter r est r i al Noi se . . e e e e e . . e e
At mospher i c Noi se . e e e . . e . . e .
Sol ar Noi se e e . e e . . . . , . e e . .
Gal act i c Noi se. . , . .
Ext er nal Noi se Pr of i l e. e (I e e e . ,
Syst emAspect of ENT, e e . e e
4- 4 ATMOSPHERI C PROPAGATI ON LOSSES, .I e e
Mol ecul ar Resonance Absor pt i on. e e .
Page i n
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77
78
78
78
78
79
80
80
81
81
81
82
82
83
84
84
87
87
88
89
89
90
6 4 . , 14 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on
At t enuat i on by Condensed Wat er Vapor
and Pr eci pi t at i on e I) e e e . e e
I onospher i c At t enuat i on e e .
At mospher i c At t enuat i on Pr of i l e e . e e e
4- 5 RADI O- WAVE REFRACTI ON . e . . e a
Tr opospher i c Ref r act i on . e . . . .
I onospher i c Ref r act i on. . . e e e . m e
At mospher i c Radi o Sci nt i l l at i on . . . . .
Syst emAspect of Ref r act i on . . . e .
4- 6 FARADAY ROTATI ON AND PHASE DI SPERSI ON . e
Far aday Ef f ect . . e e . e e a . . . .
Phase Di sper si on. e . . . . . ., .
4- 7 EFFECTS OF RELATI VE MOTI ON. e e . . . e e
The Doppl er Pr i nci pl e . . e e e e e e
Rot at i onal Modul at i on e . e e . . e a e
4- 8 FREQUENCY SELECTI ON e e . . e e e e . e . ,
4- 9 ANTENNA SI TE SELECTI ON. . . a e e e e e
Si t e El evat i on. e a . , . e . . e e e
Ef f ect i ve Hor i zon e e e a e e
Geogr aphi c Consi der at i ons * e e a e e .
Gr ound Conduct i vi t y e e * e e e .
4- 10 OTHER ATMOSPHERES e e e e e e a e
4- 11 REFERENCES. e a e e e e e e e
4- 12 BI BLI OGRAPHY, e e e e e e
Page i n
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91
93
94
96
96
96
98
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99
100
100
103
104
104
105
105
105
105
106
106
107
91
6-4.15 The Propagati on of Radio Si gnal s at the Lower Frequenci es,
Chapter 10, Meteorol ogi cal and Astronomical I nfl uences on
Radio Propagati on, (Landmark,. 1963, ref . 47)
I n thi s survey arti cl e an account i s gi ven of the main
f eatures of the propagati on of radi o si gnal s i n the fol l owi ng
frequency bands:
Low Frequency LF
Very Low Frequency VLF
Extremely Low Frequency ELF
Secti on
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6 .
7.
300 KHZ - 30 KHZ
30 KHZ - 3 KHZ
3 KHz
Page i n
ori si na 1
I ntroducti on. e e . . . e a e e . e e 205
Ground Ray Propagati on. e e e . . . 206
The Lower I onosphere. . (. e . . 206
The Di stant Propagati on of V.L ,F. Waves e 208
4. 1 General Account e e e e e . . a 208
4- 2 The Skywave ....,. e . e . . . 208
4.3 Ray and Waveguide Theori es of
Propagati on . , . e e e e a e . e a 210
4.4 Di urnal Vari ati ons i n Received Amplitude
andphase e e e . e . e e I) e 211
4.5 Propagati on Under Condi ti ons of
Magnetic Di sturbance. e e e 215
The Propagati on of L.F. Waves a 217
The Propagati on of E.L.F. Waves e e e . , 218
Bi bl i ography. , , e . , e a e e 219
92
6. 4, 16 Pr opagat i on of Decamet er Waves ( HF Band) , Chapt er 11,
Met eor ol ogi cal and Ast r onomi cal I nf l uences on Radi o
Pr opagat i on, ( Landmar k, 1963, r ef . 47)
Sect i on Page i n
or i q i nal
I nt r oduct i on, 0 II 221
1, Ray Geomet r y- The MUF . , e e e e e e 221
1. 1 Ref r act i ng I onospher e e e e e I) . e 221
1. 2 Bouger ' s Ref r act i on Law e e e 223
1, 3 Ambi gui t y- Ski p Zone a e . . e 223
1. 4 Di st ance of Recei vi ng Poi nt . . . e e 224
1. 5 Di sper si on For mul a. e e . a e e . , 224
1. 6 Fi xed Di st ance, Var i abl e Fr equency- MUF 225
1. 7 Real El ect r on Densi t y Pr of i l e e e e 226
1. 8 Tr ansmi ssi on Cur ve. e e a e 226
1. 9 Bl anket i ng. e e . , . e , , . . e e 228
1. 10 Mul t i pl e Ref l ect i ons. e a . e e 228
1. 11 Shadowof t he Ear t h e . a e a e e e . 229
1. 12 Lack of Hor i zont al Homogenei t y. . 229
1. 13 Pr opagat i on Thr ough t he I onospher e, 229
2. Pr act i cal Met hods f or Det er mi ni ng t he MUF. 230
2. 1 Accur acy of t he Met hod. e a e 230
2. 2 St andar d MUF, e e e .) . . 230
2. 3 Tr ansmi ssi on Fact or e e e 231
2. 4 MUF- Map , , a e e e _ . e a e * 232
2, 5 Wor l d- Wi de Repr esent at i on e 233
2- 6 Cl assi cal MUF e e a 235
93
6 e 4 e 16 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
2.7 Oper at i onal MUF e e . e e e . 235
2.8 I onospher i c Backscat t er . . e e e a 236
2.9 Communi cat i ons Vi a E- Regi on e e e e 237
2.10 I onospher i c For war d- Scat t er . (. e 238
3. Fi xed St r engt h Est i mat or e e e . . . e 240
3.1 Adequat e Par amet er . e e . . . . a 240
3.2 Pr opagat i on At t enuat i on . . . a e 240
3.3 Geomet r i cal Opt i cs. a . . . e . - . e 241
3.4 Gr ound Ref l ect i on Losses. e e e . . 241
3.5 Peder sen Rays . . . . e e e e e . e . 242
3.6 Bl anket i ng by Nor mal E. e e . . . . e 243
3.7 Devi at i ve Absor pt i on. . . . e e e e 243'
3.8 Bl anket i ng by Spor adi c E. . e . . 244
3.9 Absor pt i on i n Lower Layer s. a e e . . 245
3.10 Combi nat i on of t he Di f f er ent I nf l uences 246
6.4.17 Tr opospher i c Ref r act i on, Chapt er 3, Radi o Met eor ol ogy,
( Bean and Dut t on, 1965, r ef . 42)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
3. 1 I nt r oduct i on e a e e e . e e e 49
3,2 Li mi t at i ons t o r adi o r ay t r aci ng e e e . , e 52
3.3 An appr oxi mat i on f or hi gh i ni t i al el evat i on
angl es * e e a - e e e e 53
3,4 The st at i st i cal met hod e a e 54
3.5 Schul ki nss met hod. . , e c1 e e e e I) 54
94
6 4 e 17 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i a i na 1
3. 6 Li near or ef f ect i ve ear t h' s r adi us model e 56
3. 7 Modi f i ed ef f ect i ve ear t h' s r adi us model . e 59
3. 8 The exponent i al model , e e e . e e e . 65
3. 9 The i ni t i al gr adi ent cor r ect i on met hod m 77
3. 10 The depar t ur es- f r om- nor mal met hod. e . 77
3. 11 A gr aphi cal met hod ( see Sect i on 8. 11) e . 80
3. 12 Der i vat i ons. e a e e e . . . . . a (I e 82
3. 13 Ref er ences . . . . e e e e . e e . a e . 87
6. 4. 18 At t enuat i on of Radi o Waves, Chapt er 7, Radi o Met eor ol ogy,
( Bean and Dut t on, 1965, ref . 42)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
7. 1 I nt r oduct i on * . . . e . e e e . . . 269
7. 2 Backgr ound e e e . a e . . e e * e 269
7. 3 At t enuat i on by at mospher i c gases e e e e 270
7. 4 Est i mat es of t he r ange of t ot al gaseous
absor pt i on (I e . , . . e e e e e e . 280
7* 5 Tot al r adi o pat h absor pt i on. e . , e 283
7, 6 Der i vat i on of absor pt i on est i mat e f or
ot her ar eas. e e e e e e e e e e e a e 286
7. 7 At t enuat i on i n cl ouds, . e e e e e e e 291
7. 8 At t enuat i on by r ai n. e . a e e e 292
7. 9 Rai nf al l at t enuat i on cl i mat ol ogy e 297
7, l O Rai n at t enuat i on ef f ect s on r adi o syst ems
engi neer i ng. a e (. e e e 298
95
6 4 e 18 (Continued)
Secti on Page i n
ori gi nal
7.11 Attenuati on by hai l . e e a 302
7- 12 Attenuati on y f og , . * . . . . . . . . . 303
7.13 Thermal noi se emi tted by the atmosphere. e 304
7.14 References a e . e . e e ., a 308
6.4.19 Di el ectri c Constant, Absorpti on, and Scatteri ng, Chapter 5,
Radio Wave Propagati on, (Burrows and Atwood, 1949, ref , 48)
Secti on Page i n
ori gi nal
Absorpti on and Scatteri ng of Microwaves by the
Atmosphere,
L, Gol dstei n . e e e . a . . . . . . . e 269
I ntroducti on. . e e L o . . . e . 269
Scatteri ng and Absorpti on of Radio Waves by
Spheri cal Parti cl es e e e e . , . . . e . e a . 271
The Scatteri ng Amplitudes a: and b: - e e 275
The Attenuati on of Radio Waves by Spheri cal
Raindrops e a e . (. e e . a . . a . 277
Typi cal D at a on Clouds, Fogs, and Rains e e a . 279
Attenuati on by I deal i zed Preci pi tati on Forms. e 281
The Scatteri ng of Microwaves by Spheri cal
Raindrops e (. e . e . a e . e 284
Back Scatteri ng (Echoes). e e e e e e 286
K-Band Absorpti on - Experi mental ,
E. M e Purcel l , ,. e e . e e 292
Absorpti on of K-Band Radi ati on by Water Vapor,
J. M e B, Kellogg e I) e e . , 293
96
6 4 e 19 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i ai nal
K- Band Absor pt i on Due t o Rai nf al l ,
L. J, Ander son a e . e 295
I nt r oduct i on. .) e e e e e e 295
Rai nf al l I nt ensi t y. e e e e a e e e e e e e 295
Radi o Equi pment e I) e . e a e 295
Anal ysi s. e a e e e . e e e e 296
Di scussi on. a a e . . . e . e e . e . 296
Absor pt i on of Mi cr owaves by t he At mospher e,
Br i t i sh Wor k,
F. Hoyl e e . . . a e e e . a a 297
Di el ect r i c Const ant and Loss Fact or of Li qui d
Wat er and t he At mospher e,
L. Gol dst ei n . . . . e e . . e e . , 297
Exper i ment al Met hods. . e e e a . a 297
Ref l ect i on- t r ansmi ssi on Met hod. e . , e e . . . 297
St andi ng Wave Rat i o Met hod. e e e e e e 298
The Resonat or Q Met hod. 'I) e , , e 299
Li qui d Wat er . e e . e . e 299
I c e . . e e e , e e e a e e e e 300
At t enuat i on Due t o Wat er Vapor , e e e e e e 301
Labor at or y Measur ement s of Di el ect r i c Pr oper t i es,
F. Hoyl e. e e a a e e e e a 302
6, 4. 20 Pr opagat i on, Sect i on VI , I nt er f er ence Not ebook, ( Hei sl er
and Hewi t t , 1966, r ef , 33)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
6, l I NTRODUCTI ON e 6- 1
97
km 4 e 20 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
6.1.1 Pr opagat i on i n I nt er f er ence Anal ysi s 6-1
6,1,2 Sect i on Or gani zat i on e . e e e 6-1
6.2 FUNDAMENTAL PROPAGATI ON CONSI DERATI ONS e e 6-3
6.3
6.2,1 Pr opagat i on Mode Sel ect i on . , . .
6.2,2 Basi c Tr ansmi ssi on Loss. . a
6.2.3 Gr ound Const ant s e a e e e e
6.2.4 Radi o Hor i zon. e e e e . . e e e
6.2.5 Angul ar Di st ance e e . . e
6.2.5.1 Angul ar Di st ance Over Rough
Ter r ai n. . e e . e e
6.2.5.2 Angul ar Di st ance Over Smoot h
Ear t h. . . e - e . . .
6.2.6 Ref l ect i on Coef f i ci ent e e . .
6.2,7 I ndex of Ref r act i on. e e . e
6.2.8 At mospher i c Absor pt i on e e a
PROPAGATI ON MODES. , . e . , e e . , e e e
6.3.1 Sur f ace Wave e e e e . e a I) I)
6.3,1,1 I nt r oduct i on e e e (. e
6.3.1,2 Sur f ace Wave Def i ni t i on, e
6,3,1.3 Numer i cal Ant enna Hei ght e
6.3.1-4 Zer o- Hei ght Ant ennas e e e
6,3.1,5' El evat ed Ant ennas. , e
6.3,1,6 Cal cul at i on Di agr am. e e
6,3.1,7 Cur ves of Basi c Tr ansmi ssi on
Loss f or Sur f ace Wave.
6-3
6-6
6-6
6-7
6-7
6-8
6-8
6-9
6-10
6-14
6-15
6-15
6-15
6-17
6-19
6-20
6-20
6-20
6-26
98
6 4 20 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
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6.3.1.8 Sur f ace Wave Char act er i st i cs. 6-26
6.3.1.8.1 Pol ar i zat i on. e . , e 6-26
6.3.1.8.2 Ant enna Hei ght . 6-26
6.3.1.8.3 Gr ound Const ant s. 6-31
6.3.1.8.4 Fadi ng. (. 6-31
6.3.2 Ref l ect i on Regi on . . . e e e e 6-31
6.3.2.1 Pr opagat i on Modes i n t he
Ref l ect i on Regi on . . . e e 6-31
6.3.2.2 Cal cul at i on of Basi c Tr ans-
mi ssi on Loss. . e e e . . . . 6-35
6.3.2.2.1 Smoot h Spher i cal
Ear t h . e e. . . e . 6-35
6.3.2.2.2 Rough Ear t h e e . . 6-37
6.3.2.3 Fadi ng. . e . e . . . . e e 6-51
6.3.2.3.1 Char act er i st i cs e e 6-51
6.3.2.3.2 St at i st i cs. * 6-53
6,3,3 Di f f r act i on Regi on. . e 6-54
6.3.3.1 I nt r oduct i on. . (. e 6-54
6.3.3.2 Cal cul at i on of Near Di f f r act i on
Regi on Basi c Tr ansmi ssi on Loss 6-54
6.3.3.2.1 Smoot h Ear t h. . , 6-54
6,3.3,2,2 Rough Ear t h e e 6-62
6,3.3.3 Kni f e Edge Di f f r act i on, e 6-72
6,3,3.3,1 I nt r oduct i on. e 6-72
99
6 4 e 20 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on
Page i n
or i gi nal
6, 3. 3. 3, 2 Cal cul at i on of
Kni f e Edge Basi c
Tr ansmi ssi on Loss. 6- 72
6. 3. 3. 3. 3 Char act er i st i cs of
Kni f e Edge Di f f r ac-
t i on Pr opagat i on e 6- 84
6. 3, 3. 4 Smoot h Ear t h Di f f r act i on
Pat hs Over a Non- homogeneous
Ear t h. a . . . a e e 6- 87
6. 3. 4 Tr anshor i zon Regi on. . e . e . , e 6- 88
6, 3. 5 I onospher i c Pr opagat i on. a e . 6- 88
6. 3. 5. 1 I nt r oduct i on .I e . e I) 6- 88
6. 3. 5- 2 Ver y Low Fr equency I onospher i c
Pr opagat i on. a e e a 6- 91
6. 3. 5. 3 Low and Medi umFr equency
Skywave, e e e e e . , , 6- 95
6, 3. 5. 4 Hi gh Fr equency I onospher i c
Pr opagat i on, e a e e 6- 100
6. 3, 5. 5 Char act er i st i cs of I onospher i c
Pr opagat i on. . 6- 100
6. 3. 5- 5. 1 Maxi mumUsabl e
Fr equency ( MUF) , e 6- 100
6. 3. 5, 5, 2 I onospher i c
Absor pt i on a e e 6- 101
6, 3. 5. 5. 3 Fadi ng e . , 6- 102
6, 3. 5, 6 Spor adi c- E Pr opagat i on e 6- 103
6, 3, 6 Scat t er Pr opagat i on, e a 6- 104
6, 3, 6. 1 I nt r oduct i on e e e 6- 104
100
6 4 20 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
6. 3. 6. 2 Tr opospher i c Scat t er
Pr opagat i on, e e a e e 6- 104
6, 3. 6, 2, 1 I nt r oduct i on e e 6- 104
6, 3, 6, 2, 2 Tr opospher i c Scat t er
Long- Ter mHour l y
Medi an Basi c Tr ans-
mi ssi on Loss e e 6- 105
6. 3. 6. 2. 3 Fadi ng Char act er i st i cs
of Tr opospher i c
Scat t er Pr opagat i on 6- 111
6. 3. 6. 3 I onospher i c Scat t er
Pr opagat i on. e a . , . 6- 112
6. 3. 6. 4 Met eor Pr opagat i on . . . e 6- 119
Bi bl i ogr aphy e e . e e . e .) e e 6- 120
6. 4. 21 El ect r omagnet i c- Wave Pr opagat i on, Chapt er 26, Ref er ence
Dat a f or Radi o Engi neer s, ( West man, 1968, r ef . 49)
Sect i on Page i n
or i a i na 1
Ver y- l ow Fr equenci es - Up t o 30 Ki l oher t z . , e
Low and Medi umFr equenci es - 30 t o 3000 Ki l oher t z
Penet r at i on of Waves e
Hi gh Fr equenci es - 3 t o 30 Megaher t z. e e . , e
Angl es of Depar t ur e and Ar r i val , e e
For ecast s of Hi gh- f r equency Pr opagat i on, e
Bandwi dt h Li mi t at i ons, e e e a
Di ver si t y, e e e e e e e e
Gr eat - ci r cl e Cal cul at i ons e e
Avai l abl e Maps and Tabl es, e e e
26- 1
26- 2
26- 3
26- 4
26- 7
26- 7
26- 9
26- 9
26- 9
26- 10
101
6 4 e 21 (Continued)
Secti on Page i n
ori gi nal
Ef f ect of Nuclear Expl osi ons on Radio
Propagati on. a e . , e e e (. e a . 26-11
I onospheri c Scatter Propagati on. e 26-11
Meteor-burst Propagati on e . , a a e e 26-12
Propagati on above 30 Megahertz, Line-of-
si ght Condi ti ons e e e . . a e 26-12
Radio Refracti on e . e e e e . , 26-12
Path Pl otti ng and Prof i l e- chart
Constructi on . . . . e e a e e . e a a 26-12
Fresnel Zones. . . . e e a e e . . . . . . 26-14
Required Path Cl earance. e e . . . e e 26-15
I nterf erence Between D i r e c t and Refl ected
Rays e e . ,. . . . . . . e e e . e a 26-16
Space-di versi ty Recepti on. e e . . e . . . 26-17
Vari ati on of Fi el d Strength wi th Di stance. 26-17
Fading and Di versi ty . e e . a 26-18
Atmospheric Absorpti on . . e a e e e 26-19
Free-space Transmi ssi on Equati ons. e e 26-19
Ef f ecti ve A r eas of Typi cal Antennas (Refer
to Antennas Chapter) I. e . e a .)
Antenna Gain Rel ati ve to Hypotheti cal
I sotropi c Antennas e e . , e e e e e 26-20
Angle Beam Angle e e e . e e e 26-21
Transmi tter Power f or a Required Output
Si gnal /Noi se R at i o e a .. e e e 26-21
Knife-edge Di f f racti on Propagati on. . , e a 26-23
102
6 4 21 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i ai nal
Tr opospher i c- scat t er Pr opagat i on. e e e e e e 26-23
Scat t er i ng f r omOr bi t al Di pol es e e e e e e e 26-26
Ear t h- Space Communi cat i on ( See Al so t he Chapt er on
Space Communi cat i ons) e . , (. . e a e 26-26
Li ne- of - si ght Pr opagat i on at Opt i cal Fr equency, 26-27
6-4.22 Ul t r a Hi gh Fr equency Pr opagat i on, ( Reed and Russel l ,
1953, r ef . 50)
Chapt er Page i n
ori cri nal
1
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
An I nt r oduct i on t o UHF Communi cat i ons and
t he Syst emConcept . e e . . , . . e 1
Gener al Aspect s of Pr opagat i on . e . e 24
Met eor ol ogi cal Theor y, . .. . e . e e . 42
Ant ennas and Radi at i on Phenomena ( Gr ound
Ref l ect i on Behavi or ) e (I e e 58
Mul t i pat h Pr opagat i on ( Gr ound- t o- Ai r , Ai r -
t o- Gr ound, and Gr ound- t o- Gr ound Pr opagat i on) 117
Compar i son of VHF and UHF Pr opagat i on,
Di pol e- t o- Di pol e ( Gr ound- t o- Ai r and
Ai r - t o- Gr ound Pr opagat i on) e a , , .185
Compl ex Ant ennas ( Li near Ar r ays) e e e e 254
Compl ex Ant ennas ( Ci r cul ar l y Pol ar i zed
Ant ennas) , e a a e e e 313
Syst emCompar i son, Oper at i on, and Desi gn
of UHF Compl ex Ant . ennas. e e . , 336
Ai r - t o- Ai r Pr opagat i on e e a 372
Lobe Modul at i on I nt er f er ence and Desi gn
Consi der at i ons e e e e e e a 403
103
6 e 4 e 22 ( Cont i nued)
Chapt er Page i n
or i gi nal
12 Ef f ect s of Met eor ol ogi cal Condi t i ons on
Exper i ment al Fl i ght Dat a e . e 434
13 Gener al Oper at i onal Condi t i ons . e (. e 455
14 I l l ust r at i ve Syst ems Desi gn Pr obl ems . * . 519
6. 4. 23 The Radi o Spect r umf r om10 GC t o 300 GC i n Aer ospace
Communi cat i ons, Vol . IV, ( Evans, Bachynski , and Wacker ,
1962, r ef . 19)
PART I - Absor pt i on of El ect r omagnet i c Waves i n t he
At mospher e of The Ear t h and Ot her Pl anet s
Page i n
or i gi nal
I 1 THE ABSORPTI ON SPECTRAL LI NES. 4
A. Qual i t at i ve Appr oach e a . e e e 4
a. Absor pt i on Fr equency. I) e . . e . 4
b. Col l i si on Br oadeni ng. e . e (. 5
c. Doppl er Br oadeni ng. e e e e e 9
d. Sat ur at i on Br oadeni ng e e e e e e 9
e, Hi gh Pr essur e Br oadeni ng. e . , 10
B. The Spect r al Br oadeni ng Equat i ons. 12
a. I nt er medi at e Pr essur es, e e e e 12
1. Gener al Equat i ons e (I e 12
2, Pr essur e and Temper at ur e
Dependence, e 16
104
6 e 4 e 23 ( Cont i nued)
Page i n
or i gi nal
3 . Li mi t s of t he Van Vl eck-
Wei sskopf Equat i on, e e a e
4. Ef f ect of Par t i al Pr essur e. e
b. Low Pr essur es e e a e e e e e
1. Doppl er Br oadeni ng. e e e
2. Sat ur at i on Br oadeni ng e e
3 . Pr essur e and Temper at ur e
Dependence. . . . , . e e
c. Hi gh Pr essur es. e e e . e
d. Ef f ect of El evat i on of Pat h .
I 11 ABSORPTI ON I N THE EARTH' S ATMOSPHERE .
A.
B.
C.
D.
Composi t i on of t he Ear t h' s At mospher e
a. Lower At mospher e. e a e e e e
b, Upper At mospher e. - e . e . e a
Mol ecul es havi ng Spect r al Li nes i n
t he Mi cr owave Regi on . . e e
a. Oxygen. e e a e e e a
b. Wat er Vapor e e e a e e e e e
c. Ot her Const i t uent s. e e e e e e
Exper i ment al I nvest i gat i ons on
At mospher i c At t enuat i on, e
Rai n At t enuat i on .) .) e e e .I
I V ABSORPTI ON I N PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES. e
A. The At mospher es of t he Pl anet s e
Be The Ter r est r i al Pl anet s. e e a
18
19
20
20
22
25
26
28
30
30
30
32
32
33
37
40
46
52
59
59
63
105
6 (. 4 23 ( Cont i nued)
Page i n
or i gi nal
a. Mer cur y , , e e e 63
b o V e n u s . . . . . . . . . e e . , . 63
C. The Maj or Pl anet s. e e . a e e 73
a. J upi t er a e e e . e e . e 74
b. Saturn. , . a e e e e . . e e e . 76
c. Ur anus. e e . e e e e . e e 77
d. Nept une a . e e . . e . a e . 77
e. Pl ut o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
V REFERENCES . e e e . . . a e a e . . 79
Fi gur es f or Par t J . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Appendi x I
Obser ved Fr equenci es, Li ne Br eadt hs
and I nt ensi t i es f or Pur e Oxygen- . . 113
Appendi x I 1
Obser ved N14 H I nver si on Li nes. a e 114
3
PART I 1 - Noi se i n t he 10- 30 Gc Fr equency Range
I I NTRODUCTI ON . , e e . . 115
I 1 SOME THEORETI CAL CONSI DERATI ONS. e e e 117
A. Bl ack Body Radi at i on e e . e 117
B. Ant enna Noi se Power and Ef f ect i ve
Ant enna Noi se Temper at ur e. e 120
C. Cal cul at i on of t he Ant enna Noi se
Power f or Some Pr act i cal Cases e e 129
I 11 SOURCES OF NOI SE e e 133
106
6 e 4 e 23 ( Cont i nued)
Page i n
or i gi nal
A. Cl assi f i cat i on of Noi se Sour ces. 133
B. Ext er nal Sour ces of Noi se. e e e e 133
a. Man Made El ect r i cal Noi se e . , 134
b. At mospher i cs. . e e . . , e e a e 134
c, Cosmi c Backgr ound Radi at i on e . e e 135
d. Radi o St ar s . . . . e e e e e 136
e. Spect r al Li nes. . . e e e e 138
f . Sol ar Radi at i on e e . . e e e 139
g. Ther mal Noi se f r omt he Ear t h' s
At mospher e. e e . . . . . e e 140
h. Ther mal Radi at i on f r omt he Pl anet s
( i ncl udi ng Ear t h and t he Moon) . e 142
i. Non- Ther mal Pl anet ar y Radi at i on . 148
6. 4. 24 I onospher i c Radi o Waves, Davi es' , ( r ef , 51)
Chapt er
1.
2.
3.
4.
5,
6.
7.
8,
Hi st or i cal I nt r oduct i on. a (I . e
Theor y of Wave Pr opagat i on e a
The I onospher e, Geomagnet i sm, and t he
Sun, (. e e e e
Radi o Waves i n I oni zed Medi a .I e e e
Di sper si on e * e . a
Absor pt i on e e e e e e e e e
Ray Pat hs i n t he I onospher e. e
Vi r t ual Hei ght e e
Page i n
or i gi nal
1
11
39
83
113
143
168
197
107
6 e 4 24 (Continued)
Chapter Page i n
ori gi nal
9. Phase and Frequency Vari ati ons a a e 226
10. Whi stl er Propagati on a . e e e 269
11* General i zed Magnetoionic Theory, e . , 287
12 e Oblique Propagati on. e . e e e 307
13 The Amplitudes of Radio Waves. .. e 346
14 * Topside Sounding e . . . . a . 396
15 e Nonl i near Processes i n the I onosphere. e 421
6.4.25 Sel ected porti ons from El ectromagneti c Scatteri ng,
(Kerker, 1963, ref e 75), (See Secti on 7.4.40)
PART I11 Microwave and Radiowave Scatteri ng i n the
Atmosphere
Page i n
ori gi nal
Back-Scatter by Dielectric Spheres wi th and
wi thout Metal Caps
David A t l as and Kenneth M. Glober. e e 213
Surface Waves Associ ated wi th the Back-Scatteri ng
of Microwave Radi ati on by Large I ce Spheres a
J , Re Probert-J ones, e . e . .i e 237
Cal cul ati ons of the Total Attenuati on and Angular
Scatter of Ice Spheres
Benjamin M e Herman and Loui s J . Battan e 251
The Role of Radio Wave Scatteri ng i n the Study
of Atmospheric Mi crostructure
Ralph Bolgiano, J r.. e e e e e e 261
Atmospheric Scatter Refl ecti on Phenomena i n Radio
Wave Propagati on
A. Spi zzi chi no and J . Voge e 269
108
6.5 PERI ODI CALS
Tabl e 6-6 l i st s sel ect ed per i odi cal s whi ch usual l y cont ai n
i nf or mat i on on at mospher i c ef f ect s on r adi o wave pr opagat i on.
TABLE 6-6.- SELECTED PERI ODI CALS WHI CH TREAT ATMOSPHERI C
EFFECTS ON RADI O WAVE AND MI CROWAVE PROPAGATI ON
J, Geophysi cal Resear ch
I Pr oc* I EEE
Publ i sher
I nst i t ut e of El ect r i cal and El ect r oni cs
Engi neer s ( I EEE) New York
Amer i can Geophysi cal Uni on ( AGU)
Washi ngt on
I nst i t ut e of El ect r i cal Engi neer s
( I EE) London,
I EEE
AGU Radi o Sci ence
6.6 I NFORMATI ON CENTERS
I nf or mat i on cent er s ar e di scussed i n Sect i on 5.2, Tabl e
5-2 l i st s sever al cent er s whi ch deal speci f i cal l y wi t h el ect r o-
magnet i c wave pr opagat i on i n t he ear t hss at mospher e.
6,7 COMPUTATI ONAL AI DS
Comput at i onal ai ds ar e di scussed i n gener al i n Sect i on 5.7,
Tabl e 6-7 pr esent s some comput at i onal devi ces f or use i n pr obl ems
deal i ng wi t h r adi o waves.
7.0 I NFORP/ I ATI ONSOURCES FOR THE OPTI CAL REGI ON
7- 1 I NTRODUCTI ON
Sect i on 7,2 pr esent s i nf wmat i on on bi bl i ogr aphi es deal i ng
wi t h t he pr opagat i on of opt i cal waves i n t he ear t h' s at mospher e,
Sect i on 7,3 di scusses var i ous r evi ews of opt i cal wave
pr opagat i on i n t he ear t h' s at mospher e,
109
I
Id
a
0
k
PI
a
5
rd
G
E:
a,
U k
3
a, pI
u
w
O G
0
+, -4
M u
r d r d
P I m
3s
5 8
I
I
I
I
110
a
a,
3
G
-4
c,
c:
0
u
I
fi
I
w
w
0
8
I3
m
fi
w
a,
k
m
I3
H
0
4
I
I
a - rn. .
m
a,
-4
c,
k
a,
!a
0
k
PI
u
-4
k
a,
L:
a
m
8
G
0
H
D
03
I
a
rd
c:
-4
m
G
9
2
a,
a,
k
A
c,
a
a,
7
m
m
H
N
Er
n
0
0
0
Y
Er
B
a
G
rd
111
Sect i on 7. 4 deal s wi t h books and i n par t i cul ar pr esent s t he
t abl e of cont ent s of many books and book chapt er s,
Sect i on 7.5 consi der s per i odi cal s and i n par t i cul ar l i st s
sever al per i odi cal s whi ch usual l y cont ai n ar t i cl es on at mospher i c
ef f ect s on opt i cal waves or spect r oscopy at t hese f r equenci es.
Sect i on 7. 6 deal s wi t h i nf or mat i on cent er s and sect i on 7. 7
cover s comput at i onal ai ds usef ul i n t he opt i cal f r equency r egi on.
7. 2 BI BLI OGRAPHI ES
Tabl e 7- 1 pr esent s bi bl i ogr aphi es on t he pr opagat i on of
opt i cal waves, i n t he ear t h' s at mospher e.
TABLE 7- 1. - BI BLI OGRAPHI ES ON THE PROPAGATI ON OF
OPTI CAL WAVES I N THE EARTH' S ATMOSPHERE
WI TH EMPHASI S ON EARTH- TO- SPACE
PROPAGATI ON
I TI TLE
Resear ch i n At mospher i c Opt i cs
and Radi at i on
At mospher i c Radi at i on and Opt i cs
Bi bl i ogr aphy on Met eor ol ogi cal
Sat el l i t es
Opt i cal Sci nt i l l at i on; A Sur vey
of t he Li t er at ur e
A Li t er at ur e Sur vey on t he
At mospher i c Ef f ect s on t he
Pr opagat i on of 1. 06 Mi cr on Laser
Radi at i on
Per mut ed Bi bl i ogr aphy on Laser
Li t er at ur e
At mospher i c Opt i cs and Radi at i on
Tr ansf er
Laser Abst r act s
REFERENCE
Seker a, 1960, ref . 1
Kapl an and Seker a, 1963, ref . 2
Ki ss, 1963, ref . 3
Meyer - Ar endt and Emmanual ,
1965, ref . 4
Roy and Emmons, 1965, r ef , 5
Ashbur n and Ashbur n, 1967,
r ef , 6
Howar d and Gar i ng, 1967, r ef , 7
Lowr ey- Cockcr of t Abst r act s,
Evanst on, I L
112
7.3 REVIEWS
Tabl e 7-2 l i sts revi ews of vari ous aspects of opti cal wave
propagati on i n the earth's atmosphere wi th emphasis on earth-to-
space propagati on paths.
