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AFTER FINITUDE

An Essay on the Necessity of Contingency


Quentin Meillassoux (200!
T"# Ray $"assie"% &ith a '"eface (y Alain $a)iou
'"eface
i
The *u"*ose of the se"ies +The 'hiloso*hical ,")e"+ is not only to *u(lish -atu"e
an) acco-*lishe) &o".s of conte-*o"a"y *hiloso*hy% o" in)is*ensa(le
*hiloso*hical )ocu-ents f"o- e/e"y e"a% (ut also essays in &hich it is *ossi(le to
)etect the sense of so-ething ne& 0 texts &hich "es*on) to the 1uestion2 +3hat
&oun) &as I see.ing to heal% &hat tho"n &as I see.ing to )"a& f"o- the flesh of
existence &hen I (eca-e &hat is calle) 4a *hiloso*he"45+ It -ay (e that% as
$e"gson -aintaine)% a *hiloso*he" only e/e" )e/elo*s one i)ea# In any case%
the"e is no )ou(t that the *hiloso*he" is (o"n of a single 1uestion% the 1uestion
&hich a"ises at the inte"section of thought an) life at a gi/en -o-ent in the
*hiloso*he"+s youth6 the 1uestion &hich one -ust at all costs fin) a &ay to
ans&e"# This is the catego"y to &hich &e -ust assign this (oo. (y Quentin
Meillassoux#
II
This ("ief essay% &hich is a f"ag-ent f"o- a *a"ticula"ly i-*o"tant *hiloso*hical
(o" +s*eculati/e+% to use the autho"+s o&n /oca(ula"y! ente"*"ise% "etu"ns to the
"oot of the *"o(le- &hich *"o/i)e) the i-*etus fo" 7ant+s c"itical *hiloso*hy6 the
*"o(le- &hich% th"ough the solution &hich 7ant *"o*ose)% can (e sai) to ha/e
("o.en the histo"y of thought in t&o# This *"o(le-% &hich 8u-e fo"-ulate) -ost
clea"ly% *e"tains to the necessity of the la&s of natu"e# F"o- &hence )oes this
*utati/e necessity a"ise% gi/en that *e"ce*tual ex*e"ience% &hich is the sou"ce of
e/e"ything &e .no& o" thin. &e .no& a(out the &o"l)% *"o/i)es no gua"antee
&hatsoe/e" fo" it5
7ant+s "es*onse% as &e .no&% g"ants to 8u-e that e/e"ything &e .no& co-es
f"o- ex*e"ience# 9et 7ant u*hol)s the necessity of the la&s of natu"e% &hose
-athe-atical fo"- an) confo"-ity to e-*i"ical o(se"/ation &e ha/e .no&n since
Ne&ton% conclu)ing that since this necessity cannot ha/e a"isen f"o- ou" sensi(le
"ece*ti/ity% it -ust ha/e anothe" sou"ce2 that of the constituting acti/ity of a
uni/e"sal su(:ect% &hich 7ant calls +the t"anscen)ental su(:ect+# This )istinction
(et&een e-*i"ical "ece*ti/ity an) t"anscen)ental constitution a**ea"s to (e the
o(ligato"y f"a-e&o". fo" all -o)e"n thought% an) in *a"ticula" fo" e/e"y atte-*t
to thin. the natu"e of +-o)alities+% such as necessity o" contingency# The latte"
continue to (e the o(:ects of Deleu;e+s o" Foucault+s "eflections# $ut they also
un)e"lie the )istinction% &hich is fun)a-ental fo" Ca"na* an) the analytic
t"a)ition% (et&een fo"-al an) e-*i"ical sciences#
Quentin Meillassoux )e-onst"ates &ith astonishing fo"ce ho& anothe"
inte"*"etation of 8u-e+s *"o(le- 0 one &hich has "e-aine) occlu)e)% e/en
though it is -o"e +natu"al+ 0 lea)s to a co-*letely )iffe"ent "esolution# <i.e 7ant%
Meillassoux sa/es necessity% inclu)ing logical necessity# $ut li.e 8u-e% he
g"ants that the"e is no acce*ta(le g"oun) fo" the necessity of the la&s of natu"e#
Meillassoux+s *"oof 0 fo" it is in)ee) a *"oof 0 )e-onst"ates that the"e is only one
thing that is a(solutely necessa"y2 that the la&s of natu"e a"e contingent# This
enti"ely no/el connection (et&een cont"a"y -o)alities *uts thought in a &holly
othe" "elation to the ex*e"ience of the &o"l)6 a "elation &hich si-ultaneously
un)oes the +necessita"ian+ *"etensions of classical -eta*hysics as &ell as the
+c"itical+ )ist"i(ution of the e-*i"ical an) the t"anscen)ental#
Quentin Meillassoux then goes on to )"a& so-e of the conse1uences of his
"esu-*tion of the fun)a-ental *"o(le- (+&hat can I .no&5+! to&a")s t&o othe"
*"o(le-s2 +&hat -ust I )o5+ an) +&hat can I ho*e5+ It is the"e that &hat lies
(eyon) finitu)e is )e*loye) fo" conte-*o"a"y thin.e"s#
It &oul) (e no exagge"ation to say that Quentin Meillassoux has o*ene) u* a ne&
*ath in the histo"y of *hiloso*hy% hithe"to concei/e) as the histo"y of &hat it is to
.no&6 a *ath that ci"cu-/ents 7ant+s canonical )istinction (et&een +)og-atis-+%
+sce*ticis-+ an) +c"iti1ue+# 9es% the"e is a(solute logical necessity# 9es% the"e is
"a)ical contingency# 9es% &e can thin. &hat the"e is% an) this thin.ing in no &ay
)e*en)s u*on a su**ose)ly constituting su(:ect#
This "e-a".a(le +c"iti1ue of C"iti1ue+ is *"esente) he"e &ithout e-(ellish-ent%
cutting st"aight to the hea"t of the -atte" in a *a"ticula"ly luci) an) a"gu-entati/e
style# It allo&s thought to (e )estine) to&a")s the a(solute once -o"e% "athe" than
to&a")s those *a"tial f"ag-ents an) "elations in &hich &e co-*lacently luxu"iate
&hile the +"etu"n of the "eligious+ *"o/i)es us &ith a fictitious su**le-ent of
s*i"ituality#
0 Alain $a)iou
Cha*te" = Ancest"ality
The theo"y of *"i-a"y an) secon)a"y 1ualities see-s to (elong to an
i""e-e)ia(ly o(solete *hiloso*hical *ast# It is ti-e it &as "eha(ilitate)#
Fo" the conte-*o"a"y "ea)e"% such a )istinction -ight a**ea" to (e a *iece
of scholastic so*hist"y% )e/oi) of any fun)a-ental *hiloso*hical i-*o"t#
9et as &e shall see% &hat is at sta.e in it is the natu"e of thought+s "elation
to the a(solute#
Fi"st of all% &hat )oes it consist in5 The te"-s +*"i-a"y 1uality+ an)
+secon)a"y 1uality+ co-e f"o- <oc.e% (ut the (asis fo" the )istinction can
al"ea)y (e foun) in Desca"tes# 3hen I (u"n -yself on a can)le% I
s*ontaneously ta.e the sensation of (u"ning to (e in -y "inge"% not in the
can)le# I )o not touch a *ain that &oul) (e *"esent in the fla-e li.e one of
its *"o*e"ties2 the ("a;ie" )oes not (u"n itself &hen it (u"ns# $ut &hat &e
say of affections -ust li.e&ise (e sai) of sensations2 the fla/ou" of foo)
is not sa/ou"e) (y the foo) itself an) hence )oes not exist in the latte"
*"io" to its ingestion# >i-ila"ly% the -elo)ious (eauty of a sonic se1uence
is not hea") (y the -elo)y% the lu-inous colou" of a *ainting is not seen
(y the colou"e) *ig-ent of the can/as% an) so on# In sho"t% nothing
sensi(le 0 &hethe" it (e an affecti/e o" *e"ce*tual 1uality 0 can exist in the
&ay it is gi/en to -e in the thing (y itself% &hen it is not "elate) to -e o"
to any othe" li/ing c"eatu"e# 3hen one thin.s a(out this thing +in itself% i#e#
in)e*en)ently of its "elation to -e% it see-s that none of these 1ualities
can su(sist# Re-o/e the o(se"/e"% an) the &o"l) (eco-es )e/oi) of these
sono"ous% /isual% olfacto"y% etc#% 1ualities% :ust as the fla-e (eco-es
)e/oi) of *ain once the finge" is "e-o/e)#
9et one cannot -aintain that the sensi(le is in:ecte) (y -e into things li.e
so-e so"t of *e"*etual an) a"(it"a"y hallucination# Fo" the"e is in)ee) a
constant lin. (et&een "eal things an) thei" sensations2 if the"e &e"e no
thing ca*a(le of gi/ing "ise to the sensation of "e)ness% the"e &oul) (e no
*e"ce*tion of a "e) thing6 if the"e &e"e no "eal fi"e% the"e &oul) (e no
sensation of (u"ning# $ut it -a.es no sense to say that the "e)ness o" the
heat can exist as 1ualities :ust as &ell &ithout -e as &ith -e2 &ithout the
*e"ce*tion of "e)ness% the"e is no "e) thing6 &ithout the sensation of heat%
the"e is no heat# 3hethe" it (e affecti/e o" *e"ce*tual% the sensi(le only
exists as a "elation2 a "elation (et&een the &o"l) an) the li/ing c"eatu"e I
a-# In actuality% the sensi(le is neithe" si-*ly +in -e+ in the -anne" of a
)"ea-% no" si-*ly +in the thing+ in the -anne" of an int"insic *"o*e"ty2 it is
the /e"y "elation (et&een the thing an) I# These sensi(le 1ualities% &hich
a"e not in the things the-sel/es (ut in -y su(:ecti/e "elation to the latte" 0
these 1ualities co""es*on) to &hat &e"e t"a)itionally calle) secon)a"y
1ualities#
9et it is not these secon)a"y 1ualities that )isc"e)ite) the t"a)itional
theo"y of 1ualities# That it -a.es no sense to att"i(ute to the +thing in itself
(&hich is (asically the +thing &ithout -e+! those *"o*e"ties &hich can only
co-e a(out as a "esult of the "elation (et&een the thing an) its su(:ecti/e
a**"ehension has effecti/ely (eco-e a co--on*lace &hich fe&
*hiloso*he"s ha/e conteste)# 3hat has (een /igo"ously conteste)% in the
&a.e of *heno-enology% is the &ay in &hich Desca"tes o" <oc.e
concei/e) of such a "elation2 as a -o)ification of thin.ing su(stance tie)
to the -echanical &o".ings of a -ate"ial (o)y% "athe" than% fo" instance%
as a noetico0noe-atic co""elation# $ut it is not a 1uestion of ta.ing u*
once -o"e the t"a)itional conce*tion of the constituti/e "elation of
sensi(ility2 all that -atte"s fo" us he"e is that the sensi(le is a "elation%
"athe" than a *"o*e"ty inhe"ent in the thing# F"o- this *oint of /ie&% it is
not *a"ticula"ly )ifficult fo" a conte-*o"a"y *hiloso*he" to ag"ee &ith
Desca"tes o" <oc.e#
This ceases to (e the case as soon as one ("ings into *lay the co"e of the
t"a)itional theo"y of *"o*e"ties% /i;#% that the"e a"e t&o ty*es of *"o*e"ty#
Fo" &hat )ecisi/ely )isc"e)ite) the )istinction (et&een *"i-a"y an)
secon)a"y 1ualities is the /e"y i)ea of such a )istinction2 i#e# the
assu-*tion that the +su(:ecti/ation+ of sensi(le *"o*e"ties (the e-*hasis
on thei" essential lin. to the *"esence of a su(:ect! coul) (e "est"icte) to
the o(:ect+s sensi(le )ete"-inations% "athe" than exten)e) to all its
concei/a(le *"o*e"ties# $y +*"i-a"y 1ualities+% one un)e"stan)s *"o*e"ties
&hich a"e su**ose) to (e inse*a"a(le f"o- the o(:ect% *"o*e"ties &hich
one su**oses to (elong to the thing e/en &hen I no longe" a**"ehen) it#
They a"e *"o*e"ties of the thing as it is &ithout -e% as -uch as it is &ith
-e 0 *"o*e"ties of the in0itself# In &hat )o they consist5 Fo" Desca"tes%
they a"e all of those *"o*e"ties &hich *e"tain to extension an) &hich a"e
the"efo"e su(:ect to geo-et"ical *"oof2 length% &i)th% -o/e-ent% )e*th%
figu"e% si;e# Fo" ou" *a"t% &e &ill a/oi) in/o.ing the notion of extension%
since the latte" is in)issocia(le f"o- sensi(le "e*"esentation2 one cannot
i-agine an extension &hich &oul) not (e colou"e)% an) hence &hich
&oul) not (e associate) &ith a secon)a"y 1uality# In o")e" to "eacti/ate
the Ca"tesian thesis in conte-*o"a"y te"-s% an) in o")e" to state it in the
sa-e te"-s in &hich &e inten) to u*hol) it% &e shall the"efo"e -aintain
the follo&ing2 all those as*ects of the o(:ect that can (e fo"-ulate) in
-athe-atical te"-s can (e -eaningfully concei/e) as *"o*e"ties of the
o(:ect in itself# All those as*ects of the o(:ect that can gi/e "ise to a
-athe-atical thought (to a fo"-ula o" to )igitali;ation! "athe" than to a
*e"ce*tion o" sensation can (e -eaningfully tu"ne) into *"o*e"ties of the
thing not only as it is &ith -e% (ut also as it is &ithout -e#
The thesis &e a"e )efen)ing is the"efo"e t&ofol)2 on the one han)% &e
ac.no&le)ge that the sensi(le only exists as a su(:ect+s "elation to the
&o"l)6 (ut on the othe" han)% &e -aintain that the -athe-ati;a(le
*"o*e"ties of the o(:ect a"e exe-*t f"o- the const"aint of such a "elation%
an) that they a"e effecti/ely in the o(:ect in the &ay in &hich I concei/e
the-% &hethe" I a- in "elation &ith this o(:ect o" not# $ut (efo"e &e
*"ocee) to :ustify this thesis% it is necessa"y to un)e"stan) in &hat "ega")
it -ay see- a(su") to a conte-*o"a"y *hiloso*he" 0 an) to "oot out the
*"ecise sou"ce of this a**a"ent a(su")ity#
The "eason &hy this thesis is al-ost ce"tain to a**ea" insu**o"ta(le to a
conte-*o"a"y *hiloso*he" is (ecause it is "esolutely *"e0c"itical 0 it see-s
to "e*"esent a "eg"ession to the +nai/e+ stance of )og-atic -eta*hysics#
Fo" &hat &e ha/e :ust clai-e) is that thought is ca*a(le of )isc"i-inating
(et&een those *"o*e"ties of the &o"l) &hich a"e a function of ou" "elation
to it% an) those *"o*e"ties of the &o"l) as it is +in itself% su(sisting
in)iffe"ently of ou" "elation to it# $ut &e all .no& that such a thesis has
(eco-e in)efensi(le% an) this not only since 7ant% (ut e/en since
$e".eley# It is an in)efensi(le thesis (ecause thought cannot get outsi)e
itself in o")e" to co-*a"e the &o"l) as it is +in itself to the &o"l) as it is
+fo" us+% an) the"e(y )istinguish &hat is a function of ou" "elation to the
&o"l) f"o- &hat (elongs to the &o"l) alone# >uch an ente"*"ise is
effecti/ely self0cont"a)icto"y% fo" at the /e"y -o-ent &hen &e thin. of a
*"o*e"ty as (elonging to the &o"l) in itself% it is *"ecisely the latte" that
&e a"e thin.ing% an) conse1uently this *"o*e"ty is "e/eale) to (e
essentially tie) to ou" thin.ing a(out the &o"l)# 3e cannot "e*"esent the
+in itself &ithout it (eco-ing +fo" us+% o" as 8egel a-usingly *ut it% &e
cannot +c"ee* u* on+ the o(:ect +f"o- (ehin)+ so as to fin) out &hat it is in
itself 0 &hich -eans that &e cannot .no& anything that &oul) (e (eyon)
ou" "elation to the &o"l)# Conse1uently% the -athe-atical *"o*e"ties of
the o(:ect cannot (e exe-*te) f"o- the su(:ecti/ation that is the
*"econ)ition fo" secon)a"y *"o*e"ties2 they too -ust (e concei/e) as
)e*en)ent u*on the su(:ect+s "elation to the gi/en 0 as a fo"- of
"e*"esentation fo" the o"tho)ox 7antian% o" as an act of su(:ecti/ity fo" the
*heno-0enologist% o" as a s*ecific fo"-al language fo" the analytical
*hiloso*he"% an) so on# $ut in e/e"y case% any *hiloso*he" &ho
ac.no&le)ges the legiti-acy of the t"anscen)ental "e/olution 0 any
*hiloso*he" &ho sees hi-self as +*ost0c"itical+ "athe" than as a )og-atist 0
&ill -aintain that it is nai/e to thin. &e a"e a(le to thin. so-ething 0 e/en
if it (e a -athe-atical )ete"-ination of the o(:ect 0 &hile a(st"acting
f"o- the fact that it is in/a"ia(ly &e &ho a"e thin.ing that so-ething#
<et us note 0 fo" &e &ill ha/e occasion to "etu"n to this *oint 0 that the
t"anscen)ental "e/olution consiste) not only in )is1ualifying the nai/e
"ealis- of )og-atic -eta*hysics (fo" $e".eley+s su(:ecti/e i)ealis- ha)
al"ea)y acco-*lishe) this!% (ut also an) a(o/e all in "e)efining
o(:ecti/ity outsi)e of the )og-atic context# In the 7antian f"a-e&o".% a
state-ent+s confo"-ity to the o(:ect can no longe" (e )efine) in te"-s of a
"e*"esentation+s +a)e1uation+ o" +"ese-(lance+ to an o(:ect su**ose)ly
su(sisting +in itself% since this +in itself is inaccessi(le# The )iffe"ence
(et&een an o(:ecti/e "e*"esentation (such as +the sun heats the stone+! an)
a +-e"ely su(:ecti/e+ "e*"esentation (such as +the "oo- see-s &a"- to -e+!
