2 Classical Electromagnetism: PHYS3003 Light and Matter 07/11/2006

PHYS3003 Light and Matter 07/11/2006
2 Classical electromagnetism
2.1 Introduction
ethods of analysing physical motions fall into two general
categories: the Lagrangian approach, such as classical mechanics,
whereby the motion of a single element or particle is followed; and
the Eulerian technique, in which the physical system is described by position-
dependent bulk properties or fields. The two approaches are in principle
equivalent and, for example, the behaviour of a gas may be described either
by following the positions and momenta of its constituent atoms or by
analysing the variations in pressure, temperature, density and flow. For a
given system, we adopt whichever approach proves the simpler: the motions
of a few, otherwise isolated charged particles are therefore well described by
a Lagrangian approach, featuring the Coulomb interaction or the formulae for
interactions between dipoles.
Eulerian analysis is more appropriate for more complex systems, and in
particular for electromagnetic fields, whose propagation is interesting even in
the absence of individual charged particles. Classical electrodynamics allows
wave theory to be applied to the propagation of radio waves and light. In this
section, then, we shall be concerned with equations relating the temporal and
spatial variations of electric and magnetic fields, from which wave equations
may be determined. We shall see that the electric and magnetic fields are
intimately related and, indeed, we shall describe in passing the fundamental
but perhaps surprising origin of this relation.
This section therefore concentrates on four differential equations which, in
combination with the formula for charged particle motion and some further
defining equations, between them embody everything that is known about
electromagnetism. These equations imply Coulombs law and the Biot-Savart
formula, and they govern the behaviour of electrical components and the
propagation of light. At high speeds, these four equations cease to be
consistent with Newtonian mechanics, and require instead the relativistic
Lorentz transformation; yet they preceded Einsteins theory of special
relativity by more than half a century. They were identified and rationalised
by the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, whose name they now bear.

J. Clerk Maxwell, A dynamical theory
of the electromagnetic field, Phil.
65)
07/11/2006 PHYS3003 Light and Matter

2.1.1 Vector differentials
We shall make frequent reference in this chapter to three vector derivatives:
the gradient, divergence and curl. The gradient (grad) of a scalar field is a
vector given by

(
=
z y x
, , (2.1)
and points in the direction of steepest change of the field . The divergence
(div) refers to a vector field A = [A
x
,A
y
,A
z
] A
x
i+ A
y
j+ A
z
k, where i, j and
k are unit vectors along the x, y and z axes, and is a scalar which indicates the
net flux of the vector quantity into the region,

z
A
y
A
x
A
z
y
x
+ + = A (2.2)
The curl is also a vector derived from a vector field, and is a measure of the
moment of the field, or vorticity, at the measurement point. It is given by

z y x
x
y
z x
y
z
A A A
z y x
k j i
y
A
x
A
x
A
z
A
z
A
y
A
=
(
= , , A
(2.3)
None of these vector differentials is dependent upon the choice of coordinate
axes with respect to which they are calculated.
2.2 Maxwells equations
That the entire Eulerian nature of electromagnetic dynamics can be described
by four equations is one of the most satisfying and beautiful aspects of
modern physics. To understand these equations properly, however, we must
be familiar with the algebra of vector calculus a luxury which Maxwell
himself was denied. We shall therefore concentrate on Maxwells equations
in their vector form.
We should first define the framework in which we operate.
Electromagnetism is concerned with the variation of electric and magnetic
fields with time and position; our coordinates will therefore be x, y, z and t,
and we shall be interested in four vector quantities: the electric field strength
E, the magnetic field strength H, the electric displacement D and the
magnetic flux density B. Free charges are characterized by their density and
current density J, while bound charges allow an electric polarization P and
magnetization M.
Classical electromagnetism 25
Maxwells equations are commonly written in both an integral form
relating volume, surface and line integrals of field components and in a
more compact differential form (obtained by applying the integral form to an
elemental volume or surface), in terms of the nabla operator, . The first,
third and fourth equations are effectively Gausss law, Faradays law and
Ampres law, respectively, while the second defines the continuity of
magnetic flux lines and implies the absence of magnetic monopoles.
= D Gauss v d d