7.4 BOOKS
7.4.1 I ntroducti on 118
7.4.2 Atmospheric Opti cs, Chapter 7, Handbook of
Geophysics and Space Environments, (Elterman
and Tool i n, 1965, ref. 20) . . . . . . e e a 118
7.4.3 Atmospheric Effects, Chapter 4, Vol. I , Applied
Opti cs and Opti cal Engi neeri ng , (Stewart and
Hopfi el d, 1966, ref . 21) . a e . . . e . . e 121
7.4.4 Sol ar Radi ati on, (Robinson, 1966, ref . 22) . . , . 121
7.4.5 The Ef f ect of the Atmosphere on Sol ar Radi ati on
Reaching the Earth, Chapter 3, Sol ar Radi ati on,
(Robinson, 1966, ref . 22) e e a . . e e . . . e 122
7.4.6 D i r e c t and Scattered Radi ati on Reaching the
Earth, as I nfl uenced by Atmospheric, Geographic,
and Astronomical Factors, Chapter 4, Sol ar
Radi ati on (Robinson, 1966, ref . 22) . e . . . 122
7.4.7 Vi si on through the Atmosphere, (Middleton, 1952,
ref. 8 ) . . . e e e e e e . . , - . . . a e 1 2 3
7.4.8 Vi si on Through the Atmosphere, i n Handbuch der -
Physi k, (Middleton, 1957, ref . 9) e e . e 124
7.4.9 Sel ected T i t l es from the Compendium of
Meteorology, (Malone, 1959, ref . 23). . . e . e 127
7.4.10 Opti cs of the Atmosphere: Scatteri ng, Absorpti on
Refracti on, (McCartnev, 1970, tentati ve. ref. 19) 128
7,4,11 Rayl ei gh Scatteri ng by Molecules, Chapter 4,
Opti cs of the Atmosphere: Scatteri ng, Absorpti on,
Refracti on, (McCartney, 1970, tentati ve, ref . 19) 129
7,4.12 M i e Scatteri ng by Parti cl es, Chapter 4,
Atmosphere:: Scatteri ng, Absorpti on, Refracti on,
(McCartneyp 1970, tentati ve, ref . 19) e e 129
113
TABLE 7-2,- SELECTED FEVIEWS ON THE PROPAGATION OF
OPTI CAL WAVES I N THE EARTHBS ATMOSPHERE
WI TH EMPHASIS ON EARTH-TO-SPACE
PROPAGATION PATHS
TI TLE
Vi si on Through the Atmosphere*
The Transmi ssi on of the Atmos-
phere i n the I nfrared
The Transmission of the Atmos-
phere i n the I nfrared - a
Revi ew
I nfrared
Scattered Radi ati on i n the
Atmosphere
Atmospheric Opti cs (7.4.2)
Transmission and Detection of
I nfrared Radiation (7.4.18)
Atmospheric Phenomena (7.4 a 23)
The Ef f ect of the Atmosphere
on Solar Radi ati on Reachi ng
the Ground (7.4.5)
Atmospheri c Opti cs and Radi a-
ti on Transfer
Transmission of I nfrared Radia-
ti on Through the Earth's Atmos-
phere (7.4.30)
Opti cs of the Atmosphere:
Scatteri ng, Absorption, Re-
fracti on (7.4.10; 11; 12 ;13,14 , 15)
Penetrabi l i ty of Haze, Fog,
Clouds, and Preci pi tati on by
Radi ant Energy over the Spectral
Range 0- 1 Micron to 10 Centi -
meters (7.4,39)
REFERENCE
Mi ddl eton, 1952, 1957,
refs, 8, 9,
Howard, 1959, ref. 10
Howard and Gari ng, 1962,
ref, 11
King, et al., 1963, ref. 12
Bul l ri ch, 1964, ref. 13
Elterman and Tool i n, 1965,
ref. 14
Howard, Garing and Walter,
1965, ref. 15
Plass & Y at es, 1965, ref. 16
Robinson, 1966, ref. 17
Howard and Gari ng, 1967,
ref. 7
Hudson, 1969, ref. 18
McCartney, ref. 19
Lukesp ref, 56
114
TABLE 7-3,- SELECTED BOOKS DI SCUSSI NG THE P
OPTICAL WAVES I N THE EARTH'S AT
TI TLE
Opti -
Astrophysical Quanti ti es
Atmospheric Radi ati on - I
Theoretical B asi s
Compendi um of _. Meteorology
El ements of I nfrared
Technology: Generation,
Transmi ssi on, - and Detec-
ti on
_I
Fundamentals of I nfrared
-
Technolosv
Handbook of Geophysics
I_ and Space-hvironments
Handbook of Mi l i tary
I nfrared Gchnolosv
Handbuch der Physik
I
I nfrared Physi cs I_ and
Ensi neeri ns
I nfrared Radiation
I nfrared Radi ati on: A
I nfrared Systems
Engi neeri ng
I ntroducti on _I to Theore-
ti cal
REFERENCE
Kingslake, 1967,
ref, 38
A l l en, 1963,
ref. 29
Goody, 1964,
ref, 39
Malone, 1959,
ref. 23
Kruse! et al e
ref. 32
I 962 ,
Hol ter, et al . 1962,
ref, 28
Val l ey, 1965,
ref. 40
Wolfe, ref. 41
Middleton, 1957,
ref, '9
J amieson, et ale
1963, ref. 27
Hackforth, 1960 ,
ref, 42
Bramson, ref, 33
Hudson, 1969,
ref. 18
H ess, 1959, ref. 43
ROPAGATION OF
4OSPHERE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.4.3
7,4.24
-e-
7.4.9
7.4.27
7.4.23
6.4.2; 7.4.2;
7.4.19; 20
7.4.8
7.4.21; 22
--s
7.4.28
7, 4, 30
---
(continued on page 119)
115
7,4.13 Absorpti on and Emission by Gases, Chapter 6,
Opti cs of the Atmosphere: Scatteri ng,
Absorpti on, Refracti on, (McCartney, 1970,
tentati ve,. ref, 19) - e = e e . e e e 129
7.4.14
7.4,15
7.4.16
7.4.17
7.4,18
7.4.19
7,4.20
7, 4, 21
7* 4.22
7,4,23
7. 4- 24
Theory and Ef f ects of Refracti on, Chapter 7,
Opti cs of the Atmosphere: Scatteri ng, Absorpti on,
Refracti on, (McCartney, 1970, tentati ve, ref. 19) 130
Atmospheric Radiance, Transmi ttance and V i si bi l i ty,
Chapter 8, Opti cs of the Atmosphere: Scatteri ng,
Absorpti on, Refracti on, (McCartney, 1970,
tentati ve, ref . 19) e r/ a e e e e . * 1 3 0
Sol ar El ectromagneti c Radi ati on, Chapter 16,
Handbook of Geophysics and Space Environments,
( Gast , et al . 1965, ref . 24) . . (. e e e . e e 130
I nfl uence of the Earth's Atmosphere, Secti on 1.5,
Landol t-Bornstei n, New Series, (Si edentopf,
et al . 1965, ref . 25) .. . , e e .) e . e e e e - 1 3 2
Transmi ssi on and Detecti on of I nf rared Radi ati on,
Chapter 10, Handbook of Geophysics and Space
Environments, (Howard, Gari ng, and Walter, 1965,
r e f . 1 5 ) . ~ ~ * ~ * * ~ . . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ . ~ . . 1 3 2
Backgrounds, Chapter 5, Handbook of Mi l i tary
I nf rared Technology, (Kauth, 1965, ref . 26) . e 133
Atmospheric Phenomena, Chapter 6, Handbook of
Mi l i tary I nf rared Technology, (Plass and Y at es ,
1965, ref . 16) . . a . e . e e . . . e e 1 3 4
Transmi ssi on of I nf rared Radi ati on Through the
Atmosphere, Chapter 3, I nf rared Physi ca and
Engi neeri ng, (J ami eson, et al . 1965, ref . 27) a - 136
Backgrounds and Targets, Chapter 4, I nf rared
Physi cs and Engi neeri ng, (J amieson, et al . 1965,
ref . 27) . a e e e e Io . e a a e *137
Atmospheric Phenomena, Chapter 4, Fundamentals
of I nf rared Technology, ( H o l t er , et al . 1962,
ref , 28). e e e e e e e (I e e e e (I e 1 3 8
Sel ected data from Astrophysi cal Quanti ti es,
(Al l en, 1963, r ef , 2 9 ) . a e * 1 3 8
116
7. 4. 25 Radi at i on and Vi si bi l i t y Tabl es, Sect i on X,
Smi t hsoni an, Met eor ol ogi cal Tabl es, ( Li st ,
1966, r ef , 30) . e a e e e e e e c) e139
7- 4. 26
7. 4. 27
7, 4. 28
7, 4. 29
7. 4- 30
7. 4. 31
7. 4. 32
7. 4. 33
7. 4. 34
7- 4- 35
7, 4, 36
7. 4. 37
7*4. 38
Sol ar Radi at i on, Chapt er 4, Ul t r avi ol et
Radi at i on, ( Kol l er , 1965, r ef , 31) . e e e e 141
Opt i cal Pr oper t i es of t he At mospher e, Chapt er 5,
El ement s of I nf r ar ed Technol ogy: Gener at i on,
Tr ansmi ssi on, and Det ect i on. ( Kr use, et al . 1962,
At mospher i c Tr ansmi ssi on, Par t 9, I nf r ar ed
Radi at i on: A Handbook f or Appl i cat i ons, ( Br amson,
1968, r ef . 33) . a . . e e a . e e143
At mospher i c Opt i cs, Chapt er 5, Opt i cal and
Phot ogr aphi c Reconnai ssance Syst ems, ( J ensen,
1968, r ef . 34) . . . . * . . . . . 0 * . . . . . . 1 4 3
Tr ansmi ssi on of I nf r ar ed Radi at i on Thr ough t he
Ear t h' s At mospher e, Chapt er 4, I nf r ar ed Syst em
Engi neer i ng, ( Hudson, 1969, r ef . 18). . a e a e 144
At mospher i c Pr opagat i on, Chapt er 7, Laser
Communi cat i ons Syst ems, ( Pr at t , 1969, r ef . 35). 145
Radi at i on i n t he At mospher e, ( Kondr at yev, 1969,
r ef . 36). e e e a * . . e e e e a . e * . . . * 145
Radi at i on Absor pt i on i n t he At mospher e, Chapt er 3,
Radi at i on i n t he At mospher e, ( Kondr at yev, 1969,
r ef . 36). . . . a . . e e . e e . , I 46
Scat t er i ng of Radi at i on i n t he At mospher e,
Chapt er 4, Radi at i on i n t he At mospher e, ( Kondr at yev,
1969, r ef . 36) . e e e . e e a e 147
Di r ect Sol ar Radi at i on, Chapt er 5, Radi at i on i n
t he At mospher e, ( Kondr at yev, 1969, r ef . 36) e I) 147
Vi si bi l i t y, (S, &. Dunt l ey, et al . 1964, r ef . 37) 148
Exper i ment al St udi es of Opt i cal Pr oper t i es of t he
Sur f ace Layer of t he At mospher e, ( Bar t eneva,
et al a 1967, r ef , 61) e e I) e e e e e . . 149
At mospher i c Absor pt i on and Laser Radi at i on,
( Long, 1966, r ef , 62) e e a e 149
7, 4, 39 Penet r abi l i t y of haze, f og, cl ouds, and pr e-
ci pi t at i on by r adi ant ener gy over t he spect r al
r ange 0. 1 mi cr on t o 10 cent i met er s, ( Lukes,
1968, r ef . 56). . . e . , e e e 151
7. 4. 40 Sel ect ed Por t i ons of El ect r omagnet i c Scat t er i ng,
( Ker ker , 1963, r ef . 63) a , , e e . , . 153
7. 4, 1 I nt r oduct i on
Tabl e 7- 3 l i st s t he t i t l e of books whi ch cont ai n i nf or ma-
t i on on opt i cal wave pr opagat i on i n t he ear t h' s at mospher e.
The t i t l es ar e l i st ed al phabet i cal l y and t he sect i on number of
t he t abl e of cont ent s, i f gi ven i n t hi s handbook, ar e gi ven i n
col umn 3.
I n t he l i st i ng of t he t abl es of cont ent s i n Sect i ons 7. 4. 2 -
7, 4. 40 t he sect i on headi ngs and pages ar e t hose of t he or i gi nal
document
7, 4. 2 At mospher i c Opt i cs, Chapt er 7, Handbook of Geophysi cs
and Space Envi r onment s ( El t er man and Tool i n, 1965,
r ef . 20)
Page i n
or i gi nal
7. 1 ATMOSPHERI C ATTENUATI ON MODEL a e e . 7-1
7- 1. 1 Par amet er s of At mospher i c At t enuat i on 7- 1
7. 1. 2 Appl i cat i ons . . e . e e e e 7- 2 .
7. 1. 2. 1 Tur bi d At mospher e. . . 7- 2
7. 1. 2, 2 Rayl ei gh At mospher e. 7- 2
7. 2 REFLECTANCE e e a e e . . e e 7- 3
7. 2. 1 Gr ound Ref l ect ance e e (. e e 7- 3
7. 2. 1- 1 Wat er Sur f aces e a e 7- 3
7, 2, 1, 2 Snow, Bar e Ar eas, and Soi l s. 7- 4
7. 2. 1. 3 Veget at i ve For mat i ons. 7- 4
7. 2. 2 Pol ar i zat i on e a a e 7- 4
( cont i nued on page 120)
118
TABLE 7-3,- Conti nued
TI TLE REFEFENCE
L andol t- Bornstei n
L aser Communi cati on
Systems
L i ght Scatteri ng by -
S mal l P ar t i cl es
Opti cal - and Photographi c
Reconnaissance Systems
Opti cal I nstabi l i ty of
I_ the E ar t h s A tmosphere
e p t i o n , - and 6efrac-
ti on
Proceedi ngs of the
Symposium on E l ectr o-
magnetic Sensi ng of the
E ar t h f r om Satel l i tes
Radi ati on i n the Atmos-
phere
-I_
Radi ati ve H eat Exchange
i n the Atmosphere
_.I_
Smithsonian Meteorolo-
gi cal T abl es
Smi thsoni an
T abl es
Solar Radiation
Siedentopf, et al e,
1965, ref. 25
Van de Hul st, 1957,
ref, 44
J ensen, 1968,
ref. 34
Kucherov, 1965,
ref. 45
McCartney, 1970,
ref. 19
Zi rki nd, 1967,
ref. 46
Kondratyev, 1969,
ref. 36
Kondratyev, 1965,
ref. 47
L i st , 1963, ref, 30
Forsythe, 1964,
ref. 48
Robi nson, 1966,
ref, 22
System I Machol, 1965,
Handbook
I
ref, 49
The E ar t h as a Pl anet
- _.-
Kui per, 1954,
ref, 50
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.4- 17
7.4.31
-s-
7.4,29
7.4.10; 11; 12;
13; 14; 15
7.4.32;33;34;35
---
7.4.25
--I
7.4.4; 5; 6
4.4,2; 3
---
(continued on page 120)
119
TABLE 7-3.- Cont i nued
TI TLE
Ul t r avi ol et Radi at i on
Vi si bi l i t y -- i n t he
At mospher e
Vi si on Thr ough 7 t he
At mospher e
Vi si bi l i t y
7 e 4 e 2 ( Cont i nued)
REFERENCE
Kol l her, 1965,
ref . 31
Gavr i l ov, 1966 I
r ef , 51
Mi ddl et on, 1952,
ref . 8
Dunt l ey, et al e
r ef , 37
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.4,26
(2467-40600, See
Tabl e 5-1)
7.4.7
7.4.36
7.3
7.4
7 - 5
7.6
7.2.3 Obser vat i ons at Hi gh Al t i t udes . . .
7.2.4 Cl oud Ref l ect ance. . . . e . . e e e
FLUX EMERGI NG FROMTHE ATMOSPHERE e .
OPTI CAL RADI ATI ON I N THE ATMOSPHERE e . . .
7.4.1 Rayl ei gh Scat t er i ng ( Mol ecul ar ) and
Pol ar i zat i on e e . e a . . e a e e
7.4.2 Aer osol ( Mi e) Scat t er i ng e e e
7.4.3 At mospher i c Scat t er i ng a . a
7.4.4 Absor pt i on Coef f i ci ent s f or Ozone,
MEASUREMENTS OF SKYLI GHT. e e a . e
REFERENCES, e e e e e . e . , e e e e
Page i n
or i gi nal
7-4
7-5
7-6
7-6
7-7
7-8
7-8
7-9
7-9
7-36
120
7, 4, 3 At mospher i c Ef f ect s, Chapt er 4, Vol ume I , Appl i ed Opt i cs
and Opt i cal Engi neer i ng, ( St ewar t and Hopf i el d, 1967,
r ef . 21)
Page i n
or i gi nal
I I nt r oduct i on. . e . e . , e e . . e e e 127
I 1 At mospher i c Ref r act i on, * - e . e (I e e 127
I 11 Absor pt i on i n t he At mospher e. e e e 131
I V Scat t er i ng i n t he At mospher e. . e . e e .. 131
V Sky Backgr ound. . . . . . e e e . . a 141
VI Noi se i n t he Sky. . e . e e e e e e . . a 144
VI 1 Opt i cal Char act er i st i cs of Li qui d Wat er . e 147
VI 11 Ref l ect i vi t y of t he Ear t h' s Sur f ace e e e . 152
7. 4. 4 Sol ar Radi at i on, ( Robi nson, 1966, r ef . 22)
Chapt er Page i n
or i g i na 1
1 THE RADI ATI ON EMI TTED BY THE SUN. e . e e e 1
2 THE ASTRONOMI CAL AND GEOGRAPHI CAL FACTORS
AFFECTI NG THE AMOUNT OF SOLAR RADI ATI ON
REACHI NG THE EARTH. . . . . ,. e e e e . 29
3 THE EFFECT OF THE ATMOSPHERE ON SOLAR
RADI ATI ON REACHI NG THE EARTH. . 47
4 DI RECT AND SCATTERED RADI ATI ON REACHI NG THE
EARTH, AS I NFLUENCED BY ATMOSPHERI C,
GEOGRAPHI CAL AND ASTRONOMI CAL FACTORS . e e 111
5 THE ENERGY DI STRI BUTI ON I N THE SPECTRUMOF
DI RECT AND SCATTERED RADI ATI ON REACHI NG THE
EARTH e e . , e - . e a e 161
6 RADI ATI ON BALANCE I N THE EARTH' S SURFACE
ATMOSPHERE. e e e e e e e e a 196
7 I NSTRUMENTS AND EXPERI MENTAL METHODS. e (. 222
8 THE APPLI CATI ONS OF SOLAR ENERGY. e a e e 317
121
7,4.5 The E f f ect of the Atmosphere on Solar Radi ati on Reaching
the Earth, Chapter 3, Solar Radi ati on, (Robinson, 1966,
ref. 22)
Page i n
or icr i nal
1 I ntroducti on. e . e a a e . . . e 47
2 Path Length i n the Atmosphere e . . . 48
3 Scatteri ng. e . . e . e e . e e . e e e 53
4 Absorpti on i n the Ul travi ol et . . . . e e e 66
5 Formation of I onospheri c and Ozone Layers e 75
6 Absorpti on i n the I nf rared. e . e a e . . . 79
7 Atmospheric Turbi di ty . e . . . . . e e . 94
8 References. . . . e e e e . . . e e e . . . 107
7.4.6 D i r e c t and Scattered Radi ati on Reaching the Earth, as
I nfl uenced by Atmospheric, Geographi cal and Astronomical
Factors, Chapter 4, Sol ar Radi ati on, (Robinson, 1966,
ref. 22)
Page i n
ori gi nal
1 I ntroducti on. . . . a e e a . . . e a e 111
Astronomical Factors, 111- Geographical
Factors, 112 - Physi cal Factors, 112 -
Meteorol ogi cal Factors, 112
2 C l ear Sky Condi ti ons, e . . e e . , e e e e 113
3 Total Radi ati on Fal l i ng on a Ti l ted Pl ane 120
4 The I nfl uence of Atmospheric Ozone on
Gl obal Radi ati on, a e e . e e . , e e . * 124
5 The I nfl uence of Clouds on Gl obal Radi ati on 124
6 Radi ati on Fal l i ng on a Ti l ted Pl ane i n
Cloudy Weather. e a e . 130
122
7 e 4 e 6 ( Cont i nued)
Page i n
or i gi nal
7
8
Exampl es, e e e e e a e e e 132
Appendi x. a . , e - e e e e e e . . . e 148
Di agr am4.1. Sol ar El evat i on and Rel at ed
Uni t s, 148 - Di agr am4.2. Di r ect Sol ar
Radi at i on as a Funct i on of At mospher i c Tur -
bi di t y, 150 - Di agr am4.3. Di f f use Sky
Radi at i on Above Gr ound Havi ng Al bedo A =
0.25 as a Funct i on of Ai r Mass mr and
t ur bi di t y B, 154 - Di agr am4.4 Di f f use Sky
Radi at i on above Gr ound wi t h Al bedo A = 0.25,
156 - Tabl es 4,17-4.19, Dai l y Sums of Gl obal
Radi at i on G at Low Lat i t udes, 157
Ref er ences. e e . . . . . . e - . . . e 159
7.4.7 Vi si on Thr ough t he At mospher e, ( Mi ddl et on, 152, r ef . 8)
Page i n
or i gi nal
I
I 1
I 11
I V
V
VI
VI 1
VI 11
I nt r oduct i on. . . . . . . . e e . e e e a 1
El ement ar y Phot omet r i c Theor y a e . . . 6
The Ext i nct i on of Li ght i n t he At mospher e a 18
The Al t er at i on of Cont r ast by t he
At mospher e. , a . If . . . e e e e . . 60
The Revel ant Pr oper t i es of t he Eye. a e e 83
The Vi sual Range of Obj ect s i n Nat ur al
Li ght . . * . e e e e e e e e . e 103
Vi sual Range of Li ght Sour ces and of Obj ect s
I l l umi nat ed by Ar t i f i ci al Li ght e e a 137
The Col or s of Di st ant Obj ect s, and t he
Vi sual Range of Col or ed Obj ect s e . a * 145
I nst r ument s f or Measur i ng Vi sual Range and
Rel at ed Quant i t i es. e a e e e e a e e e 175
123
7 e 4.7 ( Cont i nued)
Page i n
or i gi nal
X The Speci al Pr obl ems of t he Met eor ol ogi st . 215
XI The New Vi sual Sci ence - Concl usi on e . - e 226
Bi bl i ogr aphy. e e . . . . e . a . . 231
7.4.8 Vi si on Thr ough t he At mospher e, Handbuch der Physi k,
XLVI I I , ( Mi ddl et on, 1957, r ef . 9)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
1 I nt r oduct i on. . . . a . . e e e . . . e e . 254
2 Rayl ei gh scat t er i ng . . . . . e . . . 254
I THE EXTI NCTI ON OF LI GHT I N THE ATMOSPHERE . 254
( a) Ext i nct i on by pur e ai r . e . e . . 254
( b) Ext i nct i on by spher i cal par t i cl es . e . 255
3 Nat ur e of t he par t i cl es i n t he at mospher e e 255
4 The t heor y of Mi e . . . e - * . . . . 255
5 The t r eat ment by geomet r i cal and physi cal
opt i cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
6 Empi r i cal r el at i ons bet ween ext i nct i on
and wavel engt h. . . e . I) e e 258
7 "Anomal ous" ext i nct i on. . e e e . , e e 259
8 Exper i ment al st udi es of t he ext i nct i on
coef f i ci ent . e e a . e e e . e e 259
9 Obser vat i ons of t he scat t er i ng f unct i on e e 260
10 Di r ect obser vat i ons of haze par t i cl es 261
I 1 THE ALTERATI ON OF CONTRAST BY THE ATMOSPHERE 262
11 Def i ni t i on of cont r ast , e e e e a e . e 262
( a) Theor y of t he ai r l i ght e a . e 262
124
7 4 8 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i ai nal
12 Koschmi eder ' s t heor y of t he ai r l i ght e a 262
13 The "t wo- const ant " t heor y of t he ai r l i ght . 263
( b) The r educt i on of cont r ast e e . e . e 264
14 The gener al case. . . . e a I) . . e . . . 264
15 The obser ver l ooki ng upwar d a e e . 264
16 Hor i zont al vi si on . . . . . . e e e . . 264
17 Ef f ect of absor pt i on- e . . e e . . . , , 265
18 "Opt i cal equi l i br i um" e . . . e e e e . . . 265
19
20
21
22
I11
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
The obser ver l ooki ng downwar d . . . e e . 265
The opt i cal sl ant r ange . e . . e e . 265
Exper i ment al t est s. . e e . . e e . . e 265
Ot her at mospher i c ef f ect s on t he appear ance
of di st ant obj ect s. . . e e e e . . . e . e 266
THE RELEVANT PROPERTI ES OF THE EYE. e . . e 266
St i mul us and sensat i on. Def i ni t i ons of a
t hr eshol d e e (. * e e e e e a e 267
The necessar y i nf or mat i on . . e a e e e 267
Adapt at i on t o changes i n f i el d l umi nance, a 267
The t hr eshol d of br i ght ness cont r ast . e e 267
Ef f ect of a di f f use boundar y. . . e e 269
Ef f ect of ot her st i mul i i n t he f i el d of
vi ew, e e e e * e * . * e e 269
Pr act i cal i nt er pr et at i on of t hr eshol ds, e 270
Vi si on t hr ough t el escopes e e 270
125
7 4 8 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
31 The t hr eshol d f or poi nt sour ces e . 270
I V VI SUAL RANGE OF OBJ ECTS I N NATURAL LI GHT. 271
32 Def i ni t i ons e . a e e e e . . e e e 271
( a) Vi sual r ange of obj ect s seen agai nst
t h e s k y . . . . . . . . . . . o . o . . 271
33 Agai nst t he hor i zon sky e a . . e e e a 271
34 Agai nst t he sky al ong sl ant pat hs . . e a e 273
35 Nomogr ams f or t he vi sual r ange. e e . . . . 273
36 Ext r emel y ext ensi ve obj ect s . e e e . . , . 273
37 Vi sual r ange of col or ed obj ect s a e e . . . 274
38 Vi sual r ange i n f og and i t s r el at i on t o
wat er cont ent . . . . . e . . . e e 274
( b) Vi sual r ange of obj ect s seen agai nst
t er r est r i al backgr ounds e . . a e e 274
39 Al ong t he hor i zont al . . e e e . . . . e
40 Vi si on l ooki ng downwar ds. . . . . e e . a e
( c) Vi sual r ange t hr ough t el escope syst ems e
41 At mospher i c l i mi t at i ons on t he per f or mance
of t el escopes e e e e e e e . e e
( d) Li mi t at i ons of t he t heor y
42 Nat ur e and r esul t s of t he assumpt i ons e e e
V VI SUAL RANGE OF LI GHT SOURCES . e e
43 Al l ar d' s l aw. e e e , , e e . , e . ,
VI VI SUAL RANGE OF OBJ ECTS I N A SEARCHLI GHT
BEAM, e a e e e e a e e e e e
44 Sear chl i ght di r ect ed hor i zont al l y e * e
126
7 4 8 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
ori cri nal
45 The sear chl i ght di r ect ed upwar ds. e e e e e
VI 1 THE EFFECT OF THE ATMOSPHERE ON THE APPARENT
COLORS OF OBJ ECTS e a e . e . e .
46 The appar ent col or s of obj ect s and l i ght s .
VI 11 I NSTRUMENTATI ON
47 Cl assi f i cat i on of i nst r ument s e . . . . .
48 Tel ephot omet er s . . . . . . . . , . . . . e e
49 I nst r ument s f or measur i ng scat t er i ng. . . a
50 Met er s usi ng an "ar t i f i ci al haze" . . , , . .
51 Mi scel l aneous "vi si bi l i t y met er s" . e e e .
Gener al Ref er ences. e . . . . . . e e e .
7. 4. 9 Sel ect ed Ti t l es f r omt he Compendi umof Met eor ol ogy,
( Mal one, 1959, r ef . 23)
Sect i on Page i n
ori cri nal
RADI ATI ON
Sol ar Radi ant Ener gy and I t s Modi f i cat i on by t he
Ear t h and I t s At mospher e,
by Si gmund Fr i t z. e e a 13
Long- Wave Radi at i on,
by Fr i t z M6l l er e e e 34
Act i nomet r i c Measur ement sp
by Ander s Angst r om, a 50
METEOROLOGI CAL OPTI CS
Gener al Met eor ol ogi cal Opt i cs,
by Hanes Neuber ger , e 61
127
7 e 4 e 9 (Continued)
Secti on Page i n
ori gi nal
Pol ari zati on of Skyl i ght,
by Zdenek Sekera, e e 79
V i si bi l i ty i n Meteorology,
by W e E. Knowles Middleton 91
CLOUDS, FOG AND AIRCRAFT
Fog I
by J oseph J . George . , . , 1179
Meteorol ogi cal Aspects of Propagati on Problems,
by Kenneth A. Bul l i ngton. 1290
7.4.10 Opti cs of the Atmosphere: Scatteri ng, Absorpti on,
Refracti on (McCartney, 1970, ref . 19)
Chap te-r Secti on i n thi s
Handbook
1 Looking i nto the Atmosphere - and
t h e B o o k . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
2 Characteri sti cs of Radi ant Energy. .
3 Atmospheric Structure and
Composition. e e . . . . a e 4. 4, 4
4 Rayl ei gh Scatteri ng by Molecules e 7.4.11
5 M i e Scatteri ng by Parti cl es. . e 7.4.12
6 Absorpti on and Emission by Gases a 7.4.13
7 Theory and Ef f ects of Refracti on . e 7. 4, 14
8 Radiance, Transmi ttance, and Vi si bi l -
i ty i n the Atmosphere. e (. e e 7,4.15
128
7. 4. 11 Rayl ei gh Scat t er i ng by Mol ecul es, Chapt er 4, Opt i cs of
t he At mospher e: Scat t er i ng, Absor pt i on, Ref r act i on,
( McCar t ney, 1970, r ef e 19)
Sect i on
4. 1 The El ement al Scat t er er
4. 2 Radi at i on f r oma Mol ecul ar Di pol e
4. 3 Angul ar Scat t er i ng Funct i on
4. 4 Tot al Scat t er i ng Funct i on
4. 5 Numer i cal Val ues of Scat t er i ng Coef f i ci ent s
4. 6 Cor r ect i ons f or Temper at ur e, Pr essur e, and Al t i t ude
4. 7 Exper i ment al Ver i f i cat i ons of Rayl ei gh Theor y
4. 8 Rayl ei gh Scat t er i ng i n t he At mospher e
7. 4. 12 Mi e Scat t er i ng by Par t i cl es, Chapt er 5, Opt i cs of t he
At mospher e: Scat t er i ng, Absor pt i on, Ref r act i on,
( McCar t ney, 1970, ref . 19)
Sect i on
5. 1 Basi c Consi der at i ons
5. 2 Angul ar Scat t er i ng Funct i on
5. 3 Mi e Coef f i ci ent and Tot al Scat t er i ng Funct i on
5. 4 Numer i cal Val ues of Scat t er i ng Coef f i ci ent s
5. 5 Ef f ect s of Met eor ol ogi cal Condi t i ons
5. 6 Exper i ment al Ver i f i cat i ons of t he Mi e Theor y
5. 7 Mi e Scat t er i ng i n t he At mospher e
5. 8 At mospher i c Cont r ast and Vi sual Range
7. 4. 13 Absor pt i on and Emi ssi on by Gases, Chapt er 6, Opt i cs of
t he At mospher e: Scat t er i ng, Absor pt i on, Ref r act i on
( McCar t ney, 1970, r ef . 19)
Sect i on
6. 1 An Over al l Vi ew of t he Pr ocesses
6. 2 Mol ecul ar Ener gy Level s and Tr ansi t i ons
6. 3 Spect r a of Si mul t aneous Tr ansi t i ons
6. 4 Par amet er s of Li ne and Band Absor pt i ons
6. 5 Absor pt i on Dat a f or t he At mospher i c Gases
6.6 Radi at i ve Tr ansf er of Ener gy
6, 7 El ement s of t he Ear t h' s Heat Bal ance
129
7. 4. 14 Theor y and Ef f ect s of Ref r act i on, Chapt er 7, Opt i cs of
t he At mospher e: Scat t er i ng, Absor pt i on, Ref r act i on
( McCar t ney, 1970, r ef , 19)
Sect i on
7. 1 Mol ecul ar Pol ar i zat i on and Di el ect r i c Const ant
7. 2 Ref r act i ve I ndex and Di sper si on
7. 3 Ref r act i ve I ndex of t he At mospher e
7. 4 Ast r onomi cal Ref r act i on
7. 5 Ter r est r i al Ref r act i on
7. 6 Ref r act i on i n a Tur bul ent At mospher e
7. 4. 15 At mospher i c Radi ance, Tr ansmi t t ance, and Vi si bi l i t y, '
Chapt er 8, Opt i cs of t he At mospher e: Scat t er i ng, Absor p-
t i on, Ref r act i on ( McCar t ney, 1970, r ef . 19)
Sect i on
8. 1 I r r adi ance f r omCel est i al Sour ces
8. 2 Radi ance and Pol ar i zat i on of t he Sky
8. 3 Tr ansmi t t ance of Haze and Fog
8. 4 Tr ansmi t t ance and Al bedo of Cl oud
8. 5 Vi si bi l i t y of Radi ant Sour ces and Non- l umi nous
Obj ect s
8. 6 Opt i cal Measur ement of At mospher i c Pr oper t i es
8, 7 The Ear t h Seen f r omSpace
8, 8 Vi si bl e Phenomena i n t he Sky
7, 4e16 Sol ar El ect r omagnet i c Radi at i on, Chapt er 16, Handbook
of Geophysi cs and Space Envi r onment s, ( Gast , et al e
1965, r ef . 24)
Sect i on
16, l SOLAR I RRADI ANCE 0 * *
Page i n
or i gi nal
16- 1
16. 1. 1 I r r adi ance Out si de t he Eart h' s
At mospher e e e a . , e e 16- 1
130
7 4 e 16 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
16. 1. 2 I r r adi ance Wi t hi n t he Ear t h' s
At mospher e e e a e . e (. 16- 7
16. 2 SOLAR ULTRAVI OLET AND X- RAYS. e a e a e 16- 10
16. 2. 1 Sol ar Spect r um, 3000 t o 1800 . 16- 10
16. 2. 2 Sol ar Emi ssi on Li nes, 1900 t o 60 . 16- 10
16. 2. 3 Sol ar X- Ray Emi ssi on e e . , . e 16- 12
16. 2. 4 I nt ensi t y of Radi at i on Bel ow 3000 f l . 16- 12
16. 3 SOLAR RADI O EMI SSI ON. e e . a e . e . a 16- 18
16. 3. 1 Qui et Sun Temper at ur e and Fl ux e . 16- 18
16. 3. 2 Cal cul at i on of Sol ar Temper at ur e and
Fl ux f r omAnt enna Temper at ur e. e . e 16- 21
16. 3. 3 Fl ux of t he Sl owl y Var yi ng Component 16- 23
16. 3. 4 Descr i pt i on of t he Rapi dl y Var yi ng
Component . e e a e . . . . . . . 16- 24
16. 3. 4. 1 Met er Wave Range
( 25 t o 580 MCPS) e . e e e 16- 24
16. 3. 4. 2 Deci met er - Wave Range
( 500 t o 950 MCps) e . a e e 16- 25
16, 3. 4. 3 Cent i met er - Wave Range
( 3000 t o 30, 000 MCPS) 16- 25
16. 3. 5 The Di st ur bed Sun as a Radi o Sour ce, 16- 26
16. 4 REFERENCES. a * a e e e e e e e 16- 38
131
7. 4. 17 I vf l uence of t he Ear t h' s At mospher e, Sect i on 1. 5, Landol t -
Bor nst ei n, New Ser i es, ( Si edent opf , et al . 1957, r ef . 251,
The cont ent s of t hi s sect i on ar e f ound i n Sect i on 6. 4. 10
of t hi s handbook. Whi l e some of t he t ext i s i n Ger man most of
t he paper has par t i al Engl i sh t ext ,
7. 4. 18 Tr ansmi ssi on and Det ect i on of I nf r ar ed Radi at i on, Chapt er
10, Handbook of Geophysi cs and Space Envi r onment s ( Howar d,
Gar i ng, and Wal t er , 1965, ref . 15) .
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
10. 1 SOURCES AND DETECTORS a e a . e e . . e 10- 1
10. 1. 1 I nf r ar ed Radi at i on Sour ces e . e e e 10- 1
10. 1. 2 I nf r ar ed Det ect or s . e . . . e . . 10- 1
10. 1. 3 I nf r ar ed Wi ndow Mat er i al s. . a . . . 10- 2
10. 2 ATMOSPHERI C ABSORPTI ON. e . . . e e . .
10. 3 ATMOSPHERI C EMI SSI ON. . e e . e . . .
10. 3. 1 Measur ement s f r omt he Gr ound . . e
10. 3. 2 Bal l oon Measur ement s e e a e e .
10. 3. ' 3 Cl ouds a e * . . . a e . . e e . . .
10. 3. 4 Hor i zon Gr adi ent ( Li mb Dar keni ng) .
