1

A comprehensive, cost-effective dissolved gas monitoring strategy

Stephan Brauer Trevor Lord
Morgan Schaffer Inc. Lord Consulting

EEA Conference & Exposition 2012, 20-22 June, Auckland

ABSTRACT

This paper reviews an innovative, cost-effective approach for deploying on-line dissolved gas
monitors on a population of liquid-filled transformers to achieve both comprehensive fault
detection and well-informed maintenance decisions when a fault is detected. Under this
approach, fault-detection monitors are installed on the majority of units, with alarm limits
optimized for each unit based on historical dissolved-gas levels. The fault-detection monitors
are designed and installed in such a manner that if an anomalous gassing condition is
detected, the fault-detection monitor can be readily interchanged with a multi-gas monitor
to follow the fault evolution in real-time using complete dissolved gas analysis. New
measurement technology also allows this concept to be applied to tap changers using the
latest Duval Triangle for LTC units. The approach is a natural complement to routine oil
sampling and laboratory analysis, as part of a comprehensive transformer asset management
program. Requirements for accuracy, reliability and measurement ranges are reviewed. Field
experience with suitable monitors is presented using illustrative case studies.


2
INTRODUCTION

Dissolved gas analysis (DGA) is widely accepted to be one of the most effective tools
available for assessing the operational health of large, liquid-filled transformers [1,2]. With a
history of more than 40 years of oil-syringe sampling and laboratory measurements, DGA
methods continue to evolve as new technology solutions emerge. Increasingly, DGA
measurements are being conducted within the transformer yard, using portable analysers and
on-line monitors. On-line DGA has come to play a central role in optimizing operations and
asset management [3] within the electrical power industry.

Historically, two categories of on-line dissolved gas monitors have been established. The first
are fault-detection monitors designed to sense primarily hydrogen as the key gas associated
with all transformer fault modes resulting in oil-degradation. These monitors may also
measure dissolved carbon monoxide associated primarily with the degradation of cellulose
insulation [2]. In the second category are multi-gas monitors that measure most or all of the
gases of a typical DGA laboratory. The emergence of monitors that measure 3-5 gases has
since blurred this distinction, offering new price/performance combinations to the industry.
Also, considerable progress has been made in improving the accuracy and reliability available
from on-line dissolved gas monitors. Dissolved moisture measurement has become a standard
feature of most DGA monitors.

In this paper, we focus on an approach to DGA monitoring that seeks to provide asset
managers with the greatest ability to detect and diagnose transformer faults across a
transformer population, for a given total cost of monitor ownership. Under this approach, we
use the historical categorization mentioned above. Fault-detection monitors are installed on
many units, in a manner that offers the highest assurance of fault detection with a minimum
of false alarms and monitor service events. Each fault-detection monitor is designed and
installed in such a fashion that if an anomalous gassing condition is detected, it can be readily
interchanged with a multi-gas monitor. The latter allows the fault evolution to be studied in
detail using complete dissolved gas analysis, such that well informed decisions can be taken
to manage the fault condition. Design and installation features that facilitate the interchange
of monitors are described. Also, performance requirements and cost of ownership are
discussed for DGA monitors that best serve this monitoring model.

ON-LINE DISSOLVED GAS MONITORING

The fundamental requirement of a fault-detection monitor is the ability to unambiguously
report an alarm condition when a key gas, normally hydrogen, has reached an anomalous
level. To accomplish this assuredly and without false alarms, the monitor must be built
around a dissolved-gas-measurement system that is stable and dependable over many years of
field service. Monitors that deliver accurate dissolved gas concentrations are preferred for
several reasons. First, a measurement system which is consistently accurate, as benchmarked
to a qualified DGA laboratory, generally meets the requirement for good stability. Also,
absolute accuracy implies good gas-selectivity, so that changing levels of potential
interference gases do not compromise the key gas reading. Accurate and selective fault-
detection monitors offer the additional advantage that historical laboratory DGA data from
each specific transformer (or factory acceptance data in the case of new transformers) can be
used to set optimal and justifiable gas alarm thresholds to protect each unit. This key step in
the commissioning of a monitor is often completed using excessively wide margins, or using
values drawn from published standards which may not be optimal for the unit. Accurate