is the"efo"e a function of the )iffe"ence (et&een t&o ty*es of su(:ecti/e
"e*"esentation2 those that can (e uni/e"sali;e)% an) a"e thus (y "ight
ca*a(le of (eing ex*e"ience) (y e/e"yone% an) hence +scientific+% an)
those that cannot (e uni/e"sali;e)% an) hence cannot (elong to scientific
)iscou"se# F"o- this *oint on% inte"su(:ecti/ity% the consensus of a
co--unity% su**lants the a)e1uation (et&een the "e*"esentations of a
solita"y su(:ect an) the thing itself as the /e"ita(le c"ite"ion of o(:ecti/ity%
an) of scientific o(:ecti/ity -o"e *a"ticula"ly# >cientific t"uth is no longe"
&hat confo"-s to an in0itself su**ose)ly in)iffe"ent to the &ay in &hich it
is gi/en to the su(:ect% (ut "athe" &hat is susce*ti(le of (eing gi/en as
sha"e) (y a scientific co--unity#
>uch consi)e"ations "e/eal the extent to &hich the cent"al notion of
-o)e"n *hiloso*hy since 7ant see-s to (e that of co""elation# $y
+co""elation+ &e -ean the i)ea acco")ing to &hich &e only e/e" ha/e
access to the co""elation (et&een thin.ing an) (eing% an) ne/e" to eithe"
te"- consi)e"e) a*a"t f"o- the othe"# 3e &ill hencefo"th call
co""elationis- any cu""ent of thought &hich -aintains the unsu"*assa(le
cha"acte" of the co""elation so )efine)# Conse1uently% it (eco-es *ossi(le
to say that e/e"y *hiloso*hy &hich )isa/o&s nai/e "ealis- has (eco-e a
/a"iant of co""elationis-#
<et us exa-ine -o"e closely the -eaning of such a *hiloso*he-e2
+co""elation% co""elationis-+#
Co""elationis- consists in )is1ualifying the clai- that it is *ossi(le to
consi)e" the "eal-s of su(:ecti/ity an) o(:ecti/ity in)e*en)ently of one
anothe"# Not only )oes it (eco-e necessa"y to insist that &e ne/e" g"as*
an o(:ect +in itself% in isolation f"o- its "elation to the su(:ect% (ut it also
(eco-es necessa"y to -aintain that &e can ne/e" g"as* a su(:ect that
&oul) not al&ays0al"ea)y (e "elate) to an o(:ect# If one calls +the
co""elationist ci"cle+ the a"gu-ent acco")ing to &hich one cannot thin. the
in0itself &ithout ente"ing into a /icious ci"cle% the"e(y i--e)iately
cont"a)icting oneself% one coul) call +the co""elationist t&o0ste*+ this othe"
ty*e of "easoning to &hich *hiloso*he"s ha/e (eco-e so &ell accusto-e)
0 the .in) of "easoning &hich one encounte"s so f"e1uently in
conte-*o"a"y &o".s an) &hich insists that it &oul) (e na+i/e to thin. of
the su(:ect an) the o(:ect as t&o se*a"ately su(sisting entities &hose
"elation is only su(se1uently a))e) to the-# ,n the cont"a"y% the "elation
is in so-e sense *"i-a"y2 the &o"l) is only &o"l) insofa" as it a**ea"s to
-e as &o"l)% an) the self is only self insofa" as it is face to face &ith the
&o"l)% that fo" &ho- the &o"l) )iscloses itself ?## #@
Aene"ally s*ea.ing% the -o)e"n *hiloso*he"+s +t&o0ste*+ consists in this
(elief in the *"i-acy of the "elation o/e" the "elate) te"-s6 a (elief in the
constituti/e *o&e" of "eci*"ocal "elation# The +co0+ (of co0gi/enness% of co0
"elation% of the co0o"igina"y% of co0*"esence% etc#! is the g"a--atical
*a"ticle that )o-inates -o)e"n *hiloso*hy% its /e"ita(le +che-ical
fo"-ula+# Thus% one coul) say that u* until 7ant% one of the *"inci*al
*"o(le-s of *hiloso*hy &as to thin. su(stance% &hile e/e" since 7ant% it
has consiste) in t"ying to thin. the co""elation# '"io" to the a)/ent of
t"anscen)entalis-% one of the 1uestions that )i/i)e) "i/al *hiloso*he"s
-ost )ecisi/ely &as +3ho g"as*s the t"ue natu"e of su(stance5 8e &ho
thin.s the I)ea% the in)i/i)ual% the ato-% Ao)5 3hich Ao)5+ $ut e/e"
since 7ant% to )isco/e" &hat )i/i)es "i/al *hiloso*he"s is no longe" to as.
&ho has g"as*e) the t"ue natu"e of su(stantiality% (ut "athe" to as. &ho
has g"as*e) the -o"e o"igina"y co""elation2 is it the thin.e" of the su(:ect0
o(:ect co""elation% the noetico0noe-atic co""elation% o" the language0
"efe"ent co""elation5 The 1uestion is no longe" +&hich is the *"o*e"
su(st"ate5+ (ut +&hich is the *"o*e" co""elate5+
Du"ing the t&entieth centu"y% the t&o *"inci*al +-e)ia+ of the co""elation
&e"e consciousness an) language% the fo"-e" (ea"ing *heno-enology% the
latte" the /a"ious cu""ents of analytic *hiloso*hy# F"ancis 3olff has /e"y
accu"ately )esc"i(e) consciousness an) language as +o(:ect0&o"l)s+# They
a"e in fact uni1ue o(:ects insofa" as they +-a.e the &o"l)+# An) if these
o(:ects -a.e the &o"l)% this is (ecause f"o- thei" *e"s*ecti/e +e/e"ything
is insi)e+ (ut at the sa-e ti-e +e/e"ything is outsi)e ###+ 3olff continues2
E/e"ything is insi)e (ecause in o")e" to thin. anything &hatsoe/e"% it is
necessa"y to +(e a(le to (e conscious of it+% it is necessa"y to say it% an) so
&e a"e loc.e) u* in language o" in consciousness &ithout (eing a(le to
get out# In this sense% they ha/e no outsi)e# $ut in anothe" sense% they a"e
enti"ely tu"ne) to&a")s the outsi)e6 they a"e the &o"l)+s &in)o&2 fo" to (e
conscious is al&ays to (e conscious of so-ething% to s*ea. is necessa"ily
to s*ea. a(out so-ething# To (e conscious of the t"ee is to (e conscious
of the t"ee itself% an) not the i)ea of the t"ee6 to s*ea. a(out the t"ee is not
:ust to utte" a &o") (ut to s*ea. a(out the thing# Conse1uently%
consciousness an) language enclose the &o"l) &ithin the-sel/es only
insofa" as% con/e"sely% they a"e enti"ely containe) (y it# 3e a"e in
consciousness o" language as in a t"ans*a"ent cage# E/e"ything is outsi)e%
yet it is i-*ossi(le to get out#
3hat is "e-a".a(le a(out this )esc"i*tion of the -o)e"n *hiloso*hical
conce*tion of consciousness an) language is the &ay in &hich it exhi(its
the *a"a)oxical natu"e of co""elational exte"io"ity2 on the one han)% co""e0
lationis- "ea)ily insists u*on the fact that consciousness% li.e language%
en:oys an o"igina"y connection to a "a)ical exte"io"ity (exe-*lifie) (y
*heno-enological consciousness t"anscen)ing o" as >a"t"e *uts it
+ex*lo)ing+ to&a")s the &o"l)!6 yet on the othe" han) this insistence see-s
to )issi-ulate a st"ange feeling of i-*"ison-ent o" enclosu"e &ithin this
/e"y exte"io"ity (the +t"ans*a"ent cage+!# Fo" &e a"e &ell an) t"uly
i-*"isone) &ithin this outsi)e *"o*e" to language an) consciousness
gi/en that &e a"e al&ays0al"ea)y in it (the +al&ays al"ea)y+ acco-*anying
the +co0+ of co""elationis- as its othe" essential locution!% an) gi/en that
&e ha/e no access to any /antage *oint f"o- &hence &e coul) o(se"/e
these +o(:ect0&o"l)s+% &hich a"e the unsu"*assa(le *"o/i)e"s of all
exte"io"ity% f"o- the outsi)e# $ut if this outsi)e see-s to us to (e a
cloiste"e) outsi)e% an outsi)e in &hich one -ay legiti-ately feel
inca"ce"ate)% this is (ecause in actuality such an outsi)e is enti"ely
"elati/e% since it is 0 an) this is *"ecisely the *oint 0 "elati/e to us#
Consciousness an) its language ce"tainly t"anscen) the-sel/es to&a")s
the &o"l)% (ut the"e is a &o"l) only insofa" as a consciousness t"anscen)s
itself to&a")s it# Conse1uently% this s*ace of exte"io"ity is -e"ely the
s*ace of &hat faces us% of &hat exists only as a co""elate of ou" o&n
existence# This is &hy% in actuality% &e )o not t"anscen) ou"sel/es /e"y
-uch (y *lunging into such a &o"l)% fo" all &e a"e )oing is ex*lo"ing the
t&o faces of &hat "e-ains a face to face 0 li.e a coin &hich only .no&s
its o&n o(/e"se# An) if conte-*o"a"y *hiloso*he"s insist so a)a-antly
that thought is enti"ely o"iente) to&a")s the outsi)e% this coul) (e (ecause
of thei" failu"e to co-e to te"-s &ith a (e"ea/e-ent 0 the )enial of a loss
conco-itant &ith the a(an)on-ent of )og-atis-# Fo" it coul) (e that
conte-*o"a"y *hiloso*he"s ha/e lost the g"eat out)oo"s% the a(solute
outsi)e of *"e0c"itical thin.e"s2 that outsi)e &hich &as not "elati/e to us%
an) &hich &as gi/en as in)iffe"ent to its o&n gi/enness to (e &hat it is%
existing in itself "ega")less of &hethe" &e a"e thin.ing of it o" not6 that
outsi)e &hich thought coul) ex*lo"e &ith the legiti-ate feeling of (eing
on fo"eign te""ito"y 0 of (eing enti"ely else&he"e#
Finally% in o")e" to "oun) off this ("ief ex*osition of the *ost0c"itical
*hiloso*he-e% &e -ust e-*hasi;e that the co""elation (et&een thought
an) (eing is not "e)uci(le to the co""elation (et&een su(:ect an) o(:ect# In
othe" &o")s% the fact that co""elation )o-inates conte-*o"a"y *hiloso*hy
in no &ay i-*lies the )o-inance of *hiloso*hies of "e*"esentation# It is
*ossi(le to c"itici;e the latte" in the na-e of a -o"e o"igina"y co""elation
(et&een thought an) (eing# An) in fact% the c"iti1ues of "e*"esentation
ha/e not signalle) a ("ea. &ith co""elation% i#e# a si-*le "etu"n to
)og-atis-#
,n this *oint% let us confine ou"sel/es to gi/ing one exa-*le2 that of
8ei)egge"# ,n the one han)% fo" 8ei)egge"% it is ce"tainly a case of
*in*ointing the occlusion of (eing o" *"esence inhe"ent in e/e"y
-eta*hysical conce*tion of "e*"esentation an) the *"i/ileging of the
*"esent at0han) entity consi)e"e) as o(:ect# 9et on the othe" han)% to thin.
such an occlusion at the hea"t of the unconceal-ent of the entity "e1ui"es%
fo" 8ei)egge"% that one ta.e into account the co0*"o*"iation
(Busa--engeh(+"ig.eit! of -an an) (eing% &hich he calls E"eignis #
Thus% the notion of E"eignis% &hich is cent"al in the late" 8ei)egge"%
"e-ains faithful to the co""elationist exigency inhe"ite) f"o- 7ant an)
continue) in 8usse"lian *heno-enology% fo" the +co0*"o*"iation+ &hich
constitutes E"eignis -eans that neithe" (eing no" -an can (e *osite) as
su(sisting +in0the-sel/es+% an) su(se1uently ente"ing into "elation 0 on the
cont"a"y% (oth te"-s of the a**"o*"iation a"e o"igina"ily constitute)
th"ough thei" "eci*"ocal "elation2 +The a**"o*"iation a**"o*"iates -an an)
$eing to thei" essential togethe"ness#+ An) the ensuing *assage clea"ly
exhi(its 8ei)egge"+s st"ict o(se"/ance of the co""elationist +t&o0ste*+2
3e al&ays say too little of +(eing itself &hen% in saying +(eing+% &e o-it
its essential *"esencing in the )i"ection of the hu-an essence an) the"e(y
fail to see that this essence itself is *a"t of +(eing+# 3e also say too little of
the hu-an (eing &hen% in saying +(eing+ (not (eing hu-an! &e *osit the
hu-an (eing as in)e*en)ent an) then fi"st ("ing &hat &e ha/e thus
*osite) into a "elation to +(eing+#
At this stage% &e can (egin to ta.e stoc. of the nu-(e" of )ecisions that it
(eho/es e/e"y *hiloso*he" to u*hol) 0 &hate/e" the extent of he" ("ea.