10- 3. 5 Sat el l i t e Measur ement s e . e e
10. 4 I NFRARED CELESTI AL BACKGROUNDS. e e e I, e
10. 4. 1 St el l ar Backgr ounds. e e e
10. 4. 2 I R Backgr ounds Or i gi nat i ng i n t he
Sol ar Syst em. , . . e e e e
10. 5 REFERENCES. e e e . , e . . e e I
10- 2
10- 6
10- 7
10- 15
10- 15
10- 17
10- 17
10- 20
10- 25
10- 28
10- 36
132
7,4.19 Backgrounds, Chapter 5, Handbook of Mi l i tary I nf rared
Technology, (Kauth, 1965, ref. 26) ,
Secti on
Page i n
ori gi nal
5.1 Sky Backgrounds e . . e e e . a e . . . e 96
5.2 Aurora. e e a e . , e e e . . . . . , e 100
5.2.1 Auroral Spectra e e e . . e .
e e e 100
5.2.2 Auroral Zones . e e e e . , .
. e e 101
5.2.3 Peri odi c Vari ati ons . . . .
e 102
5.2.4 Height and Verti cal Extent. . . .
. e 102
5.3 Night Airglow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e 104
5.4 Stel l ar Radi ati on . e a e e . , , . . e . e . 107
5.4.1 Stel l ar Magnitudes. e e . . . a e . 107
5.4.2 Stel l ar Spectral Classes. . - e 107
5.4.3 Number of Stars . e e e . .
. a . e e 107
5.4.4 Galactic Concentrati on of Stars . . 109
5.4.5 Spectral Di stri buti on of Stel l ar
Radi ati on . . . . e * e . . . e 110
5.4.6 Determining Spectral I rradi ance of
Cel esti al Bodies. . . . e e e e e a . 112
5.5 The Earth as a Background e e e . . . . e . 115
5.5.1 Geometrical Rel ati onshi ps e . e . e 115
5.5.2 Path Lengths. . a a e e . . 116
5.6 Cloud Meteorology . e fl e . e e . e e 118
5.6,2 Stratospheri c Clouds, e . = , . , e .) 124
5,6,3 Probabi l i ty of Coverage at Vari ous
Al ti tudes e . e . e e e 124
133
7 e 4 e 19 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
5, 7 St r at ospher i c Aer osol s. e e e e e e 141
5. 8 Spect r al Radi ance of Ter r ai n, e e e 142
5. 8- 1 Ter r ai n Temper at ur e e * . e e . e 142
5- 8. 2 Ter r ai n Emi ssi vi t y and Ref l ect i vi t y a 142
5. 8- 3 Spect r a i n t he Emi ssi on Regi on. . e e 143
5. 8. 4 Spect r a i n t he Scat t er i ng Regi on. e e 145
5. 8. 5 Spect r al Radi ance of Var i ous Obj ect s
and Sur f aces. e . . e e . . e e 145
5. 9 Mar i ne Backgr ounds. . . . e e e . . e e e 166
5. 9. 1 I nf r ar ed Opt i cal Pr oper t i es of Sea
Wat er . . . a e . . a . . . a . e e 166
5. 9. 2 Sea- Sur f ace Geomet r y. e . . . . . . e 168
5- 9- 3 Sea- Sur f ace Temper at ur e Di st r i but i on. 169
5. 9. 4 Sky Radi ance. a e . , . . . . . . . 170
Not es Added i n Pr oof . .) e . . . e e . e 170
Ref er ences. e . * e e e . . . e e 171
7. 4. 20 At mospher i c Phenomena, Chapt er 6, Handbook of Mi l i t ar y
I nf r ar ed Technol ogy, ( Pl ass and Yat es, 1965, r ef . 16).
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
6. 1 Pr oper t i es of t he At mospher e, a e a I) 177
6. 1, 1 Temper at ur e e e e e . e e . , . 177
6,1,2 Pr essur e. . , e e e e e 178
6. 1- 3 Densi t y e e a . . , e e e e . 178
6. 1. 4 At mospher i c Composi t i on e e 178
134
7 e 4 e 20 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
6. 1. 5 Par t i cl e Concent r at i on and Si ze
Di st r i but i on. a e e e e e 187
6. 2 Absor pt i on by a Si ngl e Li ne e e e e 189
6. 2. 1 Si ngl e Li ne wi t h Lor ent z Shape. . , e 190
6. 2. 2 Si ngl e Li ne wi t h Doppl er Shape. e 191
6, 2. 3 Si ngl e Li ne wi t h Bot h Doppl er and
Lor ent z Br oadeni ng. e e e e . . e 192
Suppl ement al Bi bl i ogr aphy t o Ch, 9). e 192
6. 3. 1 El sasser Model . . . e e 192
6. 3 Absor pt i on by Bands* ( see Andi ng, D. ,
6. 3. 2 St at i st i cal Model e e e . e e . , 194
6. 3. 3 RandomEl sasser Model . e . e e 196
6. 3. 4 Quasi r andomModel e . e . . a e e 196
6- 4 Usef ul Appr oxi mat i ons t o Band Model s. e e 197
6. 4. 1 Weak- Li ne Appr oxi mat i on . e e e e e 197
6. 4. 2 St r ong- Li ne Appr oxi mat i on a e e e
6. 4. 3 Nonover l appi ng- Li ne Appr oxi mat i on e
6. 5 Scat t er i ng. e e . . e e e e
6. 5. 1 Rel at i onshi p t o Fi el d of Vi ew
6. 5. 2 Met eor ol ogi cal Range. e a e
6. 5. 3 Scat t er i ng Coef f i ci ent . I) . e
6, 5. 4 Scat t er i ng Coef f i ci ent Measur ement s
6,6 At mospher i c Sci nt i l l at i on e e e
6. 6- 1 I nhomogenei t i es i n t he At mospher e
6. 6, 2 I mage Boi l . , , e e e
II 200
0 201
s 202
* 202
203
0 204
e 206
D 209
e 210
0 212
135
7 4 20 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i g i na 1
6, 6. 3 Enl ar gement of t he I mage. e a e e e 213
6. 6. 4 At mospher i c Sci nt i l l at i on Measur ement s 214
6. 7 Sol ar Spect r umMeasur ement s . e . . e 227
6. 8 Tot al Absor pt i on ( Labor at or y Measur ement s) . 237
6. 8, 1 Tot al Absor pt i on by C02 . e . e . 238
6. 8. 2 Tot al Absor pt i on by H20 . e e . e 244
6. 8. 3 Tot al Absor pt i on by N20 e . . . . 246
6. 8. 4 Tot al Absor pt i on by CO. e . . . . . 249
6. 8. 5 Tot al Absor pt i on by CH4 . . . e . . . 250
At mospher e. e e e e . . - . . : e e e . 252
6. 9 I nf r ar ed Tr ansmi ssi on Thr ough t he
6. 9. 1 Hor i zont al Pat hs. . . . . . e e 252
6. 9, 2 Sl ant Pat hs . . e e . . e . . e e . . 261
6. 10 Cal cul at i on Pr ocedur es. + . . . e e e . 266
Ref er ences. e e e e e . . , . . . . a 275
7. 4. 21 Tr ansmi ssi on of I nf r ar ed Radi at i on Thr ough t he At mospher e,
Chapt er 3, I nf r ar ed Physi cs and Engi neer i ng, ( J ami eson,
et al e 1963, r ef . 27).
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi na 1
METEOROLOGI CAL FACTORS, . e a e e e . . e e 44
ABSORPTI ON BY ATMOSPHERI C GASES e e a e e 47
3- 1 Absor pt i on by a Si ngl e Spect r al Li ne. 49
3- 2 Absor pt i on by a Band. a e e e 56
3- 3 Absor pt i on by Wat er Vapor and Car bon
Di oxi de. a , , . . * e a * D o e 63
136
7 a 4 e 21 (Conti nued)
Secti on Page i n
ori gi nal
ABSORPTION ALONG SLANT PATHS. a . a e e . e 88
SCATTERING OF INFRARED RADIATION. . a e . 97
SYMBOLS e . , e e * . a e 99
REFERENCES. . . e . . e . e . e e 100
7.4.22 Backgrounds and T ar gets, Chapter 4, I nfrared Physi cs and
Engi neeri ng, (J amieson, et al . 1963, ref. 27) e
Page i n
ori si nal
BACKGROUNDS e . . . . e e e e e . . e e e a e . 102
4-1 Cl ear- sky Radi ance above 3p. . e e e e 104
4-2 Cl oud Radi ance above 3p. . . . . 108
4-3 Scattered Radi ati on. . . . . . e . a . 109
4-4 Over cast Sky e . . . . . e e . . . e 110
4-5 Radi ance as Observed f r om a Satel l i te. 111
4-6 C el est i al Background . . e e . . . * 114
4-7 Ground Radi ance. . . e . e . e e e e 116
4-8 Ocean Radi ances. e e e e e e e e e 119
TARGETS e . . e e . . e . 119
4-9 Ground T ar gets e . e e 120
4-10 A i rborne T ar gets a e e m . 120
REFERENCES, e * a . e e e e a . , . , e e e 122
137
7. 4, 23 At mospher i c Phenomena, Chapt er 4, Fundament al s of I nf r ar ed
Technol ogy, ( Hol t er , et al . 1962, r ef . 28).
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
4, l I nt r oduct i on. e e e . . e e 69
4. 2 The At mospher e - Const i t uent s and Thei r
Di st r i but i on. e e e (. e e 70
4, 3 Gener al Absor pt i on Feat ur es e e e 71
4, 4 Ear l y Wor k. . e e . , * . e e . 72
4. 5 Wor k Si nce Wor l d War I 1 e . . a . 75
4. 6 Cor r ect i on of Dat a f or At mospher i c
At t enuat i on . . . e e . . . e e e 80
Ref er ences. . e . . e e e e e . * e . 84
Appendi x B. Measur ement of Ocean- Sur f ace
Temper at ur e. . . e e e e e e a e e 381
Appendi x C. Sour ces of I nf or mat i on on I nf r ar ed
Technol ogy e e e e e e . e 395
Appendi x D. At mospher i c Tr ansmi ssi on Spect r a e 407
7. 4. 24 Sel ect ed dat a f r omAst r ophysi cal Quant i t i es, ( Al l en, 1963,
r ef . 29) a
Par agr aph Page i n
or i gi nal
52 Var i at i ons of Met eor ol ogi cal Quant i t i es
wi t h Lat i t ude e a . e . e I 16
53 Di st r i but i on of Ear t h At mospher es wi t h
Hei ght . m e e e e e e e * . e . , 117
54 At mospher i c Ref r act i on and Ai r Pat h a e 119
55 Cont i nuous Absor pt i on of At mospher e e 121
138
7 4 e 24 ( Cont i nued)
Par agr aph Page i n
or i gi nal
56 Ul t r a- vi ol et Absor pt i on of At mospher i c
Gases e * . e e . e 123
57 Long- wave Absor pt i on of At mospher i c Bases 125
58 Tr ansmi ssi on of At mospher e t o Sol ar
Radi at i on e e . , e e . . . e e e e e a e e . 127
59 At mospher i c Ozone e e . . e e e e . . e e 127
7. 4. 25 Radi at i on and Vi si bi l i t y Tabl es, Sect i on X, Smi t hsoni an
Met eor ol ogi cal Tabl es, ( Li st , 1966, ref . 30) e
Tabl e
129
130- 131
130
131
132- 134
132
133
134
135- 136
135
Page i n
or i g i na 1
Bl ackbody r adi at i on e e . . e . e e 411
Sol ar r adi at i on out si de t he at mospher e
( expl anat i on) e e . . . a e e . . . 414
I nt ensi t y of sol ar r adi at i on out si de
t he at mospher e. . . . e e e . . 415
Ener gy di st r i but i on of sol ar r adi at i on
out si de t he at mospher e. e . e e e . . 416
Tot al sol ar r adi at i on at t he t op of
t he at mospher e ( expl anat i on) . e e e e 417
Tot al dai l y sol ar r adi at i on at t he t op
of t he at mospher e (I . e e . e a e 418
Tot al annual and seasonal sol ar r adi at i on
at t he t op of t he at mospher e. e . , e e e 418
Char t of t he t ot al dai l y sol ar r adi at i on
at t he t op of t he at mospher e. e I) e 419
Tot al di r ect sol ar r adi at i on r eachi ng
t he gr ound wi t h var i ous at mospher i c
t r ansmi ssi on coef f i ci ent s ( expl anat i on) 420
Tot al dai l y di r ect sol ar r adi at i on
r eachi ng t he gr ound wi t h var i ous at mos-
pher i c t r ansmi ssi on coef f i ci ent s, e 421
139
7. 4. 25 ( Cont i nued)
Tabl e Page i n
or i gi nal -
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
Tot al annual and seasonal di r ect sol ar
r adi at i on r eachi ng t he gr ound wi t h
var i ous at mospher i c t r ansmi ssi on
coef f i ci ent s. e . . e e e e . e e e
Opt i cal ai r mass cor r espondi ng t o
di f f er ent zeni t h di st ances of t he sun e
Absor pt i on of r adi at i on by wat er vapor ,
10- 25~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Absor pt i on of r adi at i on by wat er vapor ,
1. 3-91-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tr ansmi ssi on of sol ar r adi at i on by
wat er vapor , 0. 7-2. 21. 1 . . . . . . . . .
Absor pt i on of r adi at i on by car bon
di oxi de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Absor pt i on of r adi at i on by ozone. . . .
Absor pt i on coef f i ci ent s of oxygen e . e
Tr ansmi ssi on of r adi at i on t hr ough pur e,
dr yai r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Scat t er i ng of sol ar r adi at i on by wat er
vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tr ansmi ssi on of sol ar r adi at i on by t he
at mospher e, 5. 5-221. 1 e . , . . e e e
Tr ansmi ssi on of sol ar r adi at i on t hr ough
moi st ai r e e . , e .
Spect r al di st r i but i on of sol ar r adi at i on
at sea l evel . e e a e e . e e
Tot al sol ar and sky r adi at i on on a
hor i zont al sur f ace dur i ng cl oudl ess
condi t i ons, I) e .) e . a e e e
422
422
423
425
425
427
428
430
431
432
433
436
438
438
Rel at i on bet ween t he ver t i cal component
of di r ect sol ar r adi at i on and t ot al
sol ar and sky r adi at i on on a hor i zont al
sur f ace e e ,. e a e e e e 439
140
7 e 4 e 25 ( Cont i nued)
Tabl e Page i n
or i gi nal
151 Rel at i on bet ween aver age sunshi ne
and sol ar r adi at i on on a hor i zont al
sur f ace. e e * . . e a * . . e 440
152 Tr ansmi ssi on of sol ar r adi at i on t hr ough
cl ouds ( over cast ) e e e e . . . . . 441
153 Rel at i on bet ween i l l umi nat i on and t ot al
r adi at i on a e e . . . . e . . . e 442
154 Al bedo of var i ous sur f aces. . . a e . 442
155 Ref l ect i vi t y of a wat er sur f ace - e e . 444
156 Absor pt i on of r adi at i on by pur e
l i qui d wat er . . . . . e e . . a e . 445
157 Absor pt i on of r adi at i on by sea wat er . a 446
158 Scat t er i ng ar ea coef f i ci ent s f or wat er
dr ops i n ai r , . . e e e e . . e . e e 446
159 Rel at i ve spect r al l umi nosi t y f or t he
human eye at var i ous l umi nance l evel s . 448
160 Hor i zont al vi si bi l i t y . . . . . . e e 452
7. 4. 26 Sol ar Radi at i on, Chapt er 4, Ul t r avi ol et Radi at i on, ( Kol l er ,
1965, ref . 31).
Sect i on Ti t l e Page i n
ori cri nal
Ef f ect of At mospher i c Absor pt i on on Sol ar
Spect r um, . , e e e . . . e . e . . e e e . 115
At mospher i c Absor pt i on and Scat t er i ng e e e . * 116
Dai l y Var i at i on . , e . a 125
141
7 a 4 26 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Ti t l e Page i n
or i gi nal
Sol ar Ener gy Di st r i but i on e e e e e m . e 130
Seasonal Var i at i on. e e e . . e e . . e e e 134
Geogr aphi cal Var i at i on, e e e . . e . e ., 138
Ef f ect of Al t i t ude. e e e e . e e e m . e a 141
Ul t r avi ol et Li mi t of Di r ect Sunshi ne. . e . 142
Ut i l i zat i on of Sol ar Radi at i on. . . a e e e e 143
Sol ar Si mul at i on. e . e e e . . . . . . e . . . e 146
7.4-27 Opt i cal Pr oper t i es of t he At mospher e, Chapt er 5, El ement s
of I nf r ar ed Technol ogy: Gener at i on, Tr ansmi ssi on, and
Det ect i on, ( Kr use, McGl auchl i n and McQui st an, 1962, ref . 32) .
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
5.1 I nt r oduct i on a . . . . e e . a e I) e * 162
5. 2 Descr i pt i on of t he At mospher e, e . 163
5.3 Mol ecul ar Absor pt i on- Theor y. . a e e e a . 167
5.4 Mol ecul ar Absor pt i on- Empi r i cal Di scussi on. 172
5.5 Scat t er i ng by t he At mospher e- Theor y. e 181
5,5.1 Geomet r i cal Opt i cs Appr oach 183
5.5.2 El ect r omagnet i c Theor y Appr oach-
Mi e' s Theor y, * * * - * - * - e * 186
5.6 Scat t er i ng by t he At mospher e- Empi r i cal
Di scussi on e e e e e a e e e 189
Ref er ences, e . a e e 192
142
7. 4. 28 At mospher i c Tr ansmi ssi on, Par t 9, I nf r ar ed Radi at i on;
A Handbook f or Appl i cat i ons, ( Br amson, 1968, r ef , 33).
Tabl e Page i n
or i gi nal
Tabl e 200 Tr ansmi t t ance of t he At mospher e as a
Funct i on of Opt i cal Densi t y e e 596
Tabl e 201 Reduced Mass of Wat er Vapor at Var i ous
Temper at ur es f or a 1- kmAi r Layer at
100%Humi di t y e e . . . e e 600
Tabl e 202
Tabl e 203
I nt er nat i onal Vi si bi l i t y Scal e. e 602
At mospher i c Tr ansmi t t aye f or
Sel ect ed Ranges wi t h m = 1. 7 cm
Wat er Col umn per Mi l e and V = 0. 6
Mi l e- 1. . e e e e . e . . e e . . . 603
Tabl e 204 Spect r al At t enuat i on Coef f i ci ent f or
I nf r ar ed Radi at i on i n t he At mospher e. 609
Fi gur e 41 Tr ansmi t t ance of t he At mospher e e . 610
Fi gur es 42
and 43 Spect r al At t enuat i on Coef f i ci ent f or
I nf r ar ed Radi at i on i n t he At mospher e. 612
Bi bl i ogr aphy( Tab1es) . . a e e . . e . . e e 613
7. 4. 29 At mospher i c Opt i cs, Chapt er 5, Opt i cal and Phot ogr aphi c
Reconnai ssance Syst ems, ( J ensen, 1968, r ef . 34) .
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
5, l At mospher i c Ef f ect s. * . e e . , e e 33
5. 2 Scat t er i ng of Li ght , a e a . , e e e e e 34
Rayl ei gh Scat t er i ng. e e e e . e , , e 34
Nonsel ect i ve Scat t er i ng. e e e 38
5. 3 At mospher i c Absor pt i on e I) 39
5* 4 Cont r ast At t enuat i on e a e e a 42
143
7, 4, 29 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
Pat h Lumi nance e e e e 45
5. 5 At mospher i c Tur bul ence e . e e e e e 46
5. 6 At mospher i c Ref r act i on . . . . e . e 51
Ref er ences. e e . * e e . . e e e . . . . e 53
7. 4. 30 Tr ansmi ssi on of I nf r ar ed Radi at i on Thr ough t he Ear t h' s
At mospher e, Chapt er 4, I nf r ar ed Syst emEngi neer i ng,
( Hudson, ref . 18) .
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
4. 1 The Ear t h' s At mospher e . . . . e . . e e
4. 2 Wat er Vapor . . e a . . . e e e . . . e e e
4. 3 Car bon Di oxi de . . . . e a e e . e e e e .
4. 4 Ot her I nf r ar ed- Absor bi ng Gases . . . . e .
4. 5 Fi el d Measur ement s of At mospher i c
Tr ansmi ssi on e . e . . . . a . e . . e e .
4. 6 Labor at or y and Anal yt i cal Met hods of
Pr edi ct i ng At mospher i c Tr ansmi ssi on. e e
4. 7 Tabl es of At mospher i c Tr ansmi ssi on Dat a. .
4. 8 Scat t er i ng Ef f ect s i n t he At mospher e e e
4. 9 Tr ansmi ssi on Thr ough Rai n. ~ e . e .
4. 10 At mospher i c Sci nt i l l at i on. . . e a . .
Ref er ences. e . a . . , . . e .
116
119
126
129
129
136
142
159
163
165
166
144
7. 4. 31 At mospher i c Pr opagat i on, Chapt er 7, Laser Communi cat i ons
Syst ems, ( Pr at t , r ef . 35)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
7. 1 ATMOSPHERI C ATTENUATI ON. a e . . (D . 128
7. 2 ATMOSPHERI C TURBULENCE e a e e . e e . 132
BeamSt eer i ng, a e e e e e e . . . 136
I mage Danci ng. . . * e e . e . . e 137
BeamSpr eadi ng e a e e . e . e - . 138
BeamSci nt i l l at i on . . e e . . e e . 138
Spat i al Coher ence Degr adat i on. e e . . . . 140
Pol ar i zat i on Fl uct uat i ons. . . e e . . . e 141
REFERENCES. . . . . . . . e . e e e e e . . . . 144
7. 4. 32 Radi at i on i n t he At mospher e, ( Kondr at yev, 1969, r ef . 3 6 ) .
Chapt er Page i n
or i gi nal
1 Radi ant Ener gy. The Mai n Concept s and
Def i ni t i ons. . ,. e e e e . . . . .. . a 1
2 Met hods of Act i nomet r i c Measur ement s e e 49
3 Radi at i on Absor pt i on i n t he At mospher e e e 85
( Sect i on 7 a 4 e 33)
4 Scat t er i ng of Radi at i on i n t he At mospher e. 161
( Sect i on 7 e 4 a 34)
5 Di r ect Sol ar Radi at i on e e e e e 217
( Sect i on 7. 4 e 35)
6 Di f f use Radi at i on of t he At mospher e. e e e 363
7 Al bedo of t he Under l yi ng Sur f ace and
Cl ouds, e e e s o a a e e 411
8 Gl obal Radi at i on a . , e e e e e e e e 453
145
7 e 4 e 32 ( Cont i nued)
Chapt er Page i n
or i gi nal
9 Ther mal Radi at i on of t he At mospher e. 538
10 Net Radi at i on. . e . e e e e e e 655
11 Temper at ur e Var i at i on i n t he At mospher e
due t o Radi at i ve Heat Exchange e e e e 791
ADDI TI ONAL BI BLI OGRAPHY e e . . e . . . . e 837
APPENDI XES. . . . . e . e e e e e . e 860
7.4.33 Radi at i on Absor pt i on i n t he At mospher e, Chapt er 3, Radi at i on
. i n t he At mospher e, ( Kondr at yev, 1969, r ef , 36), Sect i on
7.4.32.
Page i n
or i gi nal
3.1 Gener al Pr i nci pl es of Sel ect i ve Radi at i on
Absor pt i on . e . . . . . . . e . . a 86
3.2 The Absor pt i on Spect r umof Wat er and
Wat er Vapor . . . e e . . . . . e e . e e * 107
3.3 The Absor pt i on Spect r umof C02 e . . e e . 123
3.4 The Absor pt i on Spect r umof Ozone and
Oxygen . e e . e e . . e a . e . e . 132
3.5 Gener al Char act er i st i cs of Mi nor Radi at i on-
Absor bi ng Component s of t he At mospher e . . 139
3.6 The I nt egr al Tr ansmi ssi on Funct i on of t he
At mospher e f or Ther mal Radi at i on e e . . 141
3e7 Absor pt i on Spect r oscopy of t he At mospher e
as a Met hod for I nvest i gat i on of t he
At mospher i c Composi t i on, . . e e e e 144
REFERENCES, . .I a e e e a . . e e e . e 151
146
7,4,34
7.4.35
Scatteri ng of Radi ati on i n the Atmosphere, Chapter
Radi ati on i n the Atmosphere, (Kondratyev, ref , 36) ,
Secti on 7.4.32.
Secti on Page i n
ori gi nal
4.1 The Solar Ray Path i n the Atmosphere e e 161
4.2 Scatteri ng of Radi ati on (General Considera-
ti ons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.3 Rayleigh Scatteri ng. e e e . , . a e e I71
4.4 Scatteri ng of Radi ati on on Large Parti cl es 180
4.5 Computation of the Attenuati on i n the
Atmosphere due to Scatteri ng . . e e e . 194
4.6 Elementary Theory of Radi ati ve Transfer,
I ncl udi ng Mul ti pl e Scatteri ng. . e . e e e 200
4.7 Radi ati on Scatteri ng and the Structure of
Atmospheric Aerosol . . . e e . . . . e 209
References e e . . . . . e . . . . 212
Direct Solar Radi ati on, Chapter 5 i n Radi ati on i n the
Atmosphere, (Kondratyev, 1969, ref. 36), Secti on 7.4.32.
Secti on
5.1 Di stri buti on of Energy i n the Sol ar
Spectrum at the Earths Surface Level
5.2 Spectral Atmospheric Transparency. e
Page i n
ori gi nal
. e e 217
0 e e 234
5.3 Energy Di stri buti on i n the Sol ar Spectrum
Outsi de the Atmosphere e e , , e . 245
5,4 The Solar Constant e a , , e e 252
5,5 Total Attenuati on of Solar Radi ati on i n an
I deal Atmosphere e . , a e e e e e 260
5-6 Quanti tati ve Characteri sti cs of the R eal
Atmospheric Transparency e e e e e e 263
147
7 e 4. 35 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
5. 7 Some Dat a of Obser vat i ons on t he
Var i at i on of t he At mospher i c Tr anspar ency
S t a t e . . . . . . . . . . . e . . . . . . . 283
5. 8 At t enuat i on of Sol ar Radi at i on by Cl ouds e 300
5. 9 Theor et i cal Cal cul at i ons of I r r adi at i on of
t he Ear t h' s Sur f ace by t he Sun . . e a . 304
5. 10 Tempor al and Spat i al Var i abi l i t y of Fl uxes
and Tot al s of Sol ar Radi at i on. e . . e - 317
5. 11 I ncome of Sol ar Radi at i on on Sl ant Pat hs e 342
Ref er ences . . e . . . e e . . e e e . 355
7. 4. 36 Vi si bi l i t y, (S. Q. Dunt l ey, et al . 1964, r ef . 37)
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
I
I1
I 11
I V
V
VI
VI 1
VI 11
X
XI
I nt r oduct i on - S. Q. Dunt l ey . e e . . . . 550
Summar y - S . Q. Dunt l ey. e * . e . . e . 551
Opt i cal Pr oper t i es of Obj ect s and
Backgr ounds. . a , a e e . . . a . a 556
Use of Vi sual Per f or mance Dat a i n
Vi si bi l i t y Pr edi ct i on - J. H. Tayl or a . e 562
Oscul ar Behavi or i n Vi sual
Sear ch -
C. T. Whi t e. . . e e a . e e e . e e 569
At mospher i c Pr oper t i es - A. R. Boi l eau e 570
Wat er Pr oper t i es - J. E. Tyl er . e e 582
Techni ques of Measur ement - R. W. Aust i n 584
Obj ect Cl assi f i cat i on - J. L. Har r i s e 587
Vi sual Sear ch - J. I , Gor don a \. e e 591
Past , Pr esent , and Fut ur e - S. Q. Dunt l ey. 596
Ref er ences e e e e e e e e e 597
148
7. 4. 37 Exper i ment al St udi es of Opt i cal Pr oper t i es of t he Sur f ace
Layer of t he At mospher e, ( Bar t eneva, et al e 1967, r ef . 61).
The Tr anspar ency Regi me of t he At mospher i c Layer at t he
Sur f ace
The Annual and Di ur nal Var i at i ons of Tr anspar ency f or
Var i ous Poi nt s of t he USSR i n Di f f er ent Cl i mat i c Regi ons
At mospher i c Tr anspar ency i n Ver t i cal and Hor i zont al
Di r ect i ons
Compar i sons of At mospher i c Tr anspar ency i n Haze, Fog,
Rai nf al l , and Snowf al l Zones
7- 4. 38 At mospher i c absor pt i on and l aser r adi at i on, ( Long, 1966,
ref . 62) .
Page i n
or i gi nal
Chapt er I I NTRODUCTI ON
A. The Use of Laser s i n Communi cat i ons. e . . 1
B. Char act er i st i cs of Si ngl e- Fr equency
Absor pt i on i n Gases. e e . . . . . . e 4
C. Measur ement of Monochr omat i c Ext i nct i on. . 10
D. Concl usi ons. e a . e . e e . . . e e . e 13
Chapt er I 1 FURTHER DI SCUSSI ON OF ABSORPTI ON AT
LASER WAVELENGTHS
A. I nt r oduct i on . . . . e e e . e e a (. . . 15
B e Comput ed I nf i ni t e Resol ut i on Spect r a e . 17
C. At mospher i c Cont i nuum. * e . . . e 18
D. An Absor pt i on Sur vey e e e e e e . . 22
E. 10. 6pmC02 Loss, e e e e . I) e e 26
F. Measur ement of Li ne Pr of i l e Usi ng Modul at ed
Laser s e a . a e e e e a e e a 28
G. Use of Laser s i n Det ect i on of Ozone,
Met hane, and Ni t r ous Oxi de i n t he
At mospher e e e . (I e e e e 30
149
7, 4, 38 ( Cont i nued)
Page i n
or i gi nal
Chapt er I 11 DESI GN OF MULTI PLE TRAVERSAL
ABSORPTI ON CELL
A. Descr i pt i on of t he Cel l s e e a e e 73
B, Li mi t at i ons on Achi evabl e Pat h Lengt hs e 78
Chapt er I V MEASUREMENT OF ABSORPTI ON I N WATER
VAPOR AT 11522A USI NG A CWHELI UM-
NEON LASER
A. Backgr ound e . . . . . . e e a e e . . e 85
B. Descr i pt i on of t he Exper i ment s e . . e e 87
C. Fr equency Char act er i st i cs of t he Laser
Out put e e - . . e * . . . * . . . . - . 89
D. Exper i ment al Resul t s e . . e e . . e a 91
E. Cal cul at i on of At t enuat i on at t he Laser
Wavel engt h . e e . , e . e e e e . . e e 98
F, Concl usi ons. e e e . e . . a e . . e 105
Chapt er V ABSORPTI ON AT RUBY LASER WAVELENGTHS
FOR LOWANGLE TOTAL ATMOSPHERI C PATHS
A, I nt r oduct i on . e . . e e a . . . . e e * 109
B. Ruby Laser Temper at ur e Tuni ng Ef f ect s, e e 110
C. Absor pt i on Measur ement s. . . (. . , , 112
D, Absor pt i on at 6943. 8A. . e e e . e 116
Bi bl i ogr aphy. e e e e . e e e . e e e 125
Not e: Ther e ar e hundr eds of at mospher i c t r ansmi ssi on
spect r a f or hor i zont al pat hs gi ven.
150
7. 4. 39 Penet r abi l i t y of haze, f og, cl ouds and pr eci pi t at i on by
r adi ant ener gy over t he spect r al r ange 0. 1 mi cr on t o 10
cent i met er s, Lukes, 1968, r ef . 56.
Sect i on Page i n
or i gi nal
Abst r act . . . . * e e e a e e e e a * e . m e i
Li st of symbol s e . , e e e * . e e . e (I xi
Chapt er 1 I NTRODUCTI ON. e e . . e e e . e e e 1
1- 1 Hi st or i cal sket ch of hi ghl i ght s of
pr evi ous wor k. e e . . . . e . e . . 1
1. 2 Assumpt i ons. . . . . . . e . e . . . . 5
1. 3 Comment s on emi ssi vi t i es e . . e . . . 7
1. 4 Scope of t hi s st udy. e . . . . e . e . 8
1. 5 Concept s and Def i ni t i ons e . . e . . 11
Chapt er 2 ABSORPTI ON OF RADI ANT ENERGY BY
ATMOSPHERI C GASES I N A CLOUDLESS
MARI TI ME POLAR ATMOSPHERE e . . . . , 15
2. 1 Obj ect i ves and pr ocedur e . e e . e 15
2. 2 Absor pt i on coef f i ci ent s due t o at mos-
pher i c gases at sea l evel condi t i ons 16
2. 3 At t enuat i on due t o at mospher i c gases
al ong a zeni t h pat h i n a cl oudl ess
mar i t i me pol ar at mospher e. e a e 23
2. 4 Candi dat e wi ndows i n t he submi l l i met er
and mi cr owave bands, . , a e e 29
2. 5 Reconci l i at i on wi t h exper i ment al
measur ement s t hr ough t he t ot al at mos-
pher e. . a e . , e e e e a 33
Chapt er 3 ANALYTI CAL METHODOLOGY. e a , , e 41
3. 1 The sal i ent f act or s af f ect i ng
penet r abi l i t y. e a e e e e 41
151
7. 4 e 39 ( Cont i nued)
Sect i on Page i n
or i qi nal
3. 2 Nor mal i zed cr oss sect i ons f or ener gy
abst r act i on and scat t er . a e . . e 58
3, 3 Synopt i c hydr omet eor i c anal ysi s of
ener gy abst r act i on and scat t er e e 62
3. 4 Met hodol ogy f or anal ysi s of hydr o-
met eor i c st at es. . e @ . e . . . . . 70
3. 5 Model i ng t he envi r onment e . . e e e 92
Chapt er 4 ANALYTI CAL RESULTS. a . e e e . . 97
4. 1 Compar at i ve at t enuat i on by wat er dr op-
l et at mospher es and by gases al ong a
1 kmhor i zont al pat h . . . a . e 99
4. 2 At t enuat i on by at mospher i c gases,
st r at o- cumul us cl ouds, and moder at e
r ai n al ong a zeni t h pat h i n a mar i t i me
pol ar at mospher e . . . . e e e . e e 101
Chapt er 5 COMPARI SON OF ANALYTI CAL AND
EXPERI MENTAL DATA . e . e e . . 109
5. 1 Smi t h and Hayes ( 1940) on i nf r ar ed
r adi at i on t hr ough f og. e . . , a . e 109
5. 2 Hul bur t ( 1941) on opt i cs of at mospher i c
haz e. . e e * . * . . , e e e e 113
5. 3 Ar nul f el a1 ( 1957) on t r ansmi ssi on by
haze and f og e e e a e . e e 114
5. 4 Far mer ( 1961) on t r ansmi ssi on of
i nf r ar ed r adi at i on t hr ough cl ouds and
r ai n. e * . * . * . . e a e . e 115
152
7-4-40 Sel ected Porti ons from El ectromagneti c Scatteri ng (Kerker,
1963, ref, 63).
Page i n
or i ai nal
Part 1 PARTICLE SCATTERING
Scatteri ng of Short Waves
J oseph B. Keller and Bertram R. Levy e e
L i ght Scatteri ng f r om Objects wi th Spheri cal
Symmetry
Phi l i p J, Wyatt. . , e e e e e e e e e
Scatteri ng of El ectromagneti c Waves f r om Two
Concentri c Spheres, when Outer Shel l has a
Vari abl e Refracti ve I ndex
S. Levi ne and M. Kerker. . e . . . e
Extensi on of the Rayleigh-Gans Theory
Y ui chi I keda e . . . . e e
Scatteri ng by I nf i ni te Cyl i nders at Perpendi cul ar
I nci dence
Wi l l i am A. Farone, Mi l ton Kerker and
Egon Matuevie. e e . e e . . e e
Scatteri ng Diagrams i n the M i e Region
Rudolf Penndorf. . . e e e . . e e e
L i ght Scatteri ng and Exti ncti on by I rregul ar
Parti cl es Larger than the Wavelength
J . Raymond Hodkinson e e . e e e e . . .