3
monitors allow transformer asset managers to establish consistent policies for setting alarm
levels based on well-established DGA baselines, and to have these policies endorsed by their
management and insurance companies. Finally, accurate and selective monitors allow
comparison with routine annual laboratory DGA results, in order to validate the performance
of the monitor periodically throughout its working lifetime. Independent studies of monitor
accuracy are ongoing [4].

Reliability and accuracy are also paramount requirements for a multi-gas monitor, whether
permanently installed on a critical transformer, or used within the monitoring model
prescribed here. The complex process of diagnosing a fault condition on an in-service
transformer benefits from certainty in the dissolved gas-concentrations. As a guide to the
accuracy requirements of the monitor, it is noted that the various DGA condition assessment
tools known in the industry were developed using laboratory DGA measurements, and the
expectations of accuracy from a good DGA laboratory are documented [5].

Several factors suggest that some online multi-gas monitors have the potential to actually be
more accurate than DGA labs. Good monitors control the oil temperature during the gas-
extraction process, so the gas-solubility temperature dependence does not impact the
readings. Also, monitors that use a continuous oil-flow circuit are largely free of poor oil-
sampling techniques, oil-sample storage issues, and syringe gas-bubbles, which can be
dominant limitations to the accuracy of DGA results obtained from even the best of
laboratories. Monitors also offer favourable measurement statistics, since many readings can
be easily averaged to reduce random measurement errors. Finally, as shown in the case
studies below, operating transformers are seldom in a steady -state. Improved agreement with
lab samples can be obtained if the sampling location is on the DGA monitor, and the time of
the sample collection is recorded for comparison with the monitor readings from the same
time.

In comparing monitor and laboratory DGA measurements, it is helpful to consider the gas
extraction techniques used by each. Techniques with extraction efficiency near 100%,
including as ASTM-D3612 Method A and others [6], are fundamentally insensitive to the gas
solubilities, which are known to vary with fluid type, age, contamination, and even the nature
of the gas matrix [7, 8]. However, most labs today use more solubility-sensitive headspace
extraction techniques because they are more cost effective. Since the actual solubility of a
syringe sample is not generally known, many of these labs report dissolved gas readings
based on Ostwald solubility coefficients for mineral oil published in ASTM-D3612 [9]. If the
fluid is not mineral oil, or is aged, contaminated, or saturated with gas, the reported dissolved
gas concentrations would not be expected to agree with those measured by high-efficiency
extraction methods. Multi-gas monitors commonly use a headspace extraction technique, and
are thus subject to the same concern. Therefore, when configuring a multi-gas monitor, the
accuracy objectives should be considered. For absolute accuracy and comparison with high-
efficiency extraction methods, monitors should be configured with the Ostwald solubility
settings for the actual liquid in the transformer. On the other hand, if the objective is to have
the monitor report readings which are as similar as possible to a lab using headspace
extraction, it may be best to configure the monitor with the solubilities from ASTM-D3612.
(As for moisture-in-oil, monitors measure %RS in the oil and may convert this to water
content (in ppm) using a solubility function. For best agreement with laboratory Karl Fischer
water content, the moisture solubility coefficients for the actual liquid should be configured
in the monitor.)



4

As far as we are aware, little work has been conducted to explore fault diagnostic techniques
at sub-ppm gas levels, primarily because such measurements have not historically been
available. Although industry standards suggest that 2 ppm of C
2
H
2
can be reason for concern
in some transformers, many labs have a detection limit of 2 ppm for routine DGA analysis.
Some multi-gas monitors have detection limits of 0.2 ppm for C
2
H
2
and other gases, offering
the potential to reveal fault behaviour at earlier stages than had previously been possible.