&ith -o)e"nity 0 shoul) she not &ish to "eg"ess to a -e"ely )og-atic
*osition2 the co""elationist ci"cle an) t&o0ste*6 the "e*lace-ent of
a)e1uation (y inte"su(:ecti/ity in the "e)efinition of scientific o(:ecti/ity6
the -aintaining of the co""elation e/en in the c"iti1ue of "e*"esentation6
the cloiste"e) outsi)e# These *ostulates cha"acte"i;e e/e"y +*ost0c"itical+
*hiloso*hy% i#e# e/e"y *hiloso*hy that sees itself as sufficiently faithful to
7antianis- not to &ant to "etu"n to *"e0c"itical -eta*hysics#
It is &ith all these )ecisions that &e a"e ("ea.ing &hen &e -aintain the
existence of *"i-a"y 1ualities# A"e &e then (ent on )eli(e"ately "eg"essing
(ac. to )og-atis-5 Mo"eo/e"% &hat is it that incites us to ("ea. &ith the
ci"cle of co""elation5
CCC
It+s :ust a line# It can ha/e )iffe"ent sha)es% a little li.e a s*ect"u- of
colou"s se*a"ate) (y sho"t /e"tical )ashes# A(o/e these a"e nu-(e"s
in)icating i--ense 1uantities# It+s a line the li.e of &hich one fin)s in any
&o". of scientific *o*ula"i;ation# The nu-(e"s )esignate )ates an) these
)ates a"e *"inci*ally the follo&ing2
D the )ate of the o"igin of the uni/e"se (=E#F (illion yea"s ago!
D the )ate of the acc"etion of the ea"th (G#FH (illion yea"s ago!
D the )ate of o"igin of life on ea"th (E#F (illion yea"s ago!
D the )ate of the o"igin of hu-an.in) (8o-o ha(ilis% 2 -illion yea"s ago!
E-*i"ical science is to)ay ca*a(le of *"o)ucing state-ents a(out e/ents
ante"io" to the a)/ent of life as &ell as consciousness# These state-ents
consist in the )ating of +o(:ects+ that a"e so-eti-es ol)e" than any fo"- of
life on ea"th# These )ating *"oce)u"es &e"e calle) +"elati/e+ so long as they
*e"taine) to the *ositions of fossils "elati/e to one anothe" (they &e"e
a""i/e) at -ainly (y stu)ying the "elati/e )e*ths of the geological st"ata
f"o- &hich the fossils &e"e exca/ate)!# Dating (eca-e +a(solute+ &ith the
*e"fection of techni1ues ((asically in the =IE0s! that allo&e) scientists to
)ete"-ine the actual )u"ation of the -easu"e) o(:ects# These teci li1ues
gene"ally "ely u*on the constant "ate of )isinteg"ation of "a)ic xcti/e
nuclei% as &ell as u*on the la&s of the"-olu-inescence 0 the latte"
*e"-itting the a**lication of )ating techni1ues to the light e-itte) (y
sta"s#
Thus conte-*o"a"y science is in a *osition to *"ecisely )ete"-ine 0al(eit
in the fo"- of "e/isa(le hy*otheses 0 the )ates of the fo"-ation of the
fossils of c"eatu"es li/ing *"io" to the e-e"gence of the fi"st ho-ini)s% the
)ate of the acc"etion of the ea"th% the )ate of the fo"-ation of sta"s% an)
e/en the +age+ of the uni/e"se itself#
The 1uestion that inte"ests us he"e is then the follo&ing2 &hat is it exactly
that ast"o*hysicists% geologists% o" *aleontologists a"e tal.ing a(out &hen
they )iscuss the age of the uni/e"se% the )ate of the acc"etion of the ea"th%
the )ate of the a**ea"ance of *"e0hu-an s*ecies% o" the )ate of the
e-e"gence of hu-anity itself5 8o& a"e &e to g"as* the -eaning of
scientific state-ents (ea"ing ex*licitly u*on a -anifestation of the &o"l)
that is *osite) as ante"io" to the e-e"gence of thought an) e/en of life
0*osite)% that is% as ante"io" to e/e"y fo"- of hu-an "elation to the &o"l)5
,"% to *ut it -o"e *"ecisely2 ho& a"e &e to thin. the -eaning of a
)iscou"se &hich const"ues the "elation to the &o"l) 0 that of thin.ing
an)Jo" li/ing as a fact insc"i(e) in a te-*o"ality &ithin &hich this "elation
is :ust one e/ent a-ong othe"s% insc"i(e) in an o")e" of succession in
&hich it is -e"ely a stage% "athe" than an o"igin5 8o& is science a(le to
thin. such state-ents% an) in &hat sense can &e e/entually asc"i(e t"uth
to the-5
<et us )efine ou" te"-s2
D I &ill call +ancest"al+ any "eality ante"io" to the e-e"gence of the hu-an
s*ecies 0 o" e/en ante"io" to e/e"y "ecogni;e) fo"- of life on ea"th#
D I &ill call +a"che0fossil+ o" +fossil0-atte"+ not :ust -ate"ials in)icating
the t"aces of *ast life% acco")ing to the fa-ilia" sense of the te"- +fossil+%
(ut -ate"ials in)icating the existence of an ancest"al "eality o" e/ent6 one
that is ante"io" to te""est"ial life# An a")5e0fossil thus )esignates the
-ate"ial su**o"t on the (asis of &hich the ex*e"i-ents that yiel)
esti-ates of ancest"al *heno-ena *"ocee) 0 fo" exa-*le% an isoto*e
&hose "ate of "a)ioacti/e )ecay &e .no&% o" the lu-inous e-ission of a
sta" that info"-s us as to the )ate of its fo"-ation#
<et us *"ocee) then f"o- this si-*le o(se"/ation2 to)ay+s science
fo"-ulates a ce"tain nu-(e" of ancest"al state-ents (ea"ing u*on the age
of the uni/e"se% the fo"-ation of sta"s% o" the acc"etion of the ea"th#
,(/iously it is not *a"t of ou" "e-it to a**"aise the "elia(ility of the
techni1ues e-*loye) in o")e" to fo"-ulate such state-ents# 3hat &e a"e
inte"este) in% ho&e/ei% is un)e"stan)ing un)e" &hat con)itions these
state-ents a"e -eaningful# Mo"e *"ecisely% &e as.2 ho& is co""elationis-
lia(le to inte"*"et these ancest"al state-ents5
3e nee) to int"o)uce a )istinction at this *oint# The"e a"e in fact t&o
(asic ty*es of co""elationist thought% :ust as the"e a"e t&o (asic ty*es of
i)ealis-# Fo" the co""elation can (e *osite) as unsu"*assa(le eithe" f"o- a
t"anscen)ental (an)Jo" *heno-enological! *e"s*ecti/e% o" a s*eculati/e
one# It is *ossi(le to -aintain the thesis acco")ing to &hich all that &e can
e/e" a**"ehen) a"e co""elates% o" the thesis acco")ing to &hich the
co""elation as such is ete"nal# In the latte" case% &hich is that of the hy*os0
tasis of the co""elation% &e a"e no longe" )ealing &ith co""elationis- in
the st"ict sense of the te"-% (ut &ith a -eta*hysics that ete"nali;es the
>elf o" the Min)% tu"ning the latte" into the *e"ennial -i""o" fo" the
-anifestation of the entity# F"o- the latte" *e"s*ecti/e% the ancest"al
state-ent *"esents no *a"ticula" )ifficulty2 the -eta*hysician &ho
u*hol)s the ete"nal0co""elate can *oint to the existence of an +ancest"al
&itness+% an attenti/e Ao)% &ho tu"ns e/e"y e/ent into a *heno-enon%
so-ething that is +gi/en0to+% &hethe" this e/ent (e the acc"etion of the
ea"th o" e/en the o"igin of the uni/e"se# $ut co""elationis- is not a
-eta*hysics2 it )oes not hy*ostati;e the co""elation6 "athe"% it in/o.es the
co""elation to cu"( e/e"y hy*ostati;ation% e/e"y su(stantiali;ation of an
o(:ect of .no&le)ge &hich &oul) tu"n the latte" into a (eing existing in
an) of itself# To say that &e cannot ext"icate ou"sel/es f"o- the ho"i;on
of co""elation is not to say that the co""elation coul) exist (y itself%
in)e*en)ently of its inca"nation in in)i/i)uals# 3e )o not .no& of any
co""elation that &oul) (e gi/en else&he"e than in hu-an (eings% an) &e
cannot get out of ou" o&n s.ins to )isco/e" &hethe" it -ight (e *ossi(le
fo" such a )isinca"nation of the co""elation to (e t"ue# Conse1uently% the
hy*othesis of the ancest"al &itness is illegiti-ate f"o- the /ie&*oint of a
st"ict co""elationis-# Thus the 1uestion &e "aise) can (e "efo"-ulate) as
follo&s2 once one has situate) oneself in the -i)st of the co""elation%
&hile "efusing its hy*ostati;ation% ho& is one to inte"*"et an ancest"al
state-ent5
<et us "e-a". fi"st of all that the -eaning of ancest"al state-ents *"esents
no *"o(le- fo" a )og-atic *hiloso*hy such as Ca"tesianis-# Consi)e"
&hat an ancest"al e/ent &oul) -ean fo" a *hysicist fa-ilia" &ith the
Me)itations# >he &oul) (egin &ith the follo&ing o(se"/ation2 in the case
of an e/ent occu""ing *"io" to the e-e"gence of life on ea"th% such as the
acc"etion of the ea"th (i#e# the e"a of the accu-ulation of -atte" &hich
ga/e "ise to the fo"-ation of ou" *lanet!% it -a.es no sense to say that +it
&as hot then+% o" that the light &as +(lin)ing+% o" to -a.e any othe"
su(:ecti/e :u)ge-ents of this ty*e# >ince &e )o not .no& of any o(se"/e"
&ho &as the"e to ex*e"ience the acc"etion of the ea"th 0 an) since &e )o
not e/en see ho& a li/ing o(se"/e" &oul) ha/e (een a(le to su"/i/e ha)
she ex*e"ience) such heat 0 all that can (e fo"-ulate) a(out such an e/ent
is &hat the +-easu"e-ents+% that is to say% the -athe-atical )ata% allo& us
to )ete"-ine2 fo" instance% that it (egan "oughly G#FH (illion yea"s ago%
that it )i) not occu" in a single instant (ut too. *lace o/e" -illions of
yea"s 0 -o"e *"ecisely% tens of -illions of yea"s 0 that it occu*ie) a ce"tain
/olu-e in s*ace% a /olu-e &hich /a"ie) th"ough ti-e% etc# Acco")ingly% it
&oul) (e necessa"y to insist that it -a.es no sense to clai- that those
1ualities that occu" &hene/e" a li/ing c"eatu"e is *"esent 0 such as colou"
("athe" than &a/elength!% heat ("athe" than te-*e"atu"e!% s-ell ("athe"@
than che-ical "eactions!% etc# 0 that those secon)a"y 1ualities &e"e *"esent
at the -o-ent of the acc"etion of the ea"th# Fo" these 1ualities "e*"esent
the -o)es of "elation (et&een a li/ing c"eatu"e an) its en/i"on-entK an)
cannot (e "ele/ant &hen it co-es to )esc"i(ing an e/ent that is not only
ante"io" to e/e"y "ecogni;e) fo"- of life (ut inco-*ati(le &ith the
existence of li/ing c"eatu"es# Conse1uently% ou" Ca"tesian *hysicist &ill
-aintain that those state-ents a(out the acc"etion of the ea"th &hich can
(e -athe-atically fo"-ulate) )esignate actual *"o*e"ties of the e/ent in
1uestion (such as its )ate% its )u"ation% its extension!% e/en &hen the"e &as
no o(se"/e" *"esent to ex*e"ience it )i"ectly# In )oing so% ou" *hysicist is
)efen)ing a Ca"tesian thesis a(out -atte"% (ut not% it is i-*o"tant to note%
a 'ythago"ean one2 the clai- is not that the (eing of acc"etion is
inhe"ently -athe-atical 0 that the nu-(e"s o" e1uations )e*loye) in the
ancest"al state-ents exist in the-sel/es# Fo" it &oul) then (e necessa"y to
say that acc"etion is a "eality e/e"y (it as i)eal as that of nu-(e" o" of an
e1uation# Aene"ally s*ea.ing% state-ents a"e i)eal insofa" as thei" "eality
is one of signification# $ut thei" "efe"ents% fo" thei" *a"t% a"e not
necessa"ily i)eal (the cat is on the -at is "eal% e/en though the state-ent
+the cat is on the -at+ is i)eal!# In this *a"ticula" instance% it &oul) (e
necessa"y to s*ecify2 the "efe"ents of the state-ents a(out )ates% /olu-es%
etc#% existe) G#FH (illion yea"s ago as )esc"i(e) (y these state-ents 0 (ut
not these state-ents the-sel/es% &hich a"e conte-*o"aneous &ith us#
$ut let us (e -o"e *"ecise# A scientist &oul) not state catego"ically that
an ancest"al e/ent )efinitely occu""e) in the &ay in &hich she has
)esc"i(e) it 0 that &oul) (e i-*"u)ent# Fo" &e .no& 0 at least since
'o**e" 0 that e/e"y theo"y a)/ance) (y e-*i"ical science is (y "ight
"e/isa(le2 it can (e falsifie) an) su**lante) (y one that is -o"e elegant% o"
that exhi(its g"eate" e-*i"ical accu"acy# $ut this &ill not *"e/ent the
scientist f"o- consi)e"ing that it -a.es sense to su**ose that he"
state-ent is t"ue2 that things coul) actually ha/e ha**ene) the &ay she
has )esc"i(e) the- an) that so long as he" )esc"i*tion has not (een
su**lante) (y anothe" theo"y% it is legiti-ate to assu-e the existence of
the e/ent such as she has "econst"ucte) it# An) in any case% e/en if he"
theo"y is falsifie)% this can only (e (y anothe" theo"y &hich &ill also (e
a(out ancest"al e/ents% an) &hich &ill also (e su**ose) to (e t"ue# Thus%
f"o- a Ca"tesian *e"s*ecti/e% ancest"al state-ents a"e state-ents &hose
"efe"ents can (e *osite) as "eal (al(eit in the *ast! once they a"e ta.en to
ha/e (een /ali)ate) (y e-*i"ical science at a gi/en stage of its
)e/elo*-ent#
All this allo&s us to say that% on the &hole% Ca"tesianis- accounts "athe"
satisfacto"ily fo" the scientist+s o&n conce*tion of he" )isci*line# 3e
coul) e/en &age"% &ithout ta.ing too -uch of a "is.% that &he"e the
theo"y of 1ualities is conce"ne)% scientists a"e -uch -o"e li.ely to si)e
&ith Ca"tesianis- than &ith 7antianis-2 they &oul) ha/e little )ifficulty
in conce)ing that secon)a"y 1ualities only exist as as*ects of the li/ing
c"eatu"e+s "elation to its &o"l) 0 (ut they &oul) (e -uch less &illing to
conce)e that (-athe-ati;a(le! *"i-a"y 1ualities only exist so long as &e
ou"sel/es exist% "athe" than as *"o*e"ties of things the-sel/es# An) the
t"uth is that thei" un&illingness to )o so (eco-es all too un)e"stan)a(le
once one (egins to se"iously exa-ine ho& the co""elationist *"o*oses to
account fo" ancest"ality#
Fo" let us (e *e"fectly clea"2 f"o- the *e"s*ecti/e of the co""elationist% the
inte"*"etation of ancest"al state-ents outline) a(o/e is ina)-issi(le 0 o" at
least% ina)-issi(le so long as it is inte"*"ete) lite"ally# Dou(tless% &he"e
science is conce"ne)% *hiloso*he"s ha/e (eco-e -o)est 0 an) e/en
*"u)ent# Thus% a *hiloso*he" &ill gene"ally (egin &ith an assu"ance to the
effect that his theo"ies in no &ay inte"fe"e &ith the &o". of the scientist%
an) that the -anne" in &hich the latte" un)e"stan)s he" o&n "esea"ch is
*e"fectly legiti-ate# $ut he &ill i--e)iately a)) (o" say to hi-self!2
legiti-ate% as fa" as it goes# 3hat he -eans is that although it is no"-al%
