California's American Trader oil spill: effective interagency
and public-private collaboration in environmental disaster
response. Introduction The American Trader tanker oil spill oil spill: see water pollution. off Huntington Beach, California Huntington Beach is a seaside city in Orange County in southern California. As of the 2000 census, the city population was 189,594. It is bordered by the Pacific Ocean on the west, by Seal Beach on the north, by Costa Mesa on the south, by Westminster on the northeast, and by , in 1990 triggered a large scale interagency interagency adj. Involving or representing two or more agencies, especially government agencies. and public- private response to minimize the ecological and economic impact of approximately 400,000 gallons of spilled crude oil. Federal, state, county, municipal, and private sector agencies were involved in what was generally regarded as a rapid and effective management strategy that involved some 1,100 workers and an approximate cost of $10 million. We examine the interagency collaboration of public and private organizations during a major local crisis with special emphasis on the roles of the local public health agency (Orange County Health Care Agency). Events that occur rarely but have high potential consequences represent special challenges to public agencies and private organizations (1). These "low probability-high consequence" events often lie outside the standard operating procedures standard operating procedure Medtalk A technique, method or therapy performed 'by the book,' using a standard protocol meeting internally or externally defined criteria; a formal, written procedure that describes how specific lab operations are to be performed. and established expertise of many organizations, including public health agencies (2). Organizational roles and responsibilities are frequently poorly defined. This may be true of public health agencies which are often expected to take an active role but are unsure of what that role should be. The use of an innovative quantitative health-based risk assessment to justify reopening of beaches is presented. Chemical and isotopic characterization to distinguish between the spilled oil and natural tar seeps were performed. These procedures were crucial to an effective interagency response and conclusion to the crisis. Features that contributed to effective interagency add public-private collaboration were assessed using a survey of participating organizations. Sequence of Events On-February 7, 1990, the tanker American Trader passed over its anchor while attempting to berth at the offshore marine terminal located 1.3 miles off Huntington Beach Huntington Beach, city (1990 pop. 181,519), Orange co., S Calif., on the Pacific coast, across from Santa Catalina Island, in an oil-producing area; inc. 1909. It manufactures aerospace vehicles, aircraft parts, optical instruments, and heat transfer equipment. . Two holes were tom into one of the forward cargo tanks and within minutes, 397,236 gallons of north slope North Slope, Alaska: see Alaska North Slope. Alaskan crude owned by British Petroleum (BP) spilled into the water around the tanker. Sea and weather conditions at the time were mild, with a very slight onshore breeze blowing out of the southwest. The slick began to wash up onto 15 miles of beaches along the heavily populated populate tr.v. populated, populating, populates 1. To supply with inhabitants, as by colonization; people. 2. Southern California Southern California, also colloquially known as SoCal, is the southern portion of the U.S. state of California. Centered on the cities of Los Angeles and San Diego, Southern California is home to nearly 24 million people and is the nation's second most populated region, coast. The oil slick was estimated at approximately 15 miles by 5 miles. By February 14, about 150,000 gallons had been recovered while about 240,000 gallons had evaporated evaporated reduced in volume by evaporation; concentrated to a denser form. , dispersed, or sunk. More than 1,100 workers were hired to clean up oil that washed ashore. By February 16, the cost of cleanup was estimated to be $10 million. By February 18, there were 496 live and 403 dead, oil-soaked waterfowl waterfowl, common term for members of the order Anseriformes, wild, aquatic, typically freshwater birds including ducks, geese, and screamers. In Great Britain the term is also used to designate species kept for ornamental purposes on private lakes or ponds, while in , and 1,000 grunion grunion: see silversides. grunion Edible Pacific fish (Leuresthes tenuis) found along the western coast of the U.S. In the warm months, it lays its eggs in beach sand during a full or new moon when the tide cycle is at its peak. fish were found dead on the beach. The American Trader crude oil spill triggered a health response from the first hours of the spill until after cleanup of the last affected beach. British Petroleum assumed responsibility for the cleanup, under the supervision of the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG USCG abbr. United States Coast Guard USCG n abbr (= United States Coast Guard) -> Kstenwache der USA ) and the California Department of Fish and Game (CAFG). The Orange County Health Care Agency responded with environmental health staff assigned to provide potentially affected beach communities with warning signs and to monitor the progress of the oil slick offshore and the cleanup efforts, both offshore and onshore, over the next several weeks. USCG was the "on-scene coordinator" for