= S D (2.4)
0 = B 0 d =
S B (2.5)

t
B
E = Faraday

= S
B
s E d d
t
(2.6)

t
D
J H + = Ampre

|
|
\
|
+ = S
D
J s H d d
t
(2.7)
Although these four equations are those now linked with Maxwells name,
he found it necessary to write several additional formulae relating the fields to
material properties. Three of these equations, which are sometimes called the
constitutive formulae, may also be written in alternative forms, depending
upon whether we are concerned with macroscopic or microscopic properties.
E D
r

0
= or P E D + =
0
(2.8)
H B
r

0
= or ( ) M H B + =
0
(2.9)
E J = or
( )
+ =
=
B v E v
v J
q m&
(2.10)
0 = +
t

J (2.11)
Finally, the electric field strength E and magnetic flux density B may
alternatively be written in terms of the vector and scalar potentials, A and :

t
=
A
E (2.12)
A B = (2.13)
The variables that appear in Maxwells equations and the constitutive
formulae are summarized below, along with their SI units.
the del or nabla operator
z y x
z y x
k j i + +
(
= , ,

Maxwells equations

the permittivity of free space,
0 = 8.85410
-12
F.m
-1

the permeability of free space,
0 = 410
-7
H.m
-1
= 1.25710
-6
H.m
-1

constitutive equations

scalar and vector potentials

electric field strength E V.m
-1

electric displacement D C.m
-
2
magnetic flux density B Tesla
magnetic field strength H A.m
-1

current density J A.m
-2

free charge density C.m-3
vector potential A V.s.m
-1

scalar potential V
permittivity of free space
0
F.m
-1

relative permittivity
r

permeability of free space
0
H.m
-1

relative permeability
r

conductivity m.
-1

2.2.1 Converting between SI and c.g.s. (Gaussian) units
Many of the less recent texts and articles use the Gaussian or c.g.s.
(centimetre-gramme-second) system of units, in which charge is measured in
electrostatic units, e.s.u., and the magnetic flux density etc. are given in
electromagnetic units, e.m.u.. The conversions are given below.
1 V.m
-1
1 / (310
-4
) esu
1 C 310
9
esu
1 = 0.1 emu 310
9
esu
1 T = 10
4
emu = 10
4
Gauss
1 A.m
-1
= 410
-3
emu = 410
-3
Oersted
Equations in SI can be converted to Gaussian units by the rules
c B
SI
B
Gaussian

0
1/4
0

0
1/c
2

J. D. Jackson, Classical
Electrodynamics, 3
rd
edition, Wiley,
New York (1998) pp 783-4
E. M. Purcell, Electricity and
Magnetism, 2
nd
edition, McGraw-Hill,
New York (1985) backmatter

2.2.2 Alternative forms of Maxwells equations
Maxwells reconciliation of the various laws of electromagnetism is all the
more remarkable for being achieved without the benefit of the vector calculus
that we use today. In place of vector quantities, such as the electric field,
Maxwell therefore wrote each component separately, which increases both
the number of equations and their complexity. By his own reckoning,
Maxwells set of formulae, including the constitutive equations, numbered
20, in 20 unknowns. The 1865 article is nonetheless remarkable in its clarity.
Casting Maxwells equations into the form presented here was the work of
a singularly persistent and incisive mathematician called Oliver Heaviside,
who developed the methods of vector analysis for that purpose.
Further reduction is possible, however, by adopting the approach of
special relativity (with which, of course, electromagnetism is so intimately
related) and writing vectors and fields in four dimensions rather than three.
We therefore construct position and momentum vectors,

[ ]
[ ]
c
E
p p p
ct z y x
z y x
, , ,
, , ,
=
=
p
r
(2.14)
a combined current density and charge density vector,
[ ] c J J J
z y x
, , , = J (2.15)
and vector potential with the scalar potential as its fourth term,

(
=
c
A A A
z y x
, , , A . (2.16)
The nabla operator is then extended to embrace the fourth, time dimension,

(
=
ct z y x
, , , (2.17)
in which case the four Maxwells equations and the condition for
conservation of charge (2.11) may be written

0
2
=
=
J
J A
(2.18)
2.2.3 Maxwells 1865 article
Maxwells original article, A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field,
(Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London 155 459-512) is surprisingly accessible; it is
an instructive exercise to work out the correspondence between todays
nomenclature and the terminology adopted by Maxwell.