an) e/en natu"al% fo" the scientist to a)o*t a s*ontaneously "ealist attitu)e%
&hich she sha"es &ith the +o")ina"y -an+% the *hiloso*he" *ossesses a
s*ecific ty*e of .no&le)ge &hich i-*oses a co""ection u*on science+s
ancest"al state-ents 0 a co""ection &hich see-s to (e -ini-al% (ut &hich
suffices to int"o)uce us to anothe" )i-ension of thought in its "elation to
(eing#
Consi)e" the follo&ing ancest"al state-ent2 +E/ent 9 occu""e) x nu-(e"
of yea"s (efo"e the e-e"gence of hu-ans#+ The co""elationist *hiloso*he"
&ill in no &ay inte"/ene in the content of this state-ent2 he &ill not
contest the clai- that it is in fact e/ent 9 that occu""e)% no" &ill he
contest the )ating of this e/ent# No 0 he &ill si-*ly a)) 0 *e"ha*s only to
hi-self% (ut a)) it he &ill 0 so-ething li.e a si-*le co)icil% al&ays the
sa-e one% &hich he &ill )isc"etely a**en) to the en) of the *h"ase2 e/ent
9 occu""e) x nu-(e" of yea"s (efo"e the e-e"gence of hu-ans 0fo"
hu-ans (o" e/en% fo" the hu-an scientist!# This co)icil is the co)icil of
-o)e"nity2 the co)icil th"ough &hich the -o)e"n *hiloso*he" "ef"ains (o"
at least thin.s he )oes! f"o- inte"/ening in the content of science% &hile
*"ese"/ing a "egi-e of -eaning exte"nal to an) -o"e o"igina"yl than that
of science# Acco")ingly% &hen conf"onte) &ith an ancest"al state-ent%
co""elationis- *ostulates that the"e a"e at least t&o le/els -eaning in such
a state-ent2 the i--e)iate% o" "ealist -eaning6 an) the I -o"e o"igina"y
co""elationist -eaning% acti/ate) (y the co)icil#
3hat then &oul) (e a lite"al inte"*"etation of the ancest"al state-ent5
The (elief that the "ealist -eaning of the ancest"al state-ent is its ulti-ate
-eaning 0 that the"e is no othe" "egi-e of -eaning ca*a(le of )ee*ening
ou" un)e"stan)ing of it% an) that conse1uently the *hiloso*he"+s co)icil is
i""ele/ant &hen it co-es to analysing the signification of the state-ent#
9et this is *"ecisely &hat the co""elationist cannot acce*t# Fo" su**ose fo"
a -o-ent that the "ealist o" Ca"tesian inte"*"etation ha"(ou"e) the .ey to
the ulti-ate -eaning of the ancest"al state-ent# 3e &oul) then (e
o(lige) to -aintain &hat can only a**ea" to the *ost0c"itical *hiloso*he"
as a tissue of a(su")ities6 to &it (an) the list is not exhausti/e!2
D that (eing is not co0extensi/e &ith -anifestation% since e/ents ha/e
occu""e) in the *ast &hich &e"e not -anifest to anyone6
D that &hat is *"ece)e) in ti-e the -anifestation of &hat is6
D that -anifestation itself e-e"ge) in ti-e an) s*ace% an) that
conse1uently -anifestation is not the gi/enness of a &o"l)% (ut "athe" an
int"a0&o"l)ly occu""ence6
D that this e/ent can% -o"eo/e"% (e )ate)6
D that thought is in a *osition to thin. -anifestation+s e-e"gence in
(eing% as &ell as a (eing o" a ti-e ante"io" to -anifestation6
D that the fossil0-atte" is the gi/enness in the *"esent of a (eing that is
ante"io" to gi/enness6 that is to say% that an a"che0fossil -anifests an
entity+s ante"io"ity /is0a0/is -anifestation#
$ut fo" the co""elationist% such clai-s e/a*o"ate as soon as one *oints out
the self0cont"a)iction 0 &hich he ta.es to (e flag"ant 0 inhe"ent in this
)efinition of the a"che0fossil2 gi/enness of a (eing ante"io" to gi/enness#
+Ai/enness of a (eing+ 0 he"e is the c"ux2 (eing is not ante"io" to gi/enness%
it gi/es itself as ante"io" to gi/enness# This suffices to )e-onst"ate that it
is a(su") to en/isage an existence that is ante"io" 0 hence ch"onological%
into the (a"gain 0 to gi/enness itself# Fo" gi/enness is *"i-a"y an) ti-e
itself is only -eaningful insofa" as it is al&ays0al"ea)y *"esu**ose) in
-an+s "elation to the &o"l)# Conse1uently% fo" the co""elationist% the"e a"e
in)ee) t&o le/els at &hich ancest"ality can (e a**"oache)% each
co""es*on)ing to the )ou(le occu""ence of the te"- +gi/enness+ in the
state-ent a(o/e% to &it2 (eing gi/es itself (occu""ence =! as ante"io" to
gi/enness (occu""ence 2!# At the fi"st% su*e"ficial le/el% I fo"get the
o"igina"y natu"e of gi/enness% losing -yself in the o(:ect an) natu"ali;ing
gi/enness (y tu"ning it into a *"o*e"ty of the *hysical &o"l)% one that is
lia(le to a**ea" an) )isa**ea" in the sa-e &ay as a thing ((eing gi/es
itself as ante"io" to gi/enness!# $ut at the )ee*e" le/el ((eing gi/es itself
as ante"io" to gi/enness!% I g"as* that the co""elation (et&een thought an)
(eing en:oys logical *"io"ity o/e" e/e"y e-*i"ical state-ent a(out the
&o"l) an) int"a0&o"l)ly entities# Thus I ha/e no )ifficulty "econciling the
thesis of the ch"onological ante"io"ity of &hat is o/e" &hat a**ea"s 0 this
(eing the le/el of -eaning that is su*e"ficial% "ealist% )e"i/ati/e 0 &ith the
thesis of the logical *"io"ity &hich gi/enness en:oys /is0a0/is &hat is
gi/en in the "eal- of gi/enness (to &hich the afo"e-entione)
ch"onological ante"io"ity (elongs! 0 the latte" thesis co""es*on)ing to the
)ee*e"% -o"e o"igina"y le/el% &hich alone is t"uly co""ect# I then cease to
(elie/e that the acc"etion of the ea"th st"aightfo"&a")ly *"ece)e) in ti-e
the e-e"gence of hu-anity% the (ette" to g"as* that the status of the
state-ent in 1uestion is -o"e co-*lex# This state-ent% *"o*e"ly
un)e"stoo)% can (e fo"-ulate) as follo&s2 The *"esent co--unity of
scientists has o(:ecti/e "easons to consi)e" that the acc"etion of the ea"th
*"ece)e) the e-e"gence of ho-ini)s (y x nu-(e" of yea"s#+ <et us
analyse this fo"-ulation#
3e sai) a(o/e that% since 7ant% o(:ecti/ity is no longe" )efine) &ith
"efe"ence to the o(:ect in itself (in te"-s of the state-ent+s a)e1uation o"
"ese-(lance to &hat it )esignates!% (ut "athe" &ith "efe"ence to the
*ossi(le uni/e"sality of an o(:ecti/e state-ent# It is the inte"su(:ecti/ity
of the ancest"al state-ent 0 the fact that it shoul) (y "ight (e /e"ifia(le (y
any -e-(e" of the scientific co--unity 0 that gua"antees its o(:ecti/ity%
an) hence its +t"uth+# It cannot (e anything else% since its "efe"ent% ta.en
lite"ally% is unthin.a(le# If one "efuses to hy*ostati;e the co""elation% it is
necessa"y to insist that the *hysical uni/e"se coul) not "eally ha/e
*"ece)e) the existence of -an% o" at least of li/ing c"eatu"es# A &o"l) is
-eaningful only as gi/en0to0a0li/ing (o" thin.ing!0(eing# 9et to s*ea. of
+the e-e"gence of life+ is to e/o.e the e-e"gence of -anifestation a-i)st
a &o"l) that *"e0existe) it# ,nce &e ha/e )is1ualifie) this ty*e of
state-ent% &e -ust confine ou"sel/es st"ictly to &hat is gi/en to us2 not
the unthin.a(le e-e"gence of -anifestation &ithin (eing% (ut the
uni/e"sal0i;a(le gi/en of the *"esent fossil0-ate"ial2 its "ate of "a)ioacti/e
)ecay% the natu"e of stella" e-ission% etc# Acco")ing to the co""elationist%
an ancest"al state-ent is t"ue insofa" as it is foun)e) u*on an ex*e"i-ent
that is in the *"esent 0 ca""ie) out u*on a gi/en fossil0-ate"ial 0 an) also
uni/e"sali;a(le (an) hence (y "ight /e"ifia(le (y anyone!# It is then
*ossi(le to -aintain that the state-ent is t"ue% insofa" as it has its (asis in
an ex*e"ience &hich is (y "ight "e*"o)uci(le (y anyone (uni/e"sality of
the state-ent!% &ithout (elie/ing nai/ely that its t"uth )e"i/es f"o- its
a)e1uation to the effecti/e "eality of its "efe"ent (a &o"l) &ithout a
gi/enness of the &o"l)!#
To *ut it in othe" &o")s2 fo" the co""elationist% in o")e" to g"as* the
*"ofoun) -eaning of the fossil )atu-% one shoul) not *"ocee) f"o- the
ancest"al *ast% (ut f"o- the co""elational *"esent# This -eans that &e ha/e
to ca""y out a "et"o:ection of the *ast on the (asis of the *"esent# 3hat is
gi/en to us% in effect% is not so-ething that is ante"io" to gi/enness% (ut
-e"ely so-ething that is gi/en in the *"esent (ut gi/es itself as ante"io" to
gi/enness# The logical (constituti/e% o"igina"y! ante"io"ity of gi/enness
o/e" the (eing of the gi/en the"efo"e en:oins us to su(o")inate the
a**a"ent sense of the ancest"al state-ent to a -o"e *"ofoun) counte"0
sense% &hich is alone ca*a(le of )eli/e"ing its -eaning2 it is not
ancest"ality &hich *"ece)es gi/enness% (ut that &hich is gi/en in the
*"esent &hich "et"o:ects a see-ingly ancest"al *ast# To un)e"stan) the
fossil% it is necessa"y to *"ocee) f"o- the *"esent to the *ast% follo&ing a
logical o")e"% "athe" than f"o- the *ast to the *"esent% follo&ing a
ch"onological o")e"#
Acco")ingly% any atte-*t to "efute )og-atis- fo"ces t&o )ecisions u*on
the *hiloso*he" face) &ith ancest"ality2 the )ou(ling of -eaning% an)
"et"o:ection# The )ee*e" sense of ancest"ality "esi)es in the logical
"et"o:ection i-*ose) u*on its su*e"ficially ch"onological sense# T"y as &e
-ight% &e )o not see any othe" &ay to -a.e sense of the a"che0fossil
&hile "e-aining faithful to the in:unctions of the co""elation#
No&% &hy is this inte"*"etation of ancest"ality o(/iously insu**o"ta(le5
3ell% to un)e"stan) &hy% all &e ha/e to )o is as. the co""elationist the
follo&ing 1uestion2 &hat is it that ha**ene) G#FH (illion yea"s ago5 Di)
the acc"etion of the ea"th ha**en% yes o" no5
In one sense% yes% the co""elationist &ill "e*ly% (ecause the scientific
state-ents *ointing to such an e/ent a"e o(:ecti/e% in othe" &o")s% inte"0
su(:ecti/ely /e"ifia(le# $ut in anothe" sense% no% he &ill go on% (ecause
the "efe"ent of such state-ents cannot ha/e existe) in the &ay in &hich it
is nai/ely )esc"i(e)% i#e# as non0co""elate) &ith a consciousness# $ut then
&e en) u* &ith a "athe" ext"ao")ina"y clai-2 the ancest"al state-ent is a
t"ue state-ent% in that it is o(:ecti/e% (ut one &hose "efe"ent cannot
*ossi(ly ha/e actually existe) in the &ay this t"uth )esc"i(es it# It is a t"ue
state-ent% (ut &hat it )esc"i(es as "eal is an i-*ossi(le e/ent6 it is an
+o(:ecti/e+ state-ent% (ut it has no concei/a(le o(:ect# ," to *ut it -o"e
si-*ly2 it is a non0sense# Anothe" &ay of saying the sa-e thing is to
"e-a". that if ancest"al state-ents )e"i/e) thei" /alue solely f"o- the
cu""ent uni/e"sality of thei" /e"ification they &oul) (e co-*letely )e/oi)
of inte"est fo" the scientists &ho ta.e the t"ou(le to /ali)ate the-# ,ne
)oes not /ali)ate a -easu"e :ust to )e-onst"ate that this -easu"e is /ali)
fo" all scientists6 one /ali)ates it in o")e" to )ete"-ine &hat is -easu"e)#
It is (ecause ce"tain "a)ioacti/e isoto*es a"e ca*a(le of info"-ing us
a(out a *ast e/ent that &e t"y to ext"act f"o- the- a -easu"e of thei" age2
tu"n this age into so-ething unthin.a(le an) the o(:ecti/ity of the
-easu"e (eco-es )e/oi) of sense an) inte"est% in)icating nothing (eyon)
itself# >cience )oes not ex*e"i-ent &ith a /ie& to /ali)ating the
uni/e"sality of its ex*e"i-ents6 it ca""ies out "e*eata(le ex*e"i-ents &ith
a /ie& to exte"nal "efe"ents &hich en)o& these ex*e"i-ents &ith
-eaning#
Thus the "et"o:ection &hich the co""elationist is o(lige) to i-*ose u*on
the ancest"al state-ent a-ounts to a /e"ita(le counte"0sense &ith "es*ect
to the latte"2 an ancest"al state-ent only has sense if its lite"al sense is also
its ulti-ate sense# If one )i/i)es the sense of the state-ent% if one in/ents
fo" it a )ee*e" sense confo"-ing to the co""elation (ut cont"a"y to its
"ealist sense% then fa" f"o- )ee*ening its sense% one has si-*ly cancelle)
it# This is &hat &e shall ex*"ess in te"-s of the ancest"al state-ent+s
i""e-e)ia(le "ealis-2 eithe" this state-ent has a "ealist sense% an) only a
"ealist sense% o" it has no sense at all# This is &hy a consistent
co""elationist shoul) sto* +co-*"o-ising+ &ith science an) sto* (elie/ing
that he can "econcile the t&o le/els of -eaning &ithout un)e"-ining the
content of the scientific state-ent &hich he clai-s to (e )ealing &ith#
The"e is no *ossi(le co-*"o-ise (et&een the co""elation an) the a"che0
fossil2 once one has ac.no&le)ge) one% one has the"e(y )is1ualifie) the
othe"# In othe" &o")s% the consistent co""elationist shoul) sto* (eing
-o)est an) )a"e to asse"t o*enly that he is in a *osition to *"o/i)e the
scientist &ith an a *"io"i )e-onst"ation that the latte"+s ancest"al
state-ents a"e illuso"y2 fo" the co""elationist .no&s that &hat they
)esc"i(e can ne/e" ha/e ta.en *lace the &ay it is )esc"i(e)#
$ut then it is as if the )istinction (et&een t"anscen)ental i)ealis- 0 the
i)ealis- that is (so to s*ea.! u"(ane% ci/ili;e)% an) "easona(le 0 an)
s*eculati/e o" e/en su(:ecti/e i)ealis- 0 the i)ealis- that is &il)%
uncouth% an) "athe" ext"a/agant 0 it is as if this )istinction &hich &e ha)
(een taught to )"a& 0 an) &hich se*a"ates 7ant f"o- $e".eley 0 (eca-e
(lu""e) an) )issol/e) in light of the fossil0-atte"# Conf"onte) &ith the
a"che0fossil% i e/e"y /a"iety of i)ealis- con/e"ges an) (eco-es e1ually
ext"ao")ina"y 0 e/e"y = /a"iety of co""elationis- is ex*ose) as an ext"e-e
i)ealis-% one that is inca*a(le of a)-itting that &hat science tells us
a(out these occu""ences of -atte" in)e*en)ent of hu-anity effecti/ely
occu""e) as )esc"i(e) (y science# An) ou" co""elationist then fin)s