the emergency, and all cleanup activities were to be approved by their staff. CAFG stated they would be the lead state agency with primary concern for protection of wildlife and the beach environment. British Petroleum accepted oversight and financial responsibility for the cleanup, since it was their oil on board the tanker, and they had a trained spill response team assembled to respond to this accidental oil spill. Shortly after the spill, the City of Huntington Beach, the City of Newport Beach Newport Beach, residential and resort city (1990 pop. 66,643), Orange co., S Calif., on Newport Bay and the Pacific Ocean; inc. 1906. It is a popular seaside resort and yachting center. Manufactures include electrical and medical equipment, computers, boats, and adhesives. , and the County of Orange activated their Emergency Operations Centers The Emergency Operations Center, or EOC, is a central command and control facility responsible for carrying out the principles of emergency preparedness and emergency management, or disaster management functions at a strategic level in an emergency situation, and ensuring (EOC EOC Emergency Operations Center EOC Equal Opportunities Commission (UK) EOC Educational Opportunity Center EOC End Of Course EOC Epithelial Ovarian Cancer EOC Environment of Care (JCAHO) ). The cities and the California Department of Parks and Recreation The California Department of Parks and Recreation manages the California state parks system, which contains 280 parks and 1.4 million acres (5,700 km), with over 280 miles of coastline; 625 miles of lake and river frontage; nearly 15,000 campsites; and 3,000 miles of hiking, closed the beaches. The mouths of bays, harbors, and rivers were boomed to protect the harbors and adjacent environmentally sensitive wetlands. Vapor monitoring by the county at Newport At Newport could refer to a number of live albums recorded at the Newport Folk Festival or the Newport Jazz Festival: Ellington at Newport (1956) Count Basie at Newport (1957) Newport Jazz Festival (1958) by Duke Ellington Beach pier helped to determine that community exposure to volatile organic components was not significant. British Petroleum was advised to hire a qualified consultant to assess the public health impact from the oil contamination of air, soil, and water. Once beaches were cleaned up by hand crews using absorbent absorbent /absorbent/ (- sorbent) 1. able to take in, or suck up and incorporate. 2. a tissue structure involved in absorption. 3. a substance that absorbs or promotes absorption. pads and pompons, audit teams consisting of representatives of the U.S. Coast Guard, the Department of Fish and Game, British Petroleum, and the local fire department performed visual, tactile tactile /tactile/ (taktil) pertaining to touch. tactile adj. 1. Perceptible to the sense of touch; tangible. 2. Used for feeling. 3. , and odor assessments of the sand and water. Such audit team assessments were the traditional method of determining the adequacy of cleanup. Sampling of the sand was undertaken to ensure that any risks to public health had been adequately mitigated. A post cleanup and health risk evaluation committee was created to determine appropriate cleanup levels for total petroleum hydrocarbons Total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) is a term used to denote a large family of several hundred chemical compounds that originally come from crude oil. Crude oil is used to make petroleum products which can contaminate the environment. (TPH TPH Transplacental hemorrhage ). A limit of 100 ppm TPH in the sand was established as acceptable, based on risk assessment and past practice for cleanup of petroleum hydrocarbons on land. As the audit teams approved each beach, it was subsequently sampled and reopened only after the average of samples met the 100 ppm TPH criterion and no single sample exceeded 500 ppm TPH. Using this evaluation system all beaches were adequately cleaned and reopened by March 14, 1990. Environmental Health Response USCG and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Noun 1. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration - an agency in the Department of Commerce that maps the oceans and conserves their living resources; predicts changes to the earth's environment; provides weather reports and forecasts floods and hurricanes and (NOAA NOAA abbr. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Noun 1. NOAA - an agency in the Department of Commerce that maps the oceans and conserves their living resources; predicts changes to the earth's environment; ) began flyovers to chart the movement of the oil offshore and, in conjunction with Newport Beach, distributed daily observation maps to concerned agencies. BP began hiring contract cleanup personnel and developing a cleanup plan for USCG approval. Meetings were held at the CAFG offices with all involved agencies to discuss and consider options. The decision was made to skim offshore oil then deal with the oil onshore when it washed onto the beaches. The first oil appeared on the beach on February 8 near the Newport Beach pier. BP decided, with agreement from USCG and CAFG, to hand clean the beaches instead of using heavy equipment. The manual technique was intended to minimize pushing the oil into the sand and therefore reduced the amount of sand that needed to be removed and later replaced. Orange County notified BP on Day 2 regarding the need for BP to monitor air, soil, and water for aromatic hydrocarbons to gauge the public health impact on exposed workers and residents. BP hired toxicologists to conduct air and water sampling during the cleanup process. Limited vapor monitoring for volatile organic chemicals (e.g., benzene benzene (b?n`z?n, b?nz?n`), colorless, flammable, toxic liquid with a pleasant aromatic odor. It boils at 80.1°C; and solidifies at 5.5°C;. Benzene is a hydrocarbon, with formula C6H6. , toluene toluene (t?l`y ?n') or methylbenzene (m?th'?lb?n`z?n), C7H8 , xylene xylene (z?