Theoreti cal and Experi mental I nvesti gati on of the
L i ght Scatteri ng of Col l oi dal Spheres
Wi l fri ed Heller. . e a e . e e e
Part 2 L I GHT SCATTERING I N THE ATMOSPHERE AND
The Pol ari zati on of Starl i ght by Ori ented
Nonspheri cal Parti cl es
J. M, Greenberg, A. C. Li nd, Re T. Wang
and L. F. L i bel o (. . e e e e . e e
3
25
37
47
55
73
87
101
SPACE
123
Scatteri ng by I nterpl anetary and Ci sl unar Dust
Parti cl es
M. F. Ingham . e a e .e e 135
153
7 4 40 (Continued)
Page i n
ori ai nal
Angular Scatteri ng from I rregul arl y shaped
Parti cl es wi th Appl i cati on to Astronomy
B. Donn and Re S. Powell . , e e e e 151
Scatteri ng by Cometary Parti cl es
P, Swings. a e e e e e 159
Scatteri ng and Pol ari zati on Properti es of Poly-
di spersed Suspensi ons wi th Parti al Absorpti on
D. Deirmendjian. e e I) .. e 171
M i e Scatteri ng of an Atmospheric A i r Vol ume
Kurt Bul l ri ch. e e e e e e (. e e 191
Rayleigh Scatteri ng and Pol ari zati on i n the
Atmosphere
Thomas Gehrel s e (. e e e e e a . 209
7 5 PERI ODI CALS
Howard and Garing (ref . 7) , i n thei r report on atmospheri c
opti cs and radi ati on transf er, noted that of the 400 American
papers reviewed f or the report, 53% wer e publ i shed i n three
opti cs j ournal s (Applied Opti cs, J ournal of the Opti cal Soci ety
of America, J ournal of Quanti tati ve Spectroscopy and Radi ati ve
Transf er), 23% i n f our l eadi ng geophysi cs j ournal s (J ournal of
Geophysical Research, J ournal of the Atmospheric Sci ences,
Pl anetary Space Sci encep and the Astrophysi cal J ournal ), and the
remainder scattered among 24 other j ournal s,
7,s INFORMATION CENTERS
I nformati on centers are di scussed i n Secti on 5.3, Tabl e 5-2
lists several centers which deal speci f i cal l y wi th el ectromagneti c
wave propagati on i n the earthss atmosphere,
7, 7 COMPUTATIONAL AI DS
Computational ai ds are di scussed i n general i n Secti on 5,7,
Table 7-4 l i sts some sources of computati onal ai ds f or use i n
the opti cal frequency regi on,
154
W
In
IH
a,
k
0
4
co
w
m
rl
m
a,
x
3
I4
4
IH
0
x
a,
a k
G O
Hc,
rd
x s
a,
r l w
CLO
E
OE:
U O
*rl
dc,
0 0
rd
rdk
c,w
:2
0
Lo
155
a
E:
rd
a
I
I
I 1
ObaO
" c 0 5
156
PART 111. ATMOSPHERI C TRANSMI SSI ON HANDBOOK
8 e 0 REFRACTI ON
8. 1 I NTRODUCTI ON
When el ect r omagnet i c waves ar e pr opagat ed t hr ough t he t r opos-
pher e and i onospher e, t hey exper i ence a change i n di r ect i on or
r ef r act i ve bendi ng. For f r equenci es above 1 GHz ( 30 cm) , onl y
t r opospher i c r ef r act i on need be consi der ed.
St udi es of t he i nf l uence of r ef r act i on of el ect r omagnet i c
waves ar e of t en subdi vi ded i nt o t he st eady- st at e ( r egul ar )
i nf l uences associ at ed wi t h t he mean val ue of t he r ef r act i ve i ndex,
and t he i nf l uences of t he var i at i ons f r omt he mean ( i r r egul ar
r ef r act i on) , Bot h of t hese aspect s of r ef r act i on wi l l be
consi der ed.
A br i ef di scussi on of t r opospher i c r ef r act i on i s pr esent ed
i n At l as, et al e, ( r ef , 1). A r evi ewof ast r onomi cal r ef r act i on
has been gi ven by Mahan ( ref . 2) i n 1962.
8. 2 COMPLEX I NDEX OF REFRACTI ON
Let t he di el ect r i c const ant of a medi umat f r equency f be
r epr esent ed by E. Let p r epr esent t he magnet i c per meabi l i t y of
t he medi umat t he same f r equency. Then
m= 6 n - i k, ( 8- 1)
wher e mi s t he compl ex i ndex of r ef r act i on; n = c/ v i s t he phase
r ef r act i ve i ndex ( t he r eal par t of t he compl ex i ndex of r ef r ac-
t i on) ; c i s t he vel oci t y of pr opagat i on of el ect r omagnet i c waves
i n vacuum; v i s t he phase vel oci t y of pr opagat i on of t he el ect r o-
magnet i c wave i n t he medi um: k i s t he absor pt i on i ndex whi ch i s
r el at ed t o t he absor pt i on coef f i ci ent K by K = 27rk/X wher e h i s
t he wavel engt h of t he r adi at i on; and i i s t he i magi nar y number
symbol equal t o me
par t of t he compl ex i ndex of r ef r act i on i s di scussed, The
magnet i c per meabi l i t y i s uni t y i n t he at mospher e. Thus Eqe ( 8- 1)
hol ds f or bot h t r opospher i c and i onospher i c pr opagat i on. I t i s
di scussed i n At l as et al e r ef . 1,
I n many t ext books and paper s onl y t he r eal
The di el ect r i c const ant E can be wr i t t en as
2
E =E~ - i EP1 = ( n - i k) , ( 8- 2)
157
wher e E' i s t he r eal par t of t he di el ect r i c const ant and E"
i s t he i magi nar y par t of t he di el ect r i c const ant .
Bl eany and Bl eany ( ref s. 3,4) t r eat t he case of a gas of
- di el ect r i c - const ant E subj ect ed t o an osci l l at i ng el ect r i c f i el d
E =E' exp ( i wt ) wher e w = 21~f . They ar r i ve at an expr essi on
f or t he di el ect r i c const ant
2
~~=n ' - k 2 =: n 2 = 1 +
2meac0
Aw
2
E" = 2nk z 2k =
- w ) ~ + Aw
wher e n z 1, k << n, we have assumed e i s t he el ect r oni c char ge;
me i t s mass; w
osci l l at i on of t he el ect r on: n, i s t he number of mol ecul es per
uni t vol ume; and Ao? t he l i ne wi dt h par amet er .
= 2nf p, wher e f p i s t he nat ur al f r equency of
P
The var i at i on of n and k i n t he nei ghbor hood of a weak
absor pt i on l i ne i s shown i n Fi g. 8- 1. The absor pt i on coef f i ci ent
r eaches a maxi mumat t he r esonant f r equency wher e w =w , and
f al l s t o hal f i t s maxi mumval ue at w - w = i Aw. I n opgi cal
l i ne, neani ng t he f r equency di f f er ence bet ween t he poi nt s at
whi ch t he absor pt i on has dr opped t o hal f t he maxi mumval ue.
Mi cr owave spect r oscopi st s, however , pr ef er t o cal l Av t he hal f -
usage, t he quant i t y 2Av = Aw/ n i s ca !i l ed t he ' hal f - wi dt h! of t he
wi dt h,
Fi gur e
158
0.5
0.25
0
-0.25
-0.5
8- 1, - Var i at i on of n and k near a nar r ow absor pt i on
( f r omEqo 8 - 3 ) , n - 1 and k ar e i n uni t s of
noe2/ 4mews0Aw ( f r omr ef , 4)
I .o
075
0.5
0.25
0
l i ne
Some r ecent wor k on r ef r act i ve i ndex measur ement s i n ai r
and wat er has been done or r evi ewed i n r ef s, 5- 15, Di sper si on
i s al so di scussed i n Sect i on 8- 3,
8- 3 DI SPERSI ON
The t heor y of el ect r omagnet i c waves ( r ef , 3 ) shows t hat t he
r ef r act i ve i ndex of a subst ance shoul d be equal t o t he squar e
r oot of i t s di el ect r i c const ant , i f t he magnet i c per meabi l i t y
can be t aken as uni t y, as i s usual l y t he case ( Eq, 8- 1) - A
compar i son of t he di el ect r i c const ant s measur ed at l ow f r equenci es
wi t h t he r ef r act i ve i ndi ces measur ed i n t he opt i cal r egi on ( i mes
at f r equenci es of t he or der of 1014 Hz ( 3um) ) gi ves ver y poor
agr eement wi t h t hi s r el at i on except i n t he case of si mpl e non-
pol ar gases. Val ues of t he di el ect r i c const ant of a f ewsuch
gases measur ed over a wi de r ange of f r equenci es ar e gi ven i n
Tabl e 8- 1 t oget her wi t h t he squar e of t he opt i cal r ef r act i ve
i ndex. The l at t er i s ext r apol at ed t o "i nfi ni te wavel engt hs! t o
cor r ect f or di sper si on i n t he opt i cal r egi on. The agr eement i s
seen t o be excel l ent i n t he cases quot ed.
I n t he opt i cal r egi on, var i at i on of t he r ef r act i ve i ndex
wi t h wavel engt h has been known f or a l ong t i me, and i s cal l ed
di sper si on. I n gener al , t he r ef r act i ve i ndex i ncr eases as t he
wavel engt h decr eases, and t hi s i s known as ' nor mal di sper si ons.
The r ever se case, wher e t he r ef r act i ve i ndex decr eases wi t h
decr easi ng wavel engt h, occur s onl y i n t he vi ci ni t y of an absor p-
t i on l i ne, ( Fi g. 8- 2) and i s di f f i cul t t o obser ve because of
t he absor pt i on. Thi s i s known as ' anomal ous di sper si on' , but
bot h t ypes have a si mpl e expl anat i on i n t er ms of cl assi cal
t heor y, based on t he assumpt i on t hat an at omcont ai ns el ect r ons
vi br at i ng at cer t ai n nat ur al f r equenci es char act er i st i c of t he
t ype of at om, and t hat t he appl i cat i on of an al t er nat i ng el ec-
t r i c f i el d set s such el ect r ons i nt o f or ced vi br at i on.
Wor k on di sper si on has been r epor t ed i n r ef s, 7- 12 and
r ef . 15,
8,4 TYPI CAL RAY PATH TRAJ ECTORY I N A TRANSATMOSPHERI C PATH
When el ect r omagnet i c waves ar e pr opagat ed t hr ough t he
t r opospher e and t he i onospher e, t hey exper i ence a change i n
di r ect i on or r ef r act i ve bendi ng, Thi s phenomenon, whi ch r esul t s
f r omt he noni sot r opi c char act er i st i cs of t he medi a, i nt r oduces
an er r or i n t he measur ement of t he angul ar posi t i on of a space
vehi cl e e
159
TABLE 8-1.- MEASURED VALUES OF THE DI ELECTRI C CONSTANT
FOR SEVERAL GASES (FROM REF. 4)
Gas
A i r
Ni trogen
Oxygen
Argon
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen
0.1 MHz
570
+0,7
578
k0.7
528
+1
545
+1
987
+1
270
+-1
A
1 MHz
567-0
k1.0
579 e 6
51.0
523.3
+1
545 e 1
k0.5
987.5
+2
272
B
9,000 MHz
575.4
k1.4
586.9
k2.9
530.0
+l a9
-
985.5
+3
-
C
N.T.P.
24,000 MHz
576.0
k0.2
588 e 3
+0*2
531.0
k0.4
555 * 7
k0.4
988
+2
D
Opt ica 1
575 0 7
k 0 . 2
581.3
532 e 7
554 e 7
272
E
References:
A, Lovering and Wi l tshi re, 1951, Proc. I .E.E. 98, Par t 11, 557.
B. Hector and Woernley, 1946, Phys. Rev. 69, 101.
C, Birnbaum, Kryder, and Lyons, 1951, J . Appl. Phys. 22, 95.
D. Essen and Froome, 1951, Proc. Phys. Soc. B, 64, 862,
E. (n2 - 1) l o6 (vari ous authors), extrapol ated to i nf i ni te
wavelength.
A typi cal ray path traj ectory i n the verti cal pl ane i s
shown i n Fi gure 8-3. The el evati on angl e error due to refrac-
ti on, AE, i s the angl e between the apparent path di recti on and
the di rect l i ne-of-si ght path,
The i ndex of ref racti on i n the troposphere i s greater than
uni ty, and decreases monotoni cal l y wi th al ti tude. A t approxi -
mately 30 km thi s val ue can be taken as uni ty f or most purposes.
I n the case of the i onosphere, which commences at about 70 km
al ti tude, the i ndex of ref racti on i s less than uni ty and i s a
minimum at the l evel of maximum i oni zati on densi ty.
of uni ty ref racti ve index between the troposphere and i onosphere
can be consi dered to be f ree space,
The regi on
Fi gure 8-2.- Schematic diagram showing the vari ati on of
ref racti ve i ndex wi th frequency (from ref . 4)
- -.
Fi gure 8- 3, - A typi cal ray-path traj ectory (from ref ,
161
Sect i on 8,9 pr esent s a gr aph on r egul ar t r opospher i c
r ef r act i on and Sect i on 8, l P pr esent s a det ai l ed nomogr amt o
det er mi ne t he r ef r act i on of a r adi o wave ent er i ng t he eart h' s
t r opospher e i n t er ms of t he sur f ace met eor ol ogi cal condi t i ons
and t he appar ent el evat i on angl e of t he i ncomi ng wave,
8.5 REGULAR I ONOSPHERI C REFRACTI ON
The i nt er act i on of el ect r omagnet i c waves wi t h t he i onos-
pher e r esul t s i n a compl ex i ndex of r ef r act i on, m. The Appl et on-
Har t r ee f or mul a i s
m=n - i k ( 8- 4)
wher e n i s t he phase r ef r act i ve i ndex and k i s t he i ndex of
absor pt i on ( Sect i on 8.2), The compl ex i ndex i s a f unct i on of
t he el ect r on densi t y Ne ( el ect r ons/ cm3) , t he oper at i ng f r equency
f , t he magnet i c f i el d i nt ensi t y H, and t he f r equency of col l i si ons
bet ween el ect r ons and neut r al mol ecul es. The phase vel oci t y i s
gener al l y gr eat er t han c ( t he vel oci t y i n f r ee space) and t he
gr oup vel oci t y v i s l ess t han c. The i ndex of absor pt i on k i s
r el at ed t o t he a%sorpt i on coef f i ci ent K by K = 2vk/ X wher e X i s
t he wavel engt h of t he r adi at i on, Thus K i s expr essed i n uni t s
of r eci pr ocal l engt h, K r epr esent s t he l oss of ener gy caused
by col l i si ons. The ef f ect of t he magnet i c f i el d i s t o spl i t t he
r adi o wave i nt o waves t hat ar e el l i pt i cal l y pol ar i zed i n opposi t e
senses ( Cor mi er , et al . 1965, r ef . 17). These waves ar e r ef l ect ed
at di f f er ent l evel s ( See Chapt er 4) and suf f er di f f er ent degr ees
of absor pt i on ( Chapt er 9) .
I n t he i onospher e, t he r ef r act i ve i ndex i s i nver sel y pr o-
por t i onal t o t he f r equency squar ed, Var i ous magnet oi oni c
f or mul as ar e gi ven i n r ef . 1.
The i onospher i c r ef r act i on er r or at a f r equency of 100 MHz
( 3 m) i s shown i n Fi g, 8-4 as a f unct i on of t he appar ent angl e
of el evat i on at t he eart h' s sur f ace. These t heor et i cal cur ves
wer e obt ai ned by Mi l l man ( r ef , 16)- An i nt er est i ng f eat ur e of
t hi s pl ot i s t hat at a const ant al t i t ude t he er r or i ncr eases
wi t h el evat i on angl e, at t ai ni ng a ma i mumval ue bet
mat el y 3' and 5O, At t he ver y l ow a gl es, t he er r 0
somewhat t he same for al l al t i t udes gr eat er t han 370 km, A s t he
el evat i on angl e i s i ncr eased, however , i t becomes appar ent t hat
t he er r or ma i mi zes at about 555 km, Mi ni mumer r or i s at t ai ned
at ast r onomi cal di st ances,
162
IO
9
8
9
6
5
4
3
2
-
h =ALTITUD
0.228
0.1 I4
0.057
0
8-4,- Ionospheric refraction errors at 100 MHz
(ref. 16)
163
8.6 TROPOSPHERI C AND I ONOSPHERI C REFRACTI ON ERRORS
AT 555 kmALTI TUDE
The t r opospher i c and i onospher i c r ef r act i on er r or s comput ed
at an al t i t ude of 555 kmar e gi ven i n Fi gur e 8-5. I t can be
seen t hat t he t r opospher i c er r or i s pr edomi nant f or pr opagat i on
near t he hor i zon and t hat t he i onospher i c cont r i but i on t akes over
as t he el evat i on angl e i s i ncr eased. The angl e at whi ch t he
i onospher i c er r or i s gr eat er t han t he t r opospher i c er r or i s
dependent upon t he t r ansmi ssi on f r equency and t he char act er i st i cs
of t he medi a. For t he par t i cul ar r ef r act i ve i ndex model s con-
si der ed by Mi l l man ( ref . 16), t he cr ossover poi nt i s a 2 O
el evat i on angl e.
Si mi l ar r esul t s have been r epor t ed by Wei sbr od and Col i n
( ref . 18) . Tr opospher i c r ef r act i on i s consi der ed i n mor e det ai l
i n Sect i on 8. 9.
8.7 OPTI CAL REFRACTI VE MODULUS OF THE TROPOSPHERE*
I n t he t r opospher e, wher e t he phase r ef r act i ve i ndex of
t he at mospher e i s ver y near l y equal t o one, i t i s conveni ent
t o def i ne t he quant i t y
(8-5)
6
N = ( n- 1) x 1 0 e
N i s cal l ed t he r ef r act i ve modul us and val ues ar e gi ven i n N-
uni t s.
An appr oxi mat e r el at i on bet ween t he opt i cal r ef r act i ve
modul us and at mospher i c pr essur e and t emper at ur e i s
wher e N, i s t he r ef r act i ve modul us f or wavel engt hs much gr eat er
t han 201, l m; P i s t he at mospher i c pr essur e i n mi l l i bar s, and T i s
t he at mospher i c t emper at ur e i n degr ees Kel vi n,
The di sper si on f or mul a of Edl en ( ref . 11) whi ch has been
adopt ed by t he J oi nt Commi ssi on f or Spect r oscopy is
Af t er At l as et al . 1965,. r ef . 1.
*
164
I u2
8
6
4
TROPOSPHERIC AND
IONOSPHERIC ERROR
~ IONOSPHERIC ERROR
_D 0-
--=--TROPOSPHERIC ERROR
RH = RELATIVE HUMIDITY
z
D
a 2 -
a
= ! a
a I 1 IO
E 4
=E
- 6
p:
Q:
W
A
(3
z
w 2
Q IO0
z =
2 6
I-
o
M
Lb
a 4
200 MHz- N IG
2
I n"
5.4
A
(3
W
P
a
0
Qc
W
W
A
(3
2
Q
z
0
5.7 x I-
o
M
ll.
w
W
0.57
a
-
KT2 a
.- 5.4 x
0 8 12 16 20 2 28
Figure 8-5,- Tropospheric and ionospheric refraction
errors at 555 km altitude (from ref. 16)
165
29498. 10 + 255 40
NS = 64. 328 +
146 - 1/ X* 41 - l / X z '
wher e NS i s t he r ef r act i ve modul us at a wavel engt h X f or a
t emper at ur e of 288OK and a pr essur e of 1013. 25 mb, and X i s t he
wavel engt h i n mi cr ons. A somewhat l ess pr eci se but mor e con-
veni ent di sper si on f or mul a i s
7- 52
N =N, [I +
X2
b
( 8- 8)
Equat i ons ( 8- 6) and ( 8- 8) may be combi ned t o gi ve t he
r ef r act i ve modul us as a f unct i on of pr essur e, t emper at ur e, and
wavel engt h :
( 8- 9)
77. 6 P + 0. 584 P
T TX2
N =
Ref r act i ve modul i cal cul at ed by usi ng Eq. ( 8- 9) wi l l be i n
er r or no mor e t han one N- uni t , Fi gur e 8- 6 i s a nomogr aph based
on Eq. ( 8- 9) t hat gi ves val ues of N accur at e t o about 5 N- uni t s.
8. 8 RADI O REFRACTI VE MODULUS OF THE TROPOSPHERE*
At r adi o wavel engt hs t he r el at i onshi p of r ef r act i ve modul us
Eq. ( 8- 5) t o pr essur e, t emper at ur e, and wat er vapor pr essur e may
be gi ven by:
5
3. 7 x 10 Pw
T2
77. 6 P +
T
N = I ( 8- 10)
wher e P i s t he at mospher i c pr essur e i n mi l l i bar s, T i s t he
at mospher i c t emper at ur e i n degr ees Kel vi n, and P , ! i s t he
par t i al pr essur e of wat er vapor i n mi l l i bar s. Thi s equat i on
comes f r omAt l as et al e 1965 ( r ef . 1) and Smi t h and Wei nt r aub,
1953 ( r ef , 19)
Af t er At l as et al , 1965, r ef . 1,
*
166
0
8 8 0 t 8
0
s
M
3.4.
f4
M
rl
(6
u
u2
I
03
167
Fi gur es 8- 7 and 8- 8 ar e nomogr aphs based on Eq. ( 8- 10) ;
Wi t hi n an accur acy of 1 par t i n 1061 t he t r opospher i c
t hese gi ve val ues accur at e t o wi t hi n 5 N- uni t s.
r ef r act i ve i ndex i s i ndependent of f r equency f or t he l ongest
r adi o wavel engt hs i n use down t o 1. 25 cm (24 GHz). Absor pt i on
by at mospher i c const i t uent s ( Chapt er 9) begi ns t o r i se t o
si gni f i cant pr opor t i on wi t h decr easi ng wavel engt h beyond 1. 25
cm ( 24 GHz). Wat er vapor cont ent i s by f ar t he l eadi ng f act or
i n causi ng changes i n N, f ol l owed i n or der of i mpor t ance by
t emper at ur e and pr essur e. For exampl e, f or a t emper at ur e of
15OC, pr essur e of 1013 mb near gr ound l evel , and a r el at i ve
humi di t y of 60% ( P m = 10 mb) , t he par t i al der i vat i ves of N
become aN/a PWV = 4. 5 ( N- uni t s mb- 1) ; aN/ aT = - 1. 26 ( N- uni t s
OK- ~) : and aN/ aP = 0. 27 ( N- uni t s mb- 1) e
Under nor mal condi t i ons, N t ends t o decr ease exponent i al l y
wi t h hei ght Z; and exponent i al decr ease i s usual l y an accur at e
descr i pt i on f or hei ght s gr eat er t han 10, 000 f t. Bel ow L0,OOO
f t , N may depar t consi der abl y f r omexponent i al behavi or . The
medi an val ue f or t he gr adi ent dN/ dZ i s t ypi cal l y - 0. 012 N- uni t s
f t - 1 f or t he f i r st f ew t housand f eet above t he gr ound l evel .
8 9 VERTI CAL PROFI LES OF REFRACTI VE MODULUS*
For many pur poses i t i s desi r abl e t o have st andar d r ef r ac-
t i ve modul us pr of i l es f or t he at mospher e. By usi ng t he equat i ons
of t he model at mospher e ( Col e, et al . 1965, r ef . 201, an exact
anal yt i cal expr essi on f or t he st andar d opt i cal r ef r act i ve
modul us can be der i ved. A si mpl i f i ed appr oxi mat i on t o t hi s i s
N = 273 exp ( - Z/ 32. 2) , ( Z 5 25) ; ( 8- 11)
wher e Z i s t he al t i t ude i n t housands of f eet .
Equat i on ( 8- 11) can be di f f er ent i at ed t o obt ai n t he st andar d
gr adi ent of opt i cal r ef r act i ve modul us;
- - dN - - 8. 45 exp (- Z/ 32. 2), ( Z 5 25) ( 8- 12)
dZ
Equat i ons ( 8- 11) and ( 8- 12) may be cor r ect ed f or , di sper si on
t hr ough use of Eq. ( 8- 8) .
Af t er At l as et al e 1965, r ef . 1,
*
16 8
0,
W
i-
I; c
ll
ZQ-
w
a
3
s
169
170
For t he r adi o wavel engt hs i t i s necessar y t o assume a
di st r i but i on of wat er vapor i n or der t o obt ai n an expr essi on f or
t he r ef r act i ve modul us. Assumi ng PWV = 10. 2 (1 - 0. 0195Z) 6, f or
Z 25, a si mpl i f i ed appr oxi mat i on i s
N = 316 exp ( - 226. 5) , ( Z 5 25) ( 8- 13)
The st andar d gr adi ent of r adi o wave r ef r act i ve modul us i s t hen:
- - dN - - 11, 9 exp ( - 2/ 26. 5) , (2 5 25) ( 8- 14)
dZ
Fi gur es 9- 4, 9- 5 of r ef . 1 ar e gr aphs of st andar d pr of i l es
cal cul at ed f r omEq. ( 8- 12) t hr ough ( 8- 14) e At l as et al . r ef . 1
and Roger s, r ef . 21 di scuss and i l l ust r at e qui t e ext ensi vel y
act ual pr of i l es of t he r ef r act i ve i ndex at mi cr owave f r equenci es.
Ther e ar e exampl es of r ef r act i ve i ndex modul us i n cl ouds as wel l
as i n cl ear ai r . Hor i zont al var i at i ons ar e al so consi der ed
br i ef l y
8, l O ASTRONOMI CAL REFRACTI ON: MEASUREMENTS AND THEORY
Ast r onomi cal r ef r act i on ( or at mospher i c r ef r act i on) i s t he
angul ar di f f er ence bet ween t he appar ent zeni t h di st ance of a
cel est i al obj ect ( or spacecr af t ) and i t s t r ue zeni t h di st ance,
pr oduced by r ef r act i on ef f ect s as t he r adi at i on f r omt he obj ect
penet r at es t he at mospher e ( See Sect i on 8. 4).
Fi gur e 8- 9 shows t he aver age at mospher i c ast r onomi cal
r ef r act i on f or pr opagat i on of sol ar r adi at i on t hr ough t he
ear t h' s at mospher e as r epor t ed by McCr eady, Pawsey, and Payne-
Scot t ( ref . 22) , and Mar ner and Ri ngoen ( r ef 23) Addi t i onal
comment s and gr aphs ar e cont ai ned i n t he Di scussi on sect i on of
Mi l l man ( r ef e 16) , ( See al so Sect i on 6. 4. 9) e
Fi gur e 8- 10 shows t he r ef r act i on cor r ect i on ver sus el evat i on
angl e f or bot h r adi o f r equency and opt i cal wavel engt hs as
comput ed by Al t shul er ( r ef s. 24, 25). He assumed a model at mos-
pher e and t he t ype of i nf or mat i on pr esent ed i n Sect i on 8. 9.
171
AT 200 MH ( 1 . 5 )
MARNER AND RI NGOEN
OBSERVA Tl ONS AT 34500
MH (8.7 1 f L I MI TS A RE
T H E RMS VARl ATI ONS)
OP T I C A L REFRA CTI ON
T EMPERA T URE 50.F
PRESSURE 29.5" Ho
2 4 6 8 IO I 2
APPARENT ELEVATION ANGLE (DEGREES)
14
Fi gur e 8- 9. - Aver age at mospher i c r ef r act i on f or pr opagat i on
of sol ar r adi at i on t hr ough t he at mospher e
( f r omMi l l man, r ef . 16) .
8. 11 A NOMOGRAMFOR ATMOSPHERI C RAD10 REFRACTI ON
A. C. Hudson ( ref . 26)
Radi o and El ect r i cal Engi neer i ng Di vi si on
Nat i onal Resear ch Counci l
Ot t awa I Canada
A si x- st age nomogr ami s pr esent ed f or det er mi ni ng t he
r ef r act i on of a r adi o wave ent er i ng t he ear t h' s at mospher e i n
t er ms of sur f ace met eor ol ogi cal condi t i ons and t he appar ent
el evat i on angl e of t he i ncomi ng wave.
8. 11. 1 I nt r oduct i on
An ext r at er r est r i al r adi o wave i s r ef r act ed dur i ng i t s
passage t hr ough t he ear t h' s at mospher e. Consequent l y, f or t he
t r ue posi t i on of t he sour ce of r adi at i on t o be det er mi ned, a
smal l negat i ve cor r ect i on must be appl i ed t o t he el evat i on angl e
at whi ch t he r adi at i on i s r ecei ved. Thi s cor r ect i on i s a f unc-
t i on of t he el evat i on angl e i t sel f . The accompanyi ng nomogr am,
whi ch i s based on wel l - known f or mul ae and met hods, gi ves t hi s
negat i ve cor r ect i on as a f unct i on of sur f ace met eor ol ogi cal
condi t i ons and appar ent el evat i on angl e.
172
J
(3
5 2
a
z
0
>
z
0
h
u
c
tr
a,
k
w
0
s
.A
k
0
w
0
r-l
I
co
173
8,11,2 I nstructi ons f or Using the Nomogram (Fi gure 8-11)
The fol l owi ng steps outl i ne the most strai ghtforward way
to use the nomogram. Reference should be made t o the key i n
the upper l ef t corner. (Larger versi ons of the nomogram are
avai l abl e at nominal charge from the Di vi si on of Radio and
El ectri cal Engi neeri ng, Nati onal Research Council of Canadap
Ottawa )
1.
2,
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8,
Enter the surf ace rel ati ve humidity on scale 1.
Enter the surf ace ai r temperature on scale 2.
J oi n these two poi nts wi th a strai ght l i ne, and extend
thi s l i ne to i ntersect scale 3.
Parti al pressure of water vapor may not be read i f
desired.
J oi n thi s l atter i ntersecti on on scale 3 wi th the
temperature on scale 4 and mark the resul ti ng i nter-
secti on on scale 5.
Enter total atmospheri c pressure on scale 6, and ai r
temperature on scale 7, and f i nd the i ntersecti on on
scale 8.
J oi n thi s l atter i ntersecti on to the one previ ousl y
found on scale 5, and f i nd the i ntersecti on on scale 9.
Thi s i s N, the ref racti vi ty at the surf ace of the
earth. (N = 10-6 (n - 1) where n i s the surf ace radi o
ref racti ve i ndex of the atmosphere.)
The apparent el evati on angl e of the incoming wave i s
now entered on any one of scales 10, l oa, l ob, 12, or
12a. Thi s poi nt i s j oi ned wi th the ref racti vi ty i nter-
secti on on scale 9 and thus the ref racti on r i s found
on ei ther scale 11(cal i brated i n seconds of arc) or
on scale 13 (cal i brated i n mi nutes of arc). I t i s
i mportant to note that when ei ther scale l oa, l ob, or
12a i s used to enter apparent el evati on angl e, the
f i nal val ue of r as read must be i ncreased by l O O " ,
200", or 20', respecti vel y, Thi s scale spl i tti ng has
been done to i ncrease the accuracy,
174
Lu w
175
8,11.3 Formulae and D at a I mpl i ed i n the Nomogram
The surf ace ref racti vi ty N has been cal cul ated from the
formula :
(8-10)
where T i s the absol ute temperature, P i s the total atmospheri c
pressure i n mi l l i bars, e i s the parti al pressure of wat er vapor
i n the atmosphere, expressed i n mi l l i bars. Equation (8-10) i s
(1.20) of Bean and Dutton (1966)
Scal e 2 has i ncorporated i n it a tabl e of saturated wat er -
vapor pressure. (Handbook of Chem. and Phys., 42d ed., Chemical
Rubber Publ. Co., Cl evel and, 0.). Thi s permi ts the determi nati on
of e,
I n order to estimate the bending 'I: from a knowledge of
surf ace ref racti vi ty and the apparent el evati on angl e of the
source, two di sti nctl y di f f erent methods have been descri bed
(Bean and Dutton, 1966, ch. 3). l For el evati on angl es greater
than 10' the fol l owi ng formula i s conventi onal :
'r = N cot Bo x (8-15)
where 'r i s the bending of a ray through the enti re atmosphere,
N i s the surf ace ref racti vi ty, and eo i s the apparent el evati on
angl e of the ray. (Bean and Dutton, 1966, sec. 3.9.)l
I n the deri vati on of thi s rel ati on, the atmosphere i s
assumed to be hori zontal l y homogeneous. Scal es 10 and 10a i n
the nomogram cover el evati on angl es between 15' and 90'. These
scales have been based on ( 2) above.
For el evati on angl es between 0.5' and 24' the stati sti cal
l i near regressi on resul ts of Bean and Cahoon (1957)2 and
'Bean, B.R,, and E. J , Dutton (March 1966) , Radio Meteorology, NBS
2Bean, B.R,, and B.A. Cahoon (Nov. 1957). The use of surf ace
Mono. No, 92,
weather observati ons to predi ct the total atmosphere bending
of radi o waves at s mal l el evati on angl es, Proc. I RE, 45, 1545-1546.
_.
176
Bean, Cahoon, and Thayer (1960)l have been used. The rel evant
equati on i s
T =bN + a, (8-16)
Thi s i s Eq. (3.10) (Bean and Dutton, 1966I e2 I n thi s method
Bean, Cahoon, and Thayer have anal yzed a l arge number of radi o-
sonde observati ons at 13 cl i mati cal l y di sti nct l ocati ons i n
order to establ i sh the constants a and b,
Scal es l ob, 12, and 12a i n the nomogram have been based
on a mor e detai l ed versi on (Bean, 1966, pri vate communication)
of tabl e 9.9 of Bean and Dutton ( 1966I e2 Quadrati c i nterpol ati on
has been used to prepare these scales.
8 e 114 Accuracy
The accuracy of the i mpl i ed formulae has been f ul l y treated
by Bean and Dutton ( 1966) 2 and w i l l not be di scussed here,
beyond mentioning that (1) of the surf ace ref racti vi ty i s
consi dered correct to 0-5 percent.
The accuracy of a nomogram i s di f f i cul t to speci f y, but
caref ul work yi el ds val ues of T which agree to 1 sec on scale
11and 0.2 min on scale 13, wi th the formulae used.
I n most practi cal si tuati ons any di screpancy i ntroduced
by the nomogram i tsel f w i l l not be si gni f i cant.
While the nomogram was desi gned and pl otted automati cal l y,
the pai nstaki ng work of M r s . M. G. Manzon, who made the drawing,
i s gratef ul l y acknowledged.
'Bean, B.R., B,A. Cahoon, and G, D, Thayer (1960), Tabl es for the
stati sti cal predi cti on of radi o ray bending and el evati on angl e
error usi ng surf ace val ues of the refracti ve i ndex, NBS Tech.
Note No. 44.
2Bean, B.R., and E. J . Dutton (March 1966). Radio Meteorology,
NBS Mono, No, 92.
177
8,12 OPTI CAL ASTRONOMICAL REFRACTI ON
For bodi es near zeni th the astronomi cal ref racti on i s onl y
about 0. 1 mi nute, but f or bodi es near the hori zon it becomes
about 30 mi nutes (0.5 degrees) or more and contri butes measurably
to the l ength of the apparent day (Fi go 8-10; ref s, 27, 28) .
The opti cal ai r mass (al so cal l ed the "ai r mass") i s the
l ength of the atmospheri c path traversed by the sun's rays i n
reachi ng the earth, measured i n t er ms of the l ength of thi s path
when the sun i s at the zeni th, For a zeni th di stance z of the
sun less than 80 the opti cal ai r mass i s approxi matel y equal
to sec z (See Tabl e 8-2). A t greater zeni th di stances the
secant gi ves val ues which are i ncreasi ngl y too hi gh, because
of errors due to atmospheri c ref racti on, curvature of the
earth, etc. The val ues are tabul ated f or P = 760 mm Hg and
T - 10OC; f or other val ues of P and T mul ti pl y both the ai r
mass and the ref racti on R = < - z by P/ ((760(9. 962 + 0.0038T)).
Di optri c tabl es of the earth's atmosphere are desi gned f or
the sol uti on of al l problems i n which one fol l ows the path of
l i ght rays through the earth' s atmosphere. These tabl es are
gi ven i n ref s. 30 and 31. More recentl y Kol chi nski i et al e
produced tabl es of correcti ons f or ref racti on duri ng observati on
of obj ects i n the earth's atmosphere (ref 32).
Tabl e 8-3 i s based on the wi del y used computations of
Bemporad, (ref . 34), (See al so ref s, 35, 36). Bemporad's
formula i s
(8-17)
atmospheri c ref racti on i n seconds of arc
58.36" si n z
a =
I f the pressure at the surf ace P i s di f f erent from the
standard sea-level pressure Po, the val ues of m are to be
mul ti pl i ed by P/P,.