hi-self )ange"ously close to conte-*o"a"y c"eationists2 those 1uaint
(elie/e"s &ho asse"t to)ay% in acco")ance &ith a +lite"al+ "ea)ing of the
$i(le% that the ea"th is no -o"e than H%000 yea"s ol)% an) &ho% &hen
conf"onte) &ith the -uch ol)e" )ates a""i/e) at (y science% "e*ly
un*e"tu"(e) that Ao) also c"eate) at the sa-e ti-e as the ea"th H%000
yea"s ago those "a)ioacti/e co-*oun)s that see- to in)icate that the ea"th
is -uch ol)e" than it is 0 in o")e" to test the *hysicists+ faith# >i-ila"ly%
-ight not the -eaning of the a"che0fossil (e to test the *hiloso*he"+s faith
in co""elation% e/en &hen conf"onte) &ith )ata &hich see- to *oint to an
a(yssal )i/i)e (et&een &hat exists an) &hat a**ea"s5
CCC
3e &ill no& consi)e" t&o co""elationist "e:oin)e"s to the ancest"al
o(:ection% in o")e" to "en)e" the latte" -o"e *"ecise an) to un)e"line its
singula"ity#
=! The fi"st "e:oin)e" *"ocee)s (y t"i/iali;ing the *"o(le- of the a"che0
fossil% i)entifying it &ith a fa-ilia" an) inconse1uential anti0i)ealist
a"gu-ent# ,u" o**onent &ill fo"-ulate it as follo&s2
+9ou" o(:ection can easily (e "e)uce) to a hac.neye) a"gu-ent# Fi"st I
note that you" thesis a"(it"a"ily *"i/ileges te-*o"al senio"ity% &he"eas
s*atial )istance &oul) "aise exactly the sa-e )ifficulty (o" "athe" the sa-e
se-(lance of )ifficulty! fo" co""elationis-# An e/ent occu""ing in an
i--ensely )istant galaxy% (eyon) the "each of e/e"y *ossi(le o(se"/ation%
&oul) in effect *"o/i)e the s*atial analogue fo" the e/ent occu""ing *"io"
to te""est"ial life# In (oth cases% &hat &e a"e )ealing &ith a"e e/ents
)e/oi) of *ossi(le &itnesses (o" at least of te""est"ial ones!% &hich is
*"ecisely the co"e of you" a"gu-ent% since the latte" clai-s that
co""elationis- cannot thin. that &hich cannot (e connecte) to a "elation0
to0the0&o"l)# 3e shoul) the"efo"e (e entitle) to exten) to s*ace an
a"gu-ent &hich has hithe"to (een "est"icte) to ti-e% an) a):oin the
1uestion of the )istant to the 1uestion of the ancient#
+$ut then 0 an) this is the secon) stage in ou" a"gu-ent 0 &e &oul) notice
that the notions of +)istance+ o" +ancientness+ a"e (oth /ague% since no one
can settle once an) fo" all% in the context of this a"gu-ent% &he"e 4the
*"oxi-ate4 o" 4the "ecent4 en)% an) &he"e the 4the )istant4 o" 4the
ancest"al4 (egin# A(o/e all% &e &oul) i--e)iately notice that the
1uestion of the "elati/e *"oxi-ity of the o(:ect un)e" consi)e"ation
(eco-es i""ele/ant to the fo"ce of the a"gu-ent once the sco*e of the
latte" has (een exten)e) to s*ace# Thus% fo" exa-*le% c"ate"s o(se"/e) on
the -oon a"e actually +close"+ to us% f"o- the /ie&*oint of the a"gu-ent
un)e" consi)e"ation% than a /ase falling in a count"y house &hen the"e is
no(o)y the"e# The o(se"/e) c"ate"s% in effect% *ose no *"o(le-
&hatsoe/e" to co""elationis-% since they a"e connecte) to a su(:ect &ho
a**"ehen)s the-% &he"eas acco")ing to you the fallen /ase &oul) *ose
such a *"o(le-% since it &ent un0&itnesse)# >i-ila"ly% (y you" lights% a
"ecent (ut un0&itnesse) te-*o"al e/ent is -o"e *"o(le-atic than an
ancient e/ent &hich has (een "egiste"e) in the co--e-o"ati/e ex*e"ience
of so-e consciousness o" othe"#
+Conse1uently% you" a"gu-ent (oils )o&n to a *a"ticula" /a"iant of a
t"i/ial o(:ection against i)ealis-# ,ne sta"ts f"o- the *"e-ise that &hat is
un0&itnesse) is un0thin.a(le% unless it (e (y "ealis-# An) gi/en that the
ancest"al e/ent is (y )efinition un0&itnesse)% since it is ante"io" to all
te""est"ial life% one easily conclu)es that it is un0thin.a(le fo"
co""elationis-# $ut not only is this "efutation of co""elationis- uno"iginal%
it is also g"ossly ina)e1uate# Fo" the lacuna"y natu"e of the gi/en has
ne/e" (een a *"o(le- fo" co""elationis-# ,ne only has to thin. of
8usse"l+s fa-ous +gi/enness0(y0a)u-("ations+ ?A(schattung@2 a cu(e is
ne/e" *e"cei/e) acco")ing to all its faces at once6 it al&ays "etains
so-ething non0gi/en at the hea"t of its gi/enness# Aene"ally s*ea.ing%
e/en the -ost ele-enta"y theo"y of *e"ce*tion &ill insist on the fact that
the sensi(le a**"ehension of an o(:ect al&ays occu"s against the (ac.)"o*
of the un0a**"ehen)e)% &hethe" it (e &ith "ega") to the o(:ect+s s*atiality
o" its te-*o"ality# Thus the /isual *e"ce*tion of the sea *"esu**oses the
non0*e"ce*tion of its )e*ths6 the &a/es &hich &e hea" in the -o"ning a"e
hea") against the (ac.)"o* of ou" not0hea"ing of the &a/es f"o- the night
(efo"e% etc#
+Conse1uently% it is not )ifficult to concei/e the status of the un0&itnesse)
in the context of a )atu- &hich -ust (e essentially consi)e"e) as
lacuna"y# All that is "e1ui"e) in o")e" to "e0inse"t this ty*e of occu""ence
&ithin the co""elationist f"a-e&o". is to int"o)uce a counte"0factual such
as the follo&ing2 ha) the"e (een a &itness% then this occu""ence &oul)
ha/e (een *e"cei/e) in such an) such a fashion# This counte"factual
&o".s :ust as &ell fo" the falling of a /ase in an e-*ty house as fo" a
cos-ic o" ancest"al e/ent% ho&e/e" fa" "e-o/e)# In eithe" case%
co""elationis- si-*ly says the sa-e thing as science2 ha) the"e (een a
&itness to the fall of the /ase% he o" she &oul) ha/e seen it fall acco")ing
to the la&s of g"a/ity6 ha) the"e (een a &itness to the e-e"gence of life%
its o(se"/ation 0 g"ante) the (iological hy*otheses a(out the o"igin of life
0 &oul) ha/e tallie) &ith ou" theo"ies a(out it% etc#
+Acco")ingly% the ancest"al *heno-enon in no &ay constitutes a ne&
o(:ection against co""elationis- 0 it -e"ely )"esses u* an ol) a"gu-ent6
one that is as &ell &o"n as it is ha"-less#+
The enti"e (asis fo" this "e:oin)e" consists in conflating t&o )istinct
notions2 that of the ancest"al% an) that of the (s*atially! )istant o"
(te-*o"ally! ancient#
The o(:ection against i)ealis- (ase) on the )istal occu""ence is in fact
i)entical &ith the one (ase) on the ancient occu""ence% an) (oth a"e
e1ui/alent /e"sions (te-*o"al o" s*atial! of &hat coul) (e calle) +the
o(:ection f"o- the un0&itnesse)+% o" f"o- the +un0*e"cei/e)+# An) the
co""elationist is ce"tainly "ight a(out one thing 0 that the a"gu-ent f"o-
the un0*e"cei/e) is in fact t"i/ial an) *oses no th"eat to co""elationis-#
$ut the a"gu-ent f"o- the a"che0fossil is in no &ay e1ui/alent to such an
o(:ection% (ecause the ancest"al )oes not )esignate an ancient e/ent 0 it
)esignates an e/ent ante"io" to te""est"ial life an) hence ante"io" to
gi/enness itself# Though ancest"ality is a te-*o"al notion% its )efinition
)oes not in/o.e )istance in ti-e% (ut "athe" ante"io"ity in ti-e# This is
&hy the a"che0fossil )oes not -e"ely "efe" to an un0&itnesse) occu""ence%
(ut to a non0gi/en occu""ence 0 ancest"al "eality )oes not "efe" to
occu""ences &hich a lacuna"y gi/enness cannot a**"ehen)% (ut to
occu""ences &hich a"e not conte-*o"aneous &ith any gi/enness% &hethe"
lacuna"y o" not# The"ein lies its singula"ity an) its c"itical *otency &ith
"ega") to co""elationis-#
<et us (e *e"fectly clea" on this *oint# The "eason &hy the t"a)itional
o(:ection f"o- the un0&itnesse) occu""ence 0 it (eing a -atte" of
in)iffe"ence &hethe" the latte" is s*atial o" te-*o"al 0 *oses no )ange" to
co""elationis- is (ecause this o(:ection (ea"s u*on an e/ent occu""ing
&hen the"e is al"ea)y gi/enness# In)ee)% this is *"ecisely &hy the
o(:ection can (e s*atial as &ell as te-*o"al# Fo" &hen I s*ea. of an e/ent
that is )istant in s*ace% this e/ent cannot (ut (e conte-*o"aneous &ith the
consciousness *"esently en/isaging it# Conse1uently% an o(:ection (ea"ing
on so-ething that is un*e"cei/e) in s*ace necessa"ily in/o.es an e/ent
an) a consciousness &hich a"e consi)e"e) as synch"onic# This is &hy the
e/ent that is un0&itnesse) in s*ace is essentially "ecu*e"a(le as one -o)e
of lacuna"y gi/enness a-ong othe"s 0 it is "ecu*e"a(le as an in0a**a"ent
gi/en &hich )oes not en)ange" the logic of co""elation# $ut the ancest"al
)oes not )esignate an a(sence in the gi/en% an) fo" gi/enness% (ut "athe"
an a(sence of gi/enness as such# An) this is *"ecisely &hat the exa-*le
of the s*atially un*e"cei/e) "e-ains inca*a(le of ca*tu"ing 0 only a
s*ecific ty*e of te-*o"al "eality is ca*a(le of ca*tu"ing it6 one &hich is
not ancient in any /ague sense% no" so-e so"t of lacuna in that &hich is
te-*o"ally gi/en% (ut &hich -ust "athe" (e i)entifie) &ith that &hich is
*"io" to gi/enness in its enti"ety# It is not the &o"l) such as gi/enness
)e*loys its lacuna"y *"esentation% (ut the &o"l) as it )e*loys itself &hen
nothing is gi/en% &hethe" fully o" lacuna"ily# ,nce this has (een
ac.no&le)ge)% then one -ust conce)e that the ancest"al *oses a challenge
to co""elationis- &hich is of an enti"ely )iffe"ent o")e" than that of the
un*e"cei/e)% /i;#% ho& to concei/e of a ti-e in &hich the gi/en as such
*asses f"o- non0(eing into (eing5# Not a ti-e &hich is gi/en in a
lacuna"y fashion% (ut a ti-e &he"ein one *asses f"o- the lacuna of all
gi/enness to the effecti/ity of a lacuna"y gi/enness#
Acco")ingly% the"e can (e no 1uestion of "esol/ing this *"o(le- (y
in/o.ing a counte"factual% since this &oul) *"esu**ose *"ecisely &hat is
(eing calle) into 1uestion2 if a consciousness ha) o(se"/e) the e-e"gence
of te""est"ial life% the ti-e of the e-e"gence of the gi/en &oul) ha/e (een
a ti-e of e-e"gence in the gi/en# $ut the ti-e at issue he"e is the ti-e
&he"ein consciousness as &ell as conscious ti-e ha/e the-sel/es
e-e"ge) in ti-e# Fo" the *"o(le- of the a"che0fossil is not the e-*i"ical
*"o(le- of the (i"th of li/ing o"ganis-s% (ut the ontological *"o(le- of
the co-ing into (eing of gi/enness as such# Mo"e acutely% the *"o(le-
consists in un)e"stan)ing ho& science is a(le to thin. 0 &ithout any
*a"ticula" )ifficulty 0 the co-ing into (eing of consciousness an) its
s*atio0te-*o"al fo"-s of gi/enness in the -i)st of a s*ace an) ti-e &hich
a"e su**ose) to *"e0exist the latte"# Mo"e *a"ticula"ly% one the"e(y (egins
to g"as* that science thin.s a ti-e in &hich the *assage f"o- the non0
(eing of gi/enness to its (eing has effecti/ely occu""e) 0 hence a ti-e
&hich% (y )efinition% cannot (e "e)uce) to any gi/enness &hich *"ece)e)
it an) &hose e-e"gence it allo&s# In othe" &o")s% at issue he"e is not the
ti-e of consciousness (ut the ti-e of science 0 the ti-e &hich% in o")e" to
(e a**"ehen)e)% -ust (e un)e"stoo) as ha"(ou"ing the ca*acity to
engen)e" not only *hysical things% (ut also co""elations (et&een gi/en
things an) the gi/ing of those things# Is this not *"ecisely &hat science
thin.s5 A ti-e that is not only ante"io" to gi/enness% (ut essentially
in)iffe"ent to the latte" (ecause gi/enness coul) :ust as &ell ne/e" ha/e
e-e"ge) if life ha) not a"isen5 >cience "e/eals a ti-e that not only )oes
not nee) conscious ti-e (ut that allo&s the latte" to a"ise at a )ete"-inate
*oint in its o&n flux# To thin. science is to thin. the status of a (eco-ing
&hich cannot (e co""elational (ecause the co""elate is in it% "athe" than it
(eing in the co""elate# >o the challenge is the"efo"e the follo&ing2 to
un)e"stan) ho& science can thin. a &o"l) &he"ein s*atio0te-*o"al
gi/enness itself ca-e into (eing &ithin a ti-e an) a s*ace &hich *"ece)e)
e/e"y /a"iety of gi/enness#
3e no& see that the so*histical natu"e of this fi"st "e:oin)e" consists in
t"ying to occlu)e one lacuna (y anothe"% in t"ying to -as. the non0(eing
of the gi/en (y a gi/en of non0(eing% as though the fo"-e" coul) (e
"e)uce) to the latte"# $ut this s&itching of a(sences% this su(te"fuge of
lacunae% cannot )isguise the fun)a-ental )iffe"ence (et&een ou" t&o
/oi)s 0 an) the"e(y the )iffe"ence (et&een the t&o a"gu-ents2 the t"i/ial
a"gu-ent f"o- the un*e"cei/e) an) the /ali) a"gu-ent f"o- the ancest"al#
2! 3e shall fo"-ulate the secon) co""elationist "e:oin)e" f"o- a
t"anscen)ental *e"s*ecti/e% &hich he"e constitutes the -o"e incisi/e
o(:ection to ou" a"gu-entation2
+9ou" o(:ection% -a)e in the na-e of the a"che0fossil% e/inces an
ele-enta"y confusion (et&een the e-*i"ical an) the t"anscen)ental le/el
of the *"o(le- un)e" consi)e"ation#
+The e-*i"ical 1uestion is that of .no&ing ho& (o)ies that &e"e o"ganic
*"io" to (eco-ing conscious a**ea"e) in an en/i"on-ent &hich is itself
*hysical# The t"anscen)ental 1uestion consists in )ete"-ining ho& the
science of this *hysical e-e"gence of life an) consciousness is *ossi(le#
No&% these t&o le/els of thought 0 the e-*i"ical an) the t"anscen)ental 0
a"e li.e the t&o faces of a flat sheet of *a*e"2 they a"e a(solutely
inse*a"a(le (ut they ne/e" inte"sect# $ut you" -ista.e consists *"ecisely
in allo&ing the- to inte"sect 0 you ha/e tu"ne) a st"uctu"e &hich shoul)
ha/e "e-aine) flat into a Mo(ius st"i*# 9ou *"ocee) as though the
t"anscen)ental su(:ect 0 &hich is ulti-ately the su(:ect of science 0 &as of
the sa-e natu"e as the *hysical o"gan &hich su**o"ts it 0 you colla*se the
)istinction (et&een the conscious o"gan &hich a"ose &ithin natu"e an) the
su(:ect of science &hich const"ucts the .no&le)ge of natu"e# $ut the
