The Resurgence of Region and Regionalism

The Resurgence of the Region and Regional Identity: Theoretical Perspectives and
Empirical Observations on Regional Dynamics in Europe

Anssi Paasi
Department of Geography
University of Oulu
Published in
Revie of International !tudies
Volume 35 / Supplement S1 / Feruary !""#$ pp 1!1%1&'
Paper "5 % regional i(entity
"bstract
)*e+ regionalism,$ )region,$ )-ity%region,$ )-ross%or(er region,$ )or(er, an( )i(entity, have
e-ome important -at-hphrases on the gloal geo%e-onomi- an( geopoliti-al s-ene. /he
resurgen-e of these terms has een part of the transformation of oth politi-al e-onomy an(
governan-e at supra%state$ state an( su%state s-ales. 0egions have een parti-ularly
signifi-ant in the 1U +here oth the ma2ing of the Union itself an( the )1urope of regions,
are -on-rete manifestations of the re%s-aling of state spa-es an( the assignment of ne+
meanings to territory. Su-h re%s-aling has also le( to in-rease( -ompetition et+een regions3
a ten(en-y that results from oth the neo%lierali4ation of the gloal e-onomy an( from a
regionalist response. 0egional i(entity$ an i(ea at least impli-itly in(i-ating some
-ohesiveness or so-ial integration in a region$ has e-ome a ma5or u44+or(. 6t has een
parti-ularly i(entifie( in the 1U,s -ohesion poli-y as an important element for regional
(evelopment. 6n spite of their in-reasing importan-e in so-ial life an( a-a(emi- (eates$
regions$ or(ers an( i(entities are often stu(ie( separately$ ut this paper aims at theori4ing
an( illustrating their meanings in an integrate( -on-eptual frame+or2 an( uses the su%state
regions in 1urope$ an( parti-ularly in Finlan($ as -on-rete e7amples. 0egions are
-on-eptuali4e( here as pro-esses that gain their oun(aries$ symolisms an( institutions in
the pro-ess of institutionalization. /hrough this pro-ess a region e-omes estalishe($ gains
its status in the roa(er regional stru-ture an( may e-ome a signifi-ant unit for regional
i(entifi-ation or for a purporte( regional i(entity. /his pro-ess is ase( on a (ivision of
laour$ +hi-h a--entuates the po+er of regional elites in the institutionali4ation pro-esses.
!
Introduction
/he (eath of the region$ its inevitale gra(ual (isappearan-e or at least the nee( to aan(on su-h
oun(e( spa-es have een (e-lare( for a long time in a-a(emi- an( poli-y -ir-les ut this i(ea has
not only persiste( ut also gaine( ne+ meanings. )*e+ regionalism,$ )region,$ )-ity%region,$
)-ross%or(er region,$ )or(er, an( )i(entity, have re-ently e-ome important -at-hphrases in
a-a(emi- an( politi-al (is-ourse. 1ven if region an( regional i(entity have e-ome important in
many a-a(emi- fiel(s (uring roughly the last 15 years$ the meanings of these -ategories are
amivalent an( re8uire further theoreti-al analysis an( interpretation of their signifi-an-e in
various empiri-al -onte7ts. One reason ehin( this amivalen-e is that oth region an( other
-ategories that are -ru-ial for un(erstan(ing the roles of regions in so-ial an( politi-al life % that is
the or(er an( i(entity 9 are often ta2en for grante( in resear-h that loo2s at the politi-al e-onomy$
-ulture or politi-s o--urring in su-h regions. /his is partly relate( to the fa-t that -ertain )s-ripts,
have e-ome nearly universal in regional (evelopment literature. A--or(ingly some 2ey+or(s 9
li2e region$ -ity%region$ regionalism or regional i(entity 9 are often -ir-ulate( +ithout refle-ting on
them -onte7tually.
1
6t is therefore useful to s-rutini4e at first ho+ )region, is un(erstoo($ se-on(ly$
ho+ to theori4e it an($ thir(ly$ to (etermine its pra-ti-al meanings. :hile some representatives of
geography an( politi-al s-ien-e have re-ently e7amine( region%uil(ing pro-esses in su-h -onte7ts
as the ;e(iterranean$ *orthern 1urope$ or the <la-2 Sea$
!
-on-eptual approa-hes on su-h
pro-esses have een largely la-2ing. Similarly$ it is important to loo2 at ho+ the i(ea of regional
3
i(entity is use($ ho+ it -an e -on-eptuali4e( an( +hat are the prolems of stu(ying su-h i(entities
in -on-rete resear-h.
/his paper aims to -ontriute to ongoing (eates on the meanings of regions an( regional
i(entities.
3
:hile the i(ea of )region, -an in -urrent (eates refer to oth su% an( supra%state
units$ an( -an of -ourse e -on-eptuali4e( at various spatial s-ales$ in this paper the region +ill e
s-rutini4e( aove all as a sub-state level -ategory ut y (oing this in a +i(er s-alar frame+or2
that is y loo2ing at ho+ regions are results of pro-esses ta2ing pla-e at an( a-ross various s-ales.
/his arti-le offers a perspe-tive that might e some+hat unfamiliar to 60/politi-al s-ien-e (eates
on regions that normally (eal +ith state an( supra%state units an( loo2 at the interstate system as a
target of regionalist a-tivities. A fitting illustration is the re-ent spe-ial issue of Geopolitics +hi-h
sho+s ho+ ne+ pra-ti-es an( imaginations asso-iate( +ith supra%state region an( regionness are
s-rutini4e( in 60 an( ho+ the authors (ra+ heavily on -onstru-tionist/(is-ursive perspe-tives that
re-ogni4e regions as pra-ti-es of representation.
&

/his arti-le +ill respe-tively ring in a some+hat (ifferent menu of analyti-al prolems an(
-on-epts y loo2ing at the s-alar -omple7ity of regions. /his is in line +ith -urrent efforts of
geographers$ so-iologists an( 60 s-holars to fin( inter(is-iplinary -on-eptual terrain for ne+
spatial approa-hes.
5
/he arguments +ill e illustrate( +ith e7amples from various geographi-al
-onte7ts$ espe-ially from the 1uropean Union +here the i(ea of the )1urope of regions, has
e-ome very signifi-ant. /his i(ea implies that nation%states are regar(e( as too small for gloal
e-onomi- -ompetition ut +hile eing too large an( remote for -ultural i(entifi-ation an(
parti-ipatory an( a-tive -iti4enship.
'
:hile e7amples are ta2en from some 1uropean regions$ the
&
ne+ fun-tions an( meanings asso-iate( +ith Finnish provin-es +ill e loo2e( at as a parti-ular
-ase to s-rutini4e ho+ the res-aling of state spa-es an( the )meaning ma2ing, of regions o--urs.
/he )regionality, of some supra%state units is also riefly (is-usse($ aove all supra%state regions
=an( regionalizations) su-h the 1U itself$ *AF/A an( other e-onomi- formations. Similarly the
-urrent roles an( fun-tions of so%-alle( -ross%or(er regions that have een -reate( on state
or(ers roun( the +orl( are s-rutini4e(.
/he paper is stru-ture( as follo+s. First$ the -urrent transformations of state spa-es are (is-usse($
then histori-al a-2groun(s an( -urrent forms of regionalism +ill e riefly analyse(. /hir(ly$ the
-ontemporary (eates on regions +ill e -riti-ally evaluate( an( then the (imensions of region%
uil(ing pro-ess +ill e theori4e(. 0egions$ symols$ i(entities an( or(ers are (ifferent elements
of this pro-ess ut they are often stu(ie( separately. 6 +ill ring these -ategories into an integrate(
frame+or2 an( +ill -on-eptuali4e regions as pro-esses that a-hieve their oun(aries$ symolisms
an( institutions in the pro-ess of institutionali4ation. Su-h theoreti-al frame+or2s have een rare
in Geography an( Politi-al S-ien-e literature an( in this arti-le see2s to provi(e ne+ steps to
(evelop further the frame+or2 of institutionali4ation. /hen 6 +ill refle-t the in(ivi(ual an(
institutional (imensions of regional i(entity an( illustrate them y loo2ing at the ne+ roles of
regions an( i(entity (is-ourse in the Finnish provin-es that represent *U/S 666
>
level regions in
the 1U,s regional system. Finally$ the relations et+een region an( i(entity in an in-reasingly
moile +orl( +ill e (is-usse(.
5
Region and territory in a globali#ing orld
6t is ovious that in spite of a--elerating gloali4ation$ the rise of net+or2s$ flo+s of immigrants
an( refugees$ internet$ the or(erless +orl( thesis
?
$ an( the post%stru-turalist or post%nationalist
literature that have -hallenge( the national state
#
$ the -ontemporary +orl( is still a -omple7
-onstellation of more or less oun(e( spa-es that e7ist at various spatial s-ales. /hese spa-es
are )regions, or )territories,. All territories are regions ut not all regions are territories. <y
(efinition a territory (iffers from a region in that its oun(aries an( the resour-es therein are
un(er the -ontrol of people. Su-h -ontrol is an e7pression of territoriality. /erritoriality is not a
-onstant ut a politi-al$ spatially sele-tive strategy that -an e e7er-ise( or not.
1"

6nternational or(er -onfli-ts have (e-rease( mar2e(ly sin-e the 1##"s an( state or(ers are in
many -ases more open than efore$ ut oun(aries an( territory still matter$ simply e-ause
they are typi-ally instruments of territoriality. /his -an e seen not only in ho+ refugees an(
immigrants are sele-te( an( a--epte( in various states$ ut also in ho+ many ethno%nationalist
groups struggle to -reate separate territories an( maintain their i(entities.
11
/his ta2es pla-e
even insi(e the 1U +hi-h has struggle( to lo+er the internal or(ers of the 1U territory y
-reating ne+ institutional solutions$ su-h as -ross%or(er regions.
1!
/erritoriality matters at
various spatial s-ales$ an( respe-tively the 8uestions of autonomy$ pluralism$ (emo-ra-y or the
unity of the state are perpetually topi-al.
13