8.13 COMMENTS ON I RREGULAR REFRACTION
The exi stence of small-scale vari ati ons i n the i ndex of
ref racti ons i n the troposphere has been observed by microwave
refractometer techni ques, I t i s general l y accepted that these
f l uctuati ons are responsi bl e f or the opti cal twi nkl i ng of radi o
stars
The radi ati on emi tted from di screte radi o stars i s rela-
ti vel y constant; however, at t i mes the extraterrestri al si gnal s
impinging on the earth' s surf ace are found to f l uctuate i n a
178
TABLE 8-2.- FEFRACTION AND AI R MASS
(FROM ALLEN, mF. 29)
kppar ent
zeni th
z
90'
89'
88'
87'
86'
85'
84'
83'
82'
81'
80'
75'
70'
65'
60'
50'
40
30'
20'
10'
0'
A pparent
al ti tude
(h=9 0 ' - z )
0'
1'
2'
3'
4O
5'
6'
7'
8'
9'
l oo
15'
20'
25'
30'
40'
50
60'
70'
80'
90'
T r ue zeni th
distance
( r )
90' 35O 21VU
89' 24' 45"
88' 18! 24"
87' 14' 24"
86' 119 43"
85' 9# 51"
84' 8' 27"
83' 7' 23"
82' 6w 33"
81' 5' 52"
80' 5r 18"
75' 3' 34"
70' 2# 38"
65' 48 4"
60' l i 41"
50' l g 10"
40' O s 49"
30' 0' 34"
20' ov 21"
10' o q 10"
0' 0' 0"
see z
57,30
28,65
19 0 11
14 e 34
11.47
9,567
8 206
7.185
6,392
5.759
3 e 864
2.924
2.366
2.000
1.556
1.305
1.155
1.064
1.015
1.000
A i r
mas s
38
26.96
19.79
15.36
12 e 44
10.40
8.900
7 e 768
6,884
6.177
5.600
3,816
2.904
2,357
1.995
1,553
1,304
1, 154
1,064
1.015
1,000
TABLE 8-3,- OPTICAL AI R MASS CORRESPONDING TO DIFFERENT
ZENITH DISTANCES (AFTER L I ST, REF. 33)
Sun s
zeni th 00 1' 2' 3' 40 5' 6' 7' 8' 9'
fiistance
Opt i cal ai r mass
0' 1.00
10 1.02 1,04
20 1.06 1,07 1,08 1,09 1.09 1.10 1-11 1.12 1,13 1. 14
30 1,15 1,17 1.18 1, 19 1,20 1,22 L 23 1.25 1,27 1.28
40 1.30 1, 32 1- 34 1.37 1.39 1. 41 1.44 1. 46 1- 49 1, 52
50 1.55 1-59 1.62 l e66 1.70 1-74 1- 48 1.83 L 88 1, 94
60 2-00 2.06 2.12 2.19 2,27 2,36 2,415 2,55 2,65 2,77
70 2.90 3.05 3- 21 3.39 3,59 3*82 4,07 4,37 4.72 5,112
80 5,60 6,18 6,88 7.77 8,90 10-39 12,44 15,36 19.79 26.96
179
r andommanner . I r r egul ar f l uct uat i ons i n t he appar ent angul ar
posi t i on of t he sour ces have al so been det ect ed. The f l uct ua-
t i ons or sci nt i l l at i ons bot h i n ampl i t ude and posi t i on have been
exper i ment al l y ver i f i ed as bei ng due t o i r r egul ar i t i es i n t he
el ect r on densi t y di st r i but i on i n t he i onospher e t hr ough whi ch
t he r adi at i on passes.
Mi l l man ( r ef . 16) est i mat es t he magni t ude of t he ef f ect s
of t he i nhomogenei t i es i n t he t r opospher e and i onospher e on
t he measur ement of t he angl e- of - ar r i val , phase, r ange and ampl i -
t ude of r adi o- wave si gnal s pr opagat ed i n an ear t h- space vehi cl e
envi r onment e
Bean and McGavi n ( r ef , 37) have r evi ewed r ef r act i on ef f ect s
on t he appar ent angl e- of - ar r i val of r adi o si gnal s.
8. 14 SUMMARY
Fl uct uat i ons i n t he angl e- of - ar r i val , phase, r ange, and
ampl i t ude ar e i mposed by t he dynami c pr oper t i es of t he at mospher e
( i eee, t he t empor al and spat i al var i at i ons of t he i nhomogenei t i es) .
The f r equency dependence of t he r oot - mean- squar e sci nt i l l at i ons
i n t he t r opospher e and i onospher e i s summar i zed i n Tabl e 8- 4.
The i nf l uence of t he i onospher e on t he var i ous sci nt i l l at i on
ef f ect s can be consi der ed t o be negl i gi bl e, under nor mal i onos-
pher i c condi t i ons, at f r equenci es of t he or der of 500 MHz ( 60 cm)
and above.
Det ai l ed di scussi ons of opt i cal sci nt i l l at i on ar e f ound i n
( r ef s. 35, 36) . Pr at t ( r ef . 38) consi der s t he ef f ect s of
i r r egul ar r ef r act i on on l aser communi cat i on syst ems.
TABLE 8- 4 - FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF THE ROOT- E/ I EAN- S&UARE
SCI NTI LLATI ONS I N THE TROPOSPHERE AND
I ON0 S P HE RE
Sci nt i l l at i on ef f ect
Angl e of ar r i val
Phase
Range
Ampl i t ude
Tr opospher e
I ndependent of f
f
I ndependent of f
--
I on0 spher e
f - 2
f=-l
f - 2
-2
f
180
9. 0 ABSORPTI ON
9. 1 I NTRODUCTI ON
Thi s chapt er di scusses t he pr obl ems of at mospher i c absor p-
t i on of el ect r omagnet i c r adi at i on by var i ous means.
Radi o waves pr opagat i ng t hr ough t he i onospher e under go a
var yi ng amount of absor pt i on. El ect r ons and i ons t hat osci l l at e
i n t he el ect r omagnet i c f i el d of t he wave and t hen col l i de wi t h
ot her par t i cl es ( mai nl y neut r al at oms and mol ecul es) absor b
ener gy f r omt he wave, t r ansf er r i ng i t as t her mal ener gy of t he
at mospher i c const i t uent s.
Gaseous absor pt i on i s pr i mar i l y t he t r ansf er of ener gy
bet ween t he r adi at i on and t he mol ecul es of a gas. I t occur s
when t he mol ecul es have an el ect r i c or magnet i c di pol e moment .
The coupl i ng bet ween t he el ect r i c component of t he r adi at i on
f i el d and t he el ect r i c di pol e or bet ween t he magnet i c f i el d
component and t he magnet i c di pol e, r esul t s i n emi ssi on or ab-
sor pt i on of r adi at i on by t he mol ecul es i n t he f or mof a
r esonant ener gy t r ansf er . Bot h t ypes of absor pt i on can be
t r eat ed i n t er ms of t he compl ex i ndex of r ef r act i on m, di scussed
i n Sect i ons 8. 2 and 8. 3.
9. 2 RELATI VE TRANSPARENCY OF THE EARTH' S ATMOSPHERE
Fi gur e 9- 1 shows t he r el at i ve t r anspar ency of t he ear t h' s
at mospher e t o el ect r omagnet i c r adi at i on. The t r ansmi ssi on cur ve
i s f or cl ear weat her wi t h no at mospher i c hydr omet eor s pr esent i n
t he obser vi ng i nst r ument s' f i el d of vi ew.
The r esol ut i on of t he spect r umof Fi g. 9- 1 i s ext r emel y
l owand t he f i gur e shoul d not be used f or quant i t at i ve wor k.
The sect i on number s l i st ed under t he t r ansmi ssi on cur ve i ndi cat e
wher e expanded t r ansmi ssi on spect r a i n par t i cul ar decades of
f r equency ( wavel engt h) can be f ound,
A not e of caut i on i s appr opr i at e! Tr ansmi ssi on spect r a
can be t aken under var i ous condi t i ons of r esol ut i on; t hus, a
wi ndow at l owr esol ut i on may be a semi - wi ndowor a door at
hi gher r esol ut i on. I n par t i cul ar t he spect r a of Fi g. 9- 15 i n
Sect i on 9. 5. 10 exempl i f y t hi s ef f ect , Al so, r ef s. 133 and 134
gi ve det ai l ed spect r a f or hor i zont al pat hs,
181
182
9,3 ABSORPTI ON COEFFI CI ENTS
Bleany and Bleany (ref, 1) sol ve the case of a pl ane
pol ari zed el ectromagneti c wave propagati ng al ong the x-axi s i n
a Cartesi an coordi nate system (x, yp z) i n a conducti ng medium
of f i ni te conducti vi ty 0 - Defi ni ng the complex i ndex of ref rac-
ti on m as
m=n - i k (9-1)
where n i s the phase ref racti ve index and k i s the absorpti on
i ndex of the medium (Secti on 8,2) we can present the form of
the sol uti on f or the wave:
where K = 2~rk/A (Secti on 8.2)
Equati on (9-2) shows that the val ue of K determi nes the
rate at which the ampl i tude of the wave decays (K appears i n the
argument of the real exponenti al ) whi l e n determi nes the wave
vel oci ty i n the medium (i .e. v =n/c (Secti on 8.2) ) Thus a
complex i ndex of ref racti on i ndi cates that the wave i s bei ng
absorbed as it proceeds, because the f i ni te conducti vi ty of the
medium causes a power loss by J oul e heati ng. Thi s i s al so
di scussed i n some detai l i n Chapter 31 of Feynman et al e,
ref., 2 and i n ref s. 125 and 132.
The absorpti on coef f i ci ent i s a measure of the amount of
normally i nci dent radi ant energy absorbed through a uni t di stance
of absorbi ng medium,
Li ke the analogous scatteri ng coef f i ci ent, the absorpti on
coef f i ci ent K i s f requentl y i denti f i ed i n Bouguer's l aw (Secti on
1, 2. 2) as fol l ows:
= Io exp (-Kx),
I X
(9-3)
where 1, i s the f l ux densi ty of radi ati on at a parti cul ar wave-
l ength, i ni ti al l y of densi ty I o, af ter traversi ng a di stance x
i n some absorbi ng medium, I n some computations it i s more con-
veni ent to express thi s l aw i n the sl i ghtl y di f f erent form:
183
(9-4)
wher e q i s cal l ed t he deci mal coef f i ci ent of absor pt i on and
equal s 0.4343 K. I n t he above uses, K i s expr essed i n uni t s
of r eci pr ocal l engt h.
Fi gur e 9-2 pr esent s t he ul t r avi ol et absor pt i on coef f i ci ent
of var i ous at mospher i c gases, wher e K i s t he exponent i al absor p-
t i on coef f i ci ent per at mospher e- cent i met er ( i * eeJ per cent i met er
at STP). I n or der t o det er mi ne at mospher i c absor pt i on f r omt he
cur ves, i t woul d be necessar y t o al l ow f or at mospher i c composi -
t i on ( Fi g. 4- 1) and t he de r ee of di ssoci at i on of some mol ecul es.
I n t he r egi on of 900- 1000 1 (0. 09 - 0. 1 pm: 3,300 - 3,000 THz)
t her e ar e t wo cur ves f or oxygen. Of t hese t he cur ve r epr esent i ng
t he hi gher absor pt i on al l ows f or t he pr ei oni zat i on f act or .
3
2
I
0
w
-I
8,
Q
-
- 2
' 1- PRElONlZED
/*-
/-
/I
/' I
" i
600
Fi gur e 9-2.- Ul t r avi ol et absor pt i on coef f i ci ent f or some
at mospher i c gases ( Af t er Al l en, 1963, ref . 3:
Chapt er 6) e
184
9.4 I ONOSPHERI C ABSORPTI ON
9- 4. 1 I ntroducti on
The i onosphere al so has a complex i ndex of ref racti on:
m=n - i k (9-5)
where n i s the phase ref racti ve i ndex and k i s the i ndex of
absorpti on. The i ndex of absorpti on i s rel ated to the absorp-
ti on coef f i ci ent K by K = 21~k/h, where X i s the wavelength of
the radi ati on. K represents the l oss of energy caused by
col l i si ons and i s di scussed f urther i n Secti on 8.2.
An i oni zed regi on i n the upper atmosphere can af f ect the
transmi ssi on of radi o (or radar) waves i n at l east two ways.
F i r st, under sui tabl e condi ti ons, the charged parti cl es can
remove energy from an el ectromagneti c wave and thus attenuate
the si gnal ; i n the l i mi ti ng case, the energy of the wave can
be compl etel y absorbed. Second, a wave travel i ng from one
pl ace to another i n which the el ectron densi ty i s di f f erent w i l l
undergo a change i n i ts di recti on of propagati on (ref racti on,
Chapter 8) . I n certai n ci rcumstances, the radi o wave can be
ref l ected back. (When the i ndex of ref racti on becomes zero.)
Absorpti on i n the i onosphere occurs at frequenci es less
than 100 MHz (3 m) . "The maximum total daytime attenuati on, at
a frequency of 100 MHz (3 m) i s approxi matel y 1.28 dB. I t thus
appears that, under normal condi ti ons, i onospheri c attenuati on
shoul d be negl i gi bl e at frequenci es above 100 MHz ( 3 m) ."
(Millman, ref . 4.)
Fi gure 9-3 pl ots the i onospheri c absorpti on at two el evati on
angl es f or a source at 1000 km hei ght f or a model atmosphere, I t
gi ves a lower val ue f or the absorpti on at 100 MHz ( 3 m) than
that quoted above. However, it shows the vari ati on wi th frequency
and can be adj usted upwards
Millman (ref . 6) and Lawrence, L i t t l e, and Chi vers (ref . 7 )
consi der thi s problem i n greater detai l .
9,4.2 Long-term I onospheri c Propagati on Predi cti ons
A report enti tl ed "Predi cti ng long-term operati onal para-
meters of hi gh-frequency sky-wave telecommunication systems" has
recentl y been i ssued by the I nsti tute for Telecommunication
Sci ences ( I TS) , ref. 8. Thi s report descri bes the l atest methods
185
3rn 30 C
2
I
0.5
0. I
0.05
0.0 I
0.005
0.001
50 100 500 1000
FREQUENCY (MHr)
Fi gur e 9- 3. - I onospher i c absor pt i on f or a sour ce at 1000 km
hei ght , ( comput at i on) , ( Af t er Schmi d, ref . 5)
and comput er pr ogr ams devel oped by t he I TS f or pr edi ct i ng t he
expect ed l ong- t er mper f or mance of hi gh- f r equency t el ecommuni ca-
t i on syst ems. Ear l i er wor k i s descr i bed i n r ef s. 9- 14.
Emphasi s i s pl aced on sol ut i on by comput er met hods of t he
ci r cui t oper at i onal par amet er s ( maxi mumusabl e f r equency, MUF;
opt i mumt r af f i c f r equency, FOT; and t he l owest usef ul ' f requency,
LUF) and on r ecent i mpr ovement s i n t he basi c i onospher i c and
geophysi cal dat a. Pr opagat i on vi a t he spor adi c- E mode i s con-
si der ed as suppl ement i ng t he r egul ar E- l ayer mode. I mpr oved
t echni ques f or cal cul at i ng t he t heor et i cal pat t er ns and gai ns of
10 most commonl y used HF ant ennas ar e i ncl uded. A met hod i s
descr i bed t hat pr ovi des shor t - t er mest i mat es of t he F2- l ayer MUF
f r ommeasur ed val ues of t he l ocal magnet i c i ndex. Appl i cat i on
t o communi cat i on pr obl ems i s i l l ust r at ed, based on concept s of
ci r cui t r el i abi l i t y and ser vi ce pr obabi l i t y as measur es of t he
expect ed syst emper f or mance, i ncl udi ng consi der at i on of mul t i pat h
i nt er f er ence. An annot at ed l i st i ng of t he pr ogr amand descr i pt i on
of i nput and out put dat a ar e gi ven i n t he appendi ces.
186
An exampl e of pr edi ct ed and obser ved si gnal st r engt hs i s
gi ven i n Fi g. 9- 4. The compar i son was f or a 1292 kmpat h f r om
Long Br anch, I l l i noi s ( 40, 22N, 90. 2OW) , t o Boul der , Col or ado
( 40. 13ON, 105. 25W) . The r esul t s ar e descr i bed i n det ai l i n
ref . 8.
The I nst i t ut e f or Tel ecommuni cat i on Sci ences al so publ i shes
I onospher i c Pr edi ct i ons, t he successor t o CRPL I onospher i c Radi o
Pr edi ct i ons, ( ref . 15) whi ch ar e i ssued mont hl y, t hr ee mont hs
i n advance, as an ai d i n det er mi ni ng t he best sky- wave f r equenci es
over any t r ansmi ssi on pat h, at any t i me of day, f or aver age con-
di t i ons f or t he mont h. Sampl e copi es may be obt ai ned f r om
Pr edi ct i on Ser vi ces Sect i on
I nst i t ut e f or Tel ecommuni cat i on Sci ences
Envi r onment al Sci ence Ser vi ces Admi ni st r at i on
Boul der , CO 80302.
Each i ssue has compl et e or der i ng i nf or mat i on and i nf or mat i on on
how t o obt ai n t he basi c document s needed t o under st and t he pr e-
di ct i on t echni ques ( r ef s. 9- 13) .
A sampl e char t gi vi ng t he pr edi ct ed medi an MUF ( ZERO) F2
i n MHz f or December 1969 at Uni ver sal Ti me UT = 00 i s gi ven i n
Fi g. 9- 5.
A var i at i on i n t he pl ot i s gi ven i n Fi g. 9- 6.
9. 4. 3 HE' Di st ur bance War ni ng and Shor t Ter mPr edi ct i on
A di r ect access t i me- shar e comput er i s used t o pr ovi de f or e-
cast s of sol ar - geophysi cal di st ur bances whi ch af f ect communi ca-
t i ons, ( secur i t y) sur vei l l ance, and t he manned space ef f or t .
Numer i cal coef f i ci ent s r epr esent i ng t he mappi ng cont our s of
l ong- t er mi onospher i c char act er i st i cs i mpor t ant t o sky- wave
pr opagat i on of hi gh- f r equency r adi o waves ar e st or ed i n t he
comput er . These coef f i ci ent s ar e modi f i ed as f or ecast s or
r epor t s of di st ur bances ar e obt ai ned. Typi cal messages aut oma-
t i cal l y t r ansmi t t ed gi ve oper at i onal i nf or mat i on f or speci f i c
t i me per i ods concer ni ng t he expect ed occur r ence and sever i t y of
( a) shor t - wave f adeout s ( SWF) ; ( b) pol ar cap absor pt i on ( PCA)
event s; and ( c) magnet i c st or ms whi ch cause changes i n t he
maxi mumusabl e f r equency (MUF). Dur i ng di st ur bed pr opagat i on
condi t i ons, ef f ect i ve use of t hese sol ar - geophysi cal f or ecast s
and shor t - t er msyst emper f or mance pr edi ct i ons i ncr eases t he
l i kel i hood of cont i nuous communi cat i on.
187
JAN
1959
FEB
I959
Fi gure 9-4.- Di urnal vari ati on of observed and predi cted avai l abl e
power of a 5-MHz transmi ssi on between Long Branch,
I l l i noi s, and Boulder, Colorado (1292 km) , (After
Barghausen, et al ., 1969, ref , 8)
188
Fi gure
NORTH POLAR AREA
D
, ref. 15
E
Fi gure 9-6.- A sample chart from I onospheri c Predi cti ons, ref . 15
189
9. 5 GASEOUS ABSORPTI ON
9. 5. 1 I nt r oduct i on
The f i r st par t of t hi s sect i on cont ai ns i nf or mat i on on t he
absor pt i on of el ect r omagnet i c waves i n t he r adi o f r equency
spect r umby at mospher i c gases, The pr i nci pal absor bi ng gases
ar e 02, 03, and H20. Ot her gaseous const i t uent s ( Sect i on 9. 5. 2)
do not exi st i n suf f i ci ent abundance t o cause a measur abl e ef f ect .
The f ol l owi ng f act shoul d be kept i n mi nd when consi der i ng
t he absor pt i on aspect s of t he ear t h' s at mospher e i n t he opt i cal
r egi on. The ent i r e wavel engt h r egi on f r om0. 3 t o 5.0 pm
( 1, 000 - 60 THz) cont ai ns t housands of shar p absor pt i on l i nes
due t o H20, C02, N20, CH2,
9. 5. 2, 9. 5. 10) . At l owr eso ut i ons t hese l i nes ar e smoot hed
out so t hat onl y t he cl ust er i ng i n st r ong bands appear t o gi ve
absor pt i on.
, CO, and t hei r i sot opes ( Sect i ons
O 1
The dat a pr esent ed i n t hi s chapt er i s r epr esent at i ve of t he
t ypes of dat a avai l abl e. Ot her i nf or mat i on can be l ocat ed by
consul t i ng t he At mospher i c Tr ansmi ssi on Bi bl i ogr aphy: A KWI C
I ndex of El ect r omagnet i c Wave Tr ansmi ssi on i n t he Ear t h' s
At mospher e, t o be i ssued under separ at e cover .
9. 5. 2 Char t of t he Absor bi ng Gases i n t he Ear t h' s At mospher e
and t he Absor bi ng Band I nt ensi t i es by Rober t F. Cal f ee
Fi gur e 9- 7 i s a char t showi ng t he var i ous gases whi ch have
absor bi ng pr oper t i es i n t he ear t h' s at mospher e cover i ng t he
spect r al r ange f r omt he vi si bl e ( . 714 ; urn) t o t he mi cr owave'
r egi on (1. 4 cm) a ( See Fi gur e 4- 1)
Thi s char t was pr epar ed by t he Submi l l i met er Wave Ar ea of
t he Wave Pr opagat i on Labor at or y, Envi r onment al Sci ence Ser vi ces
Admi ni st r at i on, Resear ch Labor at or i es, Boul der , Col or ado.
As can be seen f r omFi gur e 9- 7 t he gases cont r i but i ng most
ext ensi vel y t o at mospher i c absor pt i on ar e wat er vapor p car bon
di oxi de and ozone,
190
I n t he cases wher e det ai l ed dat a ar e avai l abl e ( H20, C02,
0 3 p N20, CH4r CO); i t i s possi bl e t o make accur at e cal cul at i ons of
t he t r ansmi ssi on ( or absor pt i on) over sl ant pat hs i n t he ear t h s
at mospher e f or var i ous at mospher i c condi t i ons f or any desi r ed
spect r al r esol ut i on.
The char t i n Fi gur e 9- 7 does not gi ve any i nf or mat i on about
t he magni t ude of t he absor pt i on i n any r egi on. For t hose gases
occur r i ng nor mal l y i n t he at mospher e, i nf or mat i on about t he
i nt ensi t y of t he vi br at i onal bands pr oduci ng t he absor pt i on i s
avai l abl e. The i nf or mat i on i s di spl ayed gr aphi cal l y i n Fi gur e
9- 8. Her e t he i nt ensi t y of t he band i s pl ot t ed as a ver t i cal
l i ne l ocat ed at t he posi t i on of he band cent er . The uni t s of
ar e i ndi cat ed i n bot h wave number s ( cm- 1) and wavel engt h ( pmor
mi cr ons) . The pur e r ot at i onal spect r umof wat er vapor i s
i ncl uded by summi ng t he i nt ensi t i es of l i nes wi t hi n a 200 cm- l
i nt er val and i ndi cat i ng t hi s val ue by a l i ne mi dway of t he
i nt er val . For t he ot her r egi ons t he gr aph l i nes r epr esent t he
sumof t he l i ne i nt ensi t i es associ at ed wi t h a par t i cul ar
vi br at i onal - r ot at i onal band.
i nt ensi t y ar e cm- l / ( mol ecul es/ cm5 ) e The band cent er posi t i ons
Tabl e 9- 1 gi ves t he i nf or mat i on used f or maki ng up t he
gr aph. Most of t he col umn headi ngs ar e sel f - expl anat or y. The
vi br at i onal t r ansi t i on quant umnumber s di f f er among t he var i ous
mol ecul es. For car bon di oxi de t her e ar e f i ve number s t o descr i be
a l evel ( VI , V2, R , V3, Fer mi r ank) . For ni t r ous oxi de onl y
VI , V2, R , V3 ar e used. For wat er and ozone onl y VI , V2 V2 ar e
needed e
The col umn mar ked I S0 i ndi cat es t he i sot r opi c s eci es of
t he at oms maki ng u t he mol ecul e e. g. 626 +- 016C1201g1 446 +-
~14~14016, 26 -t C1 s OI Gr 162 +- H10l 6H2 or HDO.
Al l t hese char t s, gr aphs and t abl es ar e const ant l y bei ng
r evi sed as mor e or bet t er dat a become avai l abl e. The val ues
gi ven her e ar e ver y good and ser ve a ver y usef ul pur pose f or
t hose i nt er est ed i n at mospher i c t r ansmi ssi on pr obl ems.
191
i
$
(E) f
192
i
I I
Fi gure 9-8.- Atmospheric absorbi ng bands
?
I
I
I
I
I
pi
I
I
8
a
?I
\
m
----xi-
:Im:
Fi gure 9-8 - (Continued)
195
3
d b
g
Fi gure 9-8 (Concluded)
196
TABLE 9-1,- ATMOSPHERIC ABSORBING BANDS, PREPARED
BY R. F, CALFEE, WAVE PROPAGATION
LABORATORY, ESSA RESEARCH LABORATORIES
MAY
578,595
579.367
5810697
588s 767
5880983
594.248
596.457
597,341
605 e 910
608.828
615.908
618.033
633.086
640, 266
652.536
654.874
655 e26 1
6558637
656e214
667 0 3 79
6670 750
6680 180
668e230
668e 670
668.678
6690 219
681e587
683 e 884
90% e000
7 0 3 e 540
3100 765
720 D 289
720e 808
939e 945
19.594
17.585
170283
17.260
170191
16.985
16.978
16.828
160766
160 741
16e504
16,425
16.236
16. 180
15.796
15,619
150325
150270
15.26
1 5 ~ 2 5
150239
140984
14.976
14e966
140965
14e955
140943
14e672
14~622
14~265
140214
148069
13,883
13,873
138538
1 3 ~ 5 1 5
1970,
Y c
70154-0Z4
3 o 765-02
6 e 994-020
1 a934-022
1 o 228-0 18
6 a 994-0 20
9e 079-023
20 574-023
5 e 208-02 1
9~077-027
1 e 748-0214
60 889.022
1.436-019
68488-023
2 0 113-026
10652-021
8 e 854-02 3
7.418-025
90895-023
2 o 5 34-026
8 e 258-018
6 o 488-039
3 e 8% 4-02 0
3 e 1 19-02 3
1 ,488-020
90761-023
4e598-023
9 e 047-02
? e 43 5-019
2 0463-023
2 e 024-824
4e784-022
I e 853-0 19
3 002 1-022
% B 756-0223
20082
20081
20003
13302
12202
21102
11102
13302
21102
0200
12202
0110
0220
20002
21103
11102
20013
10812
20003
10002
21103
12212
12202
01111
02211
13302
04411
01101
02201
0440 1
13301
2000 1
20002
2000 1
10001
04401
12201
0110
03301
0800
0110
11101
12202
02201
11112
01111
11102
01101
20003
11112
11102
000 11
Olll1
12202
03311
0000 1
01101
02201
2000%
03301
10001
440 1
220%
%%IO]!