2.3 Coulombs law
We illustrate the application of Maxwells equations by using them to derive
two familiar equations of basic electromagnetism, beginning with Coulombs
law. We shall assume a charge distribution which is spherically symmetrical
about the origin, and which may thus be written as a function of radius, r,
alone as R(r). The spherical symmetry requires that the E and D fields are
similarly functions of radius alone, with radial components only.
We shall now apply the first of Maxwells equations to a sphere of radius a
about the origin.

( )
( )

=
=

2
0 0 0
2
d d d sin r
d r d
a
r r R
v R S D
(2.19)
The right-hand side is straightforward: it is the volume integral of the
charge distribution within the sphere, and thus is simply the total charge
enclosed,
( ) ( )
=
a
r r R r r Q
0
2
d 4 (2.20)
The left-hand side involves a surface integral of the scalar product D.dS,
where dS is a vector equal in magnitude to an element of the surface da, and
in a direction normal to the surface. At all points on the sphere, dS will thus
point in the same direction as the position vector r, as will the electric
displacement D which, as we have mentioned, does not have components
except in the radial direction. Since the vectors D and dS are parallel, their
scalar product will simply be the product of their magnitudes, and the left-
hand side of our expression can thus be written

( )
( ) a D a
a a D
2
4
d d .
=
=

S D
(2.21)
Combining our results, we thus find that the electric displacement for the
spherically symmetric charge distribution is given by
( )
( )
2
4 a
a Q
a D
= (2.22)
and thus, using equation (2.8), that the electric field will be given by
( )
( )
2
0
4 a
a Q
a E
= (2.23)
which is, of course, simply Coulombs equation for the electric field around a
point charge. The above result is slightly more general, in that it applies to
any spherically-symmetric charge distribution.
2.4 Amperes law: the magnetic field from a current-carrying
wire
Whereas the first two of Maxwells equations relate the integral over a closed
surface to an integral over the volume enclosed, the second pair relate surface
integrals to line integrals around the edge of the open surfaces. We shall
illustrate this by applying the fourth of Maxwells equations to find the
tangential and axial components of the magnetic field around a straight
current-carrying wire; we shall then apply the second equation in order to
show that the radial component of the field is zero.
2.4.1 The tangential component of the magnetic field
The geometry is shown in figure 2.1: we take as our first surface a disc, of
radius a, centred on and normal to the current-carrying wire. There is thus
cylindrical symmetry about the wire, and the tangential component H
t
of the
magnetic field may be assumed to be a function of the radial coordinate
alone. Applying the fourth of Maxwells equations to the surface, we find

( ) a aH
t
2
d . d .
=
=

s H S J
(2.24)
The left-hand side of this expression - the integral of the current density over
the surface - is simply the total current passing through the disc, I; applying
equation (2.9) for the magnetic flux density in a vacuum, we thus obtain
( )
a
I
a B
t
2
0
= (2.25)
which is the expression we would obtain by integrating the Biot-Savart
equation, and is a formal statement of the right-hand grip rule.
2.4.2 The axial component of the magnetic field
The axial and radial field components remain to be determined, and for the
first of these we again apply Maxwells fourth equation, this time taking as
our surface the rectangular loop shown in figure 2.2. The line integral can be
broken into four sections, of which the two radial parts are equal and opposite
(because of the axial symmetry) and therefore cancel. No current flows
through the surface, so the right-hand side of the expression will be zero,
( ) ( ) 0 d d
0
0
= +

b
a
b
a
z c H z a H (2.26)
This expression remains true whatever value of c we take, and must
therefore hold as c becomes infinite. Making the reasonable assumption that
the magnetic field induced by the current falls to zero at large distances from
the wire, we allow the second integral of equation (2.26) to fall to zero, from
which - again converting to the magnetic flux density B - we obtain
( ) 0 = a B
a
(2.27)

Figure 2.1 Surface for determining the
tangential component of the magnetic
field around a current-carrying wire.

