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Journal of Asian Pacifc Communication 18:2 (2008), 225246. doi 10.1075/japc.18.2.07san
issn 09576851 / e-issn 15699838 John Benjamins Publishing Company
Communication across languages and cultures
A perspective of brand name translation from
English to Chinese*
Jian Sang and Grace Zhang
Curtin University of Technology
Communication across languages and cultures is a markedly complex issue,
and translation is more than just a careful linguistic transfer: it is a purposeful
action designed to achieve the most efective result in a target group. Few studies
have discussed the role of communicative intent in translation, and this paper
is a small step towards flling the gap. Te conceptual framework adopted in
this study is Skopostheorie (Vermeer, 1989), a functionalist approach with an
emphasis on communicative Skopos (purpose or aim), target texts and audi-
ences. Using a method of contrastive comparison among efective, inefective
and controversial brand name translations from English to Mandarin Chinese,
a systematic analysis is conducted regarding four translation strategies: phonetic
appeal, suitable meaning, socio-cultural adaptation and consumer acceptance.
Te fndings demonstrate that any efective communication strategy needs
to be in accordance with the communicative purpose of achieving an optimal
impact upon the target group, and a successfully translated brand name should
function in a target culture as efectively as the original name in a source cul-
ture. Tey suggest that a function oriented approach, rather than a source-text
oriented approach, holds the key for a successful outcome. Te most important
thing is that translated brand names suit the needs of Chinese consumers.
Tis study is signifcant in that it challenges the traditional sound/meaning-
based approach, and provides enriched understanding of the importance of
achieving communicative purposes and optimal functional impact in a target
group. Te insights gained from this study add a vital conceptual dimension
to the study of translation, and cross-cultural communication in general. In
addition, the fndings of this study may also provide practical assistance for an
efective outcome in translation, and have pedagogical value in the teaching of
translation. While the discussion in this study is based on Chinese data, the fnd-
ings have implications for the translation of other languages.
2008. John Benjamins Publishing Company
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226 Jian Sang and Grace Zhang
1. Introduction
A brand is a name, term, symbol, design or combination thereof that identifes a
sellers products and diferentiates them from competitors products (Summers,
Gardiner, Lamb, Hair and McDaniel, 2003: 184). An intrinsic part of branding, the
brand name, consists of words, letters and/or numbers that can be vocalised, as op-
posed to a brand mark that appears in the form of a symbol, design, or distinctive
colour or lettering, and which tends to be visualised (Miller, Layton, Etzel, Walker
and Stanton, 2000: 308). Lawson and Loudon (1996: 391) describe a brand name
as a vehicle which allows marketers to communicate with consumers. Essentially a
brand name acts as verbal shorthand for specifc products and services.
Brand name translation comes with globalisation, in which ferce competi-
tion transcends national borders. To be recognised on a global basis, a business
has to be branded, most importantly with a translated brand name, when making
inroads into a new culture. Te translation of brand names from one language
into another requires translators to have a thorough understanding of translation
principles, the cultural values of the target group, communication and market-
ing conventions. If selecting an efective brand name demands a well-thought-out
concept, then translation of a brand name into another language is equally, if not
more, challenging. It is not only the translated brand name itself, but the associa-
tions and images attached to it, that matter to the target culture.
Tis study aims to research the efectiveness of brand name translation from
English (primarily English, examples also include some non-English cases to pro-
vide more extensive discussion) to Mandarin Chinese, through examining four
commonly used communicative strategies: phonetic appeal, suitable meaning,
socio-cultural adaptation and consumer acceptance. It is expected that any of the
four strategies will be used to achieve the communicative purposes required by
particular translated brand names. Tis paper, taking Skopostheorie (Vermeer,
1989) as a conceptual framework, studies the role of communicative purposes in
translating English brand names into Chinese, through a systematic analysis of
internationally well-known brand names. Te objective of this study is to demon-
strate that the most essential issue in brand name translation is the communicative
purpose. A contrastive method is used to provide a comparative study of efective,
inefective and controversial brand names. Te criterion for the selection of efec-
tive translated Chinese brand names is that they have to be well-performed global
brand names; the ones in this study were chosen from Special Report: the 100 Top
Brands published by Business Week (2003). Tey are exemplary in illustrating how
to translate foreign brand names without losing the consistency and coherence of
the originals.
2008. John Benjamins Publishing Company
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Communication across languages and cultures 227
Te focus of this paper is the translation of existing brand names. Te original
brand name takes shape in English and then is represented in Chinese. Translation
does not usually pose a challenge for a newly established brand name, because the
company takes time to screen possible brand names for multilingual suitability
(Kotler and Armstrong, 1994: 293). However, some older, already successfully-
promoted brand names were chosen without reference to international markets.
If the company is to capitalise on the reputation these brand names already enjoy,
the names generally need to be translated; translation of such brand names cannot
be taken lightly as a mere exercise in language competence. Making sure the brand
name travels well from one culture to another is one of the most basic, and most
important, international marketing challenges of all (Allyson, 2000: 16). Te very
frst appearance of a good translated name is infuential in a target market because
frst impressions are lasting. Te consequences of a poorly translated name can be
counter-productive, as in the cases discussed in Section 4 below. It is hoped that
the fndings of this study will provide useful clues to assist companies and transla-
tors in choosing an efective translated brand name.
In this paper, Chinese refers to Mandarin Chinese, the Chinese people or the
culture of mainland China; and China refers to mainland China. Te phonetic
system adopted in this study is the pinyin system, used in the Peoples Republic of
China.
2. Previous works
In this section, literature on brand name translation and translation theories will
be reviewed, and their relevance to this study will be discussed.
2.1 Brand names and their translations
Over the past two decades, much has been documented on the characteristics of
and criteria for a good brand name. Lamb, Hair and McDaniel (2000: 268) state
that efective brand names usually have several of the following features, given the
fact that in the real world a brand name can hardly hold on to all of them. A good
brand name
is easy to pronounce;
is easy to recognise;
is easy to remember;
is short;
is distinctive and unique;
2008. John Benjamins Publishing Company
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228 Jian Sang and Grace Zhang
describes the product;
describes the products use;
describes products benefts;
has a positive connotation;
reinforces the desired product image;
is legally protectable in home and foreign markets of interest.