)iffe"ence (et&een these t&o is that the conscious o"gan exists6 it is an
entity in the sa-e sense as any othe" *hysical o"gan6 &he"eas the
t"anscen)ental su(:ect si-*ly cannot (e sai) to exist6 &hich is to say that
the su(:ect is not an entity% (ut "athe" a set of con)itions "en)e"ing
o(:ecti/e scientific .no&le)ge of entities *ossi(le# $ut a con)ition fo"
o(:ecti/e cognition cannot (e t"eate) as an o(:ect% an) since only o(:ects
can (e sai) to exist% it is necessa"y to insist that a con)ition )oes not exist
0 *"ecisely (ecause it con)itions#
+Conse1uently% you" conce*tion of a 4ti-e of science4% in &hich (oth
(o)ies an) the -anifestation of (o)ies a"ose% is 4a-*hi(olous4 0it
conflates the o(:ecti/e (eing of (o)ies% &hich )o in fact e-e"ge an)
*e"ish in ti-e% &ith the con)itions fo" the o(:ecti/e .no&le)ge of the
o(:ecti/e (eing of (o)ies% &hich ha/e nothing to )o &ith any so"t of ti-e#
To insc"i(e these con)itions in ti-e is to tu"n the- into o(:ects an) hence
to anth"o*ologi;e the-# $ut one cannot "eason a(out these con)itions in
the sa-e &ay as one "easons a(out o(:ects# The *a"a)ox you *oint to
a"ises f"o- c"ossing t&o le/els of "eflection &hich shoul) ne/e" (e
allo&e) to c"oss# It suffices to a(:u"e such c"ossing fo" the *a"a)ox to
)issol/e2 on the si)e of the o(:ect% (o)ies a"e (o"n an) )ie6 &hile on the
othe" si)e% con)itions *"o/i)e the no"-s fo" .no&le)ge of the o(:ect# $ut
these con)itions cannot (e sai) to (e (o"n o" to )ie 0 not (ecause they a"e
ete"nal% in the -anne" of a )i/ine su(stance (&hich &oul) (e to thin. of
the- as an o(:ect once again% al(eit a su*e"sensi(le one!% (ut si-*ly
(ecause they cannot (e situate) at the sa-e le/el of "eflection 0 to )o so
&oul) engen)e" a *a"a)ox &hich% li.e that of the lia"% "esults f"o- a
confusion (et&een )iscou"se an) its o(:ect# Conse1uently% it is *e"fectly
a)-issi(le fo" you to say that (o)ies% &hich *"o/i)e the o(:ecti/e su**o"t
fo" su(:ects% a"e (o"n an) *e"ish in ti-e% (ut you cannot say the sa-e
a(out the con)itions &hich *e"-it .no&le)ge of such a fact# If you )o%
you ha/e si-*ly /iolate) one of the (asic "e1ui"e-ents fo" the
t"anscen)ental 0 (ut you ha/e not the"e(y "efute) it% you ha/e si-*ly
)is"ega")e) it# Thus you cannot clai- that you" *"o(le- is 4ontological4
"athe" than e-*i"ical% since you" *"o(le- of the a"che0fossil is e-*i"ical%
an) only e-*i"ical 0 it *e"tains to o(:ects# As fo" the t"anscen)ental
con)itions of cognition% they cannot (e sai) to a"ise o" to )isa**ea" 0 not
(ecause they a"e ete"nal (ut (ecause they a"e 4outsi)e ti-e4 an) 4outsi)e
s*ace4 0they "e-ain out of "each of the scientific )iscou"se a(out o(:ects
(ecause they *"o/i)e the fo"-s fo" this )iscou"se# E/e"y atte-*t to
su(o")inate the- to the science &hose exe"cise they allo& is inhe"ently
)oo-e) to eli)e the /e"y -eaning of the t"anscen)ental#+
8e"e &e ha/e a classic )efence of 7antian i)ealis- 0 the cha"ge of
conflating the e-*i"ical an) the t"anscen)ental 0 (ut one &hich% in the
*"esent case% "e-ains enti"ely ineffectual# The co"e of such a "e:oin)e"
consists in i--uni;ing the con)itions L of .no&le)ge f"o- any )iscou"se
(ea"ing on the o(:ects of science (y i a"guing that a t"anscen)ental
con)ition is not an o(:ect% an) hence si-*ly )oes not exist# The notion of
con)ition allo&s one to +)e0ontologi;e+ the t"anscen)ental (y *utting it out
of "each of any "eflection a(out (eing# $ut if the t"anscen)ental
*hiloso*he" &ishes to *lay &ith the notion of con)ition in this &ay% he is
not li.ely to *"e/ail fo" /e"y long# 8e"e is &hy#
3e a"e tol) that the t"anscen)ental )oes not exist (ecause it )oes not exist
in the &ay in &hich o(:ects exist# A"ante)% (ut e/en if &e conce)e that the
t"anscen)ental su(:ect )oes not exist in the &ay in &hich o(:ects exist%
one still has to say that the"e is a t"anscen)ental su(:ect% "athe" than no
su(:ect# Mo"eo/e"% nothing *"e/ents us f"o- "eflecting in tu"n on the
con)itions un)e" &hich the"e is a t"anscen)ental su(:ect# An) a-ong
these con)itions &e fin) that the"e can only (e a t"anscen)ental su(:ect on
con)ition that such a su(:ect ta.es *lace#
3hat )o &e -ean (y +ta.ing *lace+5 3e -ean that the t"anscen)ental%
insofa" as it "efuses all -eta*hysical )og-atis-% "e-ains in)issocia(le
f"o- the notion of a *oint of /ie&# <et us su**ose a su(:ect &ithout any
*oint of /ie& on the &o"l) 0 such a su(:ect &oul) ha/e access to the
&o"l) as totality% &ithout anything esca*ing f"o- its instantaneous
ins*ection of o(:ecti/e "eality# $ut such a su(:ect &oul) the"e(y /iolate
the essential finitu)e of the t"anscen)ental su(:ect 0 the &o"l) fo" it &oul)
no longe" (e a "egulato"y I)ea of .no&le)ge% (ut "athe" the t"ans*a"ent
o(:ect of an i--e)iately achie/e) an) effecti/e .no&le)ge# >i-ila"ly% it
&oul) no longe" (e *ossi(le to asc"i(e sensi(le "ece*ti/ity an) its s*atio0
te-*o"al fo"- 0 one of the t&o sou"ces of .no&le)ge fo" 7ant% along &ith
the un)e"stan)ing 0 to such a su(:ect% &hich &oul) the"efo"e (e ca*a(le of
totali;ing the "eal infinity of &hate/e" is containe) in each of these fo"-s#
$y the sa-e to.en% since it &oul) no longe" (e (oun) to .no&le)ge (y
*e"ce*tual a)u-("ation% an) since the &o"l) fo" it &oul) no longe" (e a
ho"i;on (ut "athe" an exhausti/ely .no&n o(:ect% such a su(:ect coul) no
longe" (e concei/e) as a t"anscen)ental su(:ect of the 8usse"lian ty*e#
$ut ho& )o notions such as finitu)e% "ece*ti/ity% ho"i;on% "egulati/e I)ea
of .no&le)ge% a"ise5 They a"ise (ecause% as &e sai) a(o/e% the
t"anscen)ental su(:ect is *osite) as a *oint of /ie& on the &o"l)% an)
hence as ta.ing *lace at the hea"t of the &o"l)# The su(:ect is
t"anscen)ental only insofa" as it is *ositione) in the &o"l)% of &hich it can
only e/e" )isco/e" a finite as*ect% an) &hich it can ne/e" "ecollect in its
totality# $ut if the t"anscen)ental su(:ect is locali;e) a-ong the finite
o(:ects of its &o"l) in this &ay% this -eans that it "e-ains in)issocia(le
f"o- its inca"nation in a (o)y6 in othe" &o")s% it is in)issocia(le f"o- a
)ete"-inate o(:ect in the &o"l)# A"ante)% the t"anscen)ental is the
con)ition fo" .no&le)ge of (o)ies% (ut it is necessa"y to a)) that the (o)y
is also the con)ition fo" the ta.ing *lace of the t"anscen)ental# That the
t"anscen)ental su(:ect has this o" that (o)y is an e-*i"ical -atte"% (ut that
it has a (o)y is a non0e-*i"ical con)ition of its ta.ing *lace 0 the (o)y%
one coul) say% is the +"et"o0t"anscen)ental+ con)ition fo" the su(:ect of
.no&le)ge# 3e &ill in/o.e an esta(lishe) )istinction he"e an) say that a
su(:ect is instantiate) "athe" than exe-*lifie) (y a thin.ing (o)y# An
entity is sai) to (e instantiate) (y an in)i/i)ual &hen that entity )oes not
exist a*a"t f"o- its in)i/i)uation6 an) it is sai) to (e -e"ely exe-*lifie)
(y an in)i/i)ual if one assu-es that the entity also exists a*a"t f"o- its
in)i/i)uation# Thus% in 'lato% the entity +-an+ is -e"ely exe-*lifie) (y the
*e"ce*ti(le in)i/i)ual -an since it also exists 0 an) exists a(o/e all 0 as an
I)ea# $y &ay of cont"ast% fo" an e-*i"icist% the s*ecies +-an+ is
instantiate) (y in)i/i)ual -en (ecause this s*ecies )oes not exist a*a"t
f"o- the in)i/i)uals in &hich it is inca"nate)#
$ut it is clea" that &hat )istinguishes t"anscen)ental i)ealis- f"o-
s*eculati/e i)ealis- is the fact that the fo"-e" )oes not *osit the existence
of the t"anscen)ental su(:ect a*a"t f"o- its (o)ily in)i/i)uation 0
othe"&ise% it &oul) (e guilty of s*eculati/ely hy*ostati;ing it as an i)eal
an) a(solute su(:ect# Thus the su(:ect is instantiate) "athe" than
exe-*lifie) (y thin.ing (o)ies# $ut if this is so% then &hen &e "aise the
1uestion of the e-e"gence of thin.ing (o)ies in ti-e &e a"e also "aising
the 1uestion of the te-*o"ality of the con)itions of instantiation% an)
hence of the ta.ing *lace of the t"anscen)ental as such# ,(:ecti/e (o)ies
-ay not (e a sufficient con)ition fo" the ta.ing *lace of the
t"anscen)ental% (ut they a"e ce"tainly a necessa"y con)ition fo" it# 3e
the"e(y )isco/e" that the ti-e of science te-*o"ali;es an) s*atiali;es the
e-e"gence of li/ing (o)ies6 that is to say% the e-e"gence of the con)itions
fo" the ta.ing *lace of the t"anscen)ental# 3hat effecti/ely e-e"ge) &ith
li/ing (o)ies &e"e the instantiations of the su(:ect% its cha"acte" as *oint0
of0/ie&0on0the0&o"l)# The fact that su(:ects e-e"ge) he"e on this ea"th o"
existe) else&he"e is a *u"ely e-*i"ical -atte"# $ut the fact that su(:ects
a**ea"e) M si-*ly a**ea"e) 0 in ti-e an) s*ace% instantiate) (y (o)ies% is
a -atte" that *e"tains in)issocia(ly (oth to o(:ecti/e (o)ies an) to
t"anscen)ental su(:ects# An) &e "eali;e that this *"o(le- si-*ly cannot
(e thought f"o- the t"anscen)ental /ie&*oint (ecause it conce"ns the
s*ace0ti-e in &hich t"anscen)ental su(:ects &ent f"o- not0ta.ing0*lace to
ta.ing0*lace 0 an) hence conce"ns the s*ace0ti-e ante"io" to the s*atio0
te-*o"al fo"-s of "e*"esentation# To thin. this ancest"al s*ace0ti-e is
thus to thin. the con)itions of science an) also to "e/o.e the
t"anscen)ental as essentially ina)e1uate to this tas.#
CCC
3e no& (egin to g"as* &hy ancest"ality constitutes a *hiloso*hical
*"o(le-% one lia(le to -a.e us "e/ise )ecisions often consi)e"e) as
inf"angi(le since 7ant# $ut &e shoul) state "ight a&ay that it is not ou"
ai- he"e to "esol/e this *"o(le-6 only to t"y to *"o/i)e a "igo"ous
fo"-ulation of it% an) to )o so in such a &ay that its "esolution no longe"
see-s utte"ly inconcei/a(le to us#
To that en)% &e -ust once -o"e e-*hasi;e &hat is t"uly at sta.e in &hat
&e shall hencefo"th call +the *"o(le- of ancest"ality+# ,u" 1uestion &as
the follo&ing2 &hat a"e the con)itions un)e" &hich an ancest"al state-ent
"e-ains -eaningful5 $ut as &e ha/e seen% this 1uestion ha"(ou"s anothe"
one% &hich is -o"e o"igina"y% an) &hich )eli/e"s its /e"ita(le i-*o"t% to
&it2 ho& a"e &e to concei/e of the e-*i"ical sciences+ ca*acity to yiel)
.no&le)ge of the ancest"al "eal-5 Fo" &hat is at sta.e he"e% un)e" the
co/e" of ancest"ality% is the natu"e of scientific )iscou"se% an) -o"e
*a"ticula"ly of &hat cha"acte"i;es this )iscou"se% i#e# its -athe-atical
fo"-# Thus ou" 1uestion (eco-es2 ho& is -athe-atical )iscou"se a(le to
)esc"i(e a &o"l) &he"e hu-anity is a(sent6 a &o"l) c"a--e) &ith things
an) e/ents that a"e not the co""elates of any -anifestation6 a &o"l) that is
not the co""elate of a "elation to the &o"l)5 This is the enig-a &hich &e
-ust conf"ont2 -athe-atics+ a(ility to )iscou"se a(out the g"eat out)oo"s6
to )iscou"se a(out a *ast &he"e (oth hu-anity an) life a"e a(sent# ," to
say the sa-e thing in the fo"- of a *a"a)ox (&hich &e &ill call +the
*a"a)ox of the a"che0fossil+!2 ho& can a (eing -anifest (eing+s ante"io"ity
to -anifestation5 3hat is it that *e"-its -athe-atical )iscou"se to ("ing
to light ex*e"i-ents &hose -ate"ial info"-s us a(out a &o"l) ante"io" to
ex*e"ience5 3e )o not )eny that this *a"a)ox has the a**ea"ance of a
shee" cont"a)iction 0 the "e)ou(ta(le *"o(le- *ose) to us (y the a"che0
fossil consists *"ecisely in hol)ing fast to this cont"a)iction the (ette"
e/entually to ex*ose its illuso"y cha"acte"# In o")e" to thin. science+s
ancest"al "each% &e -ust ex*lain &hy this cont"a)iction is -e"ely
a**a"ent#
Acco")ingly% &e can "efo"-ulate ou" 1uestion thus2 &hat is the con)ition
that legiti-ates science+s ancest"al state-ents5 This is a 1uestion that
see-s to (e of the t"anscen)ental ty*e% (ut it is *eculia" in that its *"i-a"y
con)ition is the "elin1uishing of t"anscen)entalis-# It )e-an)s of us that
&e "e-ain as )istant f"o- na+i/e "ealis- as f"o- co""elationist su(tlety%
&hich a"e the t&o &ays of "efusing to see ancest"ality as a *"o(le-# 3e
-ust (ea" in -in) the a**a"ently unans&e"a(le fo"ce of the co""elationist
ci"cle (cont"a"y to the nai/e "ealist!% as &ell as its i""e-e)ia(le
inco-*ati(ility &ith ancest"ality (cont"a"y to the co""elationist!#
Ulti-ately then% &e -ust un)e"stan) that &hat )istinguishes the
*hiloso*he" f"o- the non0*hiloso*he" in this -atte" is that only the
fo"-e" is ca*a(le of (eing astonishe) (in the st"ong sense! (y the
st"aightfo"&a")ly lite"al -eaning of the ancest"al state-ent# The /i"tue of
t"anscen)entalis- )oes not lie in "en)e"ing "ealis- illuso"y% (ut in
"en)e"ing it astonishing% i#e# a**a"ently unthin.a(le% yet t"ue% an) hence
e-inently *"o(le-atic#
The a"che0fossil en:oins us to t"ac. thought (y in/iting us to )isco/e" the
+hi))en *assage+ t"o))en (y the latte" in o")e" to achie/e &hat -o)e"n
*hiloso*hy has (een telling us fo" the *ast t&o centu"ies is i-*ossi(ility
itself2 to get out of ou"sel/es% to g"as* the in0itself% to .no& &hat is
&hethe" &e a"e o" not#

Cha*te" 2 Meta*hysics% Fi)eis-% >*eculation
To thin. ancest"ality is to thin. a &o"l) &ithout thought 0 a &o"l) &ithout
the gi/enness of the &o"l)# It is the"efo"e incu-(ent u*on us to ("ea.