/erritory has four e7periential (imensions that fuel atta-hments. /hus$ territory is so-ial
e-ause people inhait it -olle-tively$ it is politi-al e-ause groups fight to preserve or enlarge
'
their spa-e$ it is -ultural e-ause it -ontains -olle-tive memories an( it is -ognitive$ an( hen-e
its -apa-ity to su5e-tify -ultural$ politi-al an( so-ial oun(aries ma2es territory the -ore of
oth puli- an( private i(entity pro5e-ts.
1&
1motion is thus a -ru-ial$ -onstitutive (imension of
territory$ +hi-h a--entuates the meanings of i(entities. :hile territorial spa-es are normally
oun(e( an( or(ers are 2ey instruments in the operation of territoriality
15
$ su-h or(ers are not
inevitaly fi7e(. @at4enstein suggests that gloali4ation an( internationali4ation -reate open or
)porous, regions.
1'
/hese transformations have le( to -laims of )ne+ me(ieval,
-on-eptuali4ations of territoriality +hi-h suggest that geographi- spa-e$ politi-s$ loyalties an(
i(entities are e-oming more -omple7 an( relational.
1>
Perhaps a more alan-e( oservation is
that or(ers -an e open in some so-ial pra-ti-es =li2e e-onomyA$ in some others relatively
-lose( =li2e the -ontrol of immigrationA.
1?
*either are su-h or(ers -onstitute( y so-ial
relations that +oul( remain purely internal in the regional spa-es. 6n the -ontemporary +orl(
territories in-reasingly )lea2, or )stret-h, in spa-e a-ross or(ers.
State%-entri- spatiality an( territoriality has een -hallenge( +orl(+i(e not so mu-h y elitists
-osmopolitan i(eas as y neo%lieral gloali4ation an( in-reasing e-onomi- -ompetition. *e+
transformations have een part of the legitimation -risis fa-ing the -urrent post%@eynesian
)-ompetitive, state$ +here so-ial an( regional interests have e-ome fragmente( un(er the
neolieral -on(ition. 0espe-tively many states have res-ale( their governan-e so that regionally
ase( pro-esses of e-onomi- an( politi-al integration$ se-urity -o%operation an( so-ial integration
have e-ome signifi-ant elements of the international system.
1#
6n many -ases states have
-omine( for-es y estalishing regional allian-es +hile simultaneously (e-entralising or
(evolving some of their po+er an( tra(itional responsiilities for regional (evelopment to regional
>
an( lo-al institutions.
!"
<renner suggests that the pro(u-tion of su-h )ne+ state spa-es, o--urs via
the gro+th an( transformation of uran lo-ational politi-s.
!1
/he )-ity%region, has e-ome an
important instrument in su-h politi-s an( the roles of the net+or2s of su-h gloal -ities have een
a--entuate( as 2ey sites for un(erstan(ing the spatialities of the gloali4ing +orl(.
!!
;etropolitan
regionalism has een -entral in (eates on the )ne+ regionalism,$ parti-ularly in the Unite(
States$
!3
ut this ten(en-y has also e-ome stronger in most 1U -ountries.
)*e+ states spa-es, are also re-ogni4e( on roa(er s-ales than -ities. One feature of the -urrent
regional (ynami-s has een the resurgen-e of the )region,. /his has een some+hat para(o7i-al
sin-e the (emise of the region that shoul( follo+ from the (eepening mo(ernity an( the
-onsoli(ating state%-entri- spatiality$ has een pre(i-te( sin-e the nineteenth -entury.
!&
/he rise of
regions has o--urre( aroun( the +orl(. For many s-holars su%state regions are 2ey -onte7ts of the
+orl( e-onomy.
!5
/his i(ea has gaine( popular support. Bastells refers to the results of :orl(
Values survey (ata +hi-h sho+s that people ten( to i(entify themselves +ith lo-al an( regional
s-ales.
!'
A Google sear-h of the phrase )regional i(entity, returns more than &""$""" pages
=loa(e( 1"th August !""?A. ;any +e%pages suggest that regional i(entity 9 ho+ever it is
un(erstoo( % has een re-ogni4e( as a signifi-ant asset in e-onomi- -ompetition an( -ultural
promotion of regions. 0espe-tively regional i(entity has e-ome an important -at-h+or( roun( the
+orl($ not least in the 1uropean Union +hi-h -onsists of a ri-h mosai- of regions that have often
very long histories.
!>
6t has een note( that rise of regional i(entity or -ons-iousness has een a
parallel ten(en-y +ith the integration pro-ess.
!?
Bonfi(en-e in the po+er of regional i(entities has
e-ome an important part of the emerging -ohesion poli-y in the 1U.
!#
6n 60 literature @at4enstein
?
has (is-usse( the meanings of regional i(entity an( he asso-iates this i(ea +ith Asia an( 1urope
that have emerge( +ith ne+ -olle-tive meanings aove national states.
3"
)0egion, means (ifferent things in (ifferent -onte7ts an( respe-tively the resurgen-e of regions
-an not e e7plaine( y any single -ause.
31
Fa-tors oserve( pertaining to 1uropean su%state
regions in-lu(e uneven (evelopment3 threats to regional languages an( -ultures3 an( (evolution$
regionali4ation or fe(erali4ation as a means of re(u-ing the po+er of -entral states or as a means of
managing separatist aspirations an( -onfli-ts.
3!
6n spite of the narratives of the (eath of the nation%
state an( the rise of the or(erless +orl($ the state retains a strong interest in maintaining its po+er
in the governan-e of spa-e e-onomy$ -iti4ens, +ell%eing$ an( so-ial -ohesion$ an( respe-tively
the )min(s, of -iti4ens. /he mo(ifi-ation of the stru-tures of regional governan-e an( regional
poli-y is a 2ey me(ium in this pro-ess. /he in-reasing po+er loa(e( in su%state regions -an also
e seen in the fa-t that +hile the numer of states has 8ua(ruple( sin-e the en( of :orl( :ar 66$
the numer of su%national regional units has multiplie( even more.
33
/his is the ma5or a-2groun(
for the -urrent ten(en-y to oth (istinguish regions from ea-h other =i(entityA an( to ring them
together =integrationA.
Regionalism: traditional$ old and ne
One of the most salient features of the international or(er that has gra(ually repla-e( the sharp
Bol( :ar (ivi(e has een the rise of )ne+ regionalism,. A oom of regionalisms an( regionalist
pro5e-ts have o--urre( +orl(+i(e sin-e the late 1#?"s$ the 1U only eing the most signifi-ant
e7ample. 0espe-tively s-holars have mappe( forms of regionalism oth in terms of theory an(
#
empiri-al resear-h a-ross the gloe$ from 1urope to Asia$ from Australia an( Afri-a to South%
Ameri-a.
3&
/his se-tion +ill riefly map the histori-al a-2groun( of regionalism an( regional
thin2ing.
:hile politi-al s-ientists an( e-onomists often tra-e the roots of regionalism to the prote-tionism
of the 1#3"s$ this movement has motivate( so-ial$ e-onomi- an( -ultural life sin-e the nineteenth
-entury.
35
Originally regionalism +as important in -ultural fiel(s li2e art$ literature an( ar-hite-ture
an( +as thus relate( to regional i(entity an( -ons-iousness$ an( -ultural performan-e. Gilert an(
Citt re-ogni4e( several forms of regionalism that +ere relate( to politi-al$ -ultural an( e-onomi-
ten(en-ies insi(e the state.
3'
0egionalisms are histori-ally -ontingent. /he lael )ne+, +as rought into use (uring the 1##"s to
ma2e a (istin-tion from the )ol(, regionalism. Burrent )ne+ regionalism, is not -onfine( merely to
formal inter%state regional organi4ations an( institutions$ ut is -hara-teri4e( y
multi(imensionality$ -omple7ity$ flui(ity an( non%-onformity an( y the fa-t that it involves a
variety of state an( non%state a-tors that often -ome together in rather informal +ays.
3>
/he
e7pression )ol(, or )first, regionalism refers to the first post% :orl( :ar 66 initiatives of integration
that too2 pla-e in :estern 1urope 9 hen-e it (oes not refer to the traditional -ultural an( literary
regionalism re-ogni4e( aove.
3?
:hile ol( regionalism emerge( along +ith the rise of 1uropean
integration$ ne+ regionalism has gaine( -urren-y in the -onte7t of gloali4ing region system.
@eating argues that the rise of regionalist politi-s in the se-on( part of the 1#>"s +as not an
e7pression of any return to anti%mo(ern ol( provin-ialism or to the -ultural roots of regionalism.
0ather ne+ regionalism +as seen as an instrument in an emerging territorial e-onomi- poli-y.
3#
6t
1"
pave( the +ay to the -urrent res-aling of the gloal system an($ apart from the 1B/1U$ the ne+
regionalism soon e7pan(e( to -over other supra%state formations$ su-h as *AF/A or
;10BOSU0$ +hi-h (emonstrate mainly e-onomi- an( politi-al interests asso-iate( +ith gloal
-apitalism.
&"
VDyrynen lo-ates the rise of ne+ regionalism in a situation +here tra(itional vie+s on the state%
-entri- regional system +ere -hallenge( y the -on-entration of politi-al an( military po+er at the
top as +ell as y transnational net+or2s that +ere uilt aroun( e-onomi- ties an( -ultural
i(entities. Ee notes ho+ the early post%Bol( :ar e7pe-tations that regions an( regional -on-erts
+oul( form the foun(ation for a ne+ international or(er have proven untenale. 6nstea($ regions
appear to arise either through the (issemination of various transa-tions an( e7ternalities or as
prote-tion against the hegemony of -apitalist gloali4ation an( great%po+er politi-s.
&1
Of -ourse it
may e argue( that the international system is still a(apting to the en( of the Bol( :ar.
Furthermore$ no reason suggests that regionalism +oul( ta2e similar forms an( (ire-tions
every+here$ su-h as in 1urope$ Ameri-as or Asia. /his ne+ -omple7ity means that the a-tors
ehin( regionalism are )sprea(, a-ross various spatial s-ales. 6n(ee( at times the 2ey a-2groun(
for regionalism may e7ist outsi(e of the national -onte7t. /his has een the -ase +ith the region
formation e.g. in Afri-a. 0amutsin(ela suggests that in this spe-ifi- -onte7t a (is-ussion on
regionalism -laims that roa(er -onne-tions are note( than the state.
&!
/he pro5e-ts of
imperialism$ for e7ample$ favore( regional pro5e-ts that +ere in line +ith metropolitan interests.
0egionalism is in-reasingly ase( on pra-ti-es an( (is-ourses that ta2e pla-e in an( through
various spatial s-ales$ an( that may e -ru-ial in the institutionali4ation of ne+ s-ales.
&3
6n a +or($
11
ne+ regionalism is oth the -onte7t an( result of the ongoing re-scaling of the state.
&&
Politi-al
geographers an( politi-al s-ientists (evelope( the lael )ne+ regionalism, 5ust to remin( that +hile
ol( approa-hes on regionalism +ere often ase( on e-onomi-ally fo-use( integration theory$ ne+
approa-hes ha( to go eyon( them an( to emphasise so-ial$ politi-al an( -ultural (imensions as
+ell. For some authors the -on-ept of ne+ regionalism relate( to politi-al e-onomy is no+ passF
it is suggeste( that the rise of relational thin2ing an( the emergen-e of the -ity%region -on-ept$ for
e7ample$ re8uire roa(er -on-eptuali4ation of regionality an( the -on-ept of region$ perhaps even
a sear-h for a Gne+ geography of the regionH.
&5
The resurgence of the region$ the E% and the ne regionalism
A numer of s-holars have tra-e( the meanings of regions in the -onte7t of ne+ regionalism.
&'

From his e7amination of supra%state regions Eettne argues that the region is not of interest as su-h
ut rather in its spe-ifi- roles$ for instan-e$ as a supranational or )+orl(, region in the pro-ess of
+i(er transformation.
&>
Further$ regions are not )given, ut are -reate( an( re-reate( in the pro-ess
of transformation. 0egions are territorially ase( susystems of the international system$ an( there
are many varieties of su-h susystems +ith (ifferent (egrees of +hat Eettne terms )regionness,.
/his refers to the (egree to +hi-h a parti-ular region -onstitutes a )-oherent region,. 6t is often
(iffi-ult to shape +hat this purporte( -oheren-e -oul( mean. 6n +hi-h sense may su-h supra state
regions as the 1U$ ;10BOSU0 or *AF/A e regar(e( as )-oherent,I /hey may e -oherent in
terms of -ertain forms of share( e-onomi-%institutional governan-e ut -ertainly not in the sense
that most national states or histori-al su%state regions are that is popular i(entifi-ation +ith su-h
1!
supra%state regions may e +ea2. 6t may of -ourse e an important goal for a -ommunity to -reate
prere8uisites su-h i(entifi-ation$ as has een the -ase in the 1U$ for e7ample.
&?
S-ale matters. For regional a-tivists an( so-ial movements it is mostly the units et+een lo-al
s-ale an( the state that are signifi-ant$ an( most ovious this is in the -ase of )ethno%regionalism,$
that is regional movements represente( y minority nationalist groups in 1urope an( else+here
=su-h as in <ritain$ Bana(a an( SpainA. At times regions an( their i(entities are regar(e( important
in terms of -ulture
&#
at times they are a--entuate( e-ause of the nee( to (emo-rati4e governan-e.
5"
Su-h roles of regions as pools of po+er may +ea2en the lin2s et+een national i(entities an(
-iti4enship.
51
/his fa-t may also e use( as a strategy to regionali4e state spa-e to resolve ethno%
territorial -onfli-ts. /he regionali4ation of Spain in 1#?1$ for instan-e$ an( the respe-tive
intro(u-tion of regional autonomies has strengthene( regional i(entities in many regions an( also
lea( to ne+ forms of regional a-tivism. /he -ase of Gali-ia sho+s the impa-t of su-h
regionali4ation on the reshaping of the politi-al stru-tures in this area$ +hereas the <as8ue -ountry
an( Valen-ia sho+ ho+ ol( forms of regional%-ultural regionalism may -onstitute ne+ forms of
regionalism as part of the politi-al%e-onomi- res-aling.
5!