Kotler and Armstrong (1994: 293) stress that one of the most common screening
criteria being used for a desirable brand name is how easy it is to pronounce for both
domestic and foreign buyers. It is also agreed that it is important that the adopted
brand name can be legally protected for exclusive use by its owner, and is readily
identifed by consumers (Kotler, Brown, Adam and Armstrong, 2001: 357; Kotler
and Armstrong, 1994: 293; Lamb et al., 2000: 269; Gregory & Wiechmann, 2001: 9;
Etzel, Walker and Stanton, 2004: 271; Temporal, 2000: 21). Etzel et al. (2004: 264)
claim that being adaptable to future additions to the product line is also desirable
for a good brand name. For instance, in the air transportation industry, the names
used to suggest a specifc location in US, like Alaska Airlines or Southwest Airlines,
may later deter geographic expansion more than a name such as United Airlines.
Despite the fact that short names stand out, such as Tide, Aim and Pufs, Kotler and
Armstrong (1994: 293) assert that longer ones are sometimes exceptionally efec-
tive: one can come across I Cant Believe Its Not Butter in any good supermarket.
Tat is to say, the list above cannot be considered an exhaustive list of desirable
features, but rather is instructive about what is deemed most desirable.
Te criteria apply to the original and the translated brand names, because
once an English brand name is translated into Chinese, the new Chinese name be-
comes a brand name itself in a new culture, and therefore should be endowed with
the same desirable features as the original. Dong and Helms (2001: 103) suggest
that ideally, the translated names should be easy to pronounce, pleasant, familiar,
meaningful and distinctive.
Brand name selection is a strenuous but rewarding management task for any
business. Most large multinational companies have a strong in-house marketing
department that can work on a well-developed, formal brand name screening pro-
cess. A brand name translated into a foreign language has to be seriously consid-
ered before it is rolled out. Such rigorous testing proved worthwhile for Standard
Oil of New Jersey, which tested 54 languages in more than 150 diferent markets
before adopting its currently used, ofcial name Exxon. During its name trial, it
discovered that the initially proposed name Enco referred to a stalled engine when
pronounced in Japanese (Kotler et al., 2001: 357).
Translation methods for brand names have been primarily developed from
the opposing polarities, semantics and phonetics. Zhang and Schmitt (2001: 315)
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Communication across languages and cultures 229
discuss three interrelated translation methods used in translating English into Chi-
nese. Te phonetic translation method aims to resemble the sound of the original
English brand name as much as possible in Chinese, overlooking its meaning. On
the other hand, the semantic translation method strives to reproduce the meaning
of the original brand name as much as possible in Chinese, ignoring its sound. Te
combined phono-semantic translation method takes the middle ground and looks
at both phonetic and semantic aspects of a translated brand name. Fan (2002: 182)
stresses that among the three translation methods, the sound of the original brand
name is the starting point in the translation process, and then it comes down to the
combined translation method. Tis method aims to attach a desirable meaning to
a brand name which is translated into something that corresponds to the sound of
the original brand name. While Fan maintains that the meaning of the translated
brand name is the more important concern, he does not explain the reasons why
the meaning deserves more care and attention than the sound. It calls for insight
into deep-rooted diferences between English and Chinese cultures and languages,
which will be addressed in this study.
Going beyond usual sound and meaning methods, Dong and Helms (2001:
107) uncover the relationship between the meaning and the sound of the trans-
lated brand name, developing four subcategories that operate on a sliding scale
depending on the degree of favourability towards either meaning or sound. Tey
also note another method called creative translation, which does not maintain a
link with the original brand name in terms of either meaning or sound. Te trans-
lated new name is a completely new creation.
Prior studies on brand name translation from English into Chinese are few,
and have primarily focussed on marketing benefts, such as the infuence of brand
names on brand equity (Dong and Helms, 2001: 101; Zhang and Schmitt, 2001:
314). Few have done research on the basis of translation theory and practice. Tere
is need for a systematic study from the perspective of translation principles and
methods; this study is an attempt to meet the need. More importantly, previous
studies have overlooked a crucial factor: communicative purpose that demands
the efective functioning of a translation product. Any good brand name, particu-
larly a translated brand name, has to function well in the target culture. Tat is
what Skopostheorie emphasizes (see Section 3 for details), and what this study is
set to elaborate.
2.2 Translation studies
Catford (1965: 1) states that translation is an operation performed on languages: a
process of producing one language based on the knowledge of another language;
therefore, any theory of translation must draw upon a theory of language. Cat-
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230 Jian Sang and Grace Zhang
fords view is representative in that translation used to be considered primarily as
a match of sound and meaning, which did not work efectively because it failed
to consider socio-cultural factors. By then, a linguistically-oriented approach was
prominent and translation was considered as one of two branches of linguistics:
applied or comparative linguistics (Snell-Hornby, 1990; Nord, 1997). Equivalence
as a technical term in translation was used to measure the degree of fdelity to
which a translation should be produced. Equivalence became such a focal point
that scholars rarely questioned it as a basic concept or even constituent of trans-
lation. Translation leads from a source-language text to a target-language text
which is as close an equivalent as possible and presupposes an understanding of
the content and style of the original, as Wilss argues (quoted in Nord, 1997: 7).
However, searching for an equivalent was sometimes a mission impossible for
some genres or text types due to intrinsic diferences between source and target
languages and cultures. Te equivalence theory had been criticised by various
theorists for lack of consistency (Nord, 1997: 9). Equivalence-based approaches
came to be seen as rather perplexing and misleading. Since the 1990s, transla-
tion scholars and practitioners have witnessed a new attitude towards translation
studies. Bassnett and Lefevere (1990: 8) argue that what functions as the opera-
tional unit of translation is the culture: neither the word nor the text. Te cultural
turn is now accepted as the real breakthrough for the feld of translation studies
(Gentzler, 1998: xi). Culture, central to any well-formed society, is the common set
of values shared by people that determine what is socially acceptable. Translators
and marketers must understand the way that a target groups culture and its ac-
companying values infuence their perceptions (Lamb et al., 2000: 121).