&ith the ontological "e1uisite of the -o)e"ns% acco")ing to &hich to (e is
to (e a co""elate# ,u" tas.% (y &ay of cont"ast% consists in t"ying to
un)e"stan) ho& thought is a(le to access the unco""elate)% &hich is to say%
a &o"l) ca*a(le of su(sisting &ithout (eing gi/en# $ut to say this is :ust
to say that &e -ust g"as* ho& thought is a(le to access an a(solute% i#e# a
(eing &hose se/e"ance (the o"iginal -eaning of a(solutus! an) &hose
se*a"ateness f"o- thought is such that it *"esents itself to us as non0
"elati/e to us% an) hence as ca*a(le of existing &hethe" &e exist o" not#
$ut this entails a "athe" "e-a".a(le conse1uence2 to thin. ancest"ality
"e1ui"es that &e ta.e u* once -o"e the thought of the a(solute6 yet
th"ough ancest"ality% it is the )iscou"se of e-*i"ical science as such that
&e a"e atte-*ting to un)e"stan) an) to legiti-ate# Conse1uently% it
(eco-es necessa"y to insist that% fa" f"o- encou"aging us to "enounce the
.in) of *hiloso*hy that clai-s to (e a(le to )isco/e" a(solute t"uth solely
th"ough its o&n "esou"ces% an) fa" f"o- co--an)ing us 0 as the /a"ious
fo"-s of *ositi/is- &oul) &ish 0 to "enounce the 1uest fo" the a(solute% it
is science itself that en:oins us to )isco/e" the sou"ce of its o&n
a(soluteness# Fo" if I cannot thin. anything that is a(solute% I cannot -a.e
sense of ancest"ality% an) conse1uently I cannot -a.e sense of the science
that allo&s -e to .no& ancest"ality#
Acco")ingly% &e -ust ta.e u* once -o"e the in:unction to .no& the
a(solute% an) ("ea. &ith the t"anscen)ental t"a)ition that "ules out its
*ossi(ility# Is this to say that &e -ust once again (eco-e *"e0c"itical
*hiloso*he"s% o" that &e -ust go (ac. to )og-atis-5 The &hole *"o(le-
is that such a "etu"n st"i.es us as st"ictly i-*ossi(le 0 &e cannot go (ac.
to (eing -eta*hysicians% :ust as &e cannot go (ac. to (eing )og-atists#
,n this *oint% &e cannot (ut (e hei"s of 7antianis-# 9et it see-e) that
&e &e"e )efen)ing a Ca"tesian (an) hence )og-atic! thesis 0 /i;#% the
)istinction (et&een *"i-a"y an) secon)a"y 1ualities 0 against its c"itical
)is1ualification# 8o&e/e"% this )efence 0 an) he"e lies the "u( 0 can no
longe" (e sustaine) (y Ca"tesian a"gu-entation# The latte"% it see-s% has
(eco-e i""e/oca(ly o(solete# >o &e -ust (egin (y t"ying to un)e"stan)
the un)e"lying "eason fo" this o(solescence 0 fo" as &e shall see% it is (y
g"as*ing the "eason fo" this ina)e1uacy of Ca"tesianis- that &e &ill (e
a(le% th"ough the sa-e -o/e-ent% to concei/e of the *ossi(ility of
anothe" "elation to the a(solute#
CCC
8o& )oes Desca"tes :ustify the thesis of the a(solute existence of
exten)e) su(stance 0 an) hence of the non0co""elational "each of the
-athe-atical )iscou"se a(out (o)ies5 8is "easoning can (e ("iefly
"eca*itulate) as follo&s2
=# I can *"o/e the existence of a *e"fect% all0*o&e"ful Ao)#
3e .no& that one of the th"ee *"oofs fo" the existence of Ao) *ut fo"&a")
(y Desca"tes in his Me)itations is one that% since 7ant% has co-e to (e
.no&n as +the ontological *"oof (o" a"gu-ent!# It *"ocee)s (y infe""ing
Ao)+s existence f"o- his )efinition as an infinitely *e"fect (eing 0 since
8e is *osite) as *e"fect% an) since existence is a *e"fection% Ao) cannot
(ut exist# >ince he concei/es of Ao) as existing necessa"ily% &hethe" I
exist to thin. of 8i- o" not% Desca"tes assu"es -e of a *ossi(le access to
an a(solute "eality 0 a A"eat ,ut)oo"s that is not a co""elate of -y
thought#
2# >ince this Ao) is *e"fect% 8e cannot )ecei/e -e &hen I -a.e *"o*e"
use of -y un)e"stan)ing6 that is to say% &hen I "eason th"ough clea" an)
)istinct i)eas#
E# It see-s to -e that the"e exist outsi)e -e (o)ies of &hich I *ossess a
)istinct i)ea &hen I att"i(ute to the- nothing (ut th"ee0)i-ensional
extension# Conse1uently% the latte" -ust effecti/ely exist outsi)e -e% fo"
othe"&ise Ao) &oul) (e )eceitful% &hich is cont"a"y to 8is natu"e#
If &e consi)e" the natu"e of the *"oce)u"e follo&e) (y Desca"tes%
in)e*en)ently of its content% &e see that the a"gu-ent *"ocee)s as
follo&s#
=# It esta(lishes the existence of an a(solute 0 a *e"fect Ao) (o" &hat &e
&ill call a +*"i-a"y a(solute+!# 2# It )e"i/es f"o- this *"i-a"y a(solute the
a(solute "each of -athe-atics (o" &hat &e &ill call a +)e"i/ati/e
a(solute+! (y e-*hasi;ing that a *e"fect Ao) &oul) not )ecei/e us# $y
+a(solute "each+ &e -ean that any as*ect of a (o)y that can (e thought
-athe-atically (&hethe" th"ough a"ith-etic o" geo-et"y! can exist
a(solutely outsi)e -e# 8o&e/e"% if &e consi)e" the fo"- &hich ou"
a"gu-ent shoul) ta.e% &e cannot see any othe" &ay of a(soluti;ing
-athe-atical )iscou"se othe" than (y accessing an a(solute &hich% e/en if
it is not itself i--e)iately -athe-atical (e#g# the *e"fect Ao)!% -ust
*"o/e su(se1uently ca*a(le of allo&ing us to )e"i/e the a(soluteness of
-athe-atics (e#g# the t"uthful Ao) &ho ensu"es the existence of exten)e)
(o)ies!# 3e shall the"efo"e ha/e to st"i/e to *"o/i)e an a"gu-ent
confo"-ing to the sa-e st"uctu"e# $ut in o")e" to ("ing out the content of
ou" o&n a"gu-ent% &e -ust (egin (y ex*laining in &hat "ega") the
content of the Ca"tesian a"gu-ent is inca*a(le of &ithstan)ing the
co""elationist c"iti1ue#
8o& &oul) a co""elationist "efute the *"ece)ing a"gu-ent5 The"e a"e in
fact (at least! t&o &ays of "efuting it% )e*en)ing on the -o)el of
co""elationis- &hich one a)o*ts# 3e can effecti/ely )istinguish (et&een
t&o ty*es of co""elationis-2 a +&ea.+ -o)el% &hich is that of 7ant% an) a
+st"ong+ -o)el% &hich see-s to (e )o-inant to)ay% e/en if it is ne/e"
ex*licitly the-ati;e) as such# 3e shall (egin (y ex*oun)ing the
"efutation of the ontological a"gu-ent acco")ing to the &ea. -o)el 0i#e#
7ant+s "efutation 0 then go on to sho& &hy this -o)el itself "e-ains
/ulne"a(le to c"iticis- f"o- the *e"s*ecti/e of an e/en st"icte" fo"- of
co""elationis-# 3e shall then see &hy the +st"ong+ -o)el *"o*oses the
-ost "a)ical "efutation of any atte-*t to thin. an a(solute#
It &oul) see-% in light of &hat &e ha/e sai) so fa"% that it is easy to
c"itici;e Desca"tes# All one has to )o is a**ly the a"gu-ent of the
+co""elationist ci"cle+ to Desca"tes+ ontological *"oof# ,ne &oul) then say
the +follo&ing2 +Desca"tes+ *"oof is fallacious at its /e"y "oot% *"ecisely
insofa" as it is inten)e) to access an a(solute existence# Fo" its infe"ence%
acco")ing to &hich if Ao) is *e"fect% then he -ust exist% clai-s to (e a
necessa"y one# $ut e/en if &e &e"e to g"ant that this necessity is not
-e"ely so*histical% it still &oul) not ha/e *"o/en the existence of an
a(solute% (ecause the necessity it affi"-s is -e"ely a necessity fo" us# $ut
&e ha/e no g"oun)s fo" -aintaining that this necessity% &hich is fo" us% is
also a necessity in itself 0 &e can "eite"ate the a"gu-ent f"o- hy*e"(olic
)ou(t an) -aintain that &e cannot .no& fo" su"e that ou" -in)s a"e not
o"iginally )elu)e)% lea)ing us to (elie/e in the t"uth of an a"gu-ent &hich
is actually inconse1uential# ," to *ut it -o"e st"aightfo"&a")ly2 (ecause
a(solute necessity is al&ays a(solute necessity fo" us% necessity is ne/e"
a(solute% (ut only e/e" fo" us#+
Thus% the co""elationist ci"cle *"ocee)s (y un-as.ing the /icious
ci"cula"ity inhe"ent in e/e"y atte-*t at a(soluti;ation% &ithout "ega") fo"
the su(stance of the a"gu-ents *ut fo"&a")# The"e is no nee) to exa-ine
Desca"tes+ *"oof% since the nu( of the "efutation *e"tains to the *"etension
to (e a(le to thin. the a(solute% "athe" than to any of the )etails )e*loye)
to that en)#
9et as &e .no&% this is not ho& 7ant hi-self "efutes the ontological
*"oof in the T"anscen)ental Dialectic of the C"iti1ue of 'u"e Reason# Fo"
7ant in fact *"o*oses a )etaile) "efutation of Desca"tes+ o&n a"gu-ent%
ex*osing its so*histical cha"acte"# 3hy then is 7ant not content &ith
using an a"gu-ent li.e the one a(o/e5
The nu( of the Ca"tesian a"gu-ent lies in the i)ea that the notion of a
non0existent Ao) is inhe"ently cont"a)icto"y# Fo" Desca"tes% to thin. Ao)
as non0existent is to thin. a *"e)icate that cont"a)icts its su(:ect% li.e a
t"iangle that )oes not ha/e th"ee angles# Existence (elongs to the /e"y
)efinition of Ao)% :ust as the t"ia) of angles (elongs to the /e"y )efinition
of t"iangle# $ut in o")e" to )is1ualify this a"gu-ent% it is i-*e"ati/e fo"
7ant to )e-onst"ate that the"e is in fact no cont"a)iction in/ol/e) in
-aintaining that Ao) )oes not exist# Fo" if the"e &as% it &oul) (e
necessa"y to conce)e that Desca"tes has effecti/ely attaine) an a(solute#
3hy5 $ecause although the autho" of the C"iti1ue of 'u"e Reason
-aintains that the thing0in0itself is un.no&a(le% he also -aintains that it
is thin.a(le# Fo" 7ant effecti/ely allo&s us the *ossi(ility of .no&ing a
*"io"i that logical cont"a)iction is a(solutely i-*ossi(le# Although &e
cannot a**ly catego"ial cognition to the thing0in0itself% the latte" "e-ains
su(:ect to the logical con)ition that is the *"e"e1uisite fo" all thought#
Conse1uently% fo" 7ant% the follo&ing t&o *"o*ositions ha/e an a(solute
ontological sco*e2
=# The thing0in0itself is non0cont"a)icto"y#
2# The thing0in0itself exists% othe"&ise the"e &oul) (e a**ea"ances
&ithout anything that a**ea"s% &hich fo" 7ant is cont"a)icto"y#
This is &hy it is i-*e"ati/e fo" 7ant that Desca"tes+ thesis (e "efute) 0 fo"
if it &as cont"a)icto"y fo" Ao) not to exist% then (y 7ant+s o&n *"e-ises%
it &oul) also (e a(solutely necessa"y (an) not :ust necessa"y fo" us! that
Ao) exist# Conse1uently% it &oul) (eco-e *ossi(le to o(tain *ositi/e
.no&le)ge of the thing0in0itself th"ough the use of a logical *"inci*le
alone# 3hat *"inci*le un)e"lies 7ant+s c"iti1ue of Desca"tes5 As &e .no&%
this c"iti1ue *"ocee)s (y )enying that cont"a)iction can o(tain any&he"e
exce*t (et&een an al"ea)y existing entity an) one of its *"e)icates# If &e
assu-e that a t"iangle exists% &e cannot% on *ain of cont"a)iction% att"i(ute
to it -o"e o" less than th"ee angles# $ut if &e "e:ect this t"iangle% &hich is
to say% +if &e "e:ect su(:ect an) *"e)icate ali.e% the"e is no cont"a)iction%
fo" nothing is then left that can (e cont"a)icte)#+ Thus% the su(:ect of a
*"o*osition can ne/e" i-*ose its existence u*on thought solely (y /i"tue
of its conce*t% fo" (eing is ne/e" *a"t of the conce*t of the su(:ect% it is
ne/e" its *"e)icate 0 it is a))e) to this conce*t as a *u"e *ositing#
Although one -ay -aintain that a *e"fect (eing shoul) *ossess existence%
one cannot -aintain that ou" concei/ing of it as *e"fect entails its
existence# The"e is no such +*"o)igious *"e)icate+% &e -ight say% ca*a(le
of confe""ing a *"io"i existence u*on its "eci*ient# In othe" &o")s% 7ant 0
follo&ing 8u-e 0 )is1ualifies the ontological *"oof on the g"oun)s that
the"e is no cont"a)iction in/ol/e) in concei/ing of a )ete"-inate entity as
existing o" not existing# No )ete"-ination of an entity can tell us a *"io"i
&hethe" this entity exists o" not 0 if &e -ean anything at all (y the
*"e)icate +infinitely *e"fect+% &e cannot infe" f"o- it the existence of its
su(:ect6 an) if &e )o infe" its existence% this is (ecause &e a"e no longe"
saying anything -eaningful in using this *"e)icate#
As &e .no&% this 7antian "efutation of the ontological a"gu-ent has
i-*lications exten)ing &ell (eyon) its s*ecific c"iti1ue of the Ca"tesian
*"oof% fo" it is not :ust a -atte" of "e:ecting the *"oof of Ao)+s existence%
(ut of "efuting e/e"y *"oof that &oul) *"esu-e to )e-onst"ate the