Utilities have been conducting laboratory DGA measurements for load-tap- changer (LTC)
transformers for many years, and improved methods for interpreting LTC faults from DGA
data have received considerable recent attention [10, 11]. We believe the monitoring model
proposed here may help extend the advantages of on-line DGA monitoring to this class of
fault-prone transformers. Dissolved fault-gas concentrations from LTC units can exceed
100,000 ppm in extreme cases [11], so monitors with high measurement top-of-range (TOR)
are warranted, both for fault-detection and for multi-gas DGA monitoring.

COST CONSIDERATIONS

Cost-benefit analysis for on-line transformer monitoring, in the broadest sense, has been
described in some detail [3]. Such models make a compelling case for on-line monitoring, the
main economic advantages arising from reduced catastrophic failures, reduced interruptions
to power generation and delivery, transformer lifetime extension, and potential gains from
sustained overloading. One conclusion is that there is economic benefit for on-line
monitoring, including on-line DGA monitoring, on most every transformer above a certain
replacement cost, the threshold being determined by the cost of the monitoring equipment. To
experience these benefits across the greatest portion of a transformer fleet, an economic DGA
monitoring solution is desirable, particularly for lower MVA asset classes. The same position
can be reached directly from the annual capital or operating budget of any transformer asset
manager. The monitoring approach offered here provides a practical solution to maximizing
asset protection within budgetary constraints.



Table 1: Two DGA monitoring scenarios for a population of 10 transformers.

Assumptions Fault detector Multi-gas
Purchase price 10,000 $ 35,000 $ Relative dollars units,
Consumables at installation 1,000 $ where the cost of a
Installation labour and materials 1,000 $ 1,250 $ fault detection
Acquisition cost 11,000 $ 37,250 $ monitor is $10,000
Routine annual inspection 500 $ 500 $
Routine annual consumables 1,000 $
Annual cost of false alarms 100 $ 100 $
Allocation for repairs 100 $ 500 $
Annual operating cost 700 $ 2,100 $
Scenarios Lifetime costs
Lifetime (years) 15 Acquisition Operating Total
Multigas only (monitors) 10 372,500 $ 315,000 $ 687,500 $
Fault-detect & Multi-gas (monitors) 10 1 147,250 $ 136,500 $ 283,750 $
Difference 225,250 $ 178,500 $ 403,750 $


5
Table 1 presents two simple DGA monitoring scenarios with similar levels of transformer
protection for a population of 10 transformers. We have chosen to use relative dollar units,
where the cost of a fault-detection DGA monitor meeting the criteria described above is
$10,000. The more complex measurement systems within multi-gas DGA monitors make
them typically 3-4 times more costly to purchase. The costs of operating online monitors
include annual inspections, routine maintenance, repairs, and, in the case of multi-gas
monitors that satisfy assumptions above, the cost of replacing consumables. (We have
assumed an average cost per year although the replacement interval for consumables is two
years on some multi-gas monitors.) The cost of addressing false alarms has been assumed
small due to the choice of accurate and reliable monitors. This simple model reveals the main
cost advantages of the proposed monitoring approach. For the same level of transformer
protection, monitor acquisition costs and lifetime ownership costs are much reduced.

INTERCHANGABLE MONITORS

Calisto products [12] are designed to facilitate the interchange of fault detection and multi-
gas monitors. Most importantly, these monitors meet the performance requirements outlined
above. Common operating features that facilitate comparison of the DGA results between
these monitors include 1) an oil circulating pump, 2) temperature conditioning of the oil at
the extraction stage and the gas measurement system, 3) the same user-interface software
with local or network database, 4) a front-panel display with 3-button navigation, and 5) an
oil-sampling port to allow oil-syringe samples to be drawn for comparison with DGA lab
measurements.