While cultural values are important in translation, it seems cultural focus
alone does not make a good translation, as other factors like linguistic appeal and
commercial conventions must also be considered. Tere is a need for a theory
which can tie all these aspects together, and a number of functionalist approaches
have been developed to meet the demand. Among others, Reiss (1977, quoted in
Nord, 1997: 9) developed a model of translation criticism based on the functional
relationship between source and target texts to evaluate translated works. Transla-
tion critics can no longer merely look at source-text features, but must examine
whether translation has fulflled its functions in the context of the translation.
Te most infuential functionalist theory is Skopostheorie. It was developed by
Hans J. Vermeer in the 1970s. Skopos, a Greek word, is used as a technical term
referring the aim or purpose of a translation (Vermeer, 1989). Skopostheorie, as
a theory of purposeful action, attaches importance to functionalism in transla-
tion, focussing on the functions that a translation has in the target language. Te
formation of Skopostheorie and its relevance to brand name translation will be
discussed in greater detail in Section 3 below.
2008. John Benjamins Publishing Company
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Communication across languages and cultures 231
Once a theory comes into being, it is likely to attract heated debate over its
applicability and limitations. No exception was made with Skopostheorie. In large
part because of its generality, the functionalist approach was not highly thought
of by some critics, who found it rather banal. For example, Newmark (1990: 106)
says that since functionalism is developed from something as obvious as the fact
that human actions are with purpose, the theory cannot be regarded as a break-
through on the theoretical level. Tis argument seems to overlook the possibility
that a fresh new theory can be derived from an obvious fact, and that the very
signifcance of Skopostheorie lies in its elevating an obvious fact to a theoretic level
which provides new insights into the obvious fact.
Another objection claims that there exist purposeless actions with respect to
the production of works of art, ofen presumed to be literary texts (Nord, 1997:
110). In a functionalism framework, the source text becomes secondary to and no
longer the only benchmark for the translation. In such a case, the main task a trans-
lation has is to fulfl the purpose for which the source text is being translated. Tis
stance could be devastating and destructive, especially for literary translators, be-
cause in literary translation the source text has a diferent status (Nord, 1997: 120).
However, this objection does not hold true to most translations, because purpose-
less translations are small in numbers. Brand name translation does require a well-
defned Skopos that aims to correspond to the efect that the original brand name
intends to create in the source culture. Indeed, any change that manages to create
the impact of the original brand name can be seen as an efective translation.
3. Applicability of Skopostheorie in brand name translation
Among a wide range of translation theories developed over the decades, a func-
tionalist approach, such as Skopostheorie, is most likely to be applicable for the
translation of pragmatic texts such as brand names. A closer look at the theory will
enable us to see how relevant Skopostheorie is to the translation of brand names,
and why the theory can provide us with insight into how translation into Chinese
can be achieved.
Skopostheorie asserts that translation is intentional, purposeful behaviour
that takes place in a given situation not as a process of transcoding, but as a spe-
cifc form of human action based on a source text (Vermeer, 1989). According to
Skopostheorie, the prime principle determining any translation process is the pur-
pose of the overall translational action. Knowing this, the translator will be able to
employ strategies thought most appropriate to achieve the purpose of the target
text in the target context. Whether the way the purpose is fulflled is standard or
not is not a great concern (Shuttleworth and Cowie, 1997: 156).
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232 Jian Sang and Grace Zhang
Te theory was initially developed as a general theory of translation embracing
theories dealing with specifc languages and cultures. It does not tell the translator
how to accomplish a specifc translating job, nor what translation strategy to
implement (Nord, 1997: 12). What matters is the Skopos that a translated text is
designed to fulfl. Skopostheorie refects a general shif from predominantly lin-
guistics-based translation theories to a more function-oriented concept of transla-
tion. As a result, Skopostheorie dethrones the source text, on which equivalence-
oriented approaches were based and developed (Nord, 1997: 119). It considers the
source text to be of secondary importance. Te functional Skopos model allows
the translator to attach more importance to the target text and the identifed audi-
ence. What the translation is meant to accomplish determines the strategies. To
adopt a successful translating method, a translator has to work in accordance with
the Skopos that has been identifed before the actual translation takes place. Tis
is particularly so in the case of brand name translation, because what concerns the
translator and the marketer most is whether the translated brand name functions
in a target culture as well as the original does in the source culture.
As discussed above in 2.1, a good brand name has a number of desirable fea-
tures. Te well-justifed Skopos of translating an English brand name successfully
incorporates as many desirable features as possible. Te long-time convention that
translation accomplishes the transfer of the meaning of the original, if any, takes a
back seat to conveying the desired attributes, benefts and values that the original
brand name delivers to consumers. In other words, the perception of the translated
name by a Chinese consumer is one of the most important aspects of translation.
Te functions that the translated brand name is meant to have take precedence.
Te original brand name in English serves only as a departure point for the enter-
prise of translation, since the product of translation, the Chinese brand name, is
far more important.
Skopostheorie addresses issues of culture in translation in broad terms; a
translator has to dig deep into source culture conditions to appreciate fully the
impact of a source text in its original cultural surroundings (Vermeer, 1994: 14).
Brand name translation does not occur in a vacuum: underlying cultural factors
strongly infuence the product of translation. As businesses expand globally, the
need to understand the cultures of foreign countries becomes imperative. Brand
name translation demands a sound understanding of other cultures. Cultural
sensitivity in Skopostheorie is infuential and decisive in formulating an efective
translating method for brand names.