axial component of the magnetic field
around a current-carrying wire.
I
z
b
0
c a r
I

2.4.3 The radial component of the magnetic field
To find the radial component of the magnetic field, we apply the second of
Maxwells equations to a cylinder with the wire at its centre, shown in figure
2.3. The surface integral may be broken into three parts - the two ends of the
cylinder, and the tubular section in between. Translational symmetry means
that the contributions from the two end sections would cancel, even had we
not already shown in equation (2.27) that the axial field is in any case zero.
The remaining part of the surface integral must thus satisfy
( ) 0 d =
tube
r
S a B (2.28)
Since our geometry has cylindrical symmetry, the radial component is the
same at all points on the surface, and we readily deduce that
( ) 0 = a B
r
(2.29)
2.5 Poissons equation
In general, such fortunate symmetries as we have exploited in section 2.4 may
not occur. It will then be necessary to solve Maxwells equations from the
beginning, either algebraically if the geometry is simple or, in most practical
cases, numerically. For problems of pure electrostatics - in which the electric
fields are constant and there are no magnetic fields - Maxwells equations
may be simplified by writing the electric field in terms of an electric potential
(x, y, z),
( ) z y x , , = E (2.30)
Applying the gradient operator to both sides of this equation yields
( ) z y x , , = E (2.31)
Substituting this into the first of Maxwells equations, using equation (2.8) to
convert the electric field into a displacement, and defining the Laplacian or
del-squared operator
2
by
( ) ( )
= =
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
, , , , , ,
z y x
z y x z y x (2.32)
we arrive at Poissons equation,
( )
( )
r
z y x
z y x

0
2
, ,
, , = (2.33)
To determine the spatial variation of a static electric field, we thus have to
solve Poissons equation for the appropriate charge distribution, subject to
such boundary conditions as may pertain.

radial component of the magnetic field
around a current-carrying wire.
If a magnetic field is present, or if the
electric field varies with time, then the
scalar potential is insufficient without
the addition of a vector potential A.
The electric and magnetic fields are
related to the scalar and vector
potentials by
A B
A
E
=
=
t

I
2.5.1 Electrostatic boundary conditions at conducting surfaces
The presence of electric fields within a conductor will cause currents to flow
until the redistribution of charge causes the electric fields to be cancelled.
The electric potential (x, y, z) will then be the same at all points within the
conductor. For problems in electrostatics, in which the steady-state may be
assumed to have been achieved, conducting surfaces may be taken to be at
constant potentials; the difference in potential between conducting surfaces
corresponds to the standing voltage measured between them. The boundary
conditions in electrostatic analysis are thus that the electric potential assume
an appropriate constant value at the surface of each conductor present. We
shall illustrate the application of boundary conditions by analysing the
electric field present in a coaxial particle detector comprising a long tube with
a rod at its centre, as shown in figure 2.4.
The detector is formed from a metal tube of inner diameter b along whose
axis runs a conducting rod of diameter a. The remaining volume within the
tube is filled with a low-pressure gas which may be taken to be charge-free
and have a relative permittivity
r
of unity. The electric potential will thus be
found by solving Poissons equation, with (x, y, z )= 0, subject to the
boundary conditions that the rod and tube be equipotentials with values of V
0

and zero respectively. We shall neglect end effects, and may thus assume a
cylindrical symmetry.
In cylindrical polar coordinates, the
2
operator may be written as

2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
+ +
|
\
|
=
r r
r
r r
(2.34)
Substituting this form into equation (2.33), setting (r)=0 and noting that
the cylindrical symmetry renders all derivatives with respect to and equal
to zero, we arrive at

( )
0
1
= |
\
|
r
r
r
r r
(2.35)
the general solution of which is a standard mathematical exercise, yielding
( ) B r A r + = ln (2.36)
By applying the boundary conditions (a) = V
0
, (b) = 0, we find that
A =
0
/ln(a/b) and B =
0
lnb/ln(b/a), hence

( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) r a b
r E
r b
a b
r
r
1
ln
ln ln
ln
0
0
=
=
(2.37)

Figure 2.4 Coaxial particle detector

The special case of Poissons equation
with no free charge,
( ) 0 , ,
2
= z y x
is known as Laplaces equation.