`l?n) or dimethylbenzene (d?'m?th?lb?n`z?n), C6H4(CH3)2 , and ethylbenzene Ethylbenzene is an organic chemical compound which is an aromatic hydrocarbon. Its major use is in the petrochemical industry as an intermediate compound for the production of styrene, which in turn is used for making polystyrene, a commonly used plastic material. ) was performed by environmental health personnel from Orange County on February 9 at the Newport Beach pier, near the area where the offshore slick was heaviest at the time. No significant (pathogenic pathogenic or pathogenetic adj. 1. Having the capability to cause disease. 2. Producing disease. 3. Relating to pathogenesis. ) levels of volatile organics were detected, as virtually all volatile organic chemicals evaporate evaporate v. 1. To convert or change into a vapor; volatilize. 2. To produce vapor. 3. To draw or pass off in the form of vapor. 4. into the atmosphere within 48 hours after a crude oil spill. During most of the time following the American Trader spill, offshore breezes prevailed. A public health threat did not exist from volatile organic chemicals due to the earlier evaporative evaporative pertaining to evaporation. evaporative loss loss of body water by evaporation of water from the body to the air; a heat control mechanism and a factor in water balance studies. losses. Cleanup activities continued offshore by skimming Skimming An electronic method of capturing a victim's personal information used by identity thieves. The skimmer is a small device that scans a credit card and stores the information contained in the magnetic strip. as weather permitted and onshore using absorbent pads and pompons and by removing contaminated contaminated, v 1. made radioactive by the addition of small quantities of radioactive material. 2. made contaminated by adding infective or radiographic materials. 3. an infective surface or object. sand with hand shovels. An audit of Newport Beach included visual, tactile, and odor assessment of sand and water. This traditional method was used to determine when the cleanup of an area was completed. The agencies, in conjunction with BP, declared the area clean when the above criteria were met, and the beach was then reopened to the public. Evaluation Criteria for Beach Reopening Public health officials expressed concern about reopening heavily oiled beaches prematurely and the possibility of chronic health effects. An assessment of sample data needed to be made to ensure that potential exposures would not pose unnecessary risks to beach users. Sampling of sand and water was conducted for TPH and polynuclear polynuclear /polynuclear/ (-noo?kle-er) having several nuclei; said of cells. polynuclear or polynucleate or polynucleated adj. Multinuclear. aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH PAH, PAHA aminohippuric acid. PAH abbr. para-aminohippuric acidPAH 1 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, see there 2. Pulmonary artery HTN ), the group of nonvolatile contaminants of greatest public health concern. BP and NOAA indicated that there were no standards for "beach exposures" and that they were concerned about setting a precedent for sampling after oil spills This is a list of oil spills throughout the world. Large Oil Spills to Date Oil Spills of over 100,000 tonnes or 30 million US gallons, ordered by Tonnes Spill / Tanker Location Date *Tons of crude oil link . The visual, tactile, and odor assessment procedure had always been acceptable for previous oil spill cleanups. Public health officials pointed out that the American Trader oil spill was different from the earlier Alaskan oil spill, since millions of people use local beaches and contact sand, whereas in Alaska few people use the beach. A major concern was dermal dermal /dermal/ (dermal) pertaining to the dermis or to the skin. dermal or dermic adj. Of or relating to the skin or dermis. contact with sand, although ingestion ingestion /ingestion/ (-chun) the taking of food, drugs, etc., into the body by mouth. ingestion n. 1. The act of taking food and drink into the body by the mouth. 2. of sand was also considered. Sampling of air and water suggested little threat from inhalation or contact with water. Samples were tested for TPH at approximately 500-foot intervals at the high tide line and in the lower tidal zone Noun 1. tidal zone - an area subject to tidal action zone - an area or region distinguished from adjacent parts by a distinctive feature or characteristic . A tiered approach was used with the follow-up testing. Only samples with greater than 100 ppm of TPH would require additional testing for PAH consistent with hazardous waste Hazardous waste Any solid, liquid, or gaseous waste materials that, if improperly managed or disposed of, may pose substantial hazards to human health and the environment. Every industrial country in the world has had problems with managing hazardous wastes. guidelines for cleanup of petroleum products in residential areas. Based on an Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), independent agency of the U.S. government, with headquarters in Washington, D.C. It was