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Communication across languages and cultures 233
4. Te analysis of brand name translation
Sections 4.1 and 4.2 provide a detailed discussion of brand name translation from
the perspectives of language and cultural specifcs, laying the foundation for a
deeper understanding of issues arising from brand name translation. Ten there
will be a systematic analysis of efective and inefective translated brand names, to
show how Skopostheorie works.
4.1 Linguistic suitability
Central to communication and closely related to translation, language wields a
profound infuence over understanding of cultures. While a detailed discussion
on the phonetic and semantic aspects of the languages is beyond the scope of this
study, a sound understanding of linguistic diferences is required, because it is
necessary to appreciate how these diferences afect brand name translation.
Te most basic and important diference is that the Chinese language is based
on a system of ideographs, whereas the English language is based on a system of
phonograms. Chinese characters are meaningful but do not provide much clue for
pronunciation, while English works in reverse: that is to say, any English syllable
has a sound, but not necessarily a meaning, whereas a Chinese character almost al-
ways has a meaning, sometimes more than one meaning, but no much indication
of sound. Te diferential efect of writing systems adds weight to English-Chi-
nese brand name translation practice, since it relates to the question of whether
meaning, if any, should be carried over to the Chinese language, or whether sound
should be imitated, or both.
A native speaker of Chinese tends to attach greater importance to the mean-
ing a character carries. A native speaker of English may be inclined to pay more
attention to the pronunciation of a word. Unlike English, the Chinese language
possesses a great many homonyms, which are pronounced exactly the same way
but with distinct meanings. Tis is the main reason why visual acuity is essential:
to remember the visual patterns of a Chinese character to distinguish the hom-
onyms. For instance, shi with the fourth tone (Mandarin Chinese has four tones,
which change meanings), corresponds to at least 18 characters with distinct mean-
ings, including being, test, room, city, ft, ceremony, thing, world, soldier,
persimmon, oath, look at, show, try, die, serve, mop, and decorate. Some of
the characters have self-deprecatory or negative connotations in Chinese culture,
such as serve and die. Translators have to be mindful of the pitfall of homonyms
in the Chinese language which may lend unwanted, nonsensical or adverse mean-
ings to a translated brand name.
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234 Jian Sang and Grace Zhang
Some brand names may create unwanted linguistic difculties for the con-
sumer. For example, Schwartzkopf, a leading brand in hair products, creates pro-
nunciation difculties even for English-speaking consumers, let alone Chinese-
speaking consumers. Te problem of pronunciation and the associated efect upon
marketing endeavours have been widely documented (McDonald and Roberts,
1990: 15). Hagen Dazs ice-cream is another name likely to create pronuncia-
tion difculties. In such cases, brand names that are hard to pronounce should
be translated into Chinese with extra care, to show Chinese consumers that they
are actually not unpronounceable nor untranslatable, but approachable and sale-
able. Conversely, some properly translated brand names have built-in advantages
over their competitors in terms of pronunciation, such as Flora margarine and Fa
toiletries in Cantonese-speaking markets, where the a vowel sound is extended to
aah at the end to sofen the tone and make the word aurally appeasing (ibid).
Because of the diferent writing systems of Chinese and English, an English-
speaking consumer may respond to the sound of a brand name quite diferently
from a Chinese-speaking consumer. Tis is because, as previously discussed, an
English name is likely to indicate sound and have no specifc meaning attached,
whereas a Chinese name carries meaning as well. Many English brand names are
the names of people and places and do not necessarily have a meaning. When
translating an English brand name, a problem arises from whether the sound of
the name in English is more important than the meaning it carries, if there is
any. Te Chinese translation of an English brand name needs to balance meaning
and sound, because English-to-Chinese translation is usually accomplished by the
sound, the meaning, or both.
It seems well-established that the translated brand name should sound simi-
lar to, if not exactly the same as, its original name. Transliteration can well reach
this criterion. For example, Midea sounds like its Chinese name Mei Di; so does
MAXAM with Mei Jia Jing. In China we fnd a number of foreign brand names
phonetically similar to their translated names. Examples include Pepsi (Bai Shi),
Pentium (Benteng), Siemens (Xi Men Zi), Motorola (Mo Tuo Luo La), Yahoo (Ya
Hu).
More ofen than not, translation into Chinese calls for a transfer of the mean-
ing from the source language. Te meaning of a Chinese character is more im-
portant than its pronunciation (with some exceptions). For example, the number
four sounds quite similar to death, and fourteen sounds like defnitely die. Tis
is why four or fourteen, as a number, is avoided in such instances as selecting a
telephone number. However, a relatively large proportion of English brand names
have no meaning to convey, like Ford or McDonalds; or are words coined artif-
cially and deliberately, like Rolex or Kodak; or are what might be called acronyms,
like IBM and GE. What attracts Western consumers is perhaps the jingle of the
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Communication across languages and cultures 235
brand names when pronounced, rather than the meanings they represent. Te
sound may matter more because of English being phonogramic. For example, cer-
tain vowels sound bigger than others, and therefore attract more attention; the
word splash describes perfectly the action (McDonald and Roberts, 1990: 8).
4.2 Cultural adaptation
Lamb et al. (2000: 1212) state that culture is pervasive, functional, learned and
dynamic. All the things that people do without serious consideration are culture-
bound because values, beliefs and rituals are ingrained in their daily lives. Tis
pervasiveness requires care to be exercised at all times when translating such cul-
turally-bound things as brand names. Culture is instrumental in giving order to
society, in shaping the way that people do things according to prescribed values
and norms. In a naming process, whether translating or giving a new name, cul-
ture has an important role in specifying what is acceptable and appreciated, and
what is taboo.
Tis is particularly true when translating an existing successful international
brand name. When a business decides to go international, its marketers and trans-
lators must take care to translate brand names with cultural sensitivity, so as not
to convey a wrong meaning. For example, Mitsubishi Motors had to rename its
Pajero model in Spanish-speaking countries because the term describes a sexual
activity. Toyota Motors MR2 model dropped the number 2 in France because the
combination sounds like a French swearword.