to derive the electric field from the
potential in this case, we need to know
that in cylindrical polar coordinates,
z r r
+ + =
1

a
b
V

2.6 Continuity conditions
A further application of Maxwells equations, which completes the basic
knowledge required for electromagnetic analysis, is to the conditions
applying at the boundary between two different media. For this, we shall
return to the integral forms of the equations.
We shall analyse the boundary conditions in terms of components of the
electric and magnetic fields parallel and perpendicular to the interface
between the two media, as shown in figure 2.5. Let us first consider the
parallel component of the electric field E, for which we apply the third of
Maxwells equations, relating the integral around the edge of a rectangular
loop to an integral over the area that it encloses. We shall assume that the
interface is essentially flat (and thus has translational symmetry) over the
scale of our analysis, and indeed we shall later ensure this by taking the limit
as lengths a and b tend to zero. Breaking the loop integral into four parts, we
can write Maxwells third equation for this case as

= +
ABCD
D
C
B
A
t
x E x E S
B
d d d
2 //, 1 //,
(2.38)
where we have omitted the integrals along the sections B-C and D-A which
are equal and opposite and therefore cancel. Taking the limit a0, the right-
hand side falls to zero, and we thus find that the parallel component of the
electric field strength is continuous across the boundary

2 //, 1 //,
E E = (2.39)
Applying the fourth of Maxwells equations using an identical analysis, we
find that the parallel component of the magnetic field strength is similarly
continuous,

2 //, 1 //,
H H = (2.40)
In order to determine the conditions relating field components
perpendicular to the interface, we follow a similar analysis using the first pair
of Maxwells equations, this time referring to a closed surface containing a
volume of integration but once again taking the limit as its dimensions fall to
zero. In the absence of surface charge, we obtain

2 , 1 ,
= D D (2.41)
and

2 , 1 ,
= B B (2.42)
These relations are equally valid for time-dependent fields and, as we shall
see later, prove to hold the key to the proper calculation of the reflection and
refraction of light at boundaries in optical media.

Figure 2.5 Geometries for determining
boundary conditions of components (a)
parallel and (b) perpendicular to the
interface between two media.

Thus, using equation (6.1), the parallel
components of D are related by
2
2 //,
1
1 //,

D D
=

The parallel components of B are hence
related by
2
2 //,
1
1 //,

B B
=
Hence
2 , 2 1 , 1
= E E
Hence
2 , 2 1 , 1
= H H
1 2
A
B C
D
b
a
(a)
(b)
a
b
2.7 The electromagnetic wave equation
One of the great successes of Maxwells equations is their ability to describe
completely the nature of electromagnetic radiation: radio waves, thermal
infra-red, and light. Two of Maxwells equations express a spatial or temporal
derivative of the electrical or magnetic field with the opposite derivative of
the other; with a little vector algebra, one of the fields can be eliminated,
leaving a wave equation defining the other.
Starting with Maxwells third and fourth equations, we wish to eliminate
the magnetic field terms to yield an equation that describes the electric field
alone. Since the third equation involves a temporal derivative of B, and the
fourth the spatial derivative (curl), we shall proceed by differentiating each
equation with respect to the opposite variable. The third and fourth equations
thus become

( )
2
2
t t t
t
D J
H
B
E
+ =
=
(2.43)
We may now use equation (2.9) to relate the magnetic flux density to the field
strength, which may then be eliminated between the two equations, yielding

|
|
\
|
+ =
2
2
0
t t
r

D J
E (2.44)
Applying equation (2.8) to write this completely in terms of the electric field
strength E now gives

|
|
\
|
+ =
2
2
0 0
t t
r r

E J
E (2.45)
Finally, we use vector algebra to re-write the left-hand side:
( )
|
|
\
|
+ =
2
2
0 0
2
t t
r r

E J
E E (2.46)
If there are no free charges ( = 0) and no currents flow (J = 0), then we
arrive at the wave equation governing electromagnetic radiation

2
2
0 0
2
t
r r

E
E = (2.47)
Comparing this with equation (1.14), we see that the speed of electromagnetic
waves is given by
r r
v
0 0
1 = . In vacuum, this correctly gives the
defined speed of light,
1 8
0 0
s . m 10 99792 . 2 1