established in 1970 to reduce and control air and water pollution, noise pollution, and radiation and to ensure the safe handling and risk assessment model and using worst case assumptions for exposure and for PAH types and concentrations, the excess lifetime cancer risk would be less than E-06 with a TPH concentration of 100 ppm in the sand. The final cleanup assessment and testing plan was as follows: 1. The audit team approved the area; 2. Samples were taken on 500-foot centers; 3. A beach was reopened if tests showed an average TPH concentration of less than 100 ppm. Individual samples over. 100 ppm TPH would be analyzed for PAH; 4. The local health department approved openings; 5. Local officials, USCG, and CAFG approved openings; 6. The public and press were notified of beach openings; and 7. Areas not passing criteria would be recleaned, reaudited, and resampled until the average 100 ppm TPH criteria was met. Only a few sections of beach required recleaning. USCG staff and BP were initially resistant to recleaning areas with TPH concentrations above 1 00 ppm (ranging from 743 to 5030), but the 100 ppm criterion was adhered to and subsequently all beaches were satisfactorily cleaned and reopened by March 14, 1990. Public Health Risk Assessment A cleanup evaluation committee was formed consisting of representatives of BP, officials of the cities of Huntington Beach and Newport Beach, NOAA, and the Environmental Health Division of the Orange County Health Care Agency. Officials from USCG and CAFG were also included in initial coordination meetings. The committee initiated and evaluated the results of a risk assessment performed by a toxicological consulting firm Noun 1. consulting firm - a firm of experts providing professional advice to an organization for a fee consulting company business firm, firm, house - the members of a business organization that owns or operates one or more establishments; "he worked for a and set cleanup criteria for the beaches. The Risk Assessment Process Health risk assessment consists of four sequential phases: hazard identification, dose-response assessment, exposure assessment, and risk characterization (3,4). Hazard identification determines the chemical(s) of concern based on toxicologic features, environmental fate, and potential exposure pathways. Populations at risk are also identified. Dose-response assessment quantifies the toxicity of the chemicals of concern on humans and other forms of life. Exposure assessment quantifies the amount of agent that will actually reach biological receptors. Risk characterization calculates the risk based on data obtained in the dose-response and exposure assessments. High uncertainty is inherent to risk assessment because of uncertainty associated with toxicologic and exposure assessments. Risk estimates are scientifically-deduced estimates and may or may not be accurate reflections of actual risk. For this reason, a conservative (worst case) approach is used which overestimates actual risk (5). Actual risk usually varies between the calculated risk as a maximum and zero as a minimum. Hazard Identification and Population Exposed Substances of concern in the American Trader oil spill were crude oil for non-carcinogenic health effects and PAH for carcinogenesis carcinogenesis n. The production of cancer. carcinogenesis production of cancer. biological carcinogenesis viruses and some parasites are capable of initiating neoplasia. . The population exposed included all potential beach users. A maximally exposed beach user was estimated to visit the beach two-24 hour days per week for nine months per year over a 70-year lifespan. Dermal exposure was assumed to involve 90% of body area and ingestion to be 100 mg/day of sand. These estimates were developed specifically for this incident by the interagency response team. Dose-Response Assessment EPA EPA eicosapentaenoic acid. EPA abbr. eicosapentaenoic acidEPA, n.pr See acid, eicosapentaenoic. EPA, n. has not established a reference dose (RFD RFD abbr. rural free delivery Noun 1. RFD - free government delivery of mail in outlying country areas rural free delivery ) for crude oil or other petroleum mixtures to date. Environmental toxicological assessment established an acceptable daily intake acceptable daily intake the amount of a drug or chemical residue to which an animal can be exposed daily for a lifetime without suffering a deleterious or injurious effect, on the basis of all of the facts known at the time. level (ADI) for noncarcinogenic effects based on toxicity studies reported in the scientific literature. The value derived was an intake of 0.0 1 66 mg/kg/day of TPH. For carcinogenic carcinogenic having a capacity for carcinogenesis. effects, it was assumed that all PAH was benzo(a)pyrene (BAP BAP - 1. An early system used on the IBM 701. [Listed in CACM 2(5):16 (May 1959)]. ), the most carcinogenic substance found in crude oil. The carcinogenic potency factor for BAP was given as 6.1 [(mg/kg-day).sup.