It is therefore wise to test for cultural sensitivity before a translated name of-
fcially comes into being. Tis should include consideration of the non-static na-
ture of culture: it changes over time, adapting to changing needs and the evolving
environment. Although it is unrealistic and unthinkable to change a brand name
from time to time to cope with a changing world, it is possible to counter adverse
efects rising from the dynamic nature of culture to some degree by ensuring that
the translated name adheres to the essentials of a culture. Lamb et al. (2000: 122)
assert that the most defning element is cultural values which are enduring over
time and shared by members of a society.
In traditional Chinese culture, business people have always attached impor-
tance to choosing a good name for a business. In this deep-rooted tradition, the
name chosen should be perceived to be able to bring good luck to the business: a
concern that continues to be valid and highly valued. Schtte and Ciarlante (1998:
65) report that Asian frms are willing to expend an extraordinary amount of time
and resources in hunting for a name that will bring good luck to the business. Te
belief in the importance of the fate of a name results in businesses consulting
fortune tellers as part of the naming process. Schtte and Ciarlante illustrate the
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236 Jian Sang and Grace Zhang
strong belief in luck and fate prevalent among Asian cultures including China,
with an example from Hong Kong, where the Chinese name for Philip Morris
cigarettes was changed from three syllables (Mo Li See, no luck) to four syllables
(Mor Ha Li See, plenty of luck). Tis change transformed the product from one
associated with no luck to the one in which a small touch conferred luck upon the
consumer. Since beliefs and values associated with any culture have an enormous
efect on peoples perceptions and preferences, it is worth understanding, which
will help translators and marketers to adopt appropriate translating methods.
When cultural values or beliefs (including the association of expressions with
literature, historical fgures and legends) mingle with language, it is harder to learn
and handle connotative meanings. With thousands of years of accumulated cul-
tural snippets to sif through, the Chinese language is flled with culturally-bound
puns and homonyms that may be either embarrassing or unlucky. For example,
according to Chinese custom, giving a clock to a Chinese may be inappropriate,
because in Chinese words to give a clock sounds the same as seeing someone
of to his end. Some brand names are very likely to have no luck when they come
into contact with Chinese consumers because of the association of historical in-
cidents and cultural beliefs. Te choice of Opium as a brand name for an YSL
perfume could be deemed a poor naming practice if the business is looking to
Chinas market. Te Opium Wars of the 19th century continue to evoke notions of
being invaded and exploited by foreign devils for many Chinese (McDonald and
Roberts, 1990: 13). Translators and marketers learn to take pains to avoid cultur-
ally unacceptable terms if they are to ensure translation and marketing programs
are not futile and costly.
1
Upholding the relationship between translation and culture, Vermeer (1994:
10) states: Translation as a cultural product and translating as a culture-sensitive
procedure widen the meaning of translation and translating beyond a mere lin-
guistic rendering of a text into another language. Indeed, as our behaviour tends
to be culturally specifc, what happens around a translation is also, inevitably,
culturally specifc; and the way a translation is received by the target culture is
culturally specifc, too. It is important to realise that cultural diferences require
profound understanding in order to avoid unfortunate results in the naming and
translating process.
4.3 Skopos in control
Having considered issues of sound, meaning and culture in relation to brand name
translation, the question is, which is more important? Te answer ofen becomes
uncertain when one faces the choices. According to Skopostheorie, a translation is
obliged to fulfl the functions assigned. Te translation of an English brand name
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Communication across languages and cultures 237
into Chinese can be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same fond-
ness for the product among the Chinese consumers as it enjoys elsewhere, even if
this involves changing the original in terms of the meaning or sound. Te impor-
tant thing is that the translated brand name must function and cater for Chinas
consumers.
As mentioned previously, translation of English brand names into Chinese
follows one of three basic methods: translating by sound, by meaning, or by a
combination of sound and meaning. However, it would be problematic to say one
translation method is generally more efective and favourable than another unless
we are examining a specifc brand name in detail. In the naming and translation
process a number of desirable features are sought by the marketers, so having as
many of these features as possible in a new Chinese name is obviously the Sko-
pos of the translation. Te more desirable features, the better the translated brand
name.
In the process of translation, translators and marketers should not only be able
to catch hold of as many features as possible, but also to evaluate which features
are more important or appealing to the consumers than others. In Coca-Cola, for
example, the successfully translated and promoted Chinese name has had almost
all of the desirable features listed in Section 2.1. Te translated brand name, Kekou
Kele (, tastes good and makes you happy), turns out to be perfect in
terms of the sound matching the original and of the new positive meaning gener-
ated. Te translated name projects a sunny image for a sof drink, in combina-
tion with the Chinese most-loved colour, red, which symbolises happiness, joyful
festivities and prosperity in the Chinese tradition. Te new name highlights the
desired connotation that represents the benefts of using the product and the char-
acteristics of the product the drink the business sells tastes so good that the
consumer will feel happy. Te Skopos of translating Coca-Cola as a favourite sof
drink is well sustained across the cultures. Te translation sounds like the original,
but flls in a new meaning that is absent in the original. It is successful on the basis
of the imitation of the sound and of the new meaning.
Translation of the prominent auto manufacturer Mercedes Benz into Chinese
ofers a similar scenario. Te ofcially translated name, Benchi (, running
fast or speed on), bears some resemblance to the original in terms of the sound
for Benz. Te combination of the two characters is rather common in the Chinese
language in relation to speed, and thus fulfls the qualities of being easy to pro-
nounce and remember. Te combination denotes vehicles or animals travelling
at speed. Te lef radical in the second character, , signifes a horse, an animal
closely related to movement and speed. A horse is a highly regarded animal in
Chinese culture, commonly found in the subject of traditional Chinese painting
as a heroic creature and a friend to human beings. Te acoustic and visual image
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238 Jian Sang and Grace Zhang
deriving from the new Chinese name elicits the expected associations of speed,
performance and dignity, which are the precise qualities that the brand strives to
be associated with. Te Skopos of translating Mercedes Benz with the desirable
features is well accommodated. Te new name sounds similar to the original while
accentuating the added value arising from the meaning of the Chinese characters.