000
OCO
OCO
OCO
oeo
OCO
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
NNO 44
K O 62
NNO 44
NNO 44
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 62
OCO 62
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO
OCO 626
OCO 6
OCO 6
OCO 6
03 666
OCO 626
OCO 624,
OCO 626
OCQ
OCQ
OCO
CE
197
741.735
754.337
757e439
770.355
7900 966
791.452
8150691
828.278
8290 581
8570329
864.684
898.529
9150687
917.627
927.151
941 a 731
952.316
960.955
1008 e000
1008 0000
1021.000
1027.000
1029 e000
1042 e096
1043 e668
1060.921
1063 e 730
1064.467
1065.995
1068.01 7
1071.546
1074 e 27 1
1103 e 157
1166 e 403
1168.134
1284.907
1291.501
1306e000
1403 e480
1533 e000
1556.870
1587.380
15900 550
1594.730
1846.32 1
1856~820
186002 10
1865 o 61 5
18800 901
1883.180
1889 0 430
1894e 840
18960038
18960490
TABLE
13.482
130257
130202
120981
12.643
120635
12.260
12.073
12.054
110664
110565
11.129
10.921
10.898
10.986
10.619
10.501
10.406
9.921
9.921
9.794
9.737
9.718
9.596
9.582
9.426
90401
9.394
9.381
9.363
9.332
9.309
9.065
8.573
80561
7.783
7.743
7.657
70125
6c1523
6.423
6.300
6.271
5.416
5 o 386
5e376
5,360
5.317
50310
5e293
50277
5.274
5e273
6. 287
9-1.- (Continued)
7 e 90 1-02 1
1 e 607-023
3 e 2 88-022
1 e 35 1-023
5.483-024
10123-021
2 e 202-026
20009-023
1.153-024
1 e 097-024
4.315-024
2 e634-024
1.9490025
8 e 70 5-02 5
7.113-023
1 e 146-024
6.398-026
4.9 10-02 2
9 e 534-02 1
2.506-020
4 e 248-0 19
1 e 627-01 9
60695-020
1 e 292-0 17
1 e 176-024
7,775-027
6.324-022
2 o 3 2 9-024
2.120-026
2 e 664-026
1 e 080-022
4.538-024
3 e33O-019
8.184-027
4.464-019
80705-018
30 125-019
7 e 04 8-0 18
3 0 2 10-02 1
7 e 5 16-020
2 e 340-0 1 7
2 o 338-020
4 e 320-02 1
1. 170-017
3o274-026
2 e 60 4-0 2 6
4 e 464-02 7
6.696-027
1e562-024
1 e 488-02 5
1 e 265-025
3 s 720-026
P B 101-024
1 o 4 8 8- 024
PAGE 2
11101
21102
12201
1330 1
21102
11101
10012
12201
21101
13301
20001
022 11
21101
10011
01111
10012
21101
000 11
10 1
00 1
01 1
00 2
00 1
00 1
10011
200 13
000 11
10012
12212
01121
01111
02211
100
10011
0200
1000
1110
000 1
010
0 100
029
010
010
010
21103
20003
30004
30003
20003
12202
22203
14402
21103
02201
12202
03301
04401
20003
10002
20001
11 102
20002
12202
11 102
12201
12202
20001
11101
20002
20003
10001
100
000
010
00 1
000
000
20002
30004
10002
20003
22203
11112
11102
12202
000
20003
0000
0000
0110
0000
0 00
0000
010
000
000
000
02201
11 102
11101
01101
01101
11 102
03301
10002
00001
o 1pr
060
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
03
03
03
03
03
03
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
oc 0
OCO
OCO
OCO
03
oco
NNO
NNO
NNO
CH4
HOH
CH4
HOH
HOW
HOH
HOH
OCO
OCO
oco
OCO
oco
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
666
686
666
666
668
666
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
666
626
446
446
446
21
162
21
161
181
171
161
626
636
626
626
626
636
626
626
626
636
19 8
1901 e 600
1905v 129
1917.663
19300985
19320470
1951,153
19960 100
2003 e 841
2004.211
2010.010
20370093
2049.700
2062 moo0
2062.350
2075.380
2076.865
20930 356
2096.000
2 102 . 000
2106.000
2107002 1
21 12.403
2117.235
2119.540
2120.335
2127.231
2129.775
2132.065
2135.735
2148 e035
2 161 e 190
2 165 e46 1
2 170.841
2170.849
21800676
2 182.400
2223.756
2224r657
2286.779
22880352
2289.890
2290s 71 5
2293,416
2293861 5
2299.2 19
23010017
230 1 e 91 8
2302.384
2302.508
23020973
23058246
2306e 720
2311e675
2311v 715
TABLE
5e259
5 e 249
58215
5.179
5.175
5.125
5.010
4 v 990
40989
4.975
4.909
4.879
4.850
4.849
4.818
40815
4.777
4.771
4.757
4 e 748
4.746
4.734
4.723
4.718
4.716
4.701
4.695
4.690
4 e 682
4.655
4.627
4.618
4.607
4.606
4.586
4.582
4 . 497
4.495
40373
4.370
4.367
4.365
4.360
4.360
4.349
4 e 346
40344
4.343
4.343
4 e 342
4e338
4e335
4,326
4 e 326
9- 1. - (Continued)
2 e 976-024
1 e 786-024
4, 226-023
88 184-026
4 e 092-022
70068-025
1 e 488-02 5
8.184-025
1.176-025
1e339-026
1 860-023
3 o 720-024
5 e 208-02 5
2 e 400-0 19
8 ~482-025
20232-021
3 e 958-022
9.706-0 18
1 e488-024
10335-018
2. 530-023
1 e 116-023
1 v 1 76-02 5
1 e 562-024
2 470-025
1 e 3 02-02 3
1 e 503-026
3 e 3 18-026
5.952-025
3.900-019
5 0952-024
5 e 074-024
9e 806-024
90188-026
1 v 722-025
6 e 882-01 7
1v272-022
30 884-023
2 e 366-023
1 o 786-023
3,125-023
3. 839-023
7,931-023
9~791-022
6 o 3 39-022
2e887-024
4 e 724-024
1 e 3 24-022
7 e 3 66-022
40 352-022
2 s 396-022
2 v 4 5 5-020
3e586-022
18 190-024
11102
13302
12202
22202
11102
21102
20002
20002
2 P 102
30003
11101
11101
11101
100
22202
11101
12201
1
20001
10 1
13301
21101
12212
1440 1
22201
12212
20001
21112
21113
3000 1
00 1
21101
11112
11112
20012
20013
000 1
100 12
05511
13311
21111
13312
21112
21113
0441 1
12211
3002 1
10022
200 11
12212
20013
20012
0331 II
01121
0000 1
02201
01101
11101
00001
10001
01101
01101
02201
11102
00001
0000 1
00001
010
11102
00001
01101
0
01101
000
02201
10001
12201
03301
11101
12201
01101
21101
21102
11101
0 10
02201
11101
11101
20001
20002
0000
10001
05501
13301
21101
13302
21102
21103
04401
12201
10011
10012
20001
12202
20003
20002
03301
OlP11
oco 42
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 636
K O 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 636
OCO 628
OCO 627
HOH 161
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
CO 26
OCO 636
03 666
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
HOH 161
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 624
NNO 446
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
PAGE 3
199
3e764
5 e 244
4 e 148
23248 182
2326e594
23278432
2336e637
2349e 142
2429, 369
2429e456
2458e 158
24610998
2 4 9 0 ~ 0 0 4
2563, 341
27238 700
2782eO40
3018 o 000
3125e300
3 1 3 9 ~ 1 0 0
3 1 4 5 ~ 3 5 0
31510600
3154, 500
31810450
3 181 e463
32750 100
3339O343
3342.928
3393 0000
33980100
33988213
3404 e 8 7 5
34308 770
34650436
3473.680
3490 8 3 50
3498 o 720
3500 e694
3504. 944
3527e610
3527s 947
3528e049
3528e250
3533, 975
3538, 950
542e 570
35428 608
35500 708
35520820
3552e850
35558860
3555e894
3556e 749
35668087
TABLE
4e322
4, 319
48303
4 e 303
4 0 2 9 8
4e297
4e280
4.~257
4.11
4, 114
40116
4e068
4a062
4,016
30901
3.671
3, 594
3 ~ 3 1 3
30200
3.186
3e179
30 173
3.170
3. 143
3 e 143
3e053
2.995
2 0 9 9 1
20947
2 o 943
2 o 943
2 ~ 9 3 7
2,915
2 e 886
28879
2.865
2 e 858
2 Q 857
2.853
2 ~ 8 3 5
20835
2 e 8 3 4
2e834
28830
2.826
20823
20823
2e816
2.815
20815
2e812
28812
20812
2 e 804
9-1 e - (Continued)
1 a 71 1-020
3 e 42 2-020
6e 160- 019
2 e 098- 021
l e 183-4119
1 e 934- 0 19
% e 533-017
9e598- 017
I B 4 58-02 5
1 ~ 0 5 9 - 0 2 2
2 563-02 5
8 e 03 5-0 24
4 a 2 78-0 19
3e028- 027
1 B 637-0 18
5e400- 022
6 e 3 00-023
1e199- 017
70403- 027
1e320- 022
4.920-023
6.630-020
7 e 4 10- 026
2 ~ 1 2 8 - 0 2 5
6 e 867- 02 5
1 D 0 19- 024
4 e 166- 024
1.475-026
9, 226-024
10853- 025
8 e 2 58-02 5
3 s 709- 024
3 0 155- 026
1 e 786- 023
3 e 42 2-023
4 e 62 8-0 2 3
7 e 3 14-0 22
6 e 02 6- 024
90508- 024
1 o 034- 023
7, 470- 024
l o 220-02 2
10295- 022
3e 527- 024
4 o 449-02 2
3 e 147-022
6 e 3 39-02 2
1e953- 024
3 e 4 52-02 1
4 e 250-02 1
8 e 3 33-023
2 8 202-022
4 Q 2 8 7-0 24
2.083-023
1 1 8
a 12
02211
0002 1
10011
10012
01111
000 11
200 1 ]I
100
200
111
120
13311
2000
100
020
0010
30004
020
020
020
22206
05101
21103
30003
21102
22213
30002
21113
300 14
300 13
20013
12212
10012
11112
21101
14412
300 14
22212
13312
13312
11122
40002
21113
300 12
10001
a0002
0l l O. l
00001
20002
10002
20003
11 102
0000
13302
0000
000
000
0000
01101
000
000
000
01101
00001
00001
01101
0000 1
12201
00001
01101
11101
20002
2000 1
1000 1
02201
0000 1
01101
00001
04401
20003
12201
03301
03301
01111
01101
11 102
11 102
20001
02201
02201
11101
1101
OQ02
000 1
OCO 626
OCO 426
OCO 624
0 0 426
OCO 626
OCO 62
OCO 62
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 624
OCO 626
OCO 624
OCO 626
NNO 446
HOW 162
HOH 1162
CH4 21
OCO 626
HOH 181
HOW 161
HOH 161
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 426
OCO 626
OCO 636
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 636
OCO 638
OCO 636
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 628
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
oco 626
PAGE 4
200
3568.221
3571e 110
35780670
3580 e 290
3580.334
3587.510
3589.646
3591.360
36398 180
364 1 e 5 30
3649.680
3653.390
3657.080
3667.557
3675.110
3675.694
3676.749
3679.547
3684 0 50
3692 42 1
3693.430
3700.270
3703 489
3705.939
371 1 e 47 5
3713.680
3713.719
3713.803
3714.781
3723.310
3726.365
3726.610
3726.636
3727.377
3727.700
3 74 0 e 6 2 0
3748.270
3155.920
3757.500
3799.484
3814e 250
3831 e 980
38890 545
39270 544
39800601
3987,610
400 5 e 940
4023.480
4030, 3 18
4167e910
3 700.289
3723 . 249
3858,113
TABLE
2 c 803
2e800
2 e 794
2e793
2,793
20787
2 e 786
2 e 784
2 e 748
2 e 746
2.740
2 e 737
2.734
20727
2.721
2.721
2.720
2.718
2.714
2 e 708
2.708
2.703
2.702
2 700
2.698
2.694
2.693
2.693
2.693
2 692
2 e686
2 e 686
2.684
2.683
2.683
2 683
20683
2.673
2 e 668
2.662
2.661
2 e 632
2.622
2.610
20592
2 e 571
20546
2e512
20508
2.496
28485
2 o 399
2 e 304
9-1.- (Continued)
3 e 3 78-02 1
6 e49 5-02 1
2.753-023
9.479-020
1 e 607-0 19
7e 031-023
1 Q 786-021
1eO94-021
1 o 5 18-02 1
6.294-023
1.920-021
3 e 000-022
8.100-019
3.832-023
4.777-021
6.622-024
90151-024
9.858-024
3.884-022
4 e 2 4 1-02 1
1 e 13 1-02 1
2.411-022
7.098-022
3 006-023
5 506-024
3 50 1-02 1
1 e 48 1-022
5.632-022
2.187-023
1.685-018
2 783-0 1 9
1 e 135-019
1.875-023
3 683.02 1
1. 141-020
4.643-022
1 e 295-02 2
1 e 5 80-02 3
2 e 920-02 1
7 e 8 90-0 1 8
7.410-026
2 o 768-025
70700-023
9.151-026
50 104-024
1 s 199-025
10205-026
7e440-026
1.488-024
8 e 184-025
7 8 440-02 6
30 720-026
8 o 928-0 26
6e966-020
200 12
100 11
22213
11112
11112
loo11
200 12
11111
31101
100
100
100
10021
10012
11121
30012
30013
20012
21112
21112
22212
30011
20011
21111
21111
222 11
100 11
11111
12211
1441 1
122 11
12211
13311
13311
00 1
00 1
00 1
22203
30012
200 11
300 11
21111
22211
01121
01121
30002
00021
30002
0112
3000 1
2
10002
00001
12202
01101
01101
0000 1
10001
0000 1
01101
02201
000
000
000
000 11
0000 1
01111
20002
20003
01101
10002
00001
11102
11102
12202
2000 1
10001
11101
11101
12201
00001
01101
01101
04401
02201
02201
03301
03301
000
000
000
01101
20003
10002
20002
11102
12202
10001
02201
00001
01101
00001
10002
0000 1
0
OCO 626
oco 62
OCO 62
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 638
OCO 626
OCO 627
OCO 636
OCO 636
HOH 181
HOH 171
HOH 161
OCO 626
OCO 628
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 628
OCO 626
OCO 627
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
HOH 181
HOH 171
HOH 161
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 628
OCO 626
OCO 627
CO 26
PAGE 5
201
44160 150
44 17 e 3 79
44850600
4508.749
45240 880
4527r280
4529.870
45 7 8 0 0 90
4591 e 118
461 1 e 3 10
4614.779
4630e 164
46300370
46390502
4655 e 205
4666 e 7 20
4673.680
46830 120
46850780
4687.796
46920 180
470 8 o 520
4718 e 3 50
472 10 920
4730 e82 8
47330500
4743r 700
4748 e058
4753.450
4755.705
4768.541
4784.675
4786.688
4790 r 5 7 1
47910260
48 14. 570
48210500
4839.737
4853 e 620
4871 0460
48898390
49040 850
4925 sol0
4928 e 9 10
4807.692
4896.185
493 1 . 083
4939. 350
49420 5 12
49460 807
495 9 e 667
4965 0 3 8 1
49770 830
4953.363
TABLE
28264
20264
28229
20218
2.210
2.209
2 o 208
20 184
20178
20169
2.167
2.160
2.160
20155
20148
2 e 143
2,140
2.135
2.134
20133
2.131
2,124
20119
2.118
2.114
2.113
20 108
2.106
20 104
20103
20097
20090
20089
2.087
2.087
2.080
20077
20074
20066
2.060
2.053
2.046
28042
2.039
2e030
2e029
2.028
2.025
2 . 023
2.022
20019
2.016
28014
20009
9-1 - (Conti nued)
30720-026
4.464-020
1 o 562-026
1 e 860- 025
1 o 71 1-026
10302-027
2~232-026
1 e 786-026
20046-025
3 e 720-026
1 o 042-024
5 e 5 8 0-02 1
9 o 6 72-026
10302-023
1 r 2 65-024
2 e 0 10-0 2 2
1.488-025
1 e 860-027
l e 860-025
5 e 208-025
2 e 6 04-02 5
5.952-024
4.464-026
4.836-026
1.860-020
6.696-025
3 e 348-024
20 678-023
2 e 9 76-025
3 s 5 71-024
2.604-023
1 o 488-02 5
1 a 190-024
1 o 562-023
4.687-023
1 e 3 3 9-02 1
1 e339-024
70440-924
1 o 3 76-023
8 o 0 72-02 1
40 762-023
2 e 9 76-02 2
8.928-024
1 e 116-022
4 .a 464-025
1 m488-024
9.672-024
2 o 3 06-023
1 e 4 14-02 2
5 a952-024
1 e 042-022
80370-023
5 o 3 12-02 1
38497-020
31104
0002
OP121
00021
0002 1
31103
40004
32203
31103
31114
01121
1201
01121
0002 1
00021
030
22213
31102
300 14
30014
20013
21113
20013
20013
200 1
23313
21113
20013
31102
31114
22213
20023
31113
30014
20013
21113
20012
20013
300 13
20013
21112
20012
21112
20012
20011
31113
20012
30013
31112
222 12
30012
21112
200 12
00001
0000
01101
00001
00001
00001
01101
0110%
00001
11101
01101
0000
01101
00001
00001
000
02201
00001
10002
10001
00001
01101
00001
0000 1
0000
03301
01101
00001
00001
11102
02201
00011
11101
10002
00001
01101
00001
00001
1000 1
00001
01101
00001
01101
00001
0000 1
01101
11 102
0000 1
10002
11101
02201
10001
01101
00001
oeo 62
NNO 446
OCO 638
OCo 638
OCO 637
OCO 636
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 628
NMO 445
OCO 627
OCQ 628
OCO 627
HOH 161
OCO 636
OCO 636
OCO 636
OCO 626
OCO 638
OCO 636
OCO 637
OCO 828
NNO 446
OCO 626
OCO 628
OCO 636
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 628
OCO 626
OCO 638
OCO 627
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 636
OCO 636
OCO 628
OCO 628
OCO 638
OCO 627
OCO 626
OCO 627
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
PAGE 6
202
4991 350
5013~785
5028. 780
50420570
50620442
5064 e 680
5068.910
5099.660
51 14.894
5123.200
5 139.401
5168.600
52170669
5234.950
5247.830
5276.770
5277.070
5291.160
5294.970
5310.510
5315.730
5320.860
53310210
5349. 360
5584.391
5670.080
5687.166
5809 e 460
58130020
5858.022
5885.336
5904.470
5933.990
5951 e600
595 5 . 840
5959.954
5972 520
5987.020
5993.58 1
5998.569
6000 e 520
6020.795
60260630
6033 e478
6072 e 343
6075.983
60880210
6100.300
6119.618
6127e.782
6 141.300
6149,760
6 140 e090
6175e118
TABLE
20003
1 e995
1 0989
le903
1.975
1.974
1.973
1.961
1.955
1 e 952
1 946
1.935
1.917
1 0910
1 e 906
1.895
1.895
1 e 890
1 889
1.883
1.881
1.879
1.876
1.869
1.791
1 a 764
1.758
1.721
1.720
1 707
1.699
1.694
1.685
1 e 680
1.679
1.678
1.674
1 e 670
le668
1.667
1.667
10661
1.659
1.657
1.647
1 e 646
1.643
1.639
le634
1.632
1.628
1 B 626
le621
10619
9-1 (Continued)
2e 120-022
39422-023
2 976-0 2 5
2 e 269-023
2 o 38 1-023
2 e 604-024
6 e 3 24-024
1. 123-020
3.088-023
2.128-021
4 e 092-02 3
3. 720-025
2 e 344-024
1 e 830-020
1 e 0 12-024
1 e 800-0 18
1 e 488-0 2 5
5 e 506-024
2 e 678-026
1*810-021
3.980-023
30360-022
9 060-0 19
5 e 0 5 9-02 5
70068-025
50952-026
7 5 14-025
3. 720-027
2.976-026
3 e 720-025
2 9 76-026
3 e 720-026
2 9 76-026
1 e 786-025
2.976-026
3.348-025
2 e 530-025
1 ,488-026
30 571-025
3 a 348-025
10674-028
9.300-024
10488-026
40092-026
1.042-025
40538-023
2 o 38 1-025
2 Q 08 3-02 5
2 0 90 2-024
2e 38 1-024
1 Q 860-026
1 e, 78 6-02 5
1 e 265-024
28 269-024
200 11
21111
2221 1
20011
30012
21111
200 11
200 11
300 11
21111
22211
01121
300 11
110
10022
012
01121
02221
01121
011
01121
011
011
10021
00031
01131
0003 1
10021
11122
10022
10022
31114
311 14
30014
11124
10021
32214
10021
300 14
40015
41103
31114
300 13
30014
400 14
300 14
31113
31113
300 13
30013
30012
41114
32213
400 1
00001
01101
02201
00001
10002
01101
0000 1
00001
10001
01101
02201
00001
10002
000
01101
010
0000 1
01101
00001
000
0000 1
000
000
01101
10001
11102
10002
00001
01101
00001
0000 1
01101
01101
00001
01101
00001
02201
00001
0000 1
10002
00001
01101
00001
00001
10001
0000 1
01101
01101
00001
00001
00001
11102
02201
10002
OCO 636
OCO 636
OCO 636
OCO 628
OCO 626
OCO 628
OCO 627
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 636
OCO 626
HOH 161
OCO 626
HOH 161
OCO 628
OCO 626
OCO 627
HOH 181
OCO 626
HOH 171
HOH 161
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 638
OCO 628
OCO 628
OCO 627
OCO 636
OCO 628
OCO 636
OCO 628
OCO 628
OCO 626
OCO 627
OCO 628
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 638
OCO 627
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO 636
OCO 628
OCO 636
OCO 628
OCO 638
OCO 626
OCO 626
OCO
203
62276924
624 1 e 964
6243 e 570
6254.592
6265. 170
6308~278
63180 170
6346.265
63470 854
6356e293
63590 287
63600000
6363.616
63740497
63970545
6429.172
6449 0 040
6463.480
6466 e 440
6498 670
6503.081
6532.653
6536.445
6537.958
6562 e 444
6616.064
663 5 e 42 8
6670.770
6679.709
6710.320
6715.360
6728.360
67450 115
6752 460
6755. 100
6780 e 2 15
6804e369
68608410
6867e 280
6870e670
68970751
6897e 800
6905e770
6945 e 6 IO
TABLE
1e6
le6
106
le606
1 e 602
1.602
1 e 599
1 e 596
1 e 588
1 e 585
1 m 583
le516
le575
1 e 573
1,573
10572
1.571
l o 569
1.563
1.535
1 e 551
1.547
1.546
le539
1 o 538
le531
1.530
1 e 530
1.524
1.511
1 e 507
la499
1 e499
1 e 490
le489
le486
10483
1.481
1.480
1 e475
1 e47
1.45
1.43
1045
le455
Is455
le452
1 e450
9- 1 e - (Continued)
4 e 2 7 1-822
4. 6 13-024
4e 092-025
1 ~414-024
1. 190-025
1 e 19O-024
4 e 2 9 1-022
6 e 547-02 3
1 e 116-024
20824-022
1 e265-024
3.3480026
le1900025
1 e 116-025
20232-026
20083-026
1.042-025
1.190-025
40985-023
1 e 3 0 2-0 2 5
90523-026
2 e 232-024
2 e 232-62 5
80556-027
2.232-026
1.786-025
20827-024
7 e 440-026
3 e 348-026
5 0952-026
20678-024
leP16-026
30530-021
1.634-023
5 e 580-026
2 e 009-6 2 5
1~616-025
5e208-027
e41 1-025
CD 640-0 2 0
0 018-025
4 s 24 1-02 4
30013
30012
3
3
2
300 1 2
30011
11122
31111
300 11
40012
30011
20023
12222
30011
460 11
31111
11122
32211
21122
400 1 1
12221
11121
20021
10032
00031
01131
00031
120
0003 1
10032
00031
P 1132
0000
0110
1000
00001
0000
0110
0000
01101
0000
1000
1110
10001
00001
01101
02201
0
00001
0000 1
01101
00001
10002
00001
01101
01101
00001
10001
01101
0000 1
02201
10002
10002
01101
00001
01101
10002
00001
01101
0000 1
000
00001
10001
03301
11101
00001
11102
000
01101
02201
QCO
OCO
oeo
oco
oco
OCO
OCO
oc
oc
OCO
OCQ
OCO
OCO
OCO
CO
OCO
oco
OCO
OCO
oco
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCQ
OCO
OCO
OCO
oco
OCO
OCO
HOH
OCO
oco
OCO
626
626
626
24
636
636
636
628
624
621
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
626
636
638
636
637
161
204
7201.480
7249 0 9 30
7283098 1
73320600
7339e300
7445. 040
74600530
7466 0 400
748 1 o 5 10
7583 e 265
73930690
76000 130
7616.620
7734.452
7743 0 700
7749.100
7757.621
7901 0479
79200 840
7929.920
796 1 0 290
7981.180
8000.803
8056.024
80700910
8084.060
8089 040
8103.578
81200 104
81280 783
8135.886
8154,470
8192 0 556
82200 363
82430 163
82540800
8255. 390
8273 e 950
8276. 767
8293.957
876 1 e 5 'PO
88070000
7414.aoo
8231 . 558
8 3 m a20
1061 3 A 0
TABLE
10363
1 0 349
le343
1.340
le339
1.337
1 . 319
1.317
1.316
1.313
1 0 293
1.291
10290
10289
1 266
1 0 262
1.261
1.256
le253
1 0 250
10241
1.239
10237
10236
10234
10232
1 0 230
1 0 229
10226
10221
1.216
1.215
1.213
1.211
1021%
1 o 209
1.208
1.206
l e 194
le141
le135
11011%
1.01
0.97
00968
0. 950
0.943
Os942
9-1 - (Continued)
1~495-0
4 e 464-0 26
2.976-026
40 464-026
5 e 2 90-02 1
2 0 232-026
1 9 116-025
8 e 33 3-02 5
1.064-023
7 0 440-0 2 6
1 e 116-028
2 0 790-024
4e464-026
1 0 116-026
20976-025
10488-025
1 e 860-025
10934-026
2 03810026
2 0232-025
4.092-027
404640026
50952-026
1.934-025
7 0 068.02 5
2 0046-025
2 0 009-0 2 5
70 068-026
8 0 0 3 5-024
3 o 720-026
4 o 24 1-02 3
2 e 009-0 2 5
1,228-025
1 e 079-025
1.637-025
4 e 464-0 2 6
2e400-022
9 e 2 2 6-0 24
6. 138-023
38600-021
3 e 608-022
11e500-021
4 0 800-82 3
11 Q 500-f.323
4 2 78-024
4. 980-020
200
110 1
400 1
400 1
400 14
41114
002
400 14
40013
408 13
41113
400 13
40012
51102
400 12
21123
400 11
41112
21122
40011
11132
41111
10032
20033
21121
11131
12232
10031
20033
10032
20032
11132
10032
10032
10031
20032
20031
12231
10031
130
111
100
03
210
111
012
041
220
000
000
0000
0000
0000
OllOa
000
00001
00001
00001
01101
00001
00001
00001
00001
00001
00001
01101
00001
00001
01101
01101
0000 1
10001
00001
0 1101
02201
00001
10002
00001
10001
0 1101
00001
00001
00001
10002
10001
02201
00001
000
0 1101
00001
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCQ
06
HO
oc
OCO
OCO
OCQ
OCO
OCO
OCO
oco
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
oco
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
oco
oco
OCQ
OCO
OCO
OCO
OCO
HO
oco
oc
HO
NO
HOW
oc
NO
HO
NO
HO
HO
HI0
626
62 6
636
626
626
626
636
626
626
626
636
626
636
626
626
636
626
636
626
628
626
626
627
626
628
626
626
626
629
1611
205
TABLE 9-1,- (Concluded)
10868.860 0.920 5 B 700-022 000 HOW 16%
1 1032 e400 00906 2.400-021 003 O2 000 HOH 161
311813a190 0 e 849 6.260-023 131 000 NOH 161
12139a200 O e 8 2 4 10960- 023 310 000 HOM 161
1215 1.260 0.823 1e010-021 211 000 HON 161
206
9. 5. 3 Theor et i cal and Measur ed Val ues of Zeni t h At mospher i c
Absor pt i on 0. 4 - 10 GHz; 75 - 3 cm
Fi gur e 9- 9 i s a pl ot of some t heor et i cal absor pt i on cur ves
of Hogg ( r ef , 16) and Cr oom ( ref . 17) al ong wi t h some measur ed
dat a poi nt s as a f unct i on of f r equency, The di f f er ence bet ween
t he t heor et i cal cur ves i s due t o t he di f f er ences i n t he choi ce
of t he l i ne- br oadeni ng const ant i n t he Van Vl eck- Wei sskopf
equat i on ( ref . 18) . Hogg used 0. 75 GHz per at mospher e and Cr oom
used 0. 54 GHz per at mospher e. The val ue of 0. 54 GHz per at mos-
pher e i s i n agr eement wi t h t he l abor at or y measur ement s of t he
l i ne br oadeni ng const ant by Mar yot t and Bi r nbaum ( ref . 19) ,
suggest i ng t hat Cr ooml s t heor et i cal cur ve may be mor e accur at e
t han t hat of Hogg. A di scussi on of t he dat a and t heor et i cal
r el at i onshi ps i s gi ven i n Howel l and Shakeshaf t ( ref . 20).
The absor pt i on char act er i st i cs i n t hi s f r equency r ange
wer e al so r evi ewed by Medd and For t ( ref . 21) and Benoi t ( ref .
22). The dat a avai l abl e t o Mar ch 1969 ( ref . 23) i s shown on
Fi g. 9- 9. Per t i nent i nf or mat i on on each of t he dat a poi nt s i s
gi ven i n Tabl e 9- 2.
measur ement s.
Not e t he var i at i on i n even t he cl ear sky
WAVELENGTH (cm)
100 75 60 50 375 30 20 15 IO 75 60 5 4.29 3.33
1
I I I I I I I I I I I I I l l 1 1
-e-- HOGG (REF: 16)
-.- CROOM (REF: 17)
2
(1
IO
09
08
07
06
05
04
03
02
I i o l / l I I I I I I I I I I I I I J
. 3 .4 .5 .6 . I . 3 5 6 7 8910
Fi gur e 9- 9. - Summar y of Two Theor et i cal Cur ves and Measur ed
Dat a on At mospher i c Absor pt i on i n t he Zeni t h
Di r ect i on i n Cl ear Weat her Condi t i ons ( Af t er
Thompson and Har oul es, r ef . 23).
207
T
0.4
0.4
0.408
0.43
0.5-9.4
0- 82
1.407
1.415
1.42
1- 50
2.39
2.70
3, 2
4,08
4.70
4.995
5, 65
6,O
8.25
9, 18
9.38
99,38
9.40
9.40
9e5
208
LBLE 9-2.- SU RY OF CLEAR SKY ZENITH ATMOSPHERIC
ABSORPTION MEASUREMENTS I N THE FRFrQUENCY
RANGE Oe4 - 10 GHz (75 - 3 cm) , (AFTER
THOMPSON AND HAROULES, REF, 23)
0.046+0.002 Seeger et al . (ref. 24)
0.0345+0.001 Seeger et al . (ref, 24)
0.01660.007 Howel l and Shakeshaft
0.041+0.006
0.051+0.001 Berkhui j son ( Howel l and
0.04260.002 Shakeshaf t (ref 20)
0.034+0.008 Howel l and Shakeshaft
0.03560.010
Penzi as and Wilson (How-
el l and Shakeshaft
Al tenhoff et al . (ref, 30)
Penzi as and Wilson
Castel l i et al .
Baars, Mezger, and Wend-
k er (ref. 33)
DeGr asse et al ,
Hogg and Semplak (ref. 35)
A l l en and Barrett
Castel l i (refs. 26, 37,
0.042+0.004 Medd and Fort (ref. 21)
0, l l - O e 15
0,05- 0,085
Aarons, Barron, and Cas-
tel l i (ref, 40)
L astochki n, Stankevich,
9, 5. 4 Theor et i cal and Measur ed Val ues of Zeni t h At mospher e
Absor pt i on 10 - 170 GHz; 3 cm- 1. 76 nun ( Fi gur e 9- 10) e
The absor pt i on char act er i st i cs i n t he 10 t o 170 GHz
( 3 cm- 1. 76 mm) f r equency r egi on wer e r evi ewed by Rosenbl um
( r ef e 44) , Fowl er and LaGr one ( r ef , 45) , and Hayes ( r ef e 46) e
Rosenbl umdi scussed t he t heor et i cal pr edi ct i ons of Thei ssi ng
and Capl an {ref . 47) and Hogg ( r ef , 16) and pr esent ed a summar y
of t he avai l abl e dat a. Hayes ( ref . 46) pr esent ed or i gi nal wor k
at 10 f r equenci es ( Fi g. 9- 10) and a di scussi on of t he pr edi ct i ons
of Meeks ( ref . 48) and Schmel zer ( ref . 49) as wel l as t hose of
Thessi ng and Capl an ( ref . 47). The l ack of r egul ar i t y i n t he
r el at i onshi p bet ween absor pt i on and wat er vapor cont ent may be
seen f r omHayes' dat a poi nt s. I t i s poi nt ed out t hat t he f r e-
quency- absor pt i on cur ves bet ween 65 and 400 GHz ( 4. 61 - 0. 75 mm)
by Thessi ng and Capl an ( r ef . 47) ar e der i ved f r omt he Van Vl eck-
Wei sskopf equat i on ( r ef . 18) usi ng di f f er ent met eor ol ogi cal
dat a and i nt egr at i ng wi t h r espect t o al t i t ude because of t he
pr essur e, t emper at ur e, and wat er vapor cont ent dependence wi t h
al t i t ude ( Fi g. 4- 1) . Hayes used met eor ol ogi cal dat a t aken by a
r adi osonde at i nt er val s f r om0 t o 45 kmwhi ch wer e gr ouped under
t he gener al cl assi f i cat i ons of dr y, medi um, and humi d condi t i ons
bef or e i nt egr at i on. Hayes al so f ound t hat by r evi si ng t he oxygen
l i newi dt h par amet er , t he wor k of Thei ssi ng and Capl an woul d be
appr opr i at e f or f r equenci es down t o 40 GHz ( 7. 5 mm). Hayes and
Thei ssi ng and Capl an poi nt ed out t hat t he Van Vl eck- Wei sskopf
equat i on pr oper l y descr i bes t he gener al shape of t he r el at i on
of at mospher i c absor pt i on as a f unct i on of f r equency, but f ai l s
t o gi ve t he pr oper absol ut e magni t ude of absor pt i on i n f r equency
r egi ons bet ween r esonant absor pt i on l i nes except near 110 GHz
( 2. 73 mm). I n t he f r equency r egi on f r om10 t o 140 GHz ( 3 cm-
2. 14 mm) , cur ves dr awn t hr ough dat a of Hayes ar e l ower and
f l at t er t han t hose of Thei ssi ng and Capl an. Hayes f ound
Schmel zer vs val ues i n agr eement wi t h hi s own i n t he f r equency
r ange f r om40 t o 80 GHz (7. 5 - 3. 75 mm) , but hi gher t han hi s dat a
i n t he 80 t o 140 GHz ( 3. 75 - 2. 14 mm) r egi on, appar ent l y because
Schmel zer at t r i but ed t oo l ar ge an absor pt i on coef f i ci ent t o
wat er vapor at f r equenci es r emoved f r omt he wat er vapor r esonances.
Meeks' ( ref . 48) t heor et i cal cur ve i s al so i ncl uded i n t he
f r equency r ange f r om45 t o 75 GHz ( 6, 67 - 4. 0 mm) and i s pr e-
sent ed her e t o suppl ement dat a pr esent ed by Hayes. Hi s oxygen
l i newi dt h par amet er was based on measur ement s made i n ai r
cont ai ni ng wat er vapor . Thi s mi ght account f or hi s val ues bei ng
sl i ght l y hi gher t han t hose measur ed by Hayes.
209
0
0
E
0
-
I
c:
0
9. 5. 5 Measur ed Val ues of Cl ear Sky Zeni t h At mospher i c Absor pt i on
10 - 150 GHz; 3 cm- 2 mm
Exper i ment al absor pt i on dat a ( except t hat of Hayes, r ef .
46, See Sect i on 9. 5. 4) i n t he r egi on f r om10 t o 150 GHz ( 3 cm -
2 nun) i s pl ot t ed i n Fi g. 9- 11. Tabl e 9- 3 pr esent s per t i nent
i nf or mat i on on t he dat a poi nt s as col l ect ed f r omavai l abl e
l i t er at ur e t o Mar ch 1969. I n t he 107 t o 121 GHz ( 2. 75 - 2. 48 mm)
por t i on of t he spect r um, exper i ment al wor k by Tol ber t , Kr ause,
and St r ai t on ( ref . 76) r eveal s t hat a br oad r esonant absor pt i on
l i ne whi ch obscur es t he separ at i on by wat er vapor and oxygen
does exi st . The peak of t he wat er vapor l i ne i s pr omi nent enough
t o be measur ed by 118 GHz ( 2. 54 mm). I t s ampl i t ude i s di f f i cul t
t o di st i ngui sh accur at el y, however .
Sever al ot her wor ks havi ng bear i ng on t hi s pr obl emar e
pr esent ed i n t he Suppl ement al Bi bl i ogr aphy t o Chapt er 9.
9. 5. 6 Comput ed Absor pt i on due t o At mospher i c Gases Al ong a
Zeni t h Pat h Thr ough a Cl oudl ess Mar i t i me Pol ar At mospher e
10 GHz - 3 THz; 3 cm- 100 vm
Fi gur e 9- 12 pr esent s a gr aph of comput ed absor pt i on due t o
at mospher i c gases al ong a zeni t h pat h t hr ough a cl oudl ess,
mar i t i me pol ar at mospher e. The ent i r e comput at i onal pr ocedur e
i s descr i bed i n det ai l i n Lukes ( ref . 78) .
Lukes dr aws upon t he r ecent wor k of Yar osl avski i and
St ankevi ch ( ref s. 79, 80) I Fur ashov ( r ef . 81) , Zhevaki n and
Naumov ( ref . 82) , Bast i n ( ref . 83) , Heast i e and Mar t i n ( r ef e 84) ,
Roger s ( ref . 85) , Fr enkel and Woods ( ref . 86) I Chang and Lest er
( ref . 87) , Far mer and Key ( r ef . 88) , Wi l l i ams and Chang ( ref .
89) I Low ( ref . 90) , and many ot her s.
The pr ocedur e adopt ed t o evol ve t he absor pt i on cur ves i s
as f ol l ows:
Comput e over t he spect r al r ange 0. 3 pmt o 3. 2 cm ( 1, 000
THz - 9. 37 GHz) t he absor pt i on coef f i ci ent s ( Sect i on 9. 3) due
t o t he f our pr i nci pal at mospher i c gases ( wat er vapor z oxygen,
car bon di oxi de, and ozone) . By dr awi ng on t he l i t er at ur e ci t ed
above, one can accompl i sh a pr ocedur e i n 8 segment s encompassi ng
t hi s spect r al r ange. I n doi ng so, however ,
. , Reduce i nvest i gat or s' dat a t o "st andar d" sea l evel con-
di t i ons so t hat absor pt i on coef f i ci ent s over t he spect r umar e
i nt er nal l y consi st ent . ,
Adopt a model of a cl oudl ess mar i t i me pol ar at mospher e,
r epr esent at i ve of a cl ear at mospher e over a subst ant i al ar ea of
t he seas.
211
A
W
v
3 5.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
tO.0
9.00
8.00
7 .oo
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
10 IS 20 25 30 35 $0 45 50 55 60 70 80 90 lo0110 12OIJo14o~iO
Fi gure 9-11.- Measured C l ear Sky Zeni th Atmospheric Absorpti on
i n the Frequency Range 10 to 150 GHz ( 3 cm - 2 mm) I
( A f ter Thompson and Haroules, ref, 23).
212
TABLE 9-3,- SUMMARY OF CLEAR SKY ZENITH ATMOSPHERIC
ABSORPTION mASUREMENTS I N THE FREQUENCY
RANGE 10 TO 150 GHz (3 - 2 mm)
Frequency
(GHz)
1 5 , O
15,5
18 e 15
20.0
20,6
21.0
21.9
22.2
23.5
24.0
24.14
25.4
25.5
26,O
29.5
30,O
30.9
31,4
32.4
34,4
35.0
35.0
35- 0
35.0
35,O
35*3
35* 9
36,06
qavel eng th
(cm)
2.0 cm
1.94 cm
1, 62 cm
1,5 cm
1.45 cm
1.43 cm
1.37 cm
1.35 cm
1.28 cm
1. 25 cm
1.24 cm
1.18 cm
1.17 cm
1.15 cm
1.02 cm
1. 0 cm
9.7 mm
9.55 mm
9.2 mm
8.7 mm
8, 6 mm
8, 6 mm
8.6 mm
8- 6 mm
8.6 mm
8.5 mm
8,35 mm
8.23 mm
Zenith
A bsorpti on
(dB)
0 06-0 e 1
0 * 112
0.22
0.398
0.55
0.291-0.309
0,396-0.725
0.85
0.9
0.368-0.687
0.799
0.5
0 e 15-0.20
0.247-0.409
0.35
0.184-0.282
0.336
0636
0.3-0.5
0.190-0,318
0,363
0 . 22-0 32
0 e 13-0 34
0, 2
0.18-0,39
0 2-0 6
0 15-0 18
0 a 22-0 26
0.35
Fi g e
9-11
Ref er -
ences
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Source
Wulfsberg (ref. 50)
A l l en and B ar r et t (ref, 36)
Gri f f i th, Thornton, and
Welch (ref. 51)
Dicke et al e (ref 52)
Gri f f i th, Thornton, and
Welch (ref, 51)
Stael i n (ref. 53)
Stael i n (ref. 53)
Gri f f i n, Thornton, and
Welch (ref. 51)
Stael i n (ref. 53)
Di cke et al . (ref. 52)
G r i f f i t h , thornton, and
Welch (ref. 51)
Stael i n, B ar r et t , and
Kusse, (ref. 54)
Stael i n (ref. 53)
G r i f f i t h, Thornton, and
Welch (ref. 51)
Stael i n (ref. 53)
Di cke et al . (ref. 52)
Gri f f i th, Thornton, and
Welch (ref. 51)
Hobbs, Corbett, and
Santi ni (ref, 55)
Stael i n (ref. 53)
Aarons, Barron, and
Castel l i (ref. 40)
Wulfsberg (ref. 50)
Kalaghan and Al berti ni
(ref. 56)
Copel and and Tyl er
(ref. 57)
Gibson (ref, 58)
Gibson (ref. 59)
L ynn, Meeks, and
Sohigian (ref, 60)
Thornton and Welch
(ref, 61)
Gri f f i th, Thornton, and
Welch (ref. 51)
213
TABLE 9-3.- Conti nued
Frequency
(GHz)
36.6
37.5
40.0
40.4
49.6
49.6
59.7
50.0
53.5
53.8
54.4
55.4
65.0
69.0
69.75
59.0
69.0
70.0
70.0
70mO
72,O
73,O
80.0
91,o
100 0 0
101, o
104
110
110
WavePeng th
(cm)
8.2 mm
8.0 mm
7.5 mm
6.0 mm
6.0 mm
5.0 mm
6.0 mm
5.61 mm
5.58 mm
5.51 mm
5.41
4.62 mm
4.35 mm
4.3 mm
50, 8 mm
4.35 mm
4* 3 mm
4- 3 mm
4.3 mm
4,18 mm
4* 1 mm
3, 75 mm
3.3 mm
3.0 mm
2.97 mm
2, 88 mm
2,72 mm
2,72 mm
Zeni th
Absorption
(dB 1
0.25-0 e 5
0.36
0.3-0.6
0.25-1 e 0
1.3-2.2
1.1-1-5
8.0
10.0
15.0
30.0
2.8-4.0
2.0
1.2-2,2
2.8
1.6-2.2
1,7-2 2
l e1- - l e8
0.7-1.6
0,31-0.80
2 e 0-1.4
0 a 6-1,6
1,2- 2,5
2- 5
2.2
Oe5=0.9
Fi g
9-11
Ref er-
ences
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
59
40
39
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Source
Ni col l (ref. 62)
N i c o l l (ref. 62)
Whi tehurst, Mi tchel l ,
and Copel and (ref. 63)
Whi tehurst, Mitchell
(ref. 64)
Hayes (ref. 46)
Hayes (ref. 46)
Whi tehurst, Copel and,
and Mitchell (ref. 65)
Car ter , Mi tchel l , and
Reber (ref e 66)
Car ter , Mi tchel l , and
Reber (ref . 66)
Carter, Mi tchel l , and
Reber (ref. 66)
Car ter , Mi tchel l , and
Reber (ref e 66)
T ol ber t and Strai ton,
(refs, 67, 68)
T ol ber t, Strai ton, and
Walker (ref. 69)
Hayes (ref. 46)
T ol ber t, B r i t t , and
Bahn (ref. 70)
Coates (refs. 71, 72)
Grant, Corbett, and
Gibson (ref. 73)
Hayes (ref. 46)
Hayes (ref, 46)
Hayes (ref, 46)
Shimabukuro (refs, 74, 75)
T ol ber t, Krause, and
Strai ton (ref., 76)
Hayes (ref, 46)
Hayes (ref. 46)
Tolbert , Krause , and
Strai ton (ref, 76)
Hayes (ref. 46)
214
TABLE 9- 3. - Concluded
Prequenc y
(GHZ)
114
116.8
120.2
130
139
140
Wave1 ength
(cm)
2.63 mm
2.56 nun
2.48 nun
2, 30 nun
2- 15 mm
2.14 mm
Zeni th
A bsorpti on
(dB)
3.2
5.5
7.0
0.2-2.2
0.75-4.2
4.0
F i g
9-11
Ref er-
ences
53
54
55
56
57
58
Source
T ol ber t, Krause, and
St r ai t on (ref. 76)
T ol ber t, Krause, and
St r ai t on (ref. 76)
T ol ber t, Krause, and
St r ai t on (ref. 76)
Hayes (ref. 46)
T ol ber t, K rause, and
Bahn (ref. 77)
T ol ber t, Krause, and
St r ai t on (ref. 76)
215
WHUMERALOESIG-
ATTEWUATIOU DUE TO
ATMOSPHERIC GASES
(WATER VAPOR AWO OXYGEN1
TWROUGU THETOTAL
CLOUDLESS YARITIMe
POLAR ATYOSPWERE.