-1]. Exposure Assessment Exposure could occur from direct contact with skin and oral ingestion of contaminated sand or ocean products. Confining exposure to these two pathways was reasonable because volatile substances were not found in sand samples and PAH carcinogens Carcinogens Substances in the environment that cause cancer, presumably by inducing mutations, with prolonged exposure. Mentioned in: Colon Cancer, Rectal Cancer are not volatile. Potential exposed skin area was taken to be 90% of body surface area, based on usual dermal exposure while wearing beach wear. Noncarcinogenic exposure was calculated for the most sensitive, 0-6 year age group (6). Potential uptake was calculated for both dermal and oral exposure routes for child (0-6 years), youth (7-13 years) and adult (14-70 years) age groups. The sum of uptakes for the three age groups is equal to the lifetime average daily dose (LADD LADD Lifetime Average Daily Dose LADD Lacrimoauriculodentodigital (syndrome) LADD Light and Darkness Dragon (YuGiOh trading cards) LADD Low-Angle Drogue Delivery LADD Lowest Acceptable Daily Dose ). Total uptake is the sum of dermal and oral uptakes. Dermal uptake far exceeded oral uptake. The LADD would be the uptake factor multiplied by the concentration of the contaminant contaminant /contaminant/ (kon-tamin-int) something that causes contamination. contaminant something that causes contamination. in sand. Risk Characterization and Calculation of Cleanup Levels Risk was calculated as: risk = lifetime average daily dose (LADD) x potency factor where LADD = concentration of contaminant in sand x intake factor based on exposure scenario. Risk may also be expressed as: risk = [sand] x intake factor x potency factor. Hence: [sand] = risk/intake factor x potency factor. The exposure assessment was directed toward determining an acceptable cleanup level by solving the following equation for concentration of the contaminant in sand: [sand] = risk/(uptake factor) (carcinogenic potency factor). The risk factor selected was 1 x E-06 or excess cancer case per million individuals. All PAH was assumed to be benzo(a)pyrene. The carcinogenic potency factor (CPF (Control Program Facility) The IBM System/38 operating system that included an integrated relational DBMS. ) was taken as 6. 1. The equation then becomes: [sand] = 1 x E-06/(2.96 x E-05)(6. 1) = 5.5 x E-03 mg BAP/kg sand. The figure of 2.96 x E-05 is the LADD dermal and the LADD oral summed. A sample of South Louisiana crude oil was found to contain 5.41 x E-05 g total PAHG oil. The latter was a surrogate available when the risk assessment process was developed. All PAH was considered to be BAP. If the standard test for total recoverable petroleum hydrocarbons (TRPH TRPH Total Recoverable Petroleum Hydrocarbons ) effectively estimates crude oil, the equation becomes: [sand] = 5.5 x E-03 mg Bap/kg soil x 1 g oil/5.41 x E-05 g BAP =102 mg oil/kg sand, or about 100 mg TRPH/KG sand. A sample of crude oil from the American Trader was found to contain no carcinogenic PAH above the detection limit of 2300 ug/ kg. For noncarcinogenic effects, a hazard index was calculated as the ratio of uptake of a child divided by the ADI given above. The sum of exposures was calculated to be 5.2 x E-03 (not significant unless 1.0 or greater). Use of Risk Assessment Risk assessment was conducted in response to concerns about the possibility of real or imagined illnesses related to the heavily oiled beaches. Although risk assessments have been conducted on crude oil in surface soils (7,8), we adapted it for use with beach sand in managing this emergency response. Potential exposure was of great concern due to the millions of people who use the affected beaches. The risk assessment was used as the basis for risk management. Using aesthetic assessments such as sight and smell is not adequate for detecting levels of contaminant below human sensory perception that may still contribute to disease. At each beach area, samples were collected on 500-foot centers. The beach was opened only when an average concentration was met. A total of 705 samples were collected. The average TRPH concentration was 48.7 mg/kg (ppm), representing an excess lifetime cancer risk of 8.1 x E-08. The application of the above methods provided an objective analysis of public health and environmental impacts, and a data-driven justification to recommendations made by the local health department. Other Issues Mussel mussel, edible freshwater or marine bivalve mollusk. Mussels are able to move slowly by means of the muscular foot. They feed and breathe by filtering water through extensible tubes called siphons; a large mussel filters 10 gal (38 liters) of water per day. Contamination A shellfish shellfish, popular name for certain edible mollusks (see Mollusca), e.g., oysters, clams, and scallops, and for certain edible crustaceans, e.g., crabs, lobsters, and shrimps. All are aquatic invertebrates with shells; they are not fish. advisory was issued and signs posted in English, Spanish, and Vietnamese along oiled beaches. Results of five subsequent mussel analyses along the entire Orange County coast showed no significant increase in TPH levels in oiled mussels compared with controls. Reoiling Occurrences Reoiling occurred in some areas that were approved to be opened. This was due to movement of oil from one area to another during storm conditions, oil being released back into the surf during rock washing and/ or possible new spills from other ships, offshore rigs, or natural seeps. BP responded to all reoiling events by sending crews back into the area for recleaning. Plankton plankton: see marine biology. plankton Marine and freshwater organisms that, because they are unable to move or are too small or too weak to swim against water currents, exist in a drifting, floating state. Bloom Lifeguards received complaints of eye and skin irritation skin irritation, n reaction to a particular irritant that results in inflammation of the skin and itchiness. from surfers in reopened beach areas. Restaining of the beaches was observed with what appeared to be oil. Samples of water, foam, and beach stains were collected and analyzed. No hydrocarbons were found in the water samples, but numerous red tide red tide: see Dinoflagellata. red tide Discoloration of seawater caused by dinoflagellates during periodic blooms (population increases). Toxic substances released by these organisms into the water may be lethal to fish and other marine life, and organisms were found. There were reports of red discoloration discoloration n. 1. a. The act of discoloring. b. The condition of being discolored. 