Te translation method is the same as that of Coca-Cola, a sound-based transla-
tion with a desirable new meaning. In both cases, the translation has turned the
original brand name with no specifc meaning into a new Chinese name associ-
ated with positive and much desired meanings and images that consumers wish to
look forward to and identify with.
Brand names using a similar translation method as the one used by Coca-Cola
and Mercedes Benz are numerous. Examples include Ford (Fu Te, , fortune
and uniqueness), Nike (Nai Ke, , endurance and victory), Desis (Di Sha Si,
, enemy, kill, dead, a brand of pesticide) and Johnson & Johnson (Qiang
Sheng, , strong and energetic). Clean-Clear is an internationally well known
cosmetic brand, has as its Chinese name Keling Keli (, cute, as bright as a
button). Te Chinese name has a sound close to the original English name, and the
characters depict a young, vibrant, smart image. Te Chinese name functions ef-
fectively to make the product a desirable choice for the targeted group of young fe-
males. Another example is the Chinese name for Revlon, a cosmetic brand: Lu Hua
Nong (, dew, beautiful, thick). Tis has an added advantage: it is not simply
a pile-up of Chinese characters, but in fact is a phrase from the famous Chinese
poet Li Bais classic poem, Qing Ping Diao San Shou, which describes a beautiful
woman. Te name encompasses the nature of the cosmetic product and well serves
its communicative purpose. Te extra touch of a quote from a classic Chinese poem
cleverly adds a sense of elegance absent from the original English name.
A great number of translated brand names are seen as lucky names. As men-
tioned earlier, choosing a lucky name is an established custom in Chinese culture,
so the Skopos of having a lucky name for a brand is signifcant and feasible. Te
worlds leading brand in grooming products, Gillette, in China is Ji Lie (,
lucky, sharp). What the two characters mean are virtually unrelated and
nowhere else used together as a word in daily language. means being fortu-
nate and lucky, while the image of in the form of Chinese character vividly
depicts sharpness with its right-hand side radical something related to cut-
ting equipment, though itself has nothing to do with sharpness in its ordinary
sense (which means series, so another way of understanding the meaning of Ji
Lie would be lucky grooming product series). As for the combination of the two
characters, one of the possible messages Gillette wishes to send is to indicate that
using the blades, which are sharp, is fortunate and lucky. Gillette, a meaningless
personal name in English, has become a lucky name in Chinas market. Te Skopos
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Communication across languages and cultures 239
of describing the product benefts and reinforcing the desired product image is
well upheld in Gillettes renaming endeavour in Chinas market. It is no surprise
that the translating method used is similar to the one used by Coca-Cola and Mer-
cedes Benz, based on the imitation of the original sound but reinforced with the
added meaning of the new name and its acknowledgment of Chinese culture.
Goldlion is a world-renowned menswear brand name whose Chinese name
is Jin Li Lai (, gold, proft, come), which has positive connotations of el-
egance, luxury and good fortune. Tis name has an added lucky meaning that
another possible translation of Goldlion, Jin Shi (, gold lion), does not carry.
Other translated Chinese brand names of this kind include Carrefour (Jia Le Fu,
, family, happiness, fortune), Dunhill (Deng Xi Lu, , step on to,
happy, road). It is notable that in transliterations, translators tend to avoid unlucky
and taboo words in Chinese, including si (, dead), shu (, loss) and zhe (
, break); and use lucky words, including fu (, blessing), lu (, money),
shou (, longevity), xi (, happiness), bao (, treasure), li (, proft)
and fa (, getting rich).
In a slightly diferent fashion, BMW has been extremely successful with its
Chinese name. Te translated name of BMW, Bao Ma (, precious horse),
suggests that it runs so fast that it is a treasure highly sought afer. Te frst let-
ters of each character Bao Ma correspond exactly to the frst two letters of BMW.
It skilfully manipulates feelings of Chinese consumers, rather than focusing on
mechanics alone, the quality promoted in Western nations. In English, BMWs
catchphrases, like sheer driving pleasure or the ultimate driving machine place
emphasis on manoeuvrability, which is not necessarily an infuential factor in Chi-
nese culture. Tis is because the Chinese feel comfortable with horses, and this
penchant is decisive when everything else, like the mechanic capabilities of dif-
ferent vehicles, is equal. Te much-loved horse thus helps promote the new name,
and successfully establishes a rapport with Chinese consumers. Te translation
gives a new life to the original name in Chinese culture and has a favourable image
well placed in the mind of Chinese consumers. By supplementing the original im-
age of being precious, and thus highly desirable, the translated name has fulflled
the goal that represents the products use, beneft and positive connotation among
consumers. Even though this translation method is slightly diferent from the one
used with Coca-Cola and Mercedes Benz, it should be clear that BMWs Chinese
translation is just as successful.
BMWs translating method is designed to create a meaningful name with
special, efective reference to Chinese culture but without much resemblance to
the sound of the original name. Similarly, Hewlett-Packard has a Chinese brand
name, Hui Pu (, kindness, universal). Te characters take the frst letters of
Hewlett-Packard, and mean serve all and beneft all. Similar examples include the
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240 Jian Sang and Grace Zhang
translation of HSBC (Hui Feng Yinhang, , gathering, harvest, bank),
Avon (Ya Fang, , elegant and fragrant) and Colgate (Gao Lu Jie, ,
highly, reveal, clean).
Microsof, the sofware giant, took a diferent approach. Te two morphemes
are meaningful on their own in English (a morpheme is the smallest meaning-
ful linguistic unit). Micro usually works as a prefx, indicating tiny and small,
while sof is a standalone word. It is believed that micro is a shortened form for
micro-computer, and sof is a shortened form for sofware. Te combination of
two words suggests the products the company produces are computer-related and
sofware-related. Te name is easy to pronounce, as it combines two morphemes
that are already in existence, and easy to remember because of the meaning they
have, descriptive of the product and suggestive of its use. Te translated Chinese
name Wei Ruan (, tiny, sof), literally corresponds to its English counterpart.