Feli7 Biuta suggests that regions play a signifi-ant role as legitimating politi-al ve-tors an( that
region%ma2ing trans-en(s the oun(ary et+een theory an( poli-y.
53
1urope has provi(e( a
parti-ularly fas-inating arena to e7amine su-h trans-en(ing e7er-ises sin-e regional transformation
has o--urre( in this -onte7t for (e-a(es at various s-ales. Eori4ontal e7pansion an( simultaneous
strive to remove the internal or(ers of the 1U has -hange( (ramati-ally the oun(aries of 1urope
in oth pra-ti-e an( imagination. Other organi4ations su-h as *A/O or the Boun-il of 1urope
13
have further -ompli-ate( the 1uropean meta%geography$ fusing the hori4ontal an( verti-al
spatialities so that it is (iffi-ult to (istinguish su-h -lear spatialities in the ongoing re%s-aling of the
1uropean spa-e. 6(eas an( pra-ti-es flo+ oth verti-ally an( hori4ontally.
5&
6f it +as relatively easy
to i(entify -ompeting i(eas of 1urope until the 1#?"s$ su-h as )1urope as an e7perien-e( unit,$ a
)stru-tural or geographi-al 1urope, an( )1urope as an institution,
55
$ the 2ey a-tors running the
(ominating institutional 1urope 9 the 1uropean Union % have no+ ta2en the lea( an( a-tively
promote regional (ynami-s through planning an( (evelopment pra-ti-es an( y promoting i(eas of
1uropean i(entity an( 1uropean -iti4enship.
Su-h spatial i(eas are (outless attra-tive to politi-ians an( planners +ho see the region an(
regional i(entity as ne+ magi- +or(s for (eveloping e-onomy through -ulture an( as important
-ohesive elements for so-ial life. 6n the ne+ (is-ourse a-a(emi- narratives on regions an(
governmental pra-ti-es have e-ome in-reasingly fuse(. /he 1U relate( pro-ess of state re%
s-aling has resulte( in an in-reasing -ompetition et+een regions3 a ten(en-y that is relate( oth to
the neo%lierali4ation of the gloal e-onomy an( to a regionalist response y regional a-tors.
5'

Alun Jones suggests that parti-ularly the international )region%uil(ing, y the state an( the 1U
politi-al a-tors is ase( on a triple logi- of mar2ets$ (emo-ra-y an( regional multilateralism.
5>

1uropean politi-s an( planning have respe-tively +itnesse( a shift to e-onomi-
)entrepreneurialism, on the su%state regional level in pursuit of gloal -ompetitiveness$ +hi-h has
enale( the )re-ruitment of lo-ally (efine( i(entities to strategies for -ompetitiveness,.
5?
Statisti-al
*U/S regions are -ru-ial in -reating the vision of )the 1urope of regions, an( rather than eing
meaningless$ the lo-ation of regional oun(aries -an prove of huge e-onomi- importan-e in
regional poli-y.
1&
One more e7ample of the sear-h for a ne+ regional (ynami- in the 1U is the )unusual, or )non%
stan(ar(, regions. /he map of su-h units in 1urope is very -omple7.
5#
;ost of these appro7imately
15" units are lo-al or regional -ross%or(er regions lo-ate( et+een t+o states ut some larger%
s-ale regional -onstru-tions en-ompass several states =e.g. the <alti- Sea regionA. /hese units aim
at lo+ering state or(ers an( are fitting e7amples of ne+ regions that often la-2 regional histori-al
asis ut are rather )pro5e-ts, of planners an( politi-ians. /hey are steps to+ar(s a )monotopi-
1urope,$ a )seamless an( integrate( spa-e +ithin the -onte7t of the 1uropean pro5e-t,$ as Ole <.
Jensen an( /im 0i-har(son lael it.
'"

Bross%or(er regions +ere also -entral to Ohmae,s )or(erless +orl(, thesis. Ee argue( that
nation%states +ill e$ at least e-onomi-ally$ superse(e( y )regional states,$ su-h as *orthern 6taly$
<a(en%:Krtemerg$ :ales$ San Diego//i5uana$ Eong @ong/Southern Bhina$ an( the Sili-on
Valley//he <ay area in Balifornia$ +hi-h he suggeste( that in a )or(erless +orl(, +oul( e )the
natural e-onomi- 4ones,.
'1
:hat is para(o7i-al in at least some of these regions is that e-onomi-
(evelopment an( ne+ forms of regionali4ation have -reate( strong regionalist an( nationalist
movements. /he rise of the )Pa(anian nationalism, in *orthern 6taly is the -ase in point. /he Cega
*or( =the *orthern CeagueA has attempte( to invent an ethni-ity for *orthern 6taly =Pa(aniaA an(
therey 5ustify its politi-al -laims for the prote-tion of the e-onomi- interests of the region.
'!

/hese e7amples sho+ that a numer of -ompeting regional frames thus shape the (aily +orl(s of
the 1U -iti4ens. /hese also manifest themselves in -on-rete poli-y su-h as through the
implementation of stru-tural fun(s. 6n spite of their in-reasing importan-e little is nevertheless
15
2no+n of the pro(u-tion an( repro(u-tion of regions$ an( the roles of lo-al$ regional an( state
oun(aries$ symoli4ations an( various i(entity narratives therein. /he ne7t se-tion raises some
theoreti-al perspe-tives in or(er to tra-e these pro-esses -on-erning the region.
Theoretical perspectives on region
:hereas the region has long een a ma5or -ategory of analysis for geographers sin-e the
estalishment of the fiel( in the late nineteenth -entury
'3
$ also the representatives of su-h fiel(s as
history$ 60 or politi-al s-ien-e have -ome more re-ently$ first in the 1#'"s ut mu-h more
prominently sin-e the 1#?"s. to s-rutini4e the (imensions of regions an( i(eas regar(ing their
i(entities.
'&
0egion is a -ompli-ate( -ategory sin-e it rings together oth material an( )virtual,
elements$ as +ell as very (iverging so-ial pra-ti-es an( (is-ourses. :e normally see regions only
on maps ut 2no+ their e7isten-e via the territorial pra-ti-es of governan-e an( me(ia. /here are
(ifferent 2in(s of regions. 0egion refers in most (eates on ne+ regionalism to administrative
units. /hey -an e simultaneously functional regions$ that are ase($ for e7ample$ on laour
mar2ets. /he thir( e7ample is homogeneous or formal regions +hi-h are ase( on the
-lassifi-ation of human an( physi-al features. /ra(itionally su-h regional spa-es +ere tra-e( on all
spatial s-ales$ from regional to gloal$ y regional geographers +ho laelle( them as )geographi-al
regions,. Su-h regions +ere presente( as regional (ivisions that trie( to (istinguish homogeneous$
-ohesive units ase( on the features of nature an( -ulture.
'5
Perhaps the est 2no+n e7ample of
su-h in(i-ator%ase( regions outsi(e geographi- literature is the mu-h%-riti-i4e( )-ultural realms,
i(entifie( y Samuel Euntington.
''

1'
Assumptions of -ertain -ohesion also e7ist to(ay in -onne-tion +ith a(ministrative regions an(
in(ee( this is one of the impli-it assumptions in the 1U,s poli-y on regions. /his is further implie(
y authors su-h as ;i-hael @eating +ho suggests that a region is a -onstru-tion of (iverging
elements +ith greater or lesser -ohesion. Ee further -onten(s that +here )geographi-al, elements
su-h as nature or lan(s-ape$ e-onomi- -ohesion$ -ultural i(entity$ a(ministrative apparatus$
popular i(entity an( territorial moili4ation -oin-i(e in spa-e$ strong regionalism results.
'>

/he i(ea of region as a -ohesive unit has een -hallenge( re-ently y so%-alle( relational thin2ers
+ho argue that gloali4ation an( the general rise of a so-iety of transnational flo+s an( net+or2s
no+ prevents a -on-eptuali4ation of su-h units in terms of spatially oun( pro-esses an(
institutions. <oun(e( regions an( regionalism are seen as regressive for-es. Su-h arguments have
een presente( parti-ularly y <ritish s-holars +ho have typi-ally stu(ie( the south east of
1nglan( an( parti-ularly the Con(on area.
'?
Su-h vie+s on regions are in pra-ti-e politi-al%
normative statements that are ase( more often on this rather spe-ial -ase rather than on roa(
-omparative perspe-tive. As the rise of regionalism at various s-ales sho+s$ region an(
regionalism matter$ (emonstrating the perpetual role of territoriality in so-ial life. /hat they matter
(oes not mean that +e shoul( un(erstan( regions inevitaly as oun(e($ uni8ue units =+hi-h may
of -ourse e the -ase in regionalism that (ra+s on e7-lusive ethni- relationsA. Bontemporary
regions are in-reasingly ase( on so-ial pra-ti-es$ pro-esses an( (is-ourses that may have their
origins oth in regions an( outsi(e of them. Planners$ politi-ians$ entrepreneurs an( (evelopers
effe-tively lean on regions in organi4ing an( governing the spatiality of so-ial an( politi-al life$
an( often e7ploit the narratives of regional i(entities.
'#

1>
Simply state($ s-ale matters. For some s-holars regions )represent s-alar territorial po+er
-ontainers in an( through +hi-h (ifferent visions of so-ial 5usti-e flo+ an( are -onteste(,.
>"
A
(ivision of laor seems to e7ist among s-holars y +hi-h for geographers the region is typi-ally a
su%state -ategory +hile for politi-al s-ientists an( e-onomists it is usually supra%state entities that
e7ist as susystems of the international system. A similar (istin-t arises -on-erning the i(ea of
regional i(entity. :hereas geographers often tra-e su-h i(entities in su%state regions$ ;orten
<oLs an( Eelge Eveem$ for e7ample$ loo2 at the Afri-an$ Asian an( )len(e( regionalism, an(
a((ress the role of regional i(entity in su-h ma-ro%-onte7ts. Eo+ever$ they (o not spe-ify +hat
regional i(entity -oul( a-tually mean in the -ase of su-h )regions, .
>1

Regions as social constructs
/he previous (is-ussion (emonstrate( that (ifferent regions emerge for (ifferent purposes.
;i-hael @eating has usefully summari4e( this -omple7ityF
A region may have a histori- resonan-e or provi(e a fo-us for the i(entity of its inhaitants.
6t may represent a lan(s-ape$ an ar-hite-ture or a style of -oo2ing. /here is often a -ultural
element$ perhaps represente( y a (istin-t language or (iale-t. <eyon( this$ a region may
sustain a (istin-t -ivil so-iety$ a range of so-ial institutions. 6t -an e an e-onomi- unit$ ase(
either on a single type of pro(u-tion or an integrate( pro(u-tion system. 6t may e$ an(
in-reasingly is$ a unit of government an( a(ministration. Finally$ all these meanings may or
may not -oin-i(e$ to a greater or lesser (egree.
>!