2. A discolored spot, smudge, or area; a stain. Noun 1. of waters, indicating a plankton bloom, which can produce skin, eye, and respiratory irritation. Foam and sand stain analysis indicated that PAH components were either nondetectable or at very low levels that did not constitute a health risk. "Sunk" Oil County sanitation districts collected sediment samples from the 30 meter depth contour A line connecting points of equal depth below the hydrographic datum. Also called bathymetric contour or depth curve. offshore along the Newport and Huntington coastline. This was a part of routine sanitation district activity. BP analyzed all routinely collected samples for TPH and none were detected. This confirmed a low probability that oil from the spill sunk offshore which could reoil beaches at a later date. Tarballs On Day 32 there were reports of unusually heavy concentrations of tarballs along many Orange County beaches. The USCG had received reports of many tarballs from Santa Barbara Santa Barbara (s?n't? br`br?, -b?r?), city (1990 pop. 85,571), seat of Santa Barbara co., S Calif., on the Pacific Ocean; inc. 1850. to San Diego San Diego (s?n d??`g?), city (1990 pop. 1,110,549), seat of San Diego co., S Calif., on San Diego Bay; inc. 1850. San Diego includes the unincorporated communities of La Jolla and Spring Valley. Coronado is across the bay. and speculated that they may have been related to an increase in oil seep activity due to a recent earthquake. BP collected samples of the tarballs in Los Angeles Los Angeles (ls ?n`j?l?s, l?s, ?n`j?l?z'), city (1990 pop. 3,485,398), seat of Los Angeles co., S Calif.; inc. 1850. County and Orange County and had them tested by an independent consultant. The samples of tarballs were analyzed for various isotopes and chemical constituents. These samples were compared with Alaskan and Southern Californian crude oil. Only one onshore and one offshore sample matched the American Trader (Alaskan) crude, confirming that the tarballs were Southern California crude associated with natural phenomena. Summary of Cleanup Operation The cleanup process and the involvement of public health practitioners following the American Trader oil spill demonstrated that many agencies and companies can work together effectively to ensure protection of the public's health and the environment. The cleanup criteria developed by the post cleanup and health risk evaluation committee helped to validate the findings of the visual, tactile, and odor assessment process. However, the discovery of high TPH levels at several stations cleared by audit teams demonstrated that traditional assessment methods were not foolproof The 1 00 ppm TPH criterion for beach samples provided assurance that beach users would not be exposed to hazardous conditions from the oil spill. This criterion may become a precedent for other oil spill cleanups on heavily used beaches throughout the country. The American Trader Oil Spill Survey of Participating Response Organizations A questionnaire for participating emergency personnel was developed to assess the management dimensions of the response to the American Trader oil spill. The questionnaire was designed to determine the factors that contributed to effective interagency collaboration and communication and was administered to 14 of 25 organizations responding to the oil spill. Table 1 lists the primary role of each of the 14 organizations interviewed. Table 1. Role of Organizations Surveyed. Organization Role in the Response U.S. Coast Guard Federal on-scene coordinator Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game State on-scene coordinator B.P. America Responsible for cleanup City of H.B.(*) Fire Dept. Management of oil spill City of N.B.(**) Fire Dept. Management of oil spill Calif. Office of Emergency Services Coordinate information flow Orange Co. Health Care Agency Beach closure and reopening City of H.B. Emergency Services Operations center Orange Co. Environ. Manage. Agency Harbor protection City of H.B. Marine Safety Field command post City of H.B. Mayor's Office Management of oil spill Calif. Dept. of Parks and Recreation Protecting parks Clean Coastal Waters, Inc. Cleanup of oil from water Clean Seas Oil recovery assistance (*) Huntington Beach (**) Newport Beach Emergency Management Background of Respondent Organizations Prior to the American Trader oil spill, all organizations had been involved in interagency emergency management. Most had been involved in preparation of a contingency plan A plan involving suitable backups, immediate actions and longer term measures for responding to computer emergencies such as attacks or accidental disasters. Contingency plans are part of business resumption planning. , emergency preparedness exercises, an actual emergency, and in the recovery phase of an emergency. Types of emergencies encountered included floods, hazardous material spills, fires, and tomatoes. Over 60% of the organizations had been involved in the management of an oil spill. Personnel in charge of operations for the organizations were also