Both characters in Chinese were commonly employed to suggest computer-relat-
ed and sofware-related technology at the time when IBM was a giant in computer
manufacturing and sofware development in Chinas market. Te translated brand
name of Microsof inherits the benefts of the original name, is easy to memorise,
and ofers a relatively clear description of both product and product use. Te Sko-
pos of being descriptive and suggestive as well as connecting to the English brand
name has been fully accomplished.
Similar to Microsofs translating method, the Chinese translated name for
Oracle is Jiaguwen (, inscriptions on bones or tortoise shells). Te in-
sightfulness of this Chinese name is that it refers to the earliest pictographic form
of Chinese written language with thousands of years of history behind it. It was
used to record information in the most advanced way in its time, as well as be-
ing used for prophecy and forecasting. Te ancient Chinese pictographic charac-
ters best represent what Oracles business is database applications and business
intelligence applications. Similar brand names using the meanings-only method
include Apple (Pingguo, , apple), Times (Shidai, , times), Fair Lady
(Gui Furen, , fair lady), American Standard (Mei Bao, , American
standard), Crown (Huangguan, , crown), Good Companion (Liang You,
, good friend), Concorde (Xiehe, , harmony), Shell (Ke Pai, , shell,
brand), Red Bull (Hong Niu, , red bull), Nestle (Que Cao, , sparrows
nest), Walkman (Sui Shen Ting, , bring with, listen), and Sprite (Xue Bi,
, snow, green jade).
Tere are other brand names that use a combination of sound and meaning,
which functions as efectively as previously discussed methods. For example, in
Mickey Mouse, the frst word is a proper name and the second word is meaningful
in English. Its translated Chinese name is Mi Laoshu (), where Mi taken
from the frst syllable of Mickey, and Laoshu means mouse. Tis translation mixes
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Communication across languages and cultures 241
sound and meaning of the original name, and produces the Chinese name with
its foreign origin (Mi, sound component) and added Chinese favour (laoshu,
meaning component). Te mix makes the translated name unique and easy to use.
Another similar translation is Donald Duck, in Chinese Tang Laoya ().
Tang is taken from the frst syllable of Donald, and lao ya means old duck.
Even though the Chinese language emphasises the meaning of a brand name,
it is still possible to fnd English brands translated into Chinese names with no
meaning attached. To have an English name translated into Chinese without refer-
ence to meaning, i.e. transliteration, refers to the process of converting one lan-
guage to another based on imitation of pronunciation. Tis sometimes becomes
necessary when two writing systems difer greatly, as do Chinese and English. Tis
sounds-only translating method is not without benefts. For example, the famous
flm brand name Kodak has as its Chinese name Ke Da (). Te sound is not
only close to its original sound, but also mimics the sound of a camera taking a
picture. Tis unique combination has been loved by Chinese consumers from the
beginning.
International entertainment giant Disney is translated as Di Si Ni () in
Chinese, which sounds almost exactly the same as the original. Te three charac-
ters are totally irrelevant to each other in any sense and never otherwise used in
such a combination in Chinese daily language. It is easy to detect the brand name
is a translated one, foreign to the Chinese language and culture. Te translated
name projects a distinctive and unique image. Te characters in Disney entertain-
ment are foreign, not native to the Chinese customers. Chinese literature, which
extends back thousands of years, has a well-developed tradition of story-telling.
Chinese fairytales are quite diferent from Western ones in terms of narration,
beliefs, values, and imagery. In this case, it is perhaps better to appreciate, than to
assimilate, the diferences between the cultures. On this basis, the Skopos of trans-
lating Disney into Chinese is defned by maintaining the exotic nature of the origi-
nal name. Te foreignness attracts attention from entertainment seekers curious
about other cultures. In this case, embedding Chinese elements in the translated
name would threaten to reduce the otherness embedded in the original.
Tis kind of transliteration can be powerful in maintaining the country-of-ori-
gin efect, indicating the brand is foreign (Fan, 2002: 183). Tis caters to those con-
sumers in China who adore foreign brands, so it is understandably desirable and
sensible to transliterate a brand name to take into account what consumers want.
Transliterated brand names include Nokia (Nuo Ji Ya, ), Morgan Stanley
(Mogen Shidanli, ) and Louis Vuitton (Luyi Weideng,
), Cadillac (Ka Di La Ke, ), Lincoln (Linken, ) and Sportsman
(Si Bo Zi Man, ). Tey all favour retention of the original pronunciation
without any added meaning.
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242 Jian Sang and Grace Zhang
It appears that the majority of translated Chinese names are based on the pro-
nunciation of the original names as a starting point and, where possible, select
characters with suitable meanings, and are also culturally adapted. Tis practice
may be the result of the fact that Chinese consumers traditionally think highly of a
name with a meaning, especially a positive one. A brand name without any mean-
ing can be problematic for Chinese consumers to make sense of. When translating
an English name, translators and marketers are look out for characters that not
only correspond to the sound of the original name, but also denote or connote a
meaning that can be positively associated with the brand. A translated Chinese
name with matching pronunciation, plus a positive meaning either newly created
or directly transferred from the English name, is highly favoured. However, when
in accordance with the Skopos of the translated brand name, transliteration also
works well in some cases. Te claim that there is a clash between sound based
and meaning based methods is invalid, as the above analysis shows that it doesnt
matter which translators and marketers use: as long as the method serves the com-
municative purpose, it will work efectively.
4.4 Controversial cases
In this section, an analysis of controversial cases illustrates that an efective trans-
lated brand name has to serve a Skopos that is not only satisfactory to the market-
ers, but is also acceptable to consumers.
Google is a well-known name that functions successfully in English. In 2002,
Google started to coin a Chinese name for its vast Chinese-speaking market. It
came down to Gu Ge, which in Chinese has two forms: or . While the
two have exactly the same sound, very similar to the sound of Google, the second
characters of the two names are diferent, and therefore have diferent meanings.