Figure 9-12,- Absorption due to atmospheric gases along a
zenith path through a cloudless maritime
polar atmosphere (After Lukes) ref a 78)
216
Der i ve an addi t i onal pr of i l e of absor pt i on ( i n deci bel s)
due t o at mospher i c gases by i nt egr at i ng t hei r ef f ect al ong a
zeni t h pat h t hr ough t he t ot al cl oudl ess mar i t i me pol ar at mos-
pher e, t aki ng account of t he ver t i cal di st r i but i ons of t emper at ur e,
pr essur e, and wat er vapor . The consequence i s a demonst r at i on
of t he wavel engt h dependence of absor pt i on of r adi ant ener gy
al ong a zeni t h pat h due t o at mospher i c gases, and t he i dent i f i ca-
t i on of candi dat e "wi ndows" by appl yi ng t he cr i t er i on of wave-
l engt h bands of t r anspar ency i n t he cl oudl ess at mospher e adopt ed.
The Roman numer al s r epr esent wi ndows of t r anspar ency and t he
t abl es r ef er r ed t o ar e i n Lukes ( ref . 781,
9. 5, 7 At mospher i c Absor pt i on Measur ement s
183 - 325 GHz; 1. 64 - 0. 924 mm
The absor pt i on char act er i st i cs of t he ear t h' s at mospher e
i n t he 183- 325 GHz ( 1. 64 - 0. 924 mm) r egi on wer e i nvest i gat ed
by Ul aby and St r ai t on ( ref . 91) and Ul aby ( ref s. 92, 93) a
I nst r ument at i on pr obl ems associ at ed wi t h coher ent r adi omet r i c
det ect i on di ct at ed t he use of a wi deband Ger mani umbol omet er
det ect or . Upon cool i ng of t he Ger mani umel ement t o 4. 2OK, t he
bol omet er had a noi se- equi val ent power of 10- 9 wat t f or a 1- Hz
bandwi dt h.
By usi ng t he sun at t wo zeni t h angl es as t he si gnal sour ce,
measur ement s wer e made of t he sol ar r adi at i on as seen at t he
ear t h' s sur f ace t hr ough a set of wi r e mesh bandpass f i l t er s.
The f i l t er s' t r ansmi ssi on r esponse was det er mi ned by scal i ng
t he r esul t s of 109 GHz ( 2. 75 mm) measur ement s. Tot al zeni t h
at mospher i c absor pt i on measur ement s wer e t hen obt ai ned as a
f unct i on of f r equency t hr ough t he use of a spect r al convol ut i on
t echni que. The r esul t s, especi al l y i n t he wi ndowbet ween 183
and 325 GHz ( 1. 64 - 0. 924 mm) wat er vapor l i nes, seemt o agr ee
f avor abl e wi t h t he cal cul at ed val ues accor di ng t o t he Van Vl eck-
Wei sskopf equat i ons ( ref . 18) modi f i ed by t he Schul ze- Tol ber t
l i ne- shape f act or ( ref . 94) . The mi ni mumat t enuat i on i n t he
r egi on was measur ed t o be 0. 6 dB/ gom3 of sur f ace wat er vapor
densi t y at 240 GHz ( 1. 25 mm), ( See Fi g. 9- 13) .
The absor pt i on was cal cul at ed f or 30 i ncr ement s of hei ght
t o get t he t ot al zeni t h absor pt i on. The measur ed cur ve exceeded
t he cal cul at ed one by appr oxi mat el y 1 dB i n t he cent er por t i on
of t he wi ndow.
9, 5. 8 Oxygen Absor pt i on i n t he Ear t h' s At mospher e
48 - 72 GHz; 6. 25 - 4, 2 mm
Oxygen absor pt i on i n t he ear t h' s at mospher e has been
st udi ed ext ensi vel y by Car t er , Mi t chel and Reber ( r ef s. 66,
95- 100) . Thei r r epor t s and ar t i cl es deal wi t h many phases of
217
WAVELENGTH IN rnm
300 330 360
HEIGHT
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE =750mm Hg
TEMPERATURE =295O K
PARTIAL OXYGEN PRESSURE =021 x756=158mm Hg
WATER-VAPOR DENSITY =9 g/m3
=0.25Km above sea le
Fi gure 9-13,- T ot al zeni th atmospheri c absorpti on i n the
183 - 325 GHz (1.64 - 0.924 nun) region
( A f t er Ulaby and Strai ton, ref. 91)
218
t he wor k, i ncl udi ng t he i nst r ument at i on, t est pr ocedur es and
dat a anal ysi s as wel l as t he t heor et i cal backgr ound needed t o
under st and t hi s r egi on of t he spect r um.
They per f or med an exper i ment t hat measur ed absor pt i on as a
f unct i on of al t i t ude and f r equency i n t he r eal at mospher e, The
measur ement r esul t s wer e used t o det er mi ne r evi sed val ues f or
coef f i ci ent s t hat wer e used t o comput e t abl es and gr aphs of
zeni t h and t angent i al absor pt i on and t abl es of hor i zont al absor p-
t i on r at es of t he at mospher e i n t he oxygen spect r um ( 48 - 72 GHz;
6. 25 - 4. 2 mm) f or sever al al t i t udes.
Var i ous gr aphs ar e pr esent ed al ong wi t h t he t abul at i ons
shown i n Tabl e 9- 3 i n r ef . 100.
I n r ef . 66 Car t er , Mi t chel l , and Reber cal cul at ed new
val ues f or t he Van Vl eck l i ne br oadeni ng coef f i ci ent s, based on
1500 i ndependent absor pt i on measur ement s made over a sl ant r ange
f r omvar i ous al t i t udes i n t he at mospher e. These measur ement s
wer e made over a f r equency r ange of 53. 4 t o 56. 4 GHz ( 5. 62 -
5. 32 nun) and an al t i t ude r ange f r omzer o t o 14. 75 km. The r e-
sul t s ar e shown i n Fi g. 9- 14 al ong wi t h t he t heor et i cal cur ves
shown as sol i d l i nes. The aver age r el at i ve er r or bet ween t he
measur ed and cal cul at ed absor pt i on i s 8. 6%. A si mi l ar compar i son
based on Meeks and Li l l ey' s l i ne br oadeni ng coef f i ci ent s yi el ded
an aver age r el at i ve er r or of 13%- ( Ref . 101) .
TABLE 9- 4. - LI ST OF TABULATI ONS OF VARI OUS
Tabl e 1
Tabl e 2
Tabl e 3
Tabl e 4
Tabl e 5
Tabl e 6
QUANTI TI ES I N KEF. 100
Hor i zont al At t enuat i on Rat es i n dB/ kmat
Oxygen Resonant Fr equenci es
Hor i zont al At t enuat i on r at es i n dB/ km at
Oxygen Wi ndow Fr equenci es
Zeni t h At t enuat i on i n dB at Oxygen Resonant
Fr equenci es
Zeni t h At t enuat i on i n dB at Oxygen Wi ndow
Fr equenci es
Tangent i al At t enuat i on i n dB at Oxygen Resonant
Fr equenci es
Tangent i al At t enuat i on i n dB at Oxygen Wi ndow
Fr equenci es
219
I
I I I I I I I
53.00 54.00 55.00 56.00
l o" I
FREQUENCY, GHr
Fi gure 9-14.- Oxygen absorpti on by the earth's atmosphere
between 53.4 and 56.4 GHz (5.62 - 5.32 mm)
at vari ous al ti tudes. (After Carter, Mi tchel l ,
and Reber, ref . 66).
9.5.9 Sources of Sol ar Spectra, Opti cal Region
3 - 3,000 THZ; 100 - 0. 1 ym
"Sol ar spectra'' usual l y ref er to absorpti on spectra of the
earth's atmosphere usi ng the sun as the source of radi ati on.
Several atl ases of sol ar spectra have been prepared. These are
l i sted i n Tabl e 9-5.
Fi gure 9-15 shows a sample sol ar spectrum.
9.5.10 Low Resol uti on Solar Spectrum
20 - 300 THZ; 15 - 1 ym
85.7 - 88.2 THz; 3.50 - 3.40 ym
With a High Resol uti on Solar Spectrum
Fi gure 9-15 i l l ustrates the over-al l absorpti on spectrum of
the atmosphere, made up of the superimposed spectra of al l the
atmospheri c consti tuents (See Secti on 9,5,11) andp as the expanded
secti on from 3.4 to 3.5 ym (88.2 - 85.7 THz) shows, the spectrum
220
TABLE 9-5.- LI ST OF SONE REPRESENATIVE SOLAR SPECTRA"
T i t l e
2,
3 ,
4,
5.
6.
Photometri c atl as of the
near i nfrared sol ar spec-
trum0,8465 - 2,5242
(354 THz - 118.7 THz)
The sol ar spectrum f r o m
218 to 23,7 microns
(1.37 THz - 127.5 THz)
The sol ar spectrum observ-
ed at the J ungfrauj och
( Swi tzerl and) , 0 a 7500
to 0.9070 microns (400 -
333 THz)
The sol ar spectrum 0.6600
to 1.3495 microns ( 455 -
222 THz)
Photometri c atl as of the
sol ar spectrum f r om 0,3612
to 0.8771 microns (830 -
342 THz)
The i nfrared tel l uri c
spectrum i ntroductory
report
Source
Mohler, et al , 1950, ref, 102
Migeotte, et al. 1957, ref. 103
Migeotte, 1960 ref. 104
1961, ref, 105
Babcock and Moore, 1947,
ref. 106
Mi nnaert, Mulders, 1940, and
Houtgard, ref. 107.
Howard and Garing, 1964,
refs. 108, 109
* A ddi ti onal spectra are cited i n P ar t V.
221
i s act ual l y qui t e compl ex, The compl et e t r ansmi ssi on cur ve has
compar abl e st ruct ure. , I n addi t i on, t he at mospher e i s not
const ant ; i t changes wi t h season, al t i t ude, t i me of day, vi ewi ng
angl e, et c.
" I
3.40
I
3.45
WAVELENGTH (MICRONS)
I
3.50
Fi gur e 9-15.- At mospher i c t r ansmi ssi on spect r umat hi gh
and l owr esol ut i on.
9.5.11 Compar i son of Near - I nf r ar ed Low Resol ut i on Sol ar
Spect r umWi t h Labor at or y Spect r a
20 - 300 THz; 15 - 1. 0 vm
Fi gur e 9-16 pr esent s a t ypi cal spect r umof sunl i ght at t he
eart h' s sur f ace and l abor at or y spect r a of mol ecul es known t o be
pr esent i n t he eart h' s at mospher e ( Sect i on 9.5.2) e Compar i son
of t he so- cal l ed sol ar spect r umwi t h t he mol ecul ar spect r a shows
t hat al l t he pr i nci pal r egi ons of absor pt i on i n t he at mospher e
ar e due t o H20, C02, and 03"
t he st r at ospher e, t he st r ong absor pt i on band near 9.6 Urn (31.3
THz) can be negl ect ed i n pr obl ems of t r ansmi ssi on al ong hor i zon-
t al pat hs near gr ound l evel . ( Cur ves f r omHowar d, Gar i ng, and
Wal ker , 1965, ref . 110).
Because ozone exi st s chi ef l y i n
I t i s r e- emphasi zed t hat t he ent i r e opt i cal r egi on cont ai ns
t housands of shar p absor pt i on l i nes due t o t he var i ous at mospher i c
const i t uent s. At l owr esol ut i on t hese l i nes ar e smoot hed out so
t hat onl y t he cl ust er i ng i n st r ong bands appear s ( Sect i on 9.5.10),
222
0
100
0
100
0
100
0
n
o\o
100
0 0
F=
a
E 100
8 0
v)
a
Q 100
W
0
100
O
5 0
IO
HDO
t I I I I I I
I
i 3 4 b 8 7 b 6 io II 12 19 14
I I
WAVE LENGTH (MICRONS)
I I
100 JOO 6b !50 30 2'0
FREQUENCY ( T ~ ~ H ~ T ~ )
Fi gure 9-16.- Comparison of the near-i nfrared sol ar spectrum
wi t h l aboratory spectra of vari ous atmospheri c
gases, ( A f t er Howard, Gari ng, and Wal ter, 1965,
ref , 110)
223
9. 5, 12 Low Resol ut i on Absor pt i on Spect r umof t he Ear t h' s
At mospher e f r omVacuumUl t r avi ol et t o t he Far I nf r ar ed
at Sea Level and 11 km
3 - 3, 000 THz; 100 - 0. 1 pm
Goody ( r ef , 111) made an at t empt i n Fi g, 9- 17 t o gi ve a
gener al pi ct ur e of t he i mpor t ance of di f f er ent absor pt i ons i n
t he l ower at mospher e i n mi d- l at i t udes. , An i ndi cat i on of t he
ener gy absor bed by t he st r at ospher e and t r opospher e may be
obt ai ned by mul t i pl yi ng ( a) by ( c) or ( a) by {(b) - (c))
r espect i vel yo
Most of t he sol ar absor pt i on i n t he st r at ospher e i s by t he
ul t r avi ol et Har t l ey bands and t he vi si bl e Huggi ns bands of ozone.
At hi gher l evel s i n t he i onospher e, t he smal l amount of sol ar
ener gy bel ow about 0. 2 pm ( 1, 500 THz) i s absor bed mai nl y by
mol ecul ar oxygen. I n t he t r opospher e, depl et i on of sunl i ght i s
pr i nci pal l y by a gr oup of near i nf r ar ed bands of wat er vapor.
I n addi t i on t o t he absor pt i ons of Fi g. 9- 17 t he r adi at i on
i s scat t er ed and absor bed by dust , haze, mol ecul es, and cl ouds
( Chapt er 10) . The t heor y of mol ecul ar scat t er i ng and scat t er i ng
by wat er dr opl et s i s wel l under st ood, Dust and t hei r amount s
ar e var i abl e and di f f i cul t t o r el at e t o ot her physi cal phenomena.
I n Fi g. 9- 17 ( a) ar e bl ack body cur ves f or 6,OOOOK and
245OK, I n ( b) i s t he at mospher i c gaseous absor pt i on sp- ct r um
f or a sol ar beamr eachi ng gr ound l evel . I n ( c) we have t he same
f or a beamr eachi ng t he t emper at ur e t r opospher e. The axes ar e
chosen so t hat ar eas i n ( a) ar e pr opor t i onal t o r adi ant ener gy.
I nt egr at ed over t he ear t h' s sur f ace and over al l sol i d angl es
t he sol ar and t er r est r i al f l uxes ar e equal ; consequent l y, t he
t wo bl ack body cur ves ar e dr awn wi t h equal ar eas beneat h t hem.
An absor pt i on cont i nuumhas been dr awn beneat h bands i n (b).
Thi s i s par t l y hypot het i cal because i t i s di f f i cul t t o di st i n-
gui sh f r omt he scat t er i ng cont i nuum, par t i cul ar l y i n t he vi si bl e
and near i nf r ar ed spect r um. Condi t i ons ar e t ypi cal of mi d-
l at i t udes and f or a sol ar el evat i on angl e of 40' ( Zeni t h Angl e
of 50') ( Sect i on 8, 12) or di f f use t er r est r i al r adi at i on.
9. 5. 13 Tr ansmi ssi on Spect r umof t he Ear t h' s At mospher e
60 - 1, 000 THz; 5. 0 - 0,3 pm
Fi gur es 9- 18 and 9- 19 pr esent t he t r ansmi ssi on of t he
at mospher e at l owr esol ut i on over t he i ndi cat ed wavel engt h
i nt er val f or good vi si bi l i t y condi t i ons ( gr eat er t han 50 mi l es)
at sea l evel , and f or 2 pr eci pi t abl e cent i met er s of wat er vapor
i n a ver t i cal l i ne of si ght above t he obser vat i on st at i on. I f al l
t hi s wat er vapor wer e condensed i n a cont ai ner havi ng t he same
224
Fi gur e 9- 17. - At mospher i c absor pt i on spect r umwi t h bl ack
body cur ves f or a zeni t h angl e of 50. See
t ext f or expl anat i on. ( Af t er Goody, 1964,
r ef . 111) - ( See al so Thekaekar a, 1965,
r ef . 116).
cr oss- sect i onal ar ea as t he l i ne- of - si ght col umn, t he dept h of
t he l ayer of wat er woul d be t wo cent i met er s at N, T, P. ( nor mal
t emper at ur e and pr essur e, or st andar d t emper at ur e and pr essur e,
i ndi cat i ng a t emper at ur e of OC and a pr essur e of one st andar d
at mospher e; 760 mm Hg) . These condi t i ons ar e r epr esent at i ve near
l ar ge bodi es of wat er f or spr i ng t hr ough f al l seasons, Lower
t emper at ur es t end t o r educe t he amount of wat er vapor and gi ve
some i mpr ovement of t r ansmi ssi on i n t he i nf r ar ed "wi ndow' * r egi ons
f or a gi ven ai r mass or zeni t h angl e ( Sect i on 8. 12). The t r ans-
mi ssi on char act er i st i cs wer e publ i shed by Chapman and Car pent er
( ref s. 112, 113) , based on dat a by Moon ( ref . 114) and ot her s
( r ef s. 115) e
225
ON
ON
I
I
0
I
0
N
;u
M
0
0 0
I
co
l-i
I
m
Q)
226
227
9. 5. 14 Var i at i on of t he Sol ar Spect r umwi t h Al t i t ude
been st udi ed by D. G. Mur cr ay and hi s associ at ed at t he Uni ver si t y
of Denver f or many year s. To l ocat e many of t hei r document s,
r ef er t o D. G. Mur cr ay, T. G. Kyl e, and A. Gol dman, i n t he
At mospher i c Tr ansmi ssi on Bi bl i ogr aphy t o be i ssued as a sequel
t o t hi s handbook.
var i ous al t i t udes f or t he r egi on 5. 70 pm ( 52. 5 THz) t o 5. 29 pm
( 57. 8 THz) , ( Sect i on 1. 2. 3). I n t he f i gur e, t he or di nat e of
successi ve spect r a i s di spl aced f or cl ar i t y. Ther e ar e many
addi t i onal spect r a pr esent ed i n ( ref . 117) and t he spect r al
r egi on f r om9- 10 pm (33. 3 - 30. 0 THz) i s cover ed i n r ef . 118.
The f l i ght dat a f or t he spect r a i n Fi g. 9- 20 i s pr esent ed i n
Tabl e 9- 6.
Var i at i on of t he i nf r ar ed sol ar spect r umwi t h al t i t ude has
Fi gur e 9- 20 shows t he obser ved spect r al t r ansmi t t ance at
TABLE 9- 6. - TI!?IES, ALTI TUDES, PRESSURES, AND ZENI TH
ANGLES FOR SELECTED RECORDS TAKEN FROM
A BALLOON FLI GHT ON MARCH 23, 1968,
( AFTER GOLDMAN, ET AL 1969, REF. 117)
9. 6 ATMOSPHERI C AEROSOLS
At mospher i c aer osol s ar e di scussed i n det ai l i n Sect i on 10. 8,
Scat t er i ng r at her t han absor pt i on by aer osol s af f ect s t r ansmi ssi on
i n t he at mospher e i n t he vi si bl e and i nf r ar ed spect r al r ange. I n
t he mi cr owave spect r al r ange, i nvest i gat ed by Haj ovsky and LaGr one,
t he pr esence of nat ur al aer osol s does not af f ect t r ansmi ssi on i n
t he at mospher e ( r ef e 119) a
Absor pt i on by aer osol s i n t he i nf r ar ed and vi si bl e r egi ons
was consi der ed by Li vshi t s, Pavl ov, and Mi l i ut i n ( 1966, ref . 120).
228
229
9, 7 ATMOSPHERI C HYDROMETEORS
A hydr omet eor i s any pr oduct of condensat i on or sub-
l i mat i on of at mospher i c wat er vapor , whet her f or med i n t he f r ee
at mospher e or at t he eart h' s sur f ace; al so any wat er par t i cl es
bl own by t he wi nd f r omt he ear t h' s sur f ace.
Hydr omet eor s t ypi cal l y may be cl assi f i ed as f ol l ows ( r ef .
121) : ( a) Li qui d or f r ozen par t i cl es f or med and r emai ni ng
suspended i n t he ai r: damp haze, cl oud, f og, i ce f og, and mi st .
( b) Li qui d pr eci pi t at i on: dr i zzl e and r ai n. ( c) Fr eezi ng pr e-
ci pi t at i on: f r eezi ng dr i zzl e and f r eezi ng r ai n. ( d) Sol i d
( f r ozen) pr eci pi t at i on: i ce pel l et s, hai l , snow, snowpel l et s,
snowgr ai ns, and i ce cr yst al s. ( e) Fal l i ng par t i cl es t hat
evapor at e bef or e r eachi ng t he gr ound: vi r ga. ( f ) Li qui d or
f r ozen par t i cl es l i f t ed by t he wi nd f r omt he eart h' s sur f ace:
dr i f t i ng snow, bl owi ng snow, bl owi ng spr ay. (9) Li qui d or
f r ozen deposi t s on exposed obj ect s: dew, hoar f r ost , r i me, and
gl aze. By t he t er mat mospher i c hydr omet eor i s meant i t ems ( a)
t hr ough ( f ) .
Pr eci pi t at i on i s any f or mof wat er par t i cl es, whet her
l i qui d or f r ozen, t hat r eaches t he gr ound. I t i s a maj or cl ass
of hydr omet eor ; but i s di st i ngui shed f r omcl oud, f og, r i me, and
dew, et c. i n t hat i t must " f al l " ; and i s di st i ngui shed f r om
cl oud and vi r ga i n t hat i t must r each t he gr ound. Pr eci pi t at i on
i ncl udes dr i zzl e, r ai n, snow, snowpel l et s, snowgr ai ns, i ce
cr yst al s, i ce pel l et s, and hai l . ( ref . 121) .
Ther e have been sever al r evi ewpaper s on t he subj ect of
at mospher i c hydr omet eor ef f ect s on mi cr owave- mi l l i met er wave
pr opagat i on. Hol zer ( ref . 122) di scusses t he' 4- 6 GHz, 7. 5 -
5 cm) r egi on and pr esent s a met hodol ogy t o ext end t he est i mat es
t o ot her cl i mat i c r egi ons. Benoi t ( ref . 123) di scusses t he
f r equency r egi on up t o 20 GHz ( 1. 5 cm) . Fowl er and LaGr one
( ref . 124) di scuss f r om10 t o 100 GHz ( 33cm- 3 mm) , and Li ebe
( ref . 125) di scusses t he r egi on f r om10 - 75 GHz ( 3 cm- 4 mm) (.
Hogg ( ref . 126) consi der s ear t h- t o- space communi cat i ons bel ow
35 GHz (8. 6 mrn).
Ext ensi ve wor k has been r epor t ed by Har oul es and Br own
( ref s. 127- 130) on mul t i f r equency r adi omet er wor k i n var i ous
t ypes of weat her . Wi l son ( ref . 131) al so r epor t ed wor k on a
dual f r equency r adi omet er f aci l i t y.
Lukes ( ref . 78) has gi ven a ver y det ai l ed anal yt i cal
met hodol ogy f or consi der i ng t he ef f ect s of at mospher i c hydr o-
met eor s. Fi gur es 9- 21 and 9- 12 showsome of hi s r esul t s.
230
Some ongoi ng wor k on t he comput ed t r ansmi ssi on char act er -
i st i cs of r ai n at mi cr owave and vi si bl e f r equenci es wi l l soon be
r epor t ed by Set zer ( ref . 135), Tabl e cont ai ni ng t he Mi e scat t er i ng
coef f i ci ent , absor pt i on coef f i ci ent , ext i nct i on coef f i ci ent s,
equi val ent medi umi ndex of r ef r act i on, and phase del ay f or r ai ns
conf or mi ng t o t he Laws and Par sons dr op si ze di st r i but i on ar e
pr esent ed.
Much mor e i nf or mat i on can be gai ned by consul t i ng t he
At mospher i c Tr ansmi ssi on Bi bl i ogr aphy descr i bed i n Par t I V.
E-
NOTE: SEE APPENDIX c IN REF. 78 FOR THE GENESIS OF THE
CLOUDS. THE HORI ZONTAL ARROWS POINTING TO
WINDOWS V, VI. VII, IX, XI AND XI1 ARE P LACE D AT
THE L E V E L O F ATTENUATI ON THATWOULD AP P LY
THROUGHOUT THE TOTAL ATMOSPHERE F O R EACH
WINDOW AS A CONSEQUENCE OF THE ADDl Ti ONAL
WATER VAPOR I NJ ECTED I NTO THE I NI TI ALLY CLOUD-
LESS ATMOSPHERIC MODEL BY THE EVAPORATI VE
PROCESS WHICH L E D TO THE GENESIS OF THE 500-
METER THI CK STRATO-CUMULUS CLOUD AT SEA. SEE
APPENDI X C FOR FURTHER DETAI L, I NCLUDI NG THE
I NCREMENT I N ATTENUATI ON DUE TO WATER VAPOR
THAT WOULD AP P LY I F THE EVAPORATI VE PROCESS
TOOK P L A C E , BUT UNDER CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE THE
GENERATION OF THE 100-METER THICK STRATO-
CUMULUS CL OUD WAS I NHI BI TED.
3 THz 300 GHz 30GHz IOGHz 3GHz
H A
Fi gur e 9-21,- Compar at i ve at t enuat i on due t o at mospher i c gases,
st r at ocumul us cl ouds, and moder at e r ai np al ong
a zeni t h pat h i n a "st andar d" mar i t i me pol ar
at mospher e, The at t enuat i on f or combi nat i ons i s
addi t i ve. ( Af t er Lukes 1968, ref . 78)-
231
10 0 SCATTERING
10 l I NTRODUCTI ON
T hi s chapter di scusses the scatteri ng of el ectromagneti c
waves i n the earth's atmosphere, Fundamentally, scatteri ng i s
the process by which s mal l particles suspended i n a medi um of a
di f f erent i ndex of ref racti on (Secti on 8, 2) di f f uses a porti on of
the i nci dent radi ati on, I n scatteri ng no energy transformati on
resul ts, onl y a change i n the spati al di stri buti on of the radia-
ti on, Along wi t h absorpti on, scatteri ng i s a major cause of the
attenuati on of radi ati on i n the atmosphere (Chapter 9) .
Scatteri ng i s a functi on of (1) the rati o of the parti cl e
diameter to the wavelength of the radi ati on, (2) the complex i n-
dex of ref racti on of the parti cl es, ( 3 ) the si ze di stri buti on, and
(4) the shape of the scatteri ng parti cl es.
When the rati o of parti cl e diameter (assuming spheri cal par-
ti cl es) to the wavelength of the radi ati on i s less than about
0.1, Rayl ei gh scatteri ng occurs i n which the scatteri ng coeffi-
ci ent (Secti on 10.5) vari es i nversel y as the f ourth power of the
wavelength, A t l arger val ues of the rati o of parti cl e diameter
to wavelength, the scatteri ng vari es i n a complex fashi on des-
cribed by the M i e theory ( M i e, 1908, ref. 1) ; at a rati o of the
order of 10, the l aws of geometri c opti cs begi n to appl y and thi s
serves to mark the somewhat di f f use upper boundary of the r eal m
of scatteri ng (which r eal m, it i s here i mpl i ed, i ncl udes di ffrac-
ti on) These problems are di scussed by Feynman (ref. 2) and
Stone (ref, 3)
10.2 SCATTERING COEFFI CI ENTS
The scatteri ng coef f i ci ent (also cal l ed the total scatteri ng
coef f i ci ent) i s a measure of the attenuati on due to scatteri ng of
radi ati on as it traverses a medium contai ni ng scatteri ng parti cl es.
L i ke the analogous absorpti on and attenuati on (or exti nc-
ti on) coef f i ci ent, the scatteri ng coef f i ci ents i s f requentl y de-
f i ned i n Bouguer's l aw (Secti on 1,2.2) as follows:
I =Io exp (--os x) , (10.1)
where 1, i s the f l ux densi ty of the radi ati on that was i ni ti al l y
scatteri ng medium (Fi g. l-l.)*
densi ty Io, after passi ng through a di stance
232
TABLE 10-1,- PARTICLES RESPONSIBLE FOR ATMOSPHERIC
SCATTERI NG (AFTER McCARTNEY , 1967 I
REF, 4; LUKES, 1968, mF. 5)
Parti cl e
el ectron
ai r mol ecul e
s mal l 'i onw
combustion
product
sea-salt
mucleus
dust
haze
fog
cl oud
rai n
hai l
snow
Nature
el ectron
molecule
group of wat er
mol ecul es
hygroscopi c
hygroscopi c
and sol ubl e
general l y i n-
soluble
wat er dropl et
wat er dropl et
water dropl et
wat er dropl et
ice parti cl e
ice parti cl e
Radius
(mi crons)
to 10-1
0.1 to 0.3
0.1 to 10
0.3 to 3
1 to 30
1 to 30
3 to 3,000
hi ghl y vari abl e
I1
Number - 3
Densi ty ( cm )
19
2. 7~10
l o 4
50 to 400
hi ghl y vari abl e
50 to 400
1 to 100
50 to 500
hi ghl y vari abl e
I1
It
233
A scat t er i ng coef f i ci ent has di mensi ons of r eci pr ocal
l engt h, I nf or mat i on on var i ous scat t er i ng coef f i ci ent s i s
f ound i n McCar t ney, 1966, r ef . 6 ; McCar t ney, 1967, r ef . 4;
Al l en, 1963, r ef . 7; and i n Tabl e 7. 4 i n Sect i on 7. 7.
Much t heor et i cal wor k on scat t er i ng coef f i ci ent s has been
done by D. Dei r mendj i an and much of hi s wor k i s l i st ed i n t he
Par t I V of t hi s handbook,
Ker ker ( r ef . 8) has pr esent ed an excel l ent monogr aph
whi ch cover s essent i al l y al l aspect s of scat t er i ng.
10. 3 RAYLEI GH SCATTERI NG COEFFI CI ENTS
Rayl ei gh scat t er i ng has been di scussed by many aut hor s.
Sever al r ef er ences ar e l i st ed i n Tabl e 7. 4 and i n Sect i on 10. 2.
Rayl ei gh scat t er i ng i s any scat t er i ng pr ocess pr oduced by
spher i cal par t i cl es whose r adi i ar e smal l er t han about one- t ent h
( 0. 1) of t he wavel engt h of t he i nci dent r adi at i on.
I n Rayl ei gh scat t er i ng,
The amount of scat t er i ng, hence at t enuat i on, var i es
appr oxi mat el y wi t h t he f our t h power of t he wavel engt h,
a r el at i on known as Rayl ei gh' s l aw.
The spat i al di st r i but i on of t he scat t er ed r adi at i on
has a si mpl e dependence on t he angl e bet ween di r ect i ons
of i l l umi nat i on and obser vat i on.
Ther e i s compl et e symmet r y of scat t er i ng about a pl ane
nor mal t o t he di r ect i on of t he i nci dent r adi at i on, so
t hat f or war d scat t er equal s t he backwar d scat t er .
Radi at i on scat t er ed at 90' i s pl ane pol ar i zed. Thi s
condi t i on exi st s i n a ver y cl ear sky al ong an ar c
ever ywher e at 90' f r omt he sun.
I n many si t uat i ons i nvol vi ng at mospher i c at t enuat i on and
vi si bi l i t y, a mat t er of i nt er est i s t he t ot al amount of ener gy
r emoved f r oman i l l umi nat i ng beamby a vol ume of scat t er i ng
mol ecul es. For unpol ar i zed or pol ar i zed l i ght , t he vol ume t ot al
coef f i ci ent s asR i s gi ven
3 2
3 2 ~ ( n - 1)
o =
SR 3 Nh4
3 2
3 2 ~ ( n - 1)
o =
SR 3 Nh4
by t he expr essi on
( 10- 2)
234
wher e
n i s t he r ef r act i ve i ndex of t he ( Sect i on 8. 2) a
X i s t he wavel engt h of t he i nci dent r adi at i on,
N i s t he number densi t y of t he gas mol ecul es.
Equat i on ( 10- 2) i s t he usual f or mof t he Rayl ei gh t ot al
coef f i ci ent f or a uni t vol ume; e. g. , an i l l umi nat ed cr oss-
sect i onal ar ea of 1 cm2 and a pat h l engt h of 1 cm.
si on i s r eci pr ocal l engt h. I f no addi t i onal absor pt i on occur s,
t hi s i s al so t he at t enuat i on coef f i ci ent whi ch can be used i n
Eqs. ( 10- 1) and ( 1- 2) , wi t h t he caut i ons ment i oned i n Sect i on
1. 2. 2.
The di men-
Numer i cal val ues of t he t ot al coef f i ci ent C I ~ ar e usual l y
qui t e smal l . Tabl e 10- 2, adapt ed f r omKui per (r&. 9 ) , l i st s
val ues of (n - 1) and oSR f or ai r at st andar d condi t i ons
( Temper at ur e OOC; Pr essur e 760 mmHg or 1013 mi l l i bar s) . To
adj ust t he val ues t o ot her nonst andar d condi t i ons, see t he
cor r ect i ons gi ven bel ow. The val ues of os can be used f or any
ot her common gas, wi t h l i t t l e er r or , by muTt i pl yi ng t he r at i o
of r ef r act i ve i ndi ces.
200, bet ween t he wavel en t h ext r emes. Rayl ei gh scat t er i ng
act ual l y var i es as A-4-03 r at her t han A-4 at t he wavel engt h
of vi si bl e l i ght .
The val ues of oSR vary over a r ange of
Cor r ect i ons f or Nonst andar d Condi t i ons
The angul ar and t ot al coef f i ci ent s (Eqs. 10- 2) and t he
r ef r act i ve i ndex t er m ( n - 1) var y di r ect l y as t he act ual mass
densi t y p , or t he act ual mol ecul ar densi t y N per uni t vol ume.
Numer i cal val ues of ei t her coef f i ci ent , or of r ef r act i ve i ndex,
comput ed f or one densi t y, can be cor r ect ed t o anot her densi t y
t hr ough mul t i pl i cat i on by t he f act or
-
or
NS
wher e Ns and
usual l y t hat
bar s ( mb) ,
Usual l y
( 10- 3)
p s r ef er t o t he densi t y empl oyed f or t he comput at i on,
cor r espondi ng t o OC and 760 mmHg or 1013 mi l l i -
t he measur ed par amet er s of act ual pr essur e p i n
mmHg and act ual t emper at use t i n OC wi l l be known mor e keadi l y
t han N or p . Cor r ect i on can t hus be made di r ect l y t hr ough
mul t i pl i cat i on by
235
TABLE 10-2,- NUMERICAL VALUES OF MY LEI GH TOTAL
COEFFI CI ENT, AND RF,FRACTIVE INDEX
TERM ( n - 1) VARIOUS WAVELENGTHS
(AFTER McCARTNEY, REF. 6 AND WI PER,
Wavelength
( mi crons )
0.30
0.32
0.34
0,36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.50
0.52
0.54
0.56
0.58
0.60
0.62
0.64
0.66
0.68
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1,lO
1*20
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
REF, 9)
R ef r act i ve
Index Term
( n - 1) x 104
3,072
3.043
3.019
3 e 001
2,987
2.974
2.964
2.954
2.947
2.941
2 e 935
2.931
2.927
2.922
2.019
2.916
2 914
2.911
2.909
2.907
2.904
2 e 896
2.892
2 e 889
2.887
2 e 885
2,883
2,881
2,880
2 e 879
Rayleigh
Total C oef f i ci ent
107
14.790
11.210
8.658
6.808
5.430
4.358
3.583
2.955
2.474
2.068
1.750
1.491
1.277
1.102
0.955
0.833
0.729
0 e 641
0. 566
0.502
0.446
0.260
0.162
0 .l o6
0 072
0 e 051
0,027
0.016
0 0 010
0.007
236
1
L X
760 ( 1 +at )
( 10- 4)
wher e a i s t he expansi on coef f i ci ent of gas, whi ch equal s 1/ 273.