With appropriate planning of the installation site, the process of interchanging a fault-
detection model with a multi-gas model is straightforward, and can be performed without
taking the transformer out of service. As shown in Figure 1, both monitor types have similar
physical dimensions and share common mounting-hole patterns and shock-mounts. The oil
inlet and outlet ports have the same fittings and similar locations, being only 11 cm (4.5
inches) further apart on the multi-gas models. Internal to these units are oil valves that
minimize oil spillage during a swap. Optional external oil valves can also be installed near
the connections to the unit to similarly limit oil spills from the oil lines when a unit is
disconnected. We have conducted laboratory measurements to quantify the reaction of C
2
H
2

dissolved in mineral oil with 3/8 copper tubing at elevated oil temperatures. Our
measurements indicate that the reaction is sufficiently slow as to be negligible with the oil-
flow rates typical of these monitors. It is nevertheless recommended to use stainless steel oil
lines of solid tubing, braided hose, or a combination of these, to alleviate any doubt about
possible reaction of C
2
H
2
in copper lines.



6


Figure 1: Installation of interchangable fault-detection (left) and multi-gas DGA monitors
(right).

The electrical connections to these monitors have also been designed to anticipate the
interchange of different models. A removable plate on the bottom of the enclosure can be
modified to suit the users preferred conduit termination, and this plate is identical on all
models, minimizing the re-work required to make water-tight electrical feed-throughs when
units are interchanged. The models also use the same electrical connectors and terminal strips
for digital communications, analogue inputs/outputs, and relay outputs.

FIELD STUDIES

Figure 2 shows data recorded by a fault-detection monitor installed on a 700 MVA free-
breathing autotransformer located in Norway. The unit has been running with the same
mineral oil since 1978, which has been regenerated once. The H
2
level 1 alarm was set to 50


7
ppm, and the CO level 1 alarm at 1000 ppm. The case is uncommon in that a CO alarm was
reported (on 12/07/2011), and only subsequently were smaller increases in H
2
and WC
discovered. The manufacturer indicated that this transformer design includes sections of thin
copper foil covered with paper for electrostatic screening of the outer legs. Repairs on similar
units have shown that eddy-current heating of the foil can create localized hot regions which
may burn the paper creating CO and CO
2
, and generate small amounts of other fault gases.
The unit remains in service with close attention to the DGA monitor readings and alarms.



Figure 2: Development of a fault involving both oil and celulose insulation, recorded by a
fault-detection monitor.

When catastrophic failures occur on monitored transformers, post-mortem analysis often
shows that a rising H
2
signature was recorded. For most of these failures there is adequate
time for intervention, but the H
2
rise is not followed by operator action because the alarm
thresholds were not optimally set, or the alarm is considered erroneous. An example is
depicted in Figure 3 where, in early summer, a gassing fault accelerated with the increase in
peak daily load, but was not detected because the H
2
alarm thresholds were not optimized
based on the low historic H
2
level.



8


Figure 3: Development of a catastrophic fault involving both oil and celulose insulation,
recorded by a fault-detection monitor.

When a fault-detection monitor is installed, mechanical, plumbing and electrical provisions
can be prepared to allow a multi-gas monitor to be installed in parallel, should it become
necessary. An example of such an installation is presented in Figure 4, which shows a fault-
detection monitor (left) and full DGA multi-gas monitor (right), installed on the same
transformer.



9


Figure 4: Fault-detection and multi-gas monitors installed in Malaysia with stainless-steel
oil lines and custom-made sun shields.




Figure 5: On-line DGA data showing moisture and gassing behaviour that varies with load.