= = c

Our general strategy is to reduce two of
Maxwells equations, and two or more
of the constitutive equations, to a single
differential wave equation defining a
just one field term:

In a conductor with conductivity , the
current density is not zero but is related
to the electric field strength by
E J = .
If the mass of the charge carriers causes
significant inertia in the response to the
electric field, the conductivity becomes
complex and frequency dependent. We
shall see later that it may be readily
determined by Newtonian mechanics.
differentiate equations to
allow electric or magnetic field
to be eliminated
apply vector relations to
produce wave equation
use constitutive equations to
reduce electric & magnetic
fields to single functions

2.7.1 Example: plane wave propagating along the z-axis
To clarify the vector manipulations leading to the wave equation (2.47), we
shall repeat the derivation for the specific case of plane waves propagating
along the z-axis, f(r, t) = f(z, t). We shall constrain our search to waves in
which the electric field E lies along the x-axis, so that it may be written as
( ) ( ) [ ] 0 , 0 , , , t z E t
x
= r E (2.48)
From Faradays law, eqn (2.6), we therefore obtain

( ) ( ) ( )
(
=
(
0 ,
,
, 0
,
,
,
, 0
z
t z E
y
t z E
z
t z E
t
x x x
B
(2.49)
Integrating this with respect to time gives
( )
( )
(
0 ,
,
, 0 ,
0
dt
z
t z E
t
x
B r B (2.50)
so that, dropping the constant field B
0
(which is not part of the wave), the
magnetic field component is directed along the y-axis,
( ) ( ) [ ] 0 , , , 0 , t z B t
y
= r B (2.51)
where our application of Faradays law gave

z
E
t
B
x
y
(2.52)
The constitutive equations (2.8, 2.9) allow us to write the D and H fields,

( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) [ ] 0 , , , 0 ,
0 , 0 , , ,
0
0
r y
x r
t z B t
t z E t

=
=
r H
r D
(2.53)
and application of Ampres law hence gives us another relation,

(
+ =
(
0 , 0 , 0 , 0 ,
1
0
0
t
E
z
B
x
r
y
r

J (2.54)
so that, in the absence of currents J,

t
E
z
B
x
r
y
r

0
0
1
(2.55)
Differentiating eqn (2.52) with respect to z and eqn (2.55) with respect to t
gives in both cases a term
2
B
y
/ z t, which may be eliminated to give

2
2
0 0
2
2
1
z
E
t
E
x
r r
x

(2.56)

We shall show shortly that plane
electromagnetic waves can have no
field component along their direction of
propagation, hence the component Ez
must here be zero. Our choice Ey = 0
corresponds to selecting the
polarization state of the wave, which
we shall examine later in detail.

2.7.2 The magnetic field of an electromagnetic wave
In our derivation of the electromagnetic wave equation, we eliminated the
magnetic field linked to the electric field through Maxwells equations to
give an equation defining the electric field alone. We could equally have
eliminated the electric field, to give a wave equation for B or H. It turns out,
though, that at optical frequencies, interactions that are described by the
electric field are nearly always the more important.
Determining the magnetic field is nonetheless quite straightforward, for we
simply substitute our solution for the electric field back into Maxwells
equations. Faradays and Ampres laws give alternative forms of the
relationships (written above, using the constitutive equations, as (2.52, 2.55),