Cor r ect i ons suf f i ci ent l y accur at e f or many pur poses i n
at mospher i c opt i cs can be made i f t he al t i t ude above sea l evel
i s known, even t hough t emper at ur e and pr essur e ar e unknown,
Thi s i s possi bl e because at mospher i c densi t y decr eases exponen-
t i al l y wi t h hei ght . Assumi ng an i sot her mal at mospher e, i t
f ol l ows f r omt he bar omet r i c equat i on t hat
P = Po exp ( - gH/ RT) ( 10- 5)
wher e
p =densi t y at al t i t ude H
=densi t y at sea l evel
PO
g =accel er at i on due t o gr avi t y, 980 cmsecm2
R =uni ver sal gas const ant , 2. 87 x 10 erg/ gram- OK
6
T =i sot her mal t emper at ur e i n O K
H =al t i t ude i n cm.
10. 4 MI E SCATTERI NG COEFFI CI ENTS
Many scat t er i ng coef f i ci ent s ar e gi ven i n t he publ i cat i ons
l i st ed i n Sect i on 10. 3 and Tabl e 7. 4, McCar t ney di scusses t he
var i ous coef f i ci ent s ( ref . 6) . Ref er ence i s made bel ow t o
sour ces of addi t i onal i nf or mat i on,
Gust av Mi e ( ref . 1) devel oped an el egant anal yt i cal
sol ut i on f or t he opt i cal behavi or of spher es of any si ze or
subst ance, Al t hough hi s obj ect i ve was t he anal ysi s of t he
exper i ment al l y obser ved char act er i st i cs of a suspensi ng of smal l
gol d spher es i n wat er , hi s sol ut i on was not r est r i ct ed t o t hi s
par t i cul ar pr obl embut cover s t he br oader case of di el ect r i c
par t i cl es wi t h f i ni t e conduct i vi t y. Wat er dr opl et s di spl ay such
pr oper t i es over t he spect r al r ange bei ng st udi ed i n t hi s handbook,
237
Mi e f ound a gr eat angul ar var i at i on i n t he i nt ensi t y of
l i ght scat t er ed; wi t h coar ser gol d par t i cl es he det er mi ned t hat
t he gr eat er par t of t he scat t er ed l i ght was r er adi at ed i n t he
di r ect i on of t he pr i mar y ray. Thi s ef f ect i s known as t he
"Mi e Ef f ect . " Si nce r er adi at i on by t he secondar y waves i s
super i mposed on t he i nci dent pl ane waves, not al l t he ener gy
whi ch i s i ni t i al l y abst r act ed by t he scat t er i ng par t i cl es i s,
under condi t i ons of t he Mi e ef f ect , necessar i l y l ost t o t r ans-
mi ssi on i n t he di r ect i on of t he pr i mar y r ay,
The Mi e t heor y does not appl y t o scat t er i ng by par t i cl es
smal l compar ed t o t he wavel engt h of t he i nci dent r adi at i on,
and t hus i s i mpor t ant i n met eor ol ogi cal opt i cs, wher e di amet er -
t o- wavel engt h r at i os of t he or der of uni t y and l ar ger ar e
char act er i st i c of many pr obl ems r egar di ng haze and cl oud
scat t er i ng. Scat t er i ng of mi cr owave ener gy by r ai ndr ops con-
st i t ut es anot her si gni f i cant appl i cat i on of t he Mi e t heor y. The
whol e f i el d of r adar met eor ol ogy i s concer ned wi t h t hi s pr obl em
( ref . 10)
I n act ual use, t he Mi e t heor y i s somewhat cumber some by
t he r equi r ed summi ng of sl owl y conver gent i nf i ni t e ser i es whi ch
expr ess t he scat t er i ng f unct i ons. I n r ecent year s ext ensi ve
t abul at i ons of t he Mi e f unct i ons have been made. Tabl e 7 . 4
l i st s sever al such t abl es; ot her wor k on t he Mi e scat t er i ng
t heor y can be l ocat ed i n Par t I V of t hi s handbook under such
names as Bul l r i ch, Dei r mendj i an, Ker ker , Ei den, Penndor f , Pl ass,
ROZenber g, Shi f r i n, and van de Hul st .
Lukes ( r ef , 5) has r ecent l y compl et ed a compr ehensi ve
anal ysi s of t he ef f ect s of at mospher i c wat er dr opl et s on
el ect r omagnet i c wave pr opagat i on. He di scusses t he Mi e t heor y
and i t s appl i cat i ons i n gr eat det ai l . He al so dr aws t oget her
much of t he mat er i al on t he compl ex di el ect r i c const ant of
wat er over a wi de f r equency r ange.
10. 5 I onospher i c Scat t er i ng
Radi at i on at Ver y Hi gh Fr equenci es ( 30 - 300 MHz; 10 m-
1 m) i s pr opagat ed vi a t he i onospher e ( 80 - 95 kml evel ) by a
pr ocess of f or war d scat t er f r omi nhomogenei t i es i n t he el ect r on
di st r i but i on. Onl y si ngl e- hop t r ansmi ssi on ( maxi mumdi st ance
about 2,000 km) i s f easi bl e; f or l onger di st ance communi cat i ons
r el ay st at i ons ar e r equi r ed. Fur t her mor e, si nce t he scat t er
pr ocess i s r el at i vel y i nef f i ci ent , l ar ge t r ansmi t t ed power s and
hi gh gai n ant ennas ar e necessar yo ( Susski nd, r ef . 11; Davi es,
ref s. 12, 13)- Sect i on 9. 4 of t hi s handbook shoul d al so be
consul t ed.
238
10-6 TROPOSPHERI C SCATTERI NG
The t er m"Tr opospher i c Scat t er i ng" may r ef er ei t her t o t he
l ong- r ange pr opagat i on of r adi o si gnal s by scat t er i ng due t o
i ndex of r ef r act i on ( Chapt er 8 ) i nhomogenei t i es i n t he l ower
at mospher e or t o t he scat t er i ng of r adi o waves by at mospher i c
hydr omet eor s, et c. Thi s l at t er aspect wi l l be consi der ed i n
Sect i ons 10. 7 and 10. 8,
Tr opospher i c scat t er , or t r opo, i s ut i l i zed as a "beyond-
t he- hor i zon" means of communi cat i on. The pr i nci pal r ef l ect i on
of t he si gnal occur s i n t he t r opospher e. Al t hough char act er i zed
by sever e f adi ng, oper at i onal syst ems of t hi s t ype pr ovi de
r el i abl e, moder at e bandwi dt h, poi nt - t o- poi nt communi cat i on, wi t h
t he t r ansmi t t er and r ecei ver separ at ed by 100 t o 600 mi l es.
A t ypi cal t r oposcat t er syst emi s shown i n Fi g. 10- 1. The
t r ansmi t and r ecei ve ant enna beams i nt er cept i n t he t r opospher e
wher e ener gy i s scat t er ed f r omone t o t he ot her i n a "common
vol ume".
Fi gur e 10- 1. - A schemat i c dr awi ng of a t r oposcat t er l i nk
The r ecei ved si gnal i s char act er i zed by cont i nuous f adi ng
and phase changes, due t o changes i n t he t r opospher i c medi um
and t o mul t i pl e- l engt h si gnal pat hs. The l at t er r esul t s i n
t hose di f f er ences of t he sever al component s whi ch ar e scat t er ed
f r omdi f f er ent l ocat i ons i n t he common vol ume. These component s
add or subt r act accor di ng t o t hei r r el at i ve phases, causi ng
sever e f adi ng of t he r esul t ant si gnal ampl i t ude.
239
For t r ansmi ssi on of i nt el l i gence, one must al so consi der
what happens t o a band of f r equenci es, such as i s al ways i n-
vol ved i n r adi o communi cat i ons. The ampl i t ude of each f r equency
i s t he pass band wi l l var y or f ade wi t h t i me as descr i bed above.
Not al l f r equenci es var y or f ade i n t i me i n t he same manner ,
because di f f er ent component s at one f r equency may be out of phase
and cancel , whi l e at a near by f r equency pat h component s may be
i n phase and add, pr ovi di ng a st r ong si gnal . When t he f r e-
quenci es wi t hi n a pass band f ade t oget her , t he f adi ng i s sai d t o
be non- sel ect i ve, The band of cor r el at ed f r equenci es t hat f ade
t oget her i s def i ned as t he coher ent bandwi dt h.
The coher ent bandwi dt h i n t r oposcat t er i s a f unct i on of
di st ance and i s al so r el at ed t o t he f adi ng rat e. I f t he t r ans-
mi t t ed si gnal band of f r equenci es i s l ess t han t he coher ent
bandwi dt h of t he t r opospher e, good t r ansmi ssi on r esul t s. The
f adi ng phenomenon st i l l exi st s and t he si gnal i s weak but not
di st or t ed. The use of hi gh power t r ansmi t t er s, hi gh gai n
ant ennas, sensi t i ve r ecei ver s, and di ver si t y t echni ques over -
comes t he f adi ng phenomenon.
When t he coher ent bandwi dt h i s smal l er t han t he modul at ed
car r i er band, di st or t i ons i n t he f or mof i nt er modul at i on noi se
r esul t . No i mpr ovement r esul t s by i ncr easi ng t he t r ansmi t t er
power or by usi ng di ver si t y t echni ques si nce t hi s di st or t i on
noi se i s i ndependent of si gnal st r engt h.
Tr opospher i c pr opagat i on i s r evi ewed i n Ri ce and Her bst r ei t
( ref . 14) and Ri ce et al . ( ref . 15). Exper i ment s f or st udyi ng
t he f easi bi l i t y of t r opospher i c scat t er pr opagat i on bet ween t he
ear t h and sat el l i t es wer e pl anned i n Har t man and Decker ( r ef . 16),
10,7 ATMOSPHERI C HYDROMETEOR SCATTER1 NG
The most compl et e anal ysi s of t hi s pr obl emover a wi de
r ange of f r equenci es ( 3 GHz - 3, 000 THz; 10 cm- 0. 1 m) was
conduct ed by Lukes ( ref . 5). Some of hi s wor k i s shown i n Fi gs.
9- 12 and 9- 21. Fi gur e 9- 21 shows t he compar at i ve at t enuat i on
due t o at mospher i c gases, st r at ocumul us cl ouds, and moder at e
r ai n, al ong a zeni t h pat h i n a "st andar d" mar i t i me pol ar at mos-
phere. I nf or mat i on of at mospher i c hydr omet eor s i s pr esent ed i n
Sect i on 9,7. Most of t he r ef er ences l i st ed i n Sect i on 9- 7 con-
t ai n i nf or mat i on on t he scat t er i ng of el ect r omagnet i c waves as
wel l as on t he absor pt i on by at mospher i c hydr omet eor s.
The basi c pr obl emi n under st andi ng t he scat t er i ng by
at mospher i c hydr omet eor s i s t hei r spat i al and t empor al var i at i on
( r ef , 17), Because t he det ai l ed and t i mel y r epor t by Lukes ( r ef ,
5) i s a st or ehouse of i nf or mat i on on t hese t opi cs hi s abst r act i s
pr esent ed bel ow, An out l i ne i s pr esent ed i n Sect i on 7.4-39.
240
Abst r act of Lukes ( ref . 5)
To det er mi ne at t enuat i on val ues over a wi de r ange of wave-
l engt hs, an anal yt i cal met hodol ogy i s devel oped t o accommodat e
t he popul at i on of dr opl et s accor di ng t o si ze i n uni t vol ume of
sever al model s of wat er - occl uded at mospher es. The ext ent of
penet r abi l i t y of cl oudy and r ai ny at mospher es i s t hen demon-
st r at ed anal yt i cal l y as a f unct i on of wavel engt h. Uni que
phenomena appear at wavel engt hs f r omabout 100 mi cr ons t o 2
mi l l i met er s, i n par t due t o t he popul at i on of dr opl et s by si ze
i n cl ouds and r ai n but al so due t o t he st r ong wavel engt h depen-
dence of t he compl ex i ndex of r ef r act i on of l i qui d wat er . The
submi l l i met er band i s accor di ngl y gi ven speci al emphasi s. Most
l ayer - t ype wat er cl ouds, especi al l y i f of mar i t i me or i gi n, ar e
r eadi l y penet r abl e at t hese wavel engt hs, At t enuat i on due t o
r ai n of moder at e i nt ensi t y i s f ound t o decr ease sl owl y wi t h
decr easi ng wavel engt h bel ow 2 mi l l i met er s. Fur t her , pr onounced
f or war d scat t er i n moder at e r ai n, addi ng t o t he f or war d t r ans-
mi ssi on, f i r st begi ns t o appear at a wavel engt h of 2 mi l l i met er s
and becomes i ncr easi ngl y mor e pr onounced t he shor t er t he wave-
l engt h. None of t hese t r ends woul d be pr edi ct ed by si mpl e
ext r apol at i on f r omexper i ence at mi cr owave f r equenci es.
The anal ysi s of at t enuat i on by wat er dr opl et at mospher es
dr aws on t he Mi e t heor y of absor pt i on and scat t er by spher i cal
dr opl et s. I t i s shown t hat t he essent i al condi t i on of i ncoher ent
scat t er i ng i s sat i sf i ed by haze, f og, cl ouds, and r ai n. Mul t i pl e
scat t er i n cl ouds f or r adi at i on at submi l l i met er wavel engt hs and
l onger i s f ound t o be exceedi ngl y weak and may be i gnor ed. The
quest i on of possi bl e ef f ect s of mul t i pl e scat t er i n r ai n i s not
set t l ed anal yt i cal l y, but i f such scat t er cannot be i gnor ed, i t
i s unquest i onabl y mul t i pl e i ncoher ent scat t er . Thi s suggest s
t he appl i cat i on of r adi at i ve t r ansf er t heor y t o el uci dat e mor e
def i ni t i vel y t he ef f ect s of scat t er i n r ai n.
The absor pt i on pr of i l e ar i si ng f r omat mospher i c gases i s
st r uct ur ed i n f i ne det ai l f r om0. 4 mi cr on t o 3, 2 cent i met er s by
ext ensi ve sear ch of t he l i t er at ur e. Gaseous absor pt i on al ong a
zeni t h pat h t hr ough a cl oudl ess mar i t i me pol ar at mospher e i s
comput ed f or wavel engt hs f r om164 mi cr ons t o 3. 2 cent i met er s,
Sevent een wi ndows of el evat ed t r anspar ency i n t hi s pr of i l e ar e
i dent i f i ed. A st r at ocumul us cl oud and r ai n ar e t hen i nduced by
t ur bul ence i n t hi s model at mospher e, and compar at i ve and com; ?osi t e
val ues of at t enuat i on due t o cl oudsI r ai n, and gases ar e der i ved.
Fr om345 mi cr ons t o 3 mi l l i met er s, t he cont r i but i on by cl oudy
and r ai ny at mospher es t o t ot al at mospher i c at t enuat i on i s f ound
t o be r el at i vel y mi nor , even at t he wavel engt hs of gaseous
wi ndows
241
Because of r equi r ement s f or ged by i t s scope, t he st udy
pr ovi des an ext ensi ve dat a base on t he popul at i on of dr opl et s
by si ze i nvar i ous wat er - occl uded at mospher es. The ext r emes ar e
r emar kabl e: t hi ck f og may have over 100 bi l l i on dr opl et s per
cubi c met er of 0. 4 mi cr on dr opl et - r adi us peak popul at i on compar ed
t o a mer e 200 i n mi st of 75 mi cr on peak popul at i on. The chemi cal
pr oper t i es of l i qui d wat er ar e dr awn f r omsome 80 sour ces i n
or der t o st r uct ur e t he r eal and i magi nar y par t s of t he compl ex
i ndex of r ef r act i on over t he spect r al r ange of 0. 1 mi cr on t o 10
cent i met er s, essent i al t o t he appl i cat i on of t he Mi e t heor y.
10. 8 ATMOSPHERI C AEROSOL SCATTERI NG
An aer osol i s a col l oi dal syst emi n whi ch t he di sper sed
phase i s composed of ei t her sol i d or l i qui d par t i cl es, and i n
whi ch t he di sper si on medi umi s a gas, usual l y ai r.
Ther e i s no cl ear - cut upper l i mi t t o t he si ze of par t i cl es
compr i si ng t he di sper sed phase i n an aer osol , but as i n al l
ot her col l oi dal syst ems, i t i s r at her commonl y set at 1 mi cr on.
Haze, most smokes, and some f ogs and cl ouds may t hus be r egar ded
as aer osol s. However , i t i s not good usage t o appl y t he t er mt o
or di nar y cl ouds whose dr ops ar e so l ar ge as t o r ul e out t he
usual concept of col l oi dal st abi l i t y. I t i s al so poor usage t o
appl y t he t er mt o t he di sper sed par t i cl es al one; an aer osol i s
a syst emof di sper sed phase and di sper si ng medi umt aken t oget her .
Haze consi st s of f i ne dust or sal t par t i cl es di sper sed
t hr ough a por t i on of t he at mospher e; a t ype of l i t homet eor . The
par t i cl es ar e so smal l t hat t hey cannot be f el t or i ndi vi dual l y
seen wi t h t he naked eye, but t hey di mi ni sh hor i zont al vi si bi l i t y
and gi ve t he at mospher e a char act er i st i c opal escent appear ance
t hat subdues al l col ors. ,
Many haze f or mat i ons ar e caused by t he pr esence of an
abundance of condensat i on nucl ei whi ch may gr ow i n si ze, due t o
a var i et y of causes, and become mi st , f og, or cl oud. Di st i nct i on
i s somet i mes dr awn bet ween dr y haze and damp haze, l ar gel y on
t he basi s of di f f er ences i n opt i cal ef f ect s pr oduced by t he
smal l er par t i cl es ( dry haze) and t he l ar ger par t i cl es ( damp haze)
whi ch devel op f r omsl owcondensat i on upon t he hygr oscopi c haze
par t i cl es. Dr y haze par t i cl es wi t h di amet er s of t he or der of
0. 1 mi cr on, ar e smal l enough t o scat t er shor t wavel engt hs of
l i ght pr ef er ent i al l y, t hough not accor di ng t o t he i nver se f our t h-
power l awof Rayl ei gh ( Sect i on 10. 3). Such haze par t i cl es pr o-
duce a bl ui sh col or when t he haze i s vi ewed agai nst a dar k
backgr ound, f or di sper si on ( Sect i on 8 . 3 ) al l ows onl y t he
sl i ght l y bl ui sh scat t er ed l i ght to r each t he eye. The same t ype
of haze, when vi ewed agai nst a l i ght backgr ound, appear s as a
242
yel l owi sh vei l , f or her e t he pr i nci pal ef f ect i s t he r emoval of
t he bl ue component f r omt he l i ght or i gi nat i ng i n t he di st ant
l i ght - col or ed backgr ound, Haze may be di st i ngui shed by t hi s
same ef f ect f r ommi st , whi ch yi el ds onl y a gr ay obscur at i on,
si nce i n mi st t he par t i cl e si zes ar e t oo l ar ge t o yi el d appr eci -
abl e di f f er ent i al scat t er i ng of var i ous wavel engt hs ( ref . 18) -
The r educt i on of vi si bi l i t y and t he at t enuat i on of sol ar
r adi at i on ar e t he most obvi ous mani f est at i ons of t he pr esence
of aer osol i n t he ear t h' s at mospher e ( r ef s. 19, 20). Exper i -
ment al and t heor et i cal st udi es i n t hi s f i el d have been r ecent l y
summar i zed by Zuev ( r ef . 21) , whose monogr aph i ncl udes quant i -
t at i ve dat a on absor pt i on, scat t er i ng, and at t enuat i on of vi si bl e
and i nf r ar ed r adi at i on i n nar r ow spect r al bands f or di f f er ent
geomet r i cal pat t er ns of t he sour ce and t he r ecei ver posi t i ons
under a gr eat var i et y of met eor ol ogi cal condi t i ons. The book
al so cont ai ns a di scussi on of t he appl i cabi l i t y of t he Bouguer
l awt o t he r esul t s of exper i ment al i nvest i gat i ons of aer osol
at t enuat i on ( Sect i on 1. 2 e 2) .
Anot her r ecent monogr aph of si gni f i cance i s t hat of Bar t eneva,
Dovgi al l o, and Bol i akova ( r ef . 22). Thi s book pr esent s exper i -
ment al i nvest i gat i ons on t he opt i cs of t he l ower at mospher e
car r i ed out by t he l abor at or y of At mospher i c Opt i cs of t he Mai n
Geophysi cs Obser vat or y over a t en- year per i od. One of t he ai ms
of t he book was t o est abl i sh r el at i onshi ps bet ween t r anspar ency
and ot her met eor ol ogi cal f act or s. The cont ent s of t he book ar e
out l i ned i n Sect i on 7. 4. 37.
A r evi ewpaper on at mospher i c opt i cs and r adi at i on t r ansf er
by Howar d and Gar i ng ( ref . 23) summar i zes t he ef f or t of Amer i can
aut hor s dur i ng t he year s 1964- 1968. I t cont ai ns mor e t han 300
r ef er ences, cl assi f i ed i nt o sect i ons: Gener al St udi es; Pyr hel i o-
met r y; Sol ar I nsol at i on and Di st r i but i on of Dayl i ght ; Ear t h
Radi ance and Al bedo; Sky Br i ght ness and Cl oud and Ter r ai n Ref l ec-
t ance St udi es; Tr ansmi sqi on and Absor pt i on St udi es; Scat t er i ng
St udi es; At mospher i c Ref r act i on, Seei ng and Sci nt i l l at i on; and
Radi at i ve Tr ansf er St udi es.
Recent anal ysi s of ot her gener al aspect s of vi si bi l i t y i n
t he at mospher e i ncl ude measur ement s of t he t r anspar ency of t he
at mospher i c sur f ace l ayer t o t he r adi at i on of var i ous l aser s
( ref . 24) , ver t i cal di st r i but i on of hor i zont al vi si bi l i t y under
cl ouds and wi t hi n cl ouds ( ref . 25) , and absor pt i on of l i ght by
aer osol s i n t he vi sual and near i nf r ar ed ( ref . 26) and scat t er i ng
by i r r egul ar par t i cl es ( ref a 27) e
Ger mogenova, et al . (' ref. 19) pr esent mor e mat er i al on
gener al t r ansmi ssi on st udi es t han i s pr esent ed her e.
243
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Cer t ai n ci t at i ons have accessi on number s gi ven such as ( AD
XXX- XXX, AXX- XXXXX) These accessi on number s ar e def i ned i n
Tabl e 5- 1.
1.
2.
3,
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9,
10,
11 0
Kr assner , G. Ne, and Mi chael s, J. V.: Radi o- wave pr opaga-
- -
t i on. Chapt er 4 i n I nt r oduct i on t o Space Communi cat i on
Svst ems. McGr aw- Hi l l , New York. 1964,
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Fi nal Repor t on Cont r act NAS 12- 81, Hughes Ai r cr af t Co. ,
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BTL: Deep space communi cat i on and navi gat i on st udy, Fi nal
Repor t i n 3 Vol umes on Cont r act NAS 5- 10293, Vol. 1, Summar y,
NASA- CR- 95571, ( N68- 29521#) ; Vole 2, Communi cat i on Technol ogy,
NASA- CR- 95573, ( N68- 28794#) Vol e 3, Syst ems consi der at i ons,
NASA- CR- 95572 , ( N68- 29522#) , Bel l Tel ephone Labor at or i es ,
Whi ppany, NJe , 1968.
Rozenber g, G. V. : On t he l i mi t s of appl i cabi l i t y of Bouger
l aw, Dokl . Akad. Nauk SSR, vol . 145, no. 6, 1962.
Huschke, R. E. , ed. : Gl ossar y of Met eor ol ogy, Amer i can
Met eor ol ogi cal Soci et y, Bost on, 1959.
Kr aus, J . De: Radi o Ast r onomy, McGr aw- Hi l l , New Yor k, 1966
Lawr ence, R. S. , Li t t l e, C. G. , and Chi ver s, H. J. A. :
A sur vey of i onospher i c ef f ect s upon ear t h- space r adi o
pr opagat i on, Proc. I EEE, vol 52, pp. 4- 27, 1964.
Mi l l man, G. H. : A sur vey of t r opospher i c, i onospher i c, and
ext r at er r est r i al ef f ect s on r adi o pr opagat i on bet ween t he
ear t h and space vehi cl es, AGARD Conf . Pr oceedi ngs no. 3 ,
pp. 3- 55, W. T. Bl ackband, ed. , Techni vi si on, Mai ndenhead,
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Val l ey, S. L e, ed, :
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Ker r , D. E e P ed, : Pr opaqat i on of Shor t Radi o Waves, vol e 13
of t he Massachuset t s I nst i t ut e of Technol ogy, Radi at i on
Labor at or y Ser i es, McGr aw- Hi l l , New York, ( Revi ewed i n J p
Opt , SOC. Am., vol e 56, p. 529) , 1951
Cunni ngham, Donal dson,
man, P, : Som pect s of el ect
pr opagat i on, Chapt er 9
Envi r onment s , S . La Val l ey ,
244
( Cont i nued)
12 *
13,
14 e
15 e
16 e
1.
1.
2,
3,
Hogg, D, C.: Mi l l i met er - wave communi cat i on t hr ough t he
at mospher e, Sci . , vole 159, pp. 39- 46, 1968.
Lukes, G. De: Penet r abi l i t y of haze, f og, cl ouds and pr e-
ci pi t at i on by r adi ant ener gy over t he spect r al r ange 0. 1
mi cr on t o 10 cent i met er s, NAWAG St udy 61 on Cont r act
N00014- 68- A- 0091, Naval War f ar e Anal ysi s Gr oup, Cent er f or
Naval Anal yses of t he Umi v. of Rochest er , Ar l i ngt on, VA. ,
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Fowl er , M. S., and LaGr one, A. H. : Sur vey of gaseous and
hydr omet eor absor pt i on i n t he at mospher e i n t he 10 - 100
GHz f r equency band, Repor t No. P- 37, on NSF Gr ant s GA 772
and GA 11462. Ant ennas and Pr opagat i on Labor at or y, The
Uni v, of Texas at Aust i n, 1969.
Howar d, J . Na, Gar i ng, J. S., and Wal t er , Re G. : Tr ans-
mi ssi on and det ect i on of i nf r ar ed r adi at i on, Chapt er 10
i n Handbook of Geophysi cs and Space Envi r onment s, Se L e
Val l ey, ed. , McGr aw- Hi l l , New Yor k, 1965.
El t er man, L. , and Tool i n, R. B.: At mospher i c opt i cs, Ch. 7
i n Handbook of Geophysi cs and Space Envi r onment s, S. Le
Val l ey, ed. , McGr aw- Hi l l , New Yor k, 1965.
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Booker , H, Ge! and Li t t l e, C, G.: At mospher i c r esear ch and
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El ect r i cal and El ect r oni cs Engi neer s, I nc. , and t he
El ec. t roni cs I ndust r i es Associ at i on , New Yor k , 1968 e
U, S, Depar t ment of Commer ce: El ect r omagnet i c spect r um
ut i l i zat i on - t he si l ent cr i si s, a r epor t an t el ecommuni ca-
t i on sci ence and t he f eder al gover nment , Tel ecommuni cat i on
Sci ence Panel of t he Commer ce Techni cal Advi sor y Boar da
U, S. Depar t ment of Commer ce, Washi ngt on, DC. , 1966,
245
3 a ( Cont i nued)
4,
5.
6.
7.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Si l i ng, P, F, : Radi o f r equency al l ocat i on and assi gnment ,
Chapt er 19 i n Communi cat i on syst emengi neer i ng handbook,
De H. Hamsher , ed. , McGr aw- Hi l l , New Yor k, 1967,
FCC: Pr i nt ed publ i cat i ons of t he Feder al Communi cat i ons
Commi ssi on, Adm. Bul l et i n No. 1, Feder al Communi cat i ons
Commi ssi on, Washi ngt on, DC. 20554, 1969.
GSA: Code of Feder al Regul at i ons, Ti t l e 47 - Tel ecommuni ca-
t i ons, Chapt er 1, Feder al Communi cat i ons Commi ssi on Re-
vi sed as of J an. 1, 1969, Subchapt er A - Gener al ( $1. 50) ;
Subchapt er B - Common Car r i er Ser vi ces ($2. 00) ; Subchapt er
C - Gr oadcast Radi o Ser vi ces ( $1. 75) ; Subchapt er D - Saf et y
and Speci al Radi o Ser vi ces ($2. 50): Gener al Ser vi ces Ad-
mi ni st r at i on, Of f i ce of t he Feder al Regi st er , Washi ngt on,
DC. , ( Supt . Docs. ) , 1969.
RCA: Fr equency Al l ocat i ons, 10 kc/ s - 90 Gc/ s, RCA Fr e-
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Huschke, R. E. , ed. : Gl ossar y of Met eor ol ogy, Amer i can
Met eor ol ogi cal Soci et y, Bost on, 195 9.
Al l en, W. H. , ed. : Di ct i onar y of Techni cal Ter ms f or
Aer ospace Use, NASA SP- 7, Nat i onal Aer onaut i cs and Space
Admi ni st r at i on, Washi ngt on, DC. , ( Supt . Docs. $3. 00) ,
1965.
AFCRC: Handbook of Geophysi cs f or Ai r For ce Desi qner s,
Ai r For ce Cambr i dge Resear ch Cent er , Bedf or d, MA. , ( See
Bean, B. R. , and Dut t on, E. J , : Radi o Met eor ol oqy, NBS Mono-
qr aph 92, Nat i onal Bur eau of St andar ds, Boul der , CO, #
- . .
( Supt . Docs. , $2, 75) or Dover , New Yor k, 1966
Por t man, D. J e p Bi er l y, E, We, Canf i el d, N e Le, Di ngl e,
A, N. , Hewsonp E. W., and Ryznar , E. : The l ower at mospher e,
~
Chapt er 5 i n , Rb E, Machoi ,
ed. , McGr aw- Hi l l , New Yor k, 1965,
Davi es, K, : , NBS Monogr aph
80, Nat i onal Bur eau of St andar ds, Boul der , CO. , ( Supt ,
Docs, ) or Dover , New Yor k, 1965.
246
4 e ( Cont i nued)
7,
8.
9.
10 .
11 e
12.
13.
14
15.
16 e
J ones, L. Me: The upper at mospher e, Chapt er 6, i n Syst em
Engi neer i ng Handbook, R. E. Machol , ed. , McGr aw- Hi l l ,
New Yor k, 1965.
Cor ni er , R. J . , Ul wi ck, J . C. , Kl obuchar , J . A. , Pf i st er ,
We, and Keneshea, T. J . : I onospher i c physi cs, Chapt er 12,
Handbook of Geophysi cs and Space Envi r onment s, S. L. Val l ey,
ed. , McGr aw- Hi l l , New Yor k, 1965.
Davi es, K.: I onospher i c Radi o Waves, Bl ai sdel l , Wal t ham,
MA. , 1969.
Fai r br i dge, R. W e , ed. : Encycl opedi a of At mospher i c
Sci ences and Ast r ogeol ogy, Rei nhol d, New Yor k, 1967.
Col e, Am E. , Cour t , A. , and Kant or , A. J . : Model at mospher es
Chapt er 2, Handbook of Geophysi cs and Space Envi r onment s,
S. L. Val l ey, ed. , McGr aw- Hi l l , New Yor k, 1965.
ESSA, NASA, USAF: U. S. St andar d At mospher e suppl ement s,
1966, Pr epar ed under t he sponsor shi p of t he Envi r onment al
Sci ence Ser vi ces Admi ni st r at i on of t he Nat i onal Aer onaut i cs
and Space Admi ni st r at i on, and t he Uni t ed St at es Ai r For ce,
Washi ngt on, DC. , ( Supt . Docs. $4. 00) , 1066.
Val l ey, S. L e, ed. : Handbook of Geophysi cs and Space
Envi r onment s, McGr aw- Hi l l , New York. Ear l i er vol umes wer e
al so publ i shed ent i t l ed Handbook of Geophysi cs f or Ai r
For ce Desi gner s, 1957 ( ref . 3 ) , Handbook of Geophysi cs,
Revi sed, 1960; These t hr ee edi t i ons wer e done by t he Ai r
For ce Cambr i dge Resear ch Labor at or i es, Bedf or d, MA. , 1965.
Gr i ngor t en, I . I . , Kant or , A. J . , Col e, A. E. , Gut ni k, Me,
Champi on, K. S. W. , and St er gi s, C, G, : At mospher i c t emper a-
t ur e, densi t y, pr essur e, and moi st ur e, Chapt er 3 i n Hand-
book of Geophysi cs and Space Envi r onment s, s. L e Val l ey,
ed. , McGr aw- Hi l l , New Yor k, 1965.
Gr i ngor t en, I . I . , Sal mel a, He A. , Sol omon, I . , and Shar p,
J . : At mospher i c humi di t y at l as: Nor t her n hemi spher e Ai r
For ce Sur veys i n Geophysi cs No. 186, Al ?CRL 66- 621, Ai r
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642- 429) , 1966,
Gr i ngor t en, I . I , , Lenhar d, J r , , Re W e # Sal mel a, He A e 8
and Si ssenwi ne, Ne: Wi nds, Chapt er 4 i n Handbook of Geo-
, S, L, Val l ey, ed. , McGr aw-
247
( Cont i nued)
17
18,
19.
20.
21.
22 . %
23 e
24
25,
26
St er gi s, C. Go, Her i ng, W e S. , Huf f man, Re E,, Hunt , Jr.,
W. We, and Paul son, J. F. : At mospher i c composi t i on, Chapt er
6 i n Handbook of Geophysi cs and Space Envi r onment s, S. Le
Val l ey, ea, , McGr aw- Hi l l , New Yor k, 1965.
Col e, A. ED, Donal dson, Re J o , At l as, De! Kant or , A. J o e
Sober man, Re K. , and Manson, J. E.: Pr eci pi t at i on, cl ouds,
and aer osol s, Chapt er 5 i n Handbook of Geophysi cs and
Space Envi r onment s, S. Lo Val l ey, ed. , McGr aw- Hi l l , New
Yor k, 1965.
Lodge, J. P. : I dent i f i cat i on of aer osol s, Advan. Geophys. ,
Vol e 9, ppe 67- 130, 1962.
AGU: Met eor ol ogy and at mospher i c physi cs, A sect i on i n t he
Uni t ed St at es Nat i onal Repor t , 1957- 1960, t o t he 12t h
Gener al Assembl y of t he I nt er nat i onal Uni on of Geodesy
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Huf f , F. A.: Pr eci pi t at i on, Trans. Am. Geophys, Un. ,
vol e 41, ppe 299- 301, 1960.
Fr i t z, S.: Sat el l i t e met eor ol ogy, Tr ans. Am. Geophys. Un. ,
vol e 41, ppe 217- 220, 1960s
AGU: Met eor ol ogy and at mospher i c physi cs, A sect i on i n t he
Uni t ed St at es Nat i onal Repor t , 1960- 1963, t o t he 13t h
Gener al Assembl y of t he I nt er nat i onal Uni on of Geodesy
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Her shf i el d, D. Me: Pr eci pi t at i on, Tr ans. Am. Geophys. Un. ,
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Fr i t z, S.: Met eor ol ogi cal sat el l i t es i n t he Uni t ed St at es,
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42 e
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Bunker , A. F. , and Chaf f ee, Me: Tr opi cal I ndi an Ocean
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