10
Figure 5 presents data from a multi-gas monitor on a 20 MVA free-breathing transformer
filled with mineral oil, which was put into service in the USA in 1969. The monitor reported
a high average moisture level near 33 ppm water content (WC) or 49 %RS@25C. Daily
transformer load cycles generated daily cycles in WC of about 2-4 ppm peak-to-peak as
moisture was driven out of the cellulose insulation and into the oil with higher core
temperature. The data also shows small daily variations of fault-gases (2-3% peak-to-peak)
which correlate to the moisture. Note that sub-ppm changes were resolved for C
2
H
4
and CH
4
.
Duval triangle analysis using the average values of CH
4
, C
2
H
2
and C
2
H
4
indicates a D1 fault
type (low energy discharges). The observation that each of these three gases rose and fell in
unison suggests that the D1 fault was load-dependent, a plausible behaviour. The same
pattern is discernible in the H
2
data, but none of the other gas readings, adding weight to this
interpretation. The small slow downward trend of fault gases may have been related to
seasonal changes in load and ambient temperature in this late-summer data. Historic
laboratory DGA data were in agreement with the monitor data. This example shows how
time-resolved DGA measurements can offer insight into the complex dynamic behaviour of
an energized transformer.



Figure 6: Multi-gas DGA monitoring of a defective new transformer.

Figure 6 is data taken within the first days of service of a new 900 MVA transformer filled
with mineral oil, installed in the USA. A multi-gas monitor was installed on the unit and put
into service before the transformer was energized on 14/10/2011. Within a few hours of
operation, the transformer began to exhibit significant fault gassing. The monitor readings
rose steadily over 24 hours, and the transformer was de-energized late on 15/10/2011, after
which the gas levels quickly stabilized. Laboratory DGA samples confirmed the
concentrations reported by the monitor. Duval triangle analysis suggests a T3 fault (thermal
fault > 700C), which could have quickly escalated to a catastrophic failure. The
comparatively-constant CO readings suggest the cellulose insulation was not directly
involved. The transformer was returned to the manufacturer for root cause analysis and repair
under warranty.

CONCLUSIONS


11

Accurate multi-gas online DGA monitors can provide valuable insight into the complex
dynamics of gassing behavior associated with transformer faults. The advantages of such
tools can be extended across a population of transformers economically through the strategic
deployment of interchangeable fault-detection detectors of high accuracy and reliability.

REFERENCES

1. IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gasses Generated in Oil-Immersed
Transformers, IEEE Standard C57.104-1991, 1991.
2. Mineral oil-impregnated electrical equipment in service Guide to the interpretation
of dissolved and free gases analysis, IEC Publication 60599, 1999.
3. IEEE Draft Guide for Application of Monitoring Liquid-Immersed Transformers and
Components, IEEE Draft Standard C57.143-2006.
4. Report from CIGRE WG47, in development.
5. M. Duval, J. Dukarm, Improving the Reliability of Transformer Gas-in-Oil
Analysis, IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 21-27, 2005.
6. M. Duval, New Techniques for Dissolved Gas-in-Oil Analysis, IEEE Electrical
Insulation Magazine, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 6-15, 2003.
7. M. Cyr, Determination of Ostwald solubility coefficients in modern transformer
oils, Minutes of PdM SA Conference, Johannesburg, 2010.
8. J. Jalbert, R. Gilbert, P. Ttreault, and M. A. El Khakani, Matrix Effects Affecting
the Indirect Calibration of the Static Headspace-Gas Chromatographic Method Used
for Dissolved Gas Analysis in Dielectric Liquids, Anal. Chem., vol. 75, no. 19, pp.
52305239, 2003.
9. ASTM Standard Test Method for Analysis of Gases Dissolved in Electrical Insulating
Oil by Gas Chromatography, ASTM Standard D3612-02, 2002.
10. M. Duval, The Duval Triangle for Load Tap Changers, Non-Mineral Oils and Low
Temperature Faults in Transformers, IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, vol. 24,
no. 6, pp. 22-29, 2008.
11. IEEE Guide for Dissolved Gas Analysis in Load Tap Changers, IEEE Standard
C57.139-2010
12. Morgan Schaffer Inc., 8300 St-Patrick Street, Suite 150, LaSalle, Qubec, Canada.