1?
One 2ey to unravelling this -omple7ity is to re-ogni4e regions as so-ial -onstru-ts that (o not rise
in a va-uum ut that are made in roa(er so-ial pra-ti-e % regions are hen-e -onteste( results of
po+er relations.
>3
Su-h approa-hes -hallenge tra(itional i(eas of regions as given$ oun(e($
ahistori-al entities that have a spe-ifi- essen-e an( a permanent i(entity. Bonstru-tivist approa-hes
have le( later to some+hat uneasy e7pressions su-h as )region%uil(ing,$ +hi-h has a -ertain
fun-tionalist tuning an( implies that regions are simply ma(e of some stuff y manipulating this.
0egion%uil(ing shoul( not e un(erstoo( so literally. 0ather regions shoul( e seen as
-ompli-ate( -onstellations of agen-y$ so-ial relations an( po+er. 0egions are institutional
stru-tures an( pro-esses that are perpetually )e-oming, instea( of 5ust )eing,. /hey have a
material asis groun(e( in e-onomi- an( politi-al relations. Various time s-ales -ome together in
su-h pro-esses. Similarly so-ial institutions su-h as -ulture$ me(ia an( a(ministration are -ru-ial in
these pro-esses an( in the pro(u-tion an( repro(u-tion of -ertain )stru-tures of e7pe-tations, for
these units. Su-h stru-tures are the asis for the narratives of i(entity$ moili4ation of -olle-tive
memory$ an( they also -onstitute the visile an( invisile so-ial )gel, ase( on values$ norms an(
i(eologies.
>&
0egion%uil(ing -an e un(erstoo( only in a frame+or2 of so-ial (ivision of laour
an( this a--entuates parti-ularly the role of =regionalA e-onomi-$ politi-al an( -ultural/me(ia elites
in the pro(u-tion of regions an( i(entity narratives.
An analytical (istin-tion et+een )ol(, an( )ne+, regions helps to un(erstan( the nature of the
)region%uil(ing, pro-ess in the 1uropean -onte7t. /he former sees regions as having normally
emerge( along +ith the history$ have gra(ually e-ome estalishe( parts of governan-e$ may e
meaningful entities for -iti4ens an( may therefore e important sour-es of regional i(entity an(
even emotions. Su-h histori-al regions e7ist in most 1uropean states =many S+iss Bantons$ Dut-h
1#
or 6talian histori-al provin-es or <ritish regions$ for e7ampleA. 6n -ontrast$ )ne+ regions, are
typi-ally -reate( as a( ho- pro5e-ts that aim at (eveloping or in-reasing the -ompetitiveness of the
spatial unit in 8uestion. 6n the -ase of -ross%or(er regions the 2ey motive may also e to lo+er the
oun(aries et+een states. As ureau-rati- -onstru-ts su-h units may e rather separate from the
(aily lives of -iti4ens an( their spatial i(entifi-ations. ;any of 1U,s -ross%or(er regions are
typi-al e7amples of su-h pro5e-t%ase( regions. On the other han($ the a-tors operating in some
ne+ regions may partly (ra+ on histori-al -onne-tions in the region uil(ing pro5e-ts. :hile the
)histori-al (epth, of ol( an( ne+ regions may hen-e (iffer ra(i-ally$ oth types of regions may
have also -ommon elementsF they -an result from -onteste( e-onomi-$ politi-al an( -ultural
pro-esses3 may e7ist some time3 an( they may also vanish. 6n pra-ti-e su-h types of regions may
e overlapping an( the a-tors -ontriuting to the region 9uil(ing pro-esses in ne+ regions may
partly e7ploit the institutional stru-tures an( infrastru-tures that have emerge( along +ith ol(
regions. *e+ regions are often -reate( y follo+ing the same pattern. At first a set of =at times
-onteste(A politi-al$ e-onomi- or -ultural (is-ourses are -reate( -on-erning the possiility of a
region. Su-h i(eas are then intro(u-e( into plans an( maps an( ultimately regions may e-ome
materiali4e( so that they have an effe-t on the a-tions of -iti4ens an( on roa(er so-ial pra-ti-es.
The institutionalization of regions
Eo+$ then$ are +e to -on-eptuali4e the (imensions of su-h region%uil(ing pro-essesI One
solution is provi(e( y the theory of the institutionalization of regions
>5
+hi-h has provi(e( a
a-2groun( in re-ent (eates on regions an( +hi-h has een use( in the analysis of the emergen-e
of regions an( regional i(entities in su-h (iverse -onte7ts as Finlan($ Denmar2$ the U@$ USA$
!"
Germany$ Spain or 6taly.
>'
/his general an( fle7ile approa-h suggests that regions shoul( e
-on-eptuali4e( as histori-ally -ontingent pro-esses. 6t also -laims -ertain openness in the sense
that the -onstitutive po+ers of regions may originate oth from the region an( from the outsi(e.
Su-h a -laim is parti-ularly -ru-ial in the 1U. /he (is-ourses an( pra-ti-es aroun( the )1urope of
regions,$ for e7ample$ are mo(ifying ho+ the region is un(erstoo( an( e7ploite( in 1urope to(ay.
@ey instruments in shaping this imagination are the statisti-al *U/S regions that ren(er possile
-omparisons et+een various states an( regions. Su-h regions are sometimes meaningful histori-al
units or a( ho- units -reate( for the purpose of governan-e.
Four stages -an astra-te( for analyti-al purposes from the pro-ess of the institutionali4ation of
regions. Su-h stages (o not neatly follo+ ea-h other an( their or(er -an vary3 in most -ases su-h
pro-esses o--ur simultaneously. For the first$ the e7isten-e of a region al+ays (ra+s on a -ertain
territorial shape that emerges along +ith history =+hat +e -an -all )ol( regions,$ +hi-h is itself
(istin-t from the 60 -on-eption of )ol(, regionalism A or is simply (e-i(e( a( ho- =ne+ regionsA.
/his shape is often use( to (istinguish the unit in 8uestion from others that is in so-ial
-lassifi-ation. Su-h (istin-tion is normally ase( on a -omination of fun-tional$ politi-al$
e-onomi-$ -ultural an( a(ministrative pra-ti-es. ;a2ing an( (e-i(ing regional oun(aries is
typi-ally a -onteste( pro-ess an( may e -ru-ial e.g. for the e-onomi- su--ess of regional
e-onomies. 6n the 1U$ for e7ample$ the lo-ation of the oun(aries of a region -an ra(i-ally (efine
the level of e-onomi- support that the a-tors in a region -an re-eive from the 1U fun(s. /erritorial
shaping thus refers to the emergen-e an( e7isten-e of oun(aries +hi-h -an vary from )soft, to
)har(, that is oun(aries -an vary from pra-ti-ally open an( insignifi-ant to more or less -lose(.
1ven the roles of the (ifferent oun(aries of a single region -an vary$ as happens +hen regional
!1
or(ers also serve as a state or(er. 6n most -ases su-h or(ers are more -lose( than those that
open insi(e the territory. /he -ross%or(er region poli-y in the 1U has striven a-tively to re(u-e
su-h or(ers pre-isely y ma2ing ne+ regions.
Symbolic shaping refers to the pro-ess of naming an( the -reation of a((itional symols that
normally oth e7press an( strengthen the i(ea of the e7isten-e of a spe-ifi- region an( regional
i(entity. Similarly as the emergen-e of the oun(e( shape$ also the ma2ing of symoli- shape is
often a -onteste($ uni8ue pro-ess. *aming a region often rings together -ultural$ histori-al an(
politi-al interests an( is an e7pression of po+er relations. Pla-e names$ often lin2e( together +ith
lan(s-ape features$ en-o(e the share( past an( (istinguish the memers of one group from others
an( may e-ome important elements of -olle-tive i(entity.
>>
A fitting an( topi-al state%level
e7ample of the po+er of names is );a-e(onia, that has provo2e( a (ispute et+een ;a-e(onia
an( Gree-e. :hile that -ase is parti-ularly +ell%2no+n$ this also hol(s +ith lo+er regional s-ales
an( other symolsF the -hoi-e of the )i-onography, for a region may e a (eeply -onteste( pro-ess.
An analysis of the institutionali4ation of Finnish provin-es$ for e7ample$ sho+s that the naming
an( re%naming of regions have een signifi-ant politi-al issue. Similarly a ma5or puli- (eate
arose in Finlan( in the late 1##"s +hen almost all tra(itional -ounty names +ere -hange( +hen the
numer of -ounties +as re(u-e( from 11 to five.
>?
Su-h struggles over regional or territorial
symols may also e on formal symols su-h as flags or -oats of arms$ or more mun(ane symols
su-h as the naming of regional foo(s$ ir(s$ or songs. Burrently intensifying region an( pla-e
mar2eting has a((e( a ne+ (imension in regional symolism gloally. 0egional tra(itions an(
-urrent e-onomi- e7pe-tations are no+ often -omine( +ith fan-y symolisms that are -reate( to
!!
attra-t investments an( )right, =e(u-ate($ +ealthyA people to live in regions. /his is parti-ularly
-ru-ial in the -ontemporary tourism usiness.
Institutional shaping is part an( par-el of the emergen-e of territorial an( symoli- shape an( this
refers to the (evelopment of informal an( formal institutions that are nee(e( to pro(u-e an(
repro(u-e other shapes. Some institutions -an thus e haits or (iale-ts that are regar(e( as
)regional +ays of (oing things, or to e7press oneself )regionally,$ +hile some other institutions -an
e formal so-ial or politi-al organi4ations. 0egional institutions have een regar(e( as highly
signifi-ant in re-ent regional (evelopment literature +here the -on-ept )institutional thi-2ness, has
een use( to (epi-t not only the e7isten-e of su-h institutions as firms$ finan-ial institutions$
-hamers of -ommer-e$ lo-al authorities$ innovation -enters$ e(u-ational estalishments$ et-. ut
aove all their intera-tion an( net+or2ing oth insi(e the region an( e7ternally. Part of this i(ea is
the rise of a -ommon agen(a$ or a )-ognitive map, of the region.
>#
Bonse8uently the -on-ept of
regional i(entity has e-ome signifi-ant an( resear-hers have -onse8uently i(entifie( +hat they
have terme( in(ustrial regional i(entities an( entrepreneurial regionalism.
?"
/he establishment of the region means that it is a--epte( as part of the regional system an( roa(er
so-ial -ons-iousness. /his stage has (ifferent meanings at various spatial s-ales. At the supra%state
level it is the institutional fun-tioning of the unit that gives it legitima-y. /he estalishment of a
state territory re8uires that the sovereignty of this unit is re-ogni4e(. At su%national level su-h
estalishment is normally ase( on gaining an a(ministrative status in the roa(er regional system.
0espe-tively the institutionali4ation of a region is a--ompanie( +ith the (e%institutionali4ation of
some other regional units +hi-h ta2es pla-e either through integration or (ispersion. 1stalishe(
!3
regions are then )rea(y, to e use( in struggles over po+er an( resour-es =+hi-h manifests itself
most typi-ally in regional poli-yA an( they are then repro(u-e( in (is-ourses an( so-ial pra-ti-es
=in politi-s$ e-onomy$ me(ia/-ulture$ e(u-ationA that partly (ra+ on +hat Painter has laele( as
)-artographi- an7iety,.
?1
/his refers to the signifi-an-e an( (ominan-e of geographi-al information
an( maps in ma2ing sense of the regional +orl(s.
0egions (o not rise in a va-uum. /he institutionali4ation perspe-tive puts stress on the histori-al
pro-ess$ the (ivision of laor an( po+er relations in the pro(u-tion an( repro(u-tion of regionsF
some a-tors 9 in(ivi(uals an( -olle-tives li2e asso-iations$ planning o(ies an( firms =+hi-h are
themselves also ase( on a (ivision of laourA -ontriuting to the )institutional thi-2ness,
?!
$ may
a-tively pro(u-e regional spa-es +hile others rather repro(u-e them. An( this -omple7 matri7 of
po+er relations is su5e-t to a perpetual -hange that normally results from oth internal an(
e7ternal transformations. 0egions are -onstru-te( an( re-onstru-te( in uneven +ays that asi-ally
(efy all assumptions of hierar-hi-al s-alar neatness an( often refle-t struggle aroun( su-h themes
as +hat are the i(entities an( oun(aries of these entities.
?3
0egion is thus not a fi7e( )s-ale,3
rather it is a perpetual an( (ynami- pro-ess of s-aling the pra-ti-es an( (is-ourses through +hi-h
the previous shapes are pro(u-e( an( repro(u-e(.
Rescaling state system and the shapes of regions
As note( aove$ mu-h of the -urrent (eate on regions -hallenges the roles of regional oun(aries
in the gloali4ing +orl( an( the politi-s ase( on oun(e( regions.
?&
Eo+ever$ 6 +ill argue that it
is -learly the institutional shape of regions that fa-es the ma5or -hallenges in the -onte7t of
!&
gloali4ation$ an( not ne-essarily )or(ers, that may in some respe-ts e simultaneously open$ an(
in some others more -lose(. /hat human eings$ i(eas an( -apital in-reasingly -ross or(ers an(
regions are -onstitute( in an intera-tion et+een )e7ternal, an( )internal, fa-tors is un(eniale.
Eo+ever$ 6 +ill argue that rather than or(ers$ it is the transformation of the institutional sphere
that )(ra+s, the region as part of roa(er e-onomi-$ politi-al$ -ultural pra-ti-e an( po+er relations
an( that their symoli- an( territorial shape -an at the same time remain more or less the same an(
e-ome even )thi-2er, 5ust (ue to this in-reasing intera-tion an( the fa-t that region is employe( in
regional mar2eting. 6t is also useful to re-ogni4e that or(ers are not merely lines limiting spa-es.
0ather oun(aries manifest themselves in so-ial pra-ti-es all over in a )oun(e(, so-iety an( these
pra-ti-es may +ell e lin2e( +ith the e7ternal +orl($ espe-ially in terms of e-onomy.
?5
<oun(aries
may manifest themselves in pra-ti-es an( institutions that pro(u-e (istin-tion =in the -ase of
nations su-h institutions may in-lu(e flagging (ays$ national -eremonies an( para(es$ in the -ase
of regions$ su-h as festivals$ regional symolism$ regional museums$ ar-hives$ an( ne+spapersA
Part of su-h institutions (ra+ on emotional an( histori-al atta-hments +ith a region$ some others
on efforts to enefit from su-h elements in e-onomi- terms. 0egions an( their i(entities may hen-e
e -ru-ial in moili4ing e-onomi- interests$ su-h as in the form of +hat 1laine 0omanelli an( Olga
;. @hessina lael regional in(ustrial i(entities.
?'
/hey un(erstan( this as a so-ial -o(e that arises
from the share( un(erstan(ings of resi(ents an( e7ternal au(ien-es regar(ing the suitaility of a
region for parti-ular 2in(s of usiness a-tivity an( investment.
Bertain oun(e(ness of spa-es may also e -ru-ial to so-ial movements that e7ploit regionalist
arguments either e-ause their -on-erns are lin2e( +ith a territory or e-ause the territory is not
strongly -oloni4e( y e7isting movements.
?>
6n many -ases ne+ forms of regionali4ation of state
!5
spa-es has le( to the revival an( emergen-e of regionalism ut regionali4ation may as +ell e a
rea-tion to manage regionalist -laims an( may even strengthen regionalism. Su-h resurgen-e of
regionalism has happene($ for e7ample$ in Gali-ia$ in Spain after 1#?1$ +hen this region gaine(
regional autonomy.
??
. /he (evolution in the U@ in 1##> has similarly fe( regionalist thin2ing.
0egions thus provi(e a -onte7t for -ertain spa-es of (epen(en-e through +hi-h a-tors -an -on(u-t
their engagements.
?#