a(solute necessity of a )ete"-inate entity# 3e &ill call +"eal necessity+ this
ontological "egiste" of necessity &hich states that such an) such an entity
(o" )ete"-inate "es! necessa"ily exists# An) it &oul) see- that this ty*e of
necessity can (e foun) in all the /a"iants of )og-atic -eta*hysics# Fo" to
(e )og-atic is in/a"ia(ly to -aintain that this o" that 0 i#e# so-e
)ete"-inate entity 0 -ust a(solutely (e% an) (e the &ay it is% &hethe" it is
I)ea% *u"e Act% ato-% in)i/isi(le soul% ha"-onious &o"l)% *e"fect Ao)%
infinite su(stance% 3o"l)0>oul% glo(al histo"y% etc# $ut if &e cha"acte"i;e
a -eta*hysics -ini-ally in te"-s of this .in) of clai-% /i;#% that such an)
such an entity -ust a(solutely (e% &e then (egin to un)e"stan) ho&
-eta*hysics cul-inates in the ontological a"gu-ent% /i;#% in the clai- that
this o" that entity -ust a(solutely (e (ecause it is the &ay it is# The
ontological a"gu-ent *osits a necessa"y (eing +*a" excellence+ insofa" as
the essence of this (eing *"o/i)es the "eason fo" its existence 0 it is
(ecause Ao)+s essence is to (e *e"fect that 8e -ust necessa"ily exist#
$ut &e also (egin to un)e"stan) ho& this *"oof is int"insically tie) to the
cul-ination of a *"inci*le fi"st fo"-ulate) (y <ei(ni;% although al"ea)y at
&o". in Desca"tes% /i;#% the *"inci*le of sufficient "eason% acco")ing to
&hich fo" e/e"y thing% e/e"y fact% an) e/e"y occu""ence% the"e -ust (e a
"eason &hy it is thus an) so "athe" than othe"&ise# Fo" not only )oes such
a *"inci*le "e1ui"e that the"e (e a *ossi(le ex*lanation fo" e/e"y &o"l)ly
fact6 it also "e1ui"es that thought account fo" the uncon)itione) totality of
(eings% as &ell as fo" thei" (eing thus an) so# Conse1uently% although
thought -ay &ell (e a(le to account fo" the facts of the &o"l) (y in/o.ing
this o" that glo(al la& 0 ne/e"theless% it -ust also% acco")ing to the
*"inci*le of "eason% account fo" &hy these la&s a"e thus an) not
othe"&ise% an) the"efo"e account fo" &hy the &o"l) is thus an) not
othe"&ise# An) e/en &e"e such a +"eason fo" the &o"l)+ to (e fu"nishe)% it
&oul) yet (e necessa"y to account fo" this "eason% an) so on a) infinitu-#
If thought is to a/oi) an infinite "eg"ess &hile su(-itting to the *"inci*le
of "eason% it is incu-(ent u*on it to unco/e" a "eason that &oul) *"o/e
ca*a(le of accounting fo" e/e"ything% inclu)ing itself 0 a "eason not
con)itione) (y any othe" "eason% an) &hich only the ontological a"gu-ent
is ca*a(le of unco/e"ing% since the latte" secu"es the existence of an N
th"ough the )ete"-ination of this N alone% "athe" than th"ough the
)ete"-ination of so-e entity othe" than N 0 N -ust (e (ecause it is
*e"fect% an) hence causa sui% o" sole cause of itself#
If e/e"y /a"iant of )og-atic -eta*hysics is cha"acte"i;e) (y the thesis
that at least one entity is a(solutely necessa"y (the thesis of "eal
necessity!% it (eco-es clea" ho& -eta*hysics cul-inates in the thesis
acco")ing to &hich e/e"y entity is a(solutely necessa"y (the *"inci*le of
sufficient "eason!# Con/e"sely% to "e:ect )og-atic -eta*hysics -eans to
"e:ect all "eal necessity% an) a fo"tio"i to "e:ect the *"inci*le of sufficient
"eason% as &ell as the ontological a"gu-ent% &hich is the .eystone that
allo&s the syste- of "eal necessity to close in u*on itself# >uch a "efusal
en:oins us to -aintain that the"e is no legiti-ate )e-onst"ation that a
)ete"-inate entity shoul) exist uncon)itionally# 3e -ight also a)) in
*assing that such a "efusal of )og-atis- fu"nishes the -ini-al con)ition
fo" e/e"y c"iti1ue of i)eology% insofa" as an i)eology cannot (e i)entifie)
&ith :ust any /a"iety of )ece*ti/e "e*"esentation% (ut is "athe" any fo"- of
*seu)o0"ationality &hose ai- is to esta(lish that &hat exists as a -atte" of
fact exists necessa"ily# The c"iti1ue of i)eologies% &hich ulti-ately al&ays
consists in )e-onst"ating that a social situation &hich is *"esente) as
ine/ita(le is actually contingent% is essentially in)issocia(le f"o- the
c"iti1ue of -eta*hysics% the latte" (eing un)e"stoo) as the illuso"y
-anufactu"ing of necessa"y entities# In this "ega")% &e ha/e no )esi"e to
call into 1uestion the conte-*o"a"y )esuetu)e of -eta*hysics# Fo" the
.in) of )og-atis- &hich clai-s that this Ao)% this &o"l)% this histo"y%
an) ulti-ately this actually existing *olitical "egi-e necessa"ily exists%
an) -ust (e the &ay it is 0 this .in) of a(solutis- )oes in)ee) see- to
*e"tain to an e"a of thin.ing to &hich it is neithe" *ossi(le no" )esi"a(le to
"etu"n#
Acco")ingly% the con)itions fo" the "esolution of the *"o(le- of ances0
t"ality (eco-e -o"e *e"s*icuous e/en as they na""o& consi)e"a(ly# In
o")e" to *"ese"/e the -eaning of ancest"al state-ents &ithout "eg"essing
to )og-atis-% &e -ust unco/e" an a(solute necessity that )oes not
"einstate any fo"- of a(solutely necessa"y entity# In othe" &o")s% &e -ust
thin. an a(solute necessity &ithout thin.ing anything that is a(solutely
necessa"y# <et us set asi)e fo" the -o-ent this asse"tion+s a**a"ently
*a"a)oxical cha"acte"# The only thing &e ha/e to ac.no&le)ge fo" the
ti-e (eing is that &e ha/e little choice2 if one )oes not acce*t the
uncon)itional /ali)ity of the *"inci*le of sufficient "eason% no" that of the
ontological a"gu-ent6 an) if one )oes not acce*t the co""elationist
inte"*"etations of ancest"al state-ents eithe"6 then it is *"ecisely in the
asse"tion a(o/e 0 of an a(solute &ithout an a(solute entity 0 that &e &ill
ha/e to loo. fo" the .ey to the solution#
3e can *ut it anothe" &ay# <et us call +s*eculati/e+ e/e"y ty*e of thin.ing
that clai-s to (e a(le to access so-e fo"- of a(solute% an) let us call
+-eta*hysics+ e/e"y ty*e of thin.ing that clai-s to (e a(le to access so-e
fo"- of a(solute (eing% o" access the a(solute th"ough the *"inci*le of
sufficient "eason# If all -eta*hysics is +s*eculati/e+ (y )efinition% ou"
*"o(le- consists in )e-onst"ating% con/e"sely% that not all s*eculation is
-eta*hysical% an) not e/e"y a(solute is )og-atic 0 it is *ossi(le to
en/isage an a(soluti;ing thought that &oul) not (e a(solutist# The
1uestion of ances0t"ality the"e(y fin)s itself fun)a-entally tie) to the
c"iti1ue of &hat coul) (e calle) the +)e0a(soluti;ing i-*lication+% &hich
states that +if -eta*hysics is o(solete% so is the a(solute+# ,nly (y "efuting
such an infe"ence% &hich clai-s that the en) of )og-atic -eta*hysics
entails the en) of e/e"y a(solute% can &e ho*e to un"a/el the *a"a)ox of
the a"che0fossil#
CCC
$ut fi"st &e -ust ex*oun) that /a"iety of co""elationis- &hich is the -ost
"igo"ous% as &ell as the -ost conte-*o"a"y# Fo" it is only (y conf"onting
the -ost "a)ical fo"- of the co""elation that &e &ill (e a(le to .no&
&hethe" in fact )e0a(soluti;ation is the unsu"*assa(le ho"i;on fo" all
*hiloso*hy#
3e clai-e) a(o/e that 7antian t"anscen)entalis- coul) (e i)entifie)
&ith a +&ea.+ co""elationis-# 3hy5 The "eason is that the C"itical
*hiloso*hy )oes not *"ohi(it all "elation (et&een thought an) the
a(solute# It *"osc"i(es any .no&le)ge of the thing0in0itself (any
a**lication of the catego"ies to the su*e"sensi(le!% (ut -aintains the
thin.a(ility of the in0itself# Acco")ing to 7ant% &e .no& a *"io"i that the
thing0in0itself is non0cont"a)icto"y an) that it actually exists# $y &ay of
cont"ast% the st"ong -o)el of co""elationis- -aintains not only that it is
illegiti-ate to clai- that &e can .no& the in0itself% (ut also that it is
illegiti-ate to clai- that &e can at least thin. it# The a"gu-ent fo" this )e0
legiti-ation is /e"y si-*le an) fa-ilia" to e/e"yone2 it *"ocee)s% again
an) al&ays% (y &ay of the co""elationist ci"cle# Fo" (y &hat -i"aculous
o*e"ation is 7antian thought a(le to get out of itself in o")e" to /e"ify that
&hat is unthin.a(le fo" us is i-*ossi(le in itself5 E/en if &e g"ant that
cont"a)iction is i-*ossi(le% ho& can 7ant .no& that the"e is no Ao) all
*o&e"ful enough to "en)e" a cont"a)iction t"ue% as Desca"tes% fo" exa-*le%
insiste)5 7ant (elie/es that &e a"e not -a.ing a cogniti/e clai- a(out
the thing0in0itself &hen &e su(-it it to the (su**ose)ly e-*ty! *"inci*le
of non0cont"a)iction% as he )oes# $ut on the cont"a"y% it see-s
*"esu-*tuous to (elie/e that one is ca*a(le of *enet"ating so )ee*ly into
the in0itself that one is a(le to .no& that Ao)+s o-ni*otence coul) not
exten) as fa" as logical inconsistency# This is not to say that st"ong
co""elationis- asse"ts the existence of such an all0*o&e"ful Ao)% (ut that
it is content to )is1ualify any atte-*t to "efute the *ossi(ility of the latte"#
Con/e"sely% the"e is a +nihilist counte"*a"t+ to the hy*othesis of an all0
*o&e"ful Ao)% &hich coul) also (e -aintaine)# It &oul) consist in
u*hol)ing a thesis that "e:ects the secon) of 7ant+s a(solute *"o*ositions%
/i;#% that the"e is a thing0in0itself (eyon) ou" "e*"esentations# Fo" ho&
&oul) one "efute a *"io"i the clai- that the"e is nothing (eyon)
*heno-ena% an) that ou" &o"l) is (oun)e) (y a nothingness into &hich
e/e"y thing coul) ulti-ately sin.5 ,ne coul) -aintain that *heno-ena
ha/e no (asis in things0in0the-sel/es% an) that all that exists a"e
+*heno-enal "eal-s+% &hich is to say% t"anscen)ental su(:ects% coo")inate)
(et&een the-sel/es (ut unfol)ing an) +floating+ in the -i)st of an
a(solute nothingness into &hich e/e"ything coul) )issol/e once -o"e
&e"e the hu-an s*ecies to )isa**ea"# 'e"ha*s &e -ight (e te-*te) to
)is-iss such a hy*othesis as a(su")% an) "eto"t that the use of the te"-
+nothingness+ in such a context is -eaningless# 9et it is *"ecisely such a
hy*othesis that is legiti-ate fo" st"ong co""elationis- 0 fo" the"e is no &ay
fo" thought to "e:ect the *ossi(ility that &hat is -eaningless fo" us -ight
(e /e"i)ical in itself# 3hy shoul) &hat is -eaningless (e i-*ossi(le5 As
fa" as &e .no&% no one has e/e" co-e (ac. f"o- a /oyage into the in0
itself &ith a gua"antee that -eaning is a(solute# Mo"eo/e"% state-ents
such as +cont"a)iction is *ossi(le+ o" +nothingness is *ossi(le+ a"e not as
-eaningless as they -ight see-% since they can (e )istinguishe) 0 thus the
a**a"ently cont"a)icto"y (elief in a "e)e-*ti/e T"inity is not the sa-e as
the (elief in the th"eat of nothingness% gi/en the )i/e"gent attitu)es to life
&hich a"e li.ely to follo& f"o- each of these t&o theses# The unthin.a(le
can (e )ecline) (in the g"a--atical sense!% as can (eliefs an) -yste"ies#
It is this st"ong -o)el of )e0a(soluti;ation that &e a"e going to ha/e to
conf"ont% since this is the -o)el that *"ohi(its -ost )ecisi/ely the
*ossi(ility of thin.ing &hat the"e is &hen the"e is no thought# It is (ase)
u*on t&o )ecisions of thought% the fi"st of &hich &e ha/e al"ea)y
consi)e"e)% &hile the secon) &e ha/e yet to exa-ine#
The fi"st )ecision is that of all co""elationis- 0 it is the thesis of the
essential inse*a"a(ility of the act of thin.ing f"o- its content# All &e e/e"
engage &ith is &hat is gi/en0to0thought% ne/e" an entity su(sisting (y
itself#
This )ecision alone suffices to )is1ualify e/e"y a(solute of the "ealist o"
-ate"ialist /a"iety# E/e"y -ate"ialis- that &oul) (e s*eculati/e% an)
hence fo" &hich a(solute "eality is an entity &ithout thought% -ust asse"t
(oth that thought is not necessa"y (so-ething can (e in)e*en)ently of
thought!% an) that thought can thin. &hat the"e -ust (e &hen the"e is no
thought# The -ate"ialis- that chooses to follo& the s*eculati/e *ath is
the"e(y const"aine) to (elie/e that it is *ossi(le to thin. a gi/en "eality (y