experienced in emergency management; of 26 lead individuals interviewed, only three were new to emergency management. Factors that Contributed to Successful Interagency Management Several factors were reported as important in successful interagency management: Familiarity Between Organizations Previous contact with many of the other organizations involved in the American Trader emergency was reported to have led to effective interagency communication and collaboration. It was suggested that information about the various participating organizations, including roles and responsibilities, contacts with telephone and facsimile numbers, etc., should be distributed to all participants early in the emergency response. If prior contact and familiarity among organizations aid interagency management of emergencies, organizations may want to ensure more frequent contact among themselves during non-crisis periods. For example, organizations could engage in multi-agency emergency preparedness exercises. Regular Meetings Daily or twice daily informational meetings were effective. Throughout the emergency, meetings were held regularly and attended by representatives of each organization. At these meetings, information was shared and the concerns and requests of participating organizations were communicated to the leadership structure of the emergency response. Problems were discussed and mutually acceptable solutions were developed. No media were present at these regular meetings. Factors that Impeded Successful Interagency Management Two issues were frequently reported as having impeded effective interagency management. Multi-agency Contingency Plans The most frequently reported factor Reported factor The pool factor as reported by the bond buyer for a given amortization period. that hindered effective communication and collaboration was poorly defined sense of roles and responsibilities, especially where the federal versus the state agencies are concerned. Information about other organizations was scarce, and this emergency response required many organizations to interact with others with whom they had no prior experience and sometimes little knowledge. The respondents stated that multi-agency contingency plans clearly defining organization responsibilities would have improved emergency management. Over 70% of organizations surveyed had a contingency plan but only 60% of plans included an oil spill scenario. Organizations having a contingency plan reported following it during the American Trader oil spill, but 25% stated that their organization's role in the contingency plan was not clearly defined. One third stated that they were forced to depart from the contingency plan because the plan was not suited for the magnitude of the spill or for the number of participants involved in the response. Respondents stated that contingency plans should be more multi-agency in character, recognizing that numerous organizations will be involved in a large emergency responses. Roles need to be more clearly identified for each organization. Lack of Adequate Communications Equipment Respondents commented on the lack of communications technologies and good operations facilities. Communications technology such as cellular phones and facsimile machines were in short supply during the emergency. Antiquated devices could not fulfill the need for rapid communications. The speed of communication affected the ability of decision makers to act. Radio frequencies became jammed quickly, and public telephones were often occupied. If cellular phones had been available, participants may have had less difficulty communicating with each other. Facsimile machines and computers were also in short supply. Respondents stated that improved communication equipment would have increased the efficiency of the spill response and are needed to ensure effective interagency disaster management. The Process of Decision-making The cities affected by the American Trader oil spill used the incident command system in emergency management. The system makes one person/group responsible for the overall management of an emergency (the incident commander) and makes another person/group responsible for tactical command The authority delegated to a commander to assign tasks to forces under his command for the accomplishment of the mission assigned by higher authority. (operations). Several other organizational groups are responsible for information, resources, or finance. The affected cities designated their city manager as the incident commander. The operations commanders were the city's fire chiefs. During the American Trader oil spill, the cities amended this to incorporate several key, non-local organizations, including the USCG which has jurisdiction over all oil and hazardous materials spills that occur in U.S. coastal waters. The private oil company, BP America, was an important decision maker because it owned the oil on the tanker and because it had a responsibility and the resources to conduct the cleanup. While USCG was the legally authorized lead agency in the clean-up effort, it granted much of the operational coordination and responsibility to BP America, which had the primary obligation to ensure that an adequate cleanup occurred. CAFG was the third crucial decision maker because of its responsibility for oil spills off the coast of California. These three organizations were the unified command A command with a broad continuing mission under a single commander and composed of significant assigned components of two or more Military Departments that is