/he (egree to +hi-h regions are regar(e( as -lose( an( oun(e( or open an( permeale is thus
ultimately -onte7t%(epen(ent$ an( not a purely theoreti-al or politi-al%normative -hoi-e. 6n spite of
the (egree of their openness regions may e -ru-ial in so-ial i(entifi-ation +hi-h is often ase( on
(istin-tions an( a-tive moili4ation of history$ memory an( emotions. ;emory of the past an( the
a--ounts through +hi-h su-h memory is presente( is often fo-using on oun(e( regions an(
regional i(entity.
#"
The invention of regional identity
Ci2e the region$ regional i(entity has also e-ome a -at-hphrase sin-e the 1#?"s an( has een
re-ogni4e( as an important element in the ma2ing of regions as so-ial an( politi-al spa-es. ;ar2
/e+(+r%Jones an( Philip Allmen(inger note ho+ i(entity remains an ongoing prolem for
politi-ians an( poli-yma2ers +ho often e7ploit su-h -olle-tive i(entity narratives in regional
poli-y (eates.
#1
6t is nevertheless (iffi-ult to elu-i(ate +hat this i(entity -onsists of an( ho+ it
affe-ts -olle-tive a-tion an( politi-s. 0egional i(entity has also e-ome a slogan for planning an(
regional governan-e an( it is often use( in a relate( sense as so-ial -apital. 6(entity is thus
!'
un(erstoo( as a )soft, tool$ one use( y authorities +orl(+i(e$ in the promotion of so-ial -ohesion$
regional mar2eting an( e-onomi- (evelopment. 6t is therefore important to re-ogni4e oth the
in(ivi(ual an( the institutional si(e of i(entity narratives.
6t is ovious in many -ountries that the res-aling of the regional system an( (evolution of po+er to
regional s-ale has ma(e su-h i(entities topi-al. On a more general level it has een suggeste( that
people,s a+areness of the pro-esses of gloali4ation generates a sear-h for ne+ orientation points$
an( oth affirm ol( oun(aries an( -reate ne+ ones that is regional i(entity an( a sear-h for roots
+oul( e a rea-tion to eing in the )+i(er +orl(,$ not merely an in+ar(s loo2ing state of affairs.
#!

:hether or not regional ties motivate people into -onfli-t +ith their respe-tive state =often
interse-ting their affiliation to )nations,A$ a phenomenon o--urring in many regions aroun( the
+orl($ from <as8ue -ountry to Sri Can2a$ elonging to a region may raise a sense of i(entity that
-hallenges the e7isting hegemoni- national i(entity narratives in -ultural or e-onomi- terms.
#3
On
the one han($ as Davi( Earvey suggests that territorial i(entities$ espe-ially +hen -onflate( +ith
)ra-e,$ gen(er$ religious an( -lass (ifferentiation$ are among the most (ynami- ases for oth
progressive politi-al moili4ation an( rea-tionary$ e7-lusionary politi-s.
#&
On the other han($
-ultural gloalism has e-ome the every(ay filter through +hi-h a national an( regional
atta-hment =one,s )sense of pla-e,A is (evelope( an( e7presse( an($ respe-tively$ this may raise a
8uestion of the -hanging relations et+een parti-ularisti- an( -osmopolitan interests 9 neither of
+hi-h remains -onstant.
Strong senses of regional i(entity$ often -utting affiliation to e7isting nations$ have een reporte(
roun( the +orl($ ut very little -riti-al resear-h an( 2no+le(ge e7ists on this phenomenon. ;any
!>
stu(ies on regional i(entity often start from a set of suppositions. /he first i(ea is that -ultural
(istin-tiveness or i(entity of a region is an empiri-al phenomenon that -an e simply mappe( y
tra-ing su-h -ultural elements as (iale-ts$ musi-$ regional foo($ literature$ an( fol2lore. as
in(i-ators. Ultimately regional i(entity is a lael reserve( for the e7isten-e of a 2in( of spatial
shape for these traits. /he analysis of any of these features is then regar(e( as an illustration of
regional i(entity$ +hi-h seems to lea( to a rather loose use of this -ategory in resear-h. 6n this
sense i(entity is un(erstoo( to e a feature of the )region, that -an e mappe($ rather than a feature
of the regional -ons-iousness of the people living there. )0egion, is then ta2en as a given stage
+here all this happens. On the other han($ un(erstan(ing regional i(entity as a regional
-ons-iousness often egins from an assumption that surveys -arrie( out among or(inary people
-an reveal the -hara-ter an( po+er of regional i(entity$ an assumption that often passes the
theoreti-al an( metho(ologi-al prolems of that are hi((en in all so-ial -lassifi-ations. Su-h
surveys namely formali4e$ lael an( mo(ify the -ultural (is-ourse an( the -ategories so that
or(inary people are simply for-e( to a(apt to given -lassifi-ations$ an( respe-tively i(entities. /his
has -learly een the prolem of so%-alle( 1uro%arometers$ for instan-e$ +hi-h as2 people to
-hoose their )regional i(entity, et+een given regional levels. On a general level su-h -omparisons
may of -ourse reveal -ertain (ifferen-es et+een states.
1ven if many stu(ies (emonstrate that people often i(entify themselves +ith their home region$
elonging to a region is not a self%evi(ent. ;any people simply (o not refle-t these 8uestions in
spatial terms in their (aily life$ an asen-e -ompoun(e( y many people,s moility. At the personal
level regional i(entity/-ons-iousness provi(es presumaly an ans+er to the 8uestion )+here (o 6
elong,I /his ans+er is often ase( on a personal or family spatial history$ +hi-h is in-reasingly
!?
less oun( to one spe-ifi- region. /his prolem is of -ourse multiplie( among immigrants an(
refugees. On the other han($ the ans+er to the 8uestion of +here (o )+e, elong raises again the
prolem of so-ial -lassifi-ation an( hen-e for-es the 8uestionF +ho is this )+e,I 0ather than eing
M2no+le(geM$ i(entifi-ation +ith the lo-al or regional -ommunity may represent MfeelingM an( rather
unrefle-tive parti-ipation in so-ial pra-ti-e an( linguisti- stru-tures of e7pe-tation. :hat +e -all an
i(entity is proaly generally performe( through one,s (aily a-tivities than e7pli-itly arti-ulate(.
#5

*evertheless -ertain -ontinuity over time an( so-ial an( spatial (ifferentiation from others are often
2ey elements of i(entity.
#'

6t is ovious that regional i(entities an( interests (o not al+ays -orrespon( +ith the 1U,s
simplifying -on-ept of +hat -onstitutes a )region,$ that is in terms of its statisti-al *U/S units. 6n
spite of its astra-t -hara-ter$ the i(ea of regional i(entity has een e7ploite( in su-h institutional
-onte7ts as the 1U,s -ohesion poli-ies 9 that is poli-ies that are aout a 5ust (istriution of
opportunities in spa-e 9 that are (evelope( to motivate )regions, to e7ploit their -ultural
-hara-teristi-s$ spe-ial s2ills an( so-ial -apital.
#>
Su-h aims have e-ome also visile in the fa-t
that regional i(entity has e-ome an o5e-t of intensive en-hmar2ing +ithin the 1U +ith the aim
to use this instrument to promote regional (evelopment. /his implies that ne+ forms of
governan-e are not only -reate( to manage regions ut also to map the most emotional aspe-ts of
regional -ivil so-iety an( the min(s of -iti4ens to moili4e them as assets in regional (evelopment.
0egional i(entity thus seems to refer$ in the -onte7t of the 1U$ to the aility of )regions, to rely on
their spe-ifi-ity in (eveloping their e-onomy or to provi(e ne+ sustainale an( attra-tive
environments for migrants see2ing )a ne+ +ay of life,. 6n the 1uropean Bommission,s fourth
report on e-onomi- an( so-ial -ohesion$ for e7ample$ -ultural i(entity$ lo-al tra(ition an(
!#
histori-al heritage are mentione( riefly in the -onte7t of rural areas$ an( the 2ey is to re-ogni4e
the -ommer-ial potential of these aspe-ts.
#?
Su-h poli-ies also a--entuate the role of territory in
attra-ting an( 2eeping high%8uality 5os that 1urope (epen(s on. A re-ent survey of 1uro%regions
foun( that strong i(entities are asso-iate( +ith peripheral lo-ation$ e-onomi-ally +ea2 areas$ lo+
level e(u-ation an( high relative levels of primary employment.
##
6n spite of this offi-ial rhetori-$ an( +hile the i(eas of multilevel -iti4enship/i(entity have emerge(
in the 1U$ little is a-tually 2no+n aout the meanings of regions as sour-es of i(entities$ as
-onstituents an( motivators of so-ial an( e-onomi- life$ an( ho+ these meanings +or2 +hen
regional stru-tures$ -ultural influen-es an( -iti4ens are in-reasingly moile.
1""
/he pro(u-tion an(
repro(u-tion of the (is-ourses on region are normally -ru-ial in estalishing the spatial frames for
regional i(entities. /his simply means that (eates on )regions, an( i(entities in-lu(e an element
of po+er as part of them. As <our(ieu has suggeste(
Struggles over ethni- or regional i(entity 9 in other +or(s$ over the properties =stigmata or
emlemsA lin2e( +ith the origin through the place of origin an( its asso-iate( (urale mar2s$
su-h as a--ent 9 are a parti-ular -ase of (ifferent struggles over -lassifi-ations$ struggles over
the monopoly of the po+er to ma2e people see an( elieve$ to get them to 2no+ an(
re-ogni4e$ to impose the legitimate (efinition of the (ivisions of the so-ial +orl($ an(
therey$ to make and unmake groups.
1"1
3"
&onceptuali#ing regional identity
/his se-tion +ill refle-t regional i(entity in -on-eptual terms an( tries to ma2e sense of the
-omple7 relations et+een in(ivi(ual a-tors an( so-io%regional stru-tures. 6 suggest that the
-on-ept of regional i(entity +eaves together elements that have e-ome signifi-ant in the
institutionali4ation pro-ess of a region an( +hi-h are present in its )stru-tures of e7pe-tations, that
is i(eas on regional unity$ the -hara-ter an( history of a so-ial -ommunity an( its spe-ial features
that are seen important in (istinguishing one region from others. Diverging )uil(ing%materials, are
relate( to regional i(entities an( they typi-ally put stress on the material%morphologi-al asisF
physi-al nature$ the history of human an( nature relations$ i.e. the history of +or2$ -ommunal
institutions =e-onomi-s$ a(ministration$ politi-s$ -ultureA or systems of symolism =language$
(iale-ts$ namingA an( values an( norms. Some s-holars a--entuate the roles of symoli-
oun(aries et+een )us, an( )them, ehin( the =+rittenA i(entities or narratives of )us, an( )our,
i(entity. Su-h (ivisions are use( at all spatial s-ales an( they are +ell theori4e( in the geographi-
an( 60 literature. /o ta2e ut one e7ample$ in Finlan( the narrative of national i(entity has
-ru-ially uilt on the (istin-tion et+een Finlan( an( Soviet Union/0ussia sin-e the nineteenth
-entury. /he pro(u-tion an( repro(u-tion of this (istin-tion$ at times a--entuating -ultural
(ifferen-e$ at times suggesting enemy images$ has histori-ally a--entuate( the importan-e of su-h
institutions as literature$ ne+spapers an( other me(ia$ as +ell as e(u-ation. Di-hotomies et+een
us an( them are use( in Finlan( at times also on the su%state regional level as a asis for the
narratives on regional i(entities an( to (istinguish provin-es from ea-h other
1"!
. Often su-h
(i-hotomies are maintaine( y regional me(ia an( they are ase( on purporte( trial or -olle-tive
features of their -iti4ens.
31
6t is useful to (istinguish analytically et+een the i(entity of a region an( the regional i(entity =or
regional -ons-iousnessA of the people living in it or outsi(e of it.
1"3
/he i(entity of a region points
to those elements of nature$ -ulture an( people that are use( in the (is-ourses an( -lassifi-ations of
s-ien-e$ politi-s$ -ultural a-tivism$ regional mar2eting$ tourism$ governan-e an( politi-al or
religious regionali4ation. /he aim of su-h -lassifi-ations is often simply to (istinguish one region
from others$ an( respe-tively su-h -lassifi-ations are a-ts of po+er performe( to (elimit$ name an(
symoli4e spa-e an( groups of people. /he regional i(entity of people or regional -ons-iousness$
for its part$ points to the i(entifi-ation of people +ith the regions. /his is multi%s-alar in the sense
that people may i(entify +ith a numer of spatial units an( relations that o--ur in various material
an( so-ial pro-esses. 0egional i(entifi-ation implies t+o intert+ine( -onte7tsF -ultural%histori-al
an( politi-al%e-onomi-. Politi-al i(eologies an( regionalism/nationalism (o not themselves
pro(u-e i(entifi-ation$ for the latter -omes 9 an( here -ulture an( history enter the stage 9 only if
)it interprets an( provi(es an appropriate attitu(e for an e7perien-e( reality,.
1"&
/his e7perien-e
may e politi-ally manipulate( ut any symol an( i(eology +ithout a relevant e7perien-e is
meaningless an( impotent in terms of evo2ing i(entifi-ation. So-ial psy-hologists in parti-ular
have emphasise( the motivational (imensions of i(entity pro-esses.
1"5
A parti-ular prolem in i(entity narratives -on-erns the relation et+een in(ivi(uals an(
institutions. <e-2 an( <e-2%Gersheim suggest that an in(ivi(ual,s -ontemporary life in the +estern
+orl( is very (epen(ent on institutions that$ instea( of in(ing tra(itions$ )appear on the s-ene to
organi4e your o+n life,.
1"'
/hey refer to the ureau-rati-%institutional 5ungle of mo(ernity +here
life is most se-urely oun( into net+or2s of gui(elines an( regulations. A--or(ingly$ formerly
3!
lo-al in(ivi(ual iographies have e-ome in-reasingly )gloali4e(,. /he 2ey 8uestion is ho+ the
narratives on i(entity e-ome elements of the )regional self%un(erstan(ing, or -ultural litera-y an(
ho+ i(entity narratives e-ome regionali4e(. Eere the institutions -onstitutive of the
institutionali4ation of regions =e-onomy$ governan-e$ language$ me(ia$ literatureA an( inherent
po+er relations are signifi-ant. 0espe-tively it is important to pay attention to (iverging so-ial
institutions$ an( regional a-tivists operating in su-h -onte7ts$ in the pro(u-tion of i(entity
narratives regar(ing oth the region an( people living there. Dis-ourses on regions or regional
i(entity$ in +hi-h a-tors =oth in(ivi(uals an( groupsA invest their interests an( presuppositions in
things$ may a-tually -reate a )reality, that they are (es-riing or suggesting.
1">
As ;-S+eeney
suggestsF
Bolle-tive i(entity is not out there$ +aiting to e (is-overe(. :hat is )out there, is i(entity
(is-ourse on the part of politi-al lea(ers$ intelle-tuals an( -ountless others$ +ho engage in the
pro-ess of -onstru-ting$ negotiating$ manipulating or affirming a response to the (eman( 9 at
times urgent$ mostly asent 9 for a -olle-tive image.
1"?
<en+ell an( Sto2oe lin2 spatial i(entity +ith narrative theory an( suggest that people e7press a
sense of !ho they are through stories aout !here they are.
1"#
Su-h stories are$ +hen +e thin2
regional i(entities$ inevitaly share( an( ta2e us to the prolem note( y ;-S+eeney. /he -itation
aove sho+s that +hat is important is the (ivision of laour$ so-ial positions an( po+er relations
+here su-h -olle-tive narratives % that regional i(entities partly are % are -reate(. *arrate(
-olle-tive i(entities are therefore often ideal identities +hi-h imply that i(eologi-al pra-ti-es an(
motives may e an important part of the (is-ourses on spatial i(entities. /hese (is-ourses are use(
33
y the me(ia in shaping spatial -ons-iousness an( so-ial pra-ti-es )from aove,$ an( are la(en
+ith e-onomi-$ -ultural an( politi-al interests. On the other han($ i(entity narratives may also
emerge from elo+ an( e )i(entities for resistan-e,.
11"
/his is often the -ase +ith suppresse(
minorities an( (ispla-e( people. Della Porta an( Diani suggest that i(entity pro(u-tion is a -ru-ial
-omponent of -olle-tive a-tion an( that this a-tion -an not o--ur +ithout a (istin-tion et+een an
i(entity groups$ i.e. )+e, an( the other.
111
Often this pro(u-es positive i(entifi-ation for )us, an(
negative for those +ho are not only e7-lu(e( ut also oppose($ at times also in relation to those
that are regar(e( as )neutral,. 6(entity (is-ourses may also e e7amples of +hat <our(ieu laels as
symoli- e7-hange$ that is the e7-hange of symoli- )goo(s,$ +hi-h points to a -ertain
(eferen-e.
11!
Unalan-e( e7-hange on )regional i(entity mar2ets, is thus a--epte( e-ause people
see that they may enefit from this situation more than from an a-tive =at times loo(yA struggle.
The institutionali#ation of 'innish provinces and their regional identities
As an e7ample of the ongoing res-aling of state spa-es in the 1U an( to sho+ ho+ previous
theoreti-al i(eas -ome together$ this se-tion e7amines the institutionali4ation pro-esses of
Finnish provin-es an( ho+ regional i(entities manifest themselves at oth in(ivi(ual an(
institutional level. Finnish provin-es (ate a-2 to the ;i((le Ages an( they have een
important units in -ultural politi-s sin-e the mi(%nineteenth -entury$ +hen some ne+
provin-es +ere institutionalise( as part of Finlan(,s regional system. /his o--urre( in the
-onte7t of the emerging spatial (ivisions of laour an( -ultural a-tivism that +ere
simultaneously part of the emerging nation%uil(ing pro-esses. :hile regions are )so-ial
-onstru-ts, this -onstru-tion also has a material asis. A ma5or motivation for this pro-ess in
3&
Finlan( +as to enhan-e -ir-ulation of -apital an( (ivision of laour +ith refle-tions starting
to appear in the spatial stru-ture in the form of features of pro(u-tion =the eginning of
-entrali4ation an( urani4ationA$ -onsumption =the rise of mar2et areasA an( -ir-ulation
=systems of transport an( -ommuni-ationA.
113
/his fun-tional%e-onomi- asis -hange( the
tra(itional territorial shape$ (eveloping a ne+ symoli- an( i(eologi-al organi4ation of
spa-e. Several possile regions have also e7iste( in (is-ourses$ plans an( maps in the -ourse
of almost 15" years$ ut many of them have never gaine( an estalishe( role. Provin-es
(iffer mar2e(ly in their institutionali4ation pro-esses$ even though the stages presente( aove
-an e i(entifie( in ea-h -ase. /he population varies from 1.3 million to less than 1""$"""
people an( population (ensity respe-tively from !1' to ! per 2mN. /he share et+een those
orn in the regions an( +ho migrate( there also varies -onsi(eraly.
11&
/he Provin-es$ no+ numering !"$ gaine( prominen-e in 1##& +hen the Finnish regional
system +as reshape( as part of the national strategy to fulfil the 1U,s regional system an( to
the a--elerating gloal e-onomi- -ompetition. :hen Finlan( entere( the 1U in 1##5$ ne+
0egional Boun-ils e-ame a ma5or me(ium in managing an( implementing 1U%ase(
planning an( (evelopment strategies. /he ol( )from elo+, Provin-ial Ceagues an( state%
oun( 0egional Planning Asso-iations +ere 5oine( together giving rise 9 an( a 5ustifi-ation %
to the provin-es. Provin-es e-ame -on-omitantly part of state%le( poli-y ut +ere
simultaneously for-e( to parta2e in )s-ale%5umping,$ in that they ha( to -reate ne+ lin2s to
the supra%national program ase( regional poli-y +ithin the 1U. 0egions e-ame (epen(ent
on supra%national (e-ision ma2ing sin-e 0egional Boun-ils have their representatives in the
1U,s Bommittee of 0egions. /he international role of the 0egional Boun-ils e7pan(e(
35
respe-tively an( international relations an( intera-tion et+een the a-tors in (ifferent regions
have e-ome part of (aily routine. <oth a verti-al an( hori4ontal res-aling has -onse8uently
o--urre(. Similarly the Boun-ils are involve( in (eveloping Union,s regional poli-y an( are
for-e( to (ra+ up the programmes re8uire( for the granting of support from 1U stru-tural
fun(s for their o+n provin-es/regions an( in part they also implement them. Politi-al
representatives in the -oun-ils have een -hosen from the ele-te( representatives from
muni-ipalities. Een-e$ -ontrary to other *or(i- -ountries S+e(en$ *or+ay an( Denmar2$
Finnish -iti4ens (o not -hoose their regional representatives y (ire-t ele-tions.
Provin-es have een represente( as -entral units for regional i(entifi-ation sin-e the first
(e-a(es of the t+entieth -entury even if empiri-al evi(en-e for this has remaine( very
-ontra(i-tory an( the intensity of i(entifi-ation varies from region to region. :hen people
+ere as2e($ in +hi-h provin-e their -urrent pla-e of resi(en-e is lo-ate( 9 a 8uestion that
mappe( perhaps more a -ognitive than emotional (imension of i(entifi-ation % people use(
various regional laels to name this )provin-e, that varies from the names of lo-al
muni-ipalities to those of provin-es an( -ounties.
115
/he vague role of su-h units is (outless
relate( to their +ea2 politi-al role. Some regions have a strong histori-al -ultural i(entity
+hile many others rather +ea2.
/his relative openness an( vague i(entity of these units has not prevente( the use of regional
i(entity rhetori- in the planning y Boun-ils. 6 present elo+ some e7amples from Provin-ial Plans
to illustrate ho+ regional i(entities are use( an( ho+ s-alar aspe-ts$ tra(ition$ myths an( regional
(evelopment optimism often -ome together in su-h narratives. /he plans +ere +ritten in !""3%
3'
!""5 in all Finnish provin-es that e-ame *U/S 3 areas in the 1##"s$ an( refle-t the 1U%ase(
=-ohesionA strategy an( a--entuate regional features an( i(entity$ illustrating ho+ a-tivities
o--urring at (ifferent spatial s-ales e-ome fuse(.
Strong provin-ial i(entity -reates a lively an( (istin-tive soli(arity among the people in the
region$ it strengthens -ommunity spirit an( -ooperation.
11'

Biti4ens +ho have a(opte( a strong Southern @arelian i(entity +ill +or2 in -ooperation on
ehalf of the +hole provin-e.
11>

0egional i(entity means inhaitant,s strong -ommitment +ith the home region. 6t is the
image that people hol( of the home area$ this image has to e ta2en into -onsi(eration in
(evelopment a-tivities an( to en-ourage people,s -reativity an( entrepreneurship. 6(entity is
greatly mo(ifie( y ho+ people feel they are esteeme(. A strong i(entity an( a positive
image are remar2ale resour-es in regional (evelopment. <oth of them -an e influen-e( y
positive -ommuni-ation.
11?

O/he provin-e ofP @ainuu has the nee( an( -apa-ity 9 ase( on its i(entity$ (istin-tiveness of
nature an( -ulture 9 to (evelop its -ompetitiveness y investing on the (evelopment of the
resour-es of the lo-al people$ that is on human$ e(u-ational an( so-ial -apital.
11#

/he rhetori- of the anonymous authorities ehin( the plans is often ase( on rather normative
narratives on regional i(entity$ at times implying a )spatial fetishism,$ that is presents a region as
3>
an a-tor that -an (o -ertain things an( fa-ilitate positive (evelopments. /he reports may thus
personali4e regions an( present them as -olle-tive a-tors that struggle +ith other regions. /hese
e7amples illustrate that politi-s is in-reasingly ma(e y fusing so-ial pra-ti-es so that institutional
nee(s an( poli-ies are effe-tively relate( to the purporte( +ill an( nee(s of -iti4ens. A further
oservation is that planning rhetori- (ra+ing on regional i(entity narratives seems to have e-ome
in-reasingly )gloali4e(, an( thus separate from the e7perien-e of or(inary -iti4ens. /he plans are
not ase( on the intervie+s of -iti4ens ut instea( lean strongly on normative assumptions an(
i(eas of a self%evi(ent e7isten-e of regional i(entities of so-ial -olle-tives. :hose regional i(entity
it is that previous -itations (epi-tI 6(entity (is-ourse e7ploits effe-tively an i(ea of astra-t
)-iti4ens, that (o not represent any origin$ -lass$ gen(er$ se7ual orientation or ethni-ity ut the
)region, in 8uestions. 0egional i(entity -omes hen-e near the i(ea of i(eology an( its use aims at
the pro(u-tion of some asis =-ommitment$ soli(arity$ trustA for regional (evelopment an( so-ial
-ohesion. Previous -itations are e7amples of the ten(en-y of poli-y ma2ers an( ureau-rats to
sele-t -ertain elements from history an( myths for i(entity narratives.
1!"
6n many reports su-h
narratives e-ho the themes of the 1U,s (o-uments$ sho+ing that lo-al a-tors a(apt to the -laims
an( language of the 1U. 6n this sense it is easy to un(erstan( ho+ regions are )open,$ relational
an( ho+ they partly are -onstitute( in so-ial intera-tion that -rosses the or(ers.
Planning (o-uments thus provi(e interesting material not only to stu(y the institutional i(entity
narratives$ for e7ample$ the assumptions of -lose( vs. open or homogeneous vs. heterogeneous
regional spa-es$ ut also to e7amine the +i(er -onne-tions et+een su-h (is-ourses. Briti-al
(is-ourse analysis seems a parti-ularly promising metho( to un-over the relations of po+er an(
i(eologies an( the narratives on regional i(entities.
1!1
/he use of i(entity%ase( planning rhetori-
3?
may e un(erstoo( as an e7ample of the prin-iple of Fou-aultian )governmentality, that Painter
has i(entifie( in some 1U,s programmes$ +hi-h emphasi4e 2no+le(ge$ te-hnologi-al innovation$
information so-iety$ regional i(entity an( sustainale (evelopment.
1!!
Su-h measures are not
-on-erne( only +ith re(u-ing regional variations in prosperity a-ross 1urope3 they are also a
)region uil(ing pro5e-t, -on-erne( +ith regional e-onomy$ regional i(entity$ regional -ohesion
an( regional integration. /his is$ Painter argues$ a pro5e-t that purports not only to i(entify o5e-ts
of governan-e =li2e regional e-onomy or regional i(entityA for (evelopment an( assistan-e ut it is
in(ee( )striving to -onstitute those o5e-ts an( ring them into eing,.
1!3
&onclusions
6(eas aout region an( regional i(entity are mushrooming at various spatial s-ales of the
international system. /he resurgen-e of these terms has een part of the roa(er transformation of
oth politi-al e-onomy an( governan-e at supra%state$ state an( su%state s-ales. 0egions are
highly signifi-ant in the 1U +here oth the politi-al ma2ing of the Union itself an( the )1urope of
regions, are e7amples of the re%s-aling of state spa-es an( of the ne+ meanings eing assigne( to
territories. /hese pro-esses have le( to an in-reasing -ompetition et+een )regions,3 a ten(en-y
that results from oth the neo%lierali4ation of the gloal e-onomy an( from a regionalist response.
0egional i(entity has simultaneously een i(entifie( as an important element for regional
(evelopment in the 1U. Su-h i(entities are seen in-reasingly as poli-y instruments ut they are
also signifi-ant for a-tors operating in e-onomi-/usiness life an( in regional mar2eting.
3#
/his paper has aime( at prolemati4ing the (imensions an( relations of region an( i(entity an( it
in(i-ate( the utility of -on-eptualising the rise of regional i(entity (is-ourse as part of the pro-ess
of the institutionali4ation of a region$ i.e. the histori-ally -ontingent pro-ess through +hi-h a
region emerges as part of the territorial stru-ture an( so-ial -ons-iousness of so-iety. 6n a((ition$
su-h -on-eptuali4ation helps to -arry out -on-rete resear-h in regions. 1ven if people usually
i(entify themselves +ith -ertain regions$ su-h elonging shoul( not e ta2en for grante(. 0egional
i(entity is only one element in the -ompli-ate( -onstellation of i(entifi-ations that people normally
have$ ase( on su-h elements as -lass$ gen(er$ generation$ ethni- a-2groun($ or religion. ;u-h of
i(entifi-ation ta2es very proaly pla-e in -ivil so-iety through the parti-ipation in so-ial net+or2s
an( asso-iations that may +ell -ross the or(ers of oun(e( spa-es. Some of these i(entities may
e lin2e( +ith a territory$ some +ith other territories$ some may e non%territorial.
A 8uestion for future resear-h is that +hile the po+er of regions has een in-reasing$ +hat +ill e
the role of regional i(entities in the gloali4ing +orl( +hi-h is -hara-teri4e( y moilitiesF
migration$ immigration an( tourism. Sin-e personal spatial histories in-reasingly ta2e pla-e in
many lo-ations$ this for-es us to refle-t$ +hat +ill happen to the relation et+een region$ i(entity
an( human eing. Su-h moility -ertainly -hallenges the i(eas of the fi7e( lin2s et+een a
territory an( a group of people. /hin2ing -riti-ally the -omple7ity of regions$ regional i(entities$
their roles in regional promotion$ politi-s of i(entity an( (ifferen-e$ is therefore a highly salient
tas2 in the -urrent turulent +orl(. A -ru-ial relate( resear-h 8uestion -on-erns ho+ regional
(istin-tions an( -lassifi-ations are pro(u-e( an( repro(u-e( an( ho+ they e7press relations of
po+er. /his for-es us to as2 in ea-h -on-rete resear-h -ase not only +hether su-h an i(entity e7ists
&"
an( ho+ it manifests itself$ ut also +hose regional i(entity is in 8uestion an( for +hat purpose it
is arti-ulate(.
"c(noledgements
/his resear-h has een -arrie( out +hen the author has serve( as an A-a(emy Professor of the
A-a(emy of Finlan( an( +hen lea(ing the pro5e-ts finan-e( y the A-a(emy =*o. 1!1"&&! an(
*o. 1!1##!A. /his support is gratefully a-2no+le(ge(. 6 am grateful to 0i-2 Fa+n an( t+o
anonymous referees +hose -omments +ere very helpful in (eveloping this paper.
&1
1
RE'ERE)&E! ")D )OTE!
Arnou( Cagen(i52 an( J. Bornfor($ )0egional institutions an( 2no+le(ge9tra-2ingF ne+ forms of regional
(evelopment poli-y,$ Geoforum 31 =!"""A$ !"#%1?.
!
6ver *eumann$ )A 0egion%<uil(ing Approa-h to *orthern 1urope,$ Revie! of International Studies
!" =1##&A$ pp. 53%>&$ Bhristopher <ro+n$ )/he region%uil(ing approa-h revisite(F the -ontinue(
Othering of 0ussia in (is-ourses of region%uil(ing in the 1uropean *orth, Geopolitics ? =!""3A$ pp.
&5%>1$ Alun Jones$ )*arrative%ase( pro(u-tion of state spa-es for international region%uil(ingF
1uropeani4ation an( the ;e(iterranian,$ "nnals of the "ssociation of "merican Geographers #'
=!""&A$ pp. &15%&31$ Feli7 Biuta$ )0egionI :hy regionI Se-urity$ hermeneuti-s$ an( the ma2ing of the
<la-2 Sea region,$ Geopolitics 13 =!""?A$ pp. 1!"%1&>.
3
John$ Earrison$ )0e%rea(ing the ne+ regionalismF a sympatheti- -riti8ue,. Space and #olity 1" =!""'A$
pp. !1%&'$ A. Donal(son$ )Performing regionsF territorial (evelopment an( -ultural politi-s in 1urope
of the regions, $nvironment and #lanning " 3? =!""'A$ pp. !">5%#!$ Joe Painter$ )Bartographi-
an7iety an( the sear-h for regionality,$ $nvironment and #lanning "&" =!""?A$ pp. 3&!%3'1. Anssi
Paasi$ )0egion an( pla-eF regional i(entity in 8uestion,$ #rogress in %uman Geography !> =!""3A$ pp.
&>5%&?5.
&
;athias Alert an( Paul 0euer$ Guest e(itors$ Spe-ial issue on Strategi- 0egionali4ationsF *e+
perspe-tives on 0egions in a Gloal System Geopoliti-s 1! =!"">A issue &.
5
See <o Jessop$ *eil <renner an( ;artin Jones$ )/heori4ing so-io%spatial relations,$ $nvironment
and #lanning &' Society and Space !' =!""?A$ pp. 3?#%&"1 an( the relate( -ommentaries y 1(+ar(
D. Basey$ Anssi Paasi$ ;i-hael J.Shapiro an( ;argit ;ayer.
'
James An(erson$ )/he rise of regions an( regionalism in :estern 1urope,$ in ;. Guiernau =e(.A
Governing $uropean &iversity =Con(onF Sage$ !"""A.
>
*omen-lature of /erritorial Units for Statisti-s$ or the Statisti-al 0egions of 1urope.
?
@eni-hi Ohmae$ The $nd of the (ations-State =*e+ Qor2F Free Press$ 1##5A3 see also Susan Strange$
The Retreat of the State$ =Bamri(geF Bamri(ge University Press$ 1##'A
#
Ar5un Appa(urai$ )Sovereignty +ithout territorialityF notes for a postnational geography$ in Patri-ia Qager
=e(.A$ The Geography of Identity =Ann ArorF /he University of ;i-higan Press$ 1##'A$ pp. &"%5?$ Ar5un
Appa(urai$ )odernity at *arge' +ultural &imensions of Globalization =;inneapolisF University of
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beyond the (ation =;inneapolisF University of ;innesota Press 1##?A
1"
Anssi Paasi$ )/erritory,$ in John Agne+$ @atharyne ;it-hell an( Gerar( /oal =e(s.A$ " +ompanion to
#olitical Geography =O7for(F <la-2+ell$ !""3A$ pp. 1"#%1!!
11
Anna /rian(afylli(ou an( 0uy Gropas =e(s.A$ $uropean Immigration' " Sourcebook =Con(onF
Ashgate$ !"">A
1!
;ael <ere4in an( ;artin S-hain =e(s.A$ $urope !ithout -orders =<altimoreF /he Johns Eop2ins
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13
Paasi$ )/erritory,$ :illiam Safran an( 0amRn ;Si4 =e(s.A$ Identity and Territorial "utonomy in
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<arara F. :alter =e(s.A Territoriality and +onflict in an $ra of Globalization =Bamri(geF Bamri(ge
University Press$ !""'A
1&
<ere4in$ )1urope,
15
0oert Davi( Sa-2$ %uman Territoriality =Bamri(geF University of Bamri(ge Press$ 1#?'A
1'
Peter J @at4enstein$ " /orld of Regions' "sia and $urope in the "merican Imperium =6tha-aF Bornell
University Press$ !""5A
1>
James An(erson$ )/he shifting stage of politi-sF ne+ me(ieval an( postmo(ern territorialitiesI,$
$nvironment and #lanning &' Society and Space 1&$ pp. 133%153$ JTrg Frie(ri-hs$ ) /he meaning of
*e+ ;e(ievalism,$ $uropean 0ournal of International Relations > =!""1A$ pp. &>5%5"1
1?
Anssi Paasi$ )The changing discourses on political boundaries' mapping the backgrounds conte1ts
and contents,$ in Een2 van Eoutum$ Olivier @rams-h an( :olfgang Uierhofer =e(sA. -2ordering the
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1#
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!!
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!&
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3"
Peter J @at4enstein$ " /orld of Regions see also the theme issue in Geopoliti-s =vol. 1!$ issue &$
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31
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an( regional (ynami-s,
3!
James An(erson$ )/he rise of regions,
33
John Covering$ )/he ne+ imperial geography,$ in S. <aghni%Sen an( E. Ca+ton%Smith =e(s.A $conomic
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3&
Stephen B. Balleya =e(.A$ Regionalism in the #ost-+old /ar /orld =Al(ershotF Ashgate !"""A$ <ru-e
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35
Pauli /. @ar5alainen an( Anssi Paasi$ )Bontrasting the nature of the +ritten -ityF Eelsin2i in
regionalisti- thought an( as a (+elling pla-e,$ in Peter Preston an( Paul Simpson%Eousley =e(s.A$
/riting the +ity 50outle(geF Con(on$ 1##&A pp. 5?%>#
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3#
;i-hael @eating$ )/he ne+ regionalism,
&"
See also the analysis of oth of these formations in the present -olle-tion.
&1
0aimo VDyrynen$ )0egionalismF ol( an( ne+,$ International Studies Revie! 5 =!""3A$ pp. !5%51.
&!
0amutsin(ela$ )Perspe-tives,.
&3
Anssi Paasi$ )Pla-e an( regionF loo2ing through the prism of s-ale,$ #rogress in %uman Geography
!? =!""&A$ pp. 53'%5&'.
&&
<renner et al. )State/Spa-e,$ Gor(on ;a-Ceo($ )*e+ 0egionalism 0e-onsi(ere(F Gloali4ation an(
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&5
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&'
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the 1nglish 8uestion,$ Transactions of the Institute of British Geographer 29 (2004), pp. 433-452, Anssi Paasi$ )0egions an(
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&>
<5Trn Eettne$ )/he ne+ regionalism revisite(,$ in Fre(ri2 ST(eraum an( /imothy ;. Sha+ =e(s.A
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&?
;artin @ohli an( ;o5-a *ova2 =e(s.A /ill $urope !ork6 Integration $mployment and the Social
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&#
Davi( ;. :roer W ;i-hael B. Steiner$ )any /ests' #lace +ulture 7 Regional Identity =@ansas
BityF University of @ansas$ 1##>A$ Bharles 0eagan :ilson =e(.A$ The (e! Regionalism =Ja-2sonF
University of ;ississippi Press$ 1##>A.
5"
Jones$ )So-ial 5usti-e,.
51
Joe Painter$ );ultilevel -iti4enship$ i(entity an( regions in -ontemporary 1urope,$ in James An(erson =e(A
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5!
Frans S-hri5ver$ )0egionalism in Gali-ia after regionali4ation,$ Ti4dschrift voor $conomische en
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53
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5&
Bhrister JTnsson$ Sven /Dgil an( Gunnar /Trn8vist =e(s.A$ .rganizing $uropean Space =Con(on$
Sage !"""A$ Anssi Paasi$ )1urope as a so-ial pro-ess an( (is-ourseF -onsi(erations of pla-e$ oun(aries
an( i(entity,$ $uropean 3rban and Regional Studies ? =!""1A$ pp. >%!?$ Anssi Paasi$ )0emar2s on
1urope,s transforming meta%geography,$ Geopolitics 1" =!""5A$ pp. 5?"%5?5.
55
0oger Cee$ )/he future of the regionF regional geography as e(u-ation for transformation,$ in 0ussell
@ing =e(.A Geographical ,utures =Sheffiel(F /he Geographi-al Asso-iation $1#?5A$ pp. >>%#1$ Paasi$
)1urope,
5'
0umfor($ B. =!"""A 1uropean -ohesionI Gloali4ation$ autonomi4ation$ an( the (ynami-s of 1U
integration. Innovation 13F 1?3%1#>.
5>
Alun Jones$ ,*arrative ase(, p. &!".
5?
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5#
6ain Deas an( A. Cor($ )From ne+ regionalism to an unusual regionalismI /he emergen-e of non%stan(ar(
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1?>>.
'"
Ola <. Jensen an( /im 0i-har(son )aking $uropean Space' )obility #o!er and Territorial
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'1
Ohmae$ The $nd,$ p. ?".
'!
John Agne+ )/he rhetori- of regionalismF the *orthern Ceague in 6talian politi-s$ 1#?3%#&,$
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6talian politi-s, #olitical Geography 1# =!"""A$ pp. &&5%&>1.
'3
Anssi Paasi$ )0egional geography,$ in 0o @it-hin an( *igel /hrift =e(s.A International $ncyclopaedia of
%uman Geography =Con(onF 1lsevier$ !""#A$ Anssi Paasi$ )0egion an( pla-eF regional i(entity,
'&
/here has een an emerging interest in regionalism in politi-al s-ien-e an( 60 sin-e the puli-ation
of J.S. *ye$ International Regionalism =<ostonF Cittle <ro+n$ 1#'?A$ see e.g. Stein 0o22an an( Dere2
:. Un+in$ $conomy territory identity' politics of /est $uropean peripheries =Con(onF Sage
Puli-ations 1#?3A$ Peter @at4enstein$ )0egionalism in Bomparative Perspe-tive,$ +ooperation and
+onflict 31 =1##'A$ pp. 1!3%5#. Couise Fa+-ett an( An(re+ Eurrell$ Regionalism in /orld #olitics'
Regional .rganization and International .rder =O7for(F O7for( University Press$ 1##5A$ Peter J.
@at4enstein$ )A :orl( of 0egions,
'5
Paasi$ )0egional geography,$ in 0o @it-hin an( *igel /hrift =e(s.A Internationa"l $ncyclopaedia of
%uman Geography =Con(onF 1lsevier$ !""#A.
''
Samuel Euntington$ The +lash of +ivilizations =*e+ Qor2F Simon W S-huster$ 1##'A
'>
@eating$ )/he *e+ 0egionalism,$ p. 1"
'?
John Allen$ Doreen ;assey an( Allan Bo-hrane$ )Rethinking the region8 =Con(onF 0outle(ge$ 1##?A$
Ash Amin$ )0egions unoun(F to+ar(s a ne+ politi-s of pla-e,$ Geografiska "nnaler - ?' =!""&A$ pp.
33%&&.
'#
Bliff Eague an( Paul Jen2ins =e(s.A$ #lace Identity participation and #lanning =Con(onF 0outle(ge$
!""5A$ ;ar2 /e+(+r%Jones an( Philip Allmen(inger =e(s.A$ Territory Identity and Spatial #lanning
=Con(onF 0outle(ge !""'A.
>"
;artin Jones$ )So-ial 5usti-e an( the regionF grassroots regional movements an( the M1nglish YuestionM,$
Space 7 #olity ? =!""&A$ pp. 15>%1?# =-ite( p. 1'3A
>1
;orten <oLs an( Eelge Eveem$ )0egionalisms -ompare(F /he Afri-an an( Southeast Asian
e7perien-e,$ in <5Trn Eettne$ An(reas 6notai an( Osval(o Sun2el$ =e(s.A +omparing Regionalisms
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un(erstan(ing the emergen-e of regions an( the -onstitution of regional i(entity,$ ,ennia 1'& =1#?'A$
pp. 1"5%1&'$ Anssi Paasi$ )De-onstru-ting regionsF notes on the s-ales of so-io%spatial life,$
1nvironment an( Planning A !3 =1##1A$ pp. !3#%!5&.$ Ale7an(er <. ;urphy$ )0egions as so-ial
-onstru-ts,$ #rogress in %uman Geography 15 =1##1A$ pp. !!%35.$ <ro+ning$ )/he region%uil(ing,$
Biuta$ )0egions,
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Paasi$ )De-onstru-ting,
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Gor(on ;a-Ceo($ John Earrison$ )0e%rea(ing the ne+ regionalismF a sympatheti- -riti8ue,. Space and
#olity 1" =!""'A$ pp. !1%&'$ A Donal(son$ )Performing regionsF territorial (evelopment an( -ultural politi-s in
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The Resurgence of the Region and Regional Identity: Theoretical Perspectives and

Empirical Observations on Regional Dynamics in Europe

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