z
D
t
H
z
E
t
B
x
y
x
y
; (2.57)
If the fields are sinusoidal functions of ( t k z), then it follows that
( ) ( )
x y x y
D k H E k B = = ; (2.58)
The magnetic field component is therefore proportional to (and in phase with)
the electric field component; the fields are perpendicular to both each other
and to the direction of propagation. In a given medium, an electromagnetic
wave is therefore completely characterized by knowledge of a single field.
2.7.3 Magnetism, relativity and the origin of Maxwells equations
Magnetism appears a curious phenomenon: it is intrinsically associated with
currents and varying electric fields and, in an apparent collapse of symmetry,
exerts a force upon moving charges at right-angles to both itself and their
direction of motion. Furthermore, it can only be measured by its effect upon
moving charges, be they free particles or current loops. The magnetic field in
fact proves to be an artificial, intermediate quantity that describes the
relativistic correction to the electrostatic force when charges move and fields
change with time. The net force on a charged particle moving near a current-
carrying but electrically neutral wire proves not to be exactly zero because of
the different speeds of the positive and negative charges in the wire relative to
the moving particle. Since magnetism is itself a manifestation of special
relativity, it should be no surprise that the equations that describe it are
consistent with the relativistic Lorentz transform.
It is for this reason that a single field is generally sufficient to define an
electromagnetic wave in a given medium, and also why the electric field
usually accounts for the stronger interaction with matter, for magnetic
interactions imply relativistic phenomena. It is also rare for the magnetic
response of a material to be fast enough to respond at optical frequencies. We
therefore tend to characterize electromagnetic radiation through the electric
field component; the magnetic field can always be calculated by application
of Faradays or Ampres law, as shown in section 2.7.2.

Figure 2.6 The magnetic force F
between two current-carrying but
electrically neutral conductors acts in
the plane of the conductors and is due
to the imperfect cancellation of the
forces of attraction and repulsion when
the positive and negative charges move
relative to each other.
I
F
v
B

2.8 Electromagnetic energy flow
Life on earth would not exist if electromagnetic waves did not carry energy,
which is associated with both the electric and magnetic fields and therefore
moves with the wave magnitude. Maxwells equations allow us to derive
some precise and fairly general expressions for the energy flow associated
with an electromagnetic wave.
We begin with results from electro- and magneto-statics, that the energy
densities W
e
and W
m
associated with electric and magnetic fields are given by

H B
E D
=
=
2
1
2
1
m
e
W
W
(2.59)
For the specific but common case of linear, isotropic materials, we may apply
the constitutive equations (2.8) and (2.9) to give a total energy density
{ }
2
0
2
0
2
1
H E W
r r
+ = (2.60)
Using the relationship (2.58) between electric and magnetic fields, this
becomes
{ }
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
1
E E E W
r r r
= + = (2.61)
The energy associated with an electromagnetic wave in isotropic media is
therefore equally divided between the electric and magnetic fields. The
energy flow S per unit area per unit time is simply the product of the energy
density with the speed of propagation of the wave:

2
0
0
2
0
E
v E S
r
r
r

=
=
(2.62)
If the energy flow is represented in magnitude and direction by a vector S,
then the conservation of energy allows us to write an expression similar to
that for the conservation of charge, eqn (2.11):
0 =
+
t
W
S (2.63)
The temporal derivative may be obtained from eqn (2.59):

)
`
t t t
W
e
D
E
E
D
2
1
(2.64)

The constant here is, in vacuo, the
reciprocal of the impedance of free
space,
=
=
7 . 376
0 0 0
Z

A similar expression describes the magnetic contribution. For linear media,
D.E/t and E.D/t are equal and, inserting the magnetic term, we may write

)
`
t t t
W B
H
D
E (2.65)
Faradays and Ampres laws allow us to re-write this as the Poynting
theorem:

( ) ( ) { }
( ) J E H E
E H J H E
=
=
t
W
(2.66)
The final term, E.J, corresponds to resistive power dissipation. In its absence,
comparison with eqn (2.63) suggests that the energy flow associated with
electromagnetic radiation is given by
H E S = (2.67)
The vector S is known as the Poynting vector, and this expression is valid
even for anisotropic media. Being perpendicular to both the electric and
magnetic fields, the Poynting vector in isotropic media is collinear with the
wavevector k; in anisotropic media, however, S and k may diverge.
Application of the constitutive equations shows the equivalence of eqns
(2.62) and (2.67). Note that the energy flow is obtained by multiplying the
energy density by the phase velocity rather than the group velocity, for within
a wave packet the energy moves with the maxima of the electric field (rather
than the intensity). To calculate the average energy flux for wave packets in
dispersive media, we need to add together the individual contributions of the
constituent frequency components of the wave packet.

We have used here the vector identity
( ) ( )
( ) B A
A B B A

The Poynting vector S has a magnitude
equal to the intensity of the wave, and
its orientation indicates the direction of
energy flow.

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