established and so designated by the President, through the Secretary of Defense with the advice and assistance of the Chairman of . In contrast, the role of local organizations in the spill response was described by respondents as supportive, communicating local concerns and needed actions, and sharing in decision-making. Most respondents felt that local concerns were addressed very effectively. Local organizations played an important tactical role in the spill response, including coordination, information gathering, beach closure and reopening, and security. Role of the Media Throughout the spill response, many organizations communicated with the media in the form of press briefings, releases, and through designated personnel operating from media centers. Media tours of the affected beaches and interpreters for Spanish-language news shows were provided. Most organizations reported that the media helped their efforts primarily by communicating important information to the public. Effective emergency response required the cooperation of the general public, which had to be notified of the beach closures. The media served to communicate information across the responding organizations themselves. The Huntington Beach EOC was tuned into local television news. Some charts and maps that were published in print media were also of use to the participants. Respondents credited the media for conveying a largely accurate representation of events, and noted that media attention on the crisis served to capture the attention of outside organizations whose assistance (such as financial aid) was needed. The media promoted an interagency focus by reporting on the diverse aspects of the emergency. The media hindered emergency response insofar insofar adv. To such an extent. Adv. 1. insofar - to the degree or extent that; "insofar as it can be ascertained, the horse lung is comparable to that of man"; "so far as it is reasonably practical he should practice as dealing with the media was time consuming; organizations were conscious of the fact that media diverted time from the spill response. The presence of the media on the scene also proved to be a crowd-control problem. Public phones were often occupied by media personnel when they were needed by participants for operational tasks. Media exclusion from regular meetings may have been a factor contributing to effective interagency coordination Within the context of Department of Defense involvement, the coordination that occurs between elements of Department of Defense, and engaged US Government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and regional and international organizations for the purpose of accomplishing an objective. and planning. Confusion About the Roles of Various Organizations A complaint voiced by respondents was that lead federal and state agencies (USCG and CAFG) were not in full agreement about their respective roles. A competition for influence occurred, which while not a major impediment A disability or obstruction that prevents an individual from entering into a contract. Infancy, for example, is an impediment in making certain contracts. Impediments to marriage include such factors as consanguinity between the parties or an earlier marriage that is still valid. to an effective response, was noted by other participants. Respondents stated that roles among all tiers of emergency response organizations should be better defined and, in particular, the respective roles of federal and state agencies. Role of British Petroleum America BP America's actions were cited as contributing to good communication and collaboration between organizations during the emergency. A large majority of respondents indicated that USCG, CAFG, and BP America's ability to provide leadership and direction in the emergency response was critical. BP America's effective handling of the emergency was attributed to several factors. Prior to the American Trader oil spill, the company had studied reports on the management of the Exxon oil spill in Alaska. Four months before the American Trader oil spill, BP America had created a crisis management department. BP America's external crisis manager/incident commander during the oil spill was praised for good management. The company was also perceived as forthcoming in resources to aid the cleanup. Role of the U.S. Coast Guard USCG was highly rated for its performance in the emergency. Most respondents indicated that USCG was very effective in providing leadership and direction in the response. This was attributed to a good command structure, availability of resources, and a skilled representative on the scene and was a common perception among respondents despite their also indicating that there was some competition for influence between USCG and CAFG. Conclusion The American Trader oil spill off of California's coast challenged public sector agencies to respond effectively to an environmental and public health threat. A productive interagency collaboration resulted from well-defined roles and responsibilities among agency actors and was facilitated by the use of an innovative risk assessment procedure for beach reopening. Future analyses of interagency effectiveness in disaster response should expand upon the data presented here. It is clear from this review that technological capacity and innovation should complement, but cannot replace effective management, decisionmaking, and communication processes during such complex, multi-agency responses. References (1.) Wade, R. 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