Te frst name means song from (Silicon) valley or song of harvest, and the second
one older brother from (Silicon) valley) or pioneering technology. In 2006, afer
long consideration, a decision was made, and Gu Ge (, song from (Silicon)
valley) was ofcially announced (Jin, 2006). It was thought that this new Chinese
name not only ftted the image and history of Google, but also implied a Chinese
style of beautiful and poetic sensation (Googles Chinese name Gu Ge, 2006).
However, the announcement of Googles Chinese name attracted criticism
from certain Chinese consumers. Tey set up a website (http://www.noguge.
com/) around thsat time to express their dissatisfaction. On the site were slogans
like, We love Google, but not its translated Chinese name. Te general feeling
appeared to be that Google fans felt disappointed, as for them the Chinese name
implied a sense of archaism, that did not ft what Google represented, the spirit of
a modern, vibrant, progressive and new generation. Objectors also said that the
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Communication across languages and cultures 243
name was clichd, with an overdone and odd countryside romantic tone and not
enough feeling of might and power which they believed Googles Chinese name
should manifest.
It should not be a surprise that a translated brand name could have been done
diferently or could be improved further. KFC, for instance, has been translated
into Chinese as Ken De Ji (, a transliteration of the English word of Ken-
tucky). Te marketers of KFC chose the sound-only method for the Chinese name;
perhaps with the communicative purpose of conveying foreign and otherness.
However, Ken De Ji (, Kentu, chicken) could be an equally good, if not
better, name. It has exact the same pronunciation as the former, but with a difer-
ent third character meaning chicken, so is a combination of the sound component
of Ken De (Kentu-) and the meaning component of ji (chicken). Te advantage
of the Kentu(cky)-chicken translation is that it not only represents the (partial)
sound of the original name, but also the meaning of chicken, a trade mark of KFC.
Tis name would have been more Skopos efective, as the sound and meaning mix
make the business of fried chicken more salient to its consumers. As chicken is
afer all the core of KFCs business, the name seems more appropriate, as well as
sounding more like the original name of Kentucky Fried Chicken.
In another case, Lexus used to be translated in Chinese as Ling Zhi (,
rise high, aspiration), which is a meaning-based translation and was popular in
China. However, the Chinese name was later changed to Lei Ke Sa Si (,
a transliteration), which has not been received well (Zhang, 2006). Te American
brand Rank Xerox (xerox equipment) was initially translated as Lan Ke Shi Le (
, a transliteration). As it was sound-based, not many people knew what
it represented. It became known much better afer its Chinese name was changed
to Quan Lu (, all, record), as it is easy to remember this meaningful name in
Chinese (Zhang, 2006)
One of Skopostheories foci is audience and target group, and the discussion in
this section demonstrates that there is still space to improve. Tese controversial
cases show the difculties faced when conficts between the marketers vision and
the perception and preference of their consumers occur. A good name in the eyes
of the marketers may generate negative connotations in the minds of customers,
because people have diferent tastes and diferent ways of making sense of the
world. Hence, a prior test is necessary to ensure the successful launch of a trans-
lated brand name. One can never assume that what a company considers a good
name will be seen as such by consumers.
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244 Jian Sang and Grace Zhang
5. Conclusions
Tis study demonstrates that one of the basic criteria for a successful brand name
translated for Chinas market is to determine to what extent the translated name
can function in the target culture as efectively as the original name does in the
source culture. In other words, the primary Skopos of translating an English brand
name is to create a translated Chinese brand name capable of functioning opti-
mally in Chinas market.
Tis study shows that any efective strategy needs to be in accordance with the
communicative purpose of achieving an optimal impact upon the target group,
whether through a sound-based translation, a meaning-based translation, or a
combination of both. Tis corresponds to the essence of Skopostheorie, which
upholds that the end justifes the means. Te end or the goal, that the translated
Chinese brand name should have as many desirable features as possible, is para-
mount and decisive in determining whether it is a success or a failure. Desirable
features include phonetic appeal, suitable meaning, socio-culturally adaptation
and consumer acceptance. Te function and communicative intent oriented
approach holds the key to a successful outcome. While it appears that a trans-
lated name in Chinese with an added positive meaning is favoured because of the
Chinese language being ideographic in nature, if the translated name in Chinese
achieves the expected goal and caters to Chinese consumers efectively, then it
does not matter whether the meaning or the sound, or both, are sustained.
Tis study challenges the traditional sound/meaning-based approach to trans-
lation, and provides an enriched understanding of the importance of achieving
communicative purpose and optimal functional impact in the target group. While
the discussion in this study is based on Chinese data, the fndings have implica-
tions in translation of other languages. Te insights generated add an important
conceptual dimension to the study of translation and cross-cultural communica-
tion in general. Te fndings of this study may also provide practical assistance for
an efective outcome in translation and have pedagogical value in the teaching of
translation.
Notes
* Te authors are indebted to Herbert Pierson and anonymous reviewers, for their encourage-
ment and valuable suggestions which have been incorporated into the fnal version.
1. Tere are also anecdotes of translated brand names from Chinese to English. A Chinese
brand name does not always translate well into English if it is culturally unsuitable. For example,
in China Fang Fang (, fragrant) is a well-known and readily accepted lipstick brand name.
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Communication across languages and cultures 245
However, Fang Fang would not go well to English speakers, because fang in English means
sharp, pointed teeth of a snake or a dog. Who wants to wear a lipstick with a name associated
with poisonous teeth? Moreover, in China, there is a popular brand of poker cards called Maxi
Puke (, circus poker cards). However, if we translate this brand name literally into
English, it would be Maxi Puke, which would not be a good choice for marketing this brand.
Bai Xiang (, white elephant) is a well-known Chinese battery brand name, but in English
it means something that is generally useless but too valuable (to the owner) to throw away.
Tere is a Chinese brand of carpets called Fanchuan (, sailing boat). Its translated English
name used to be Junk, but it was not received well in the West. Te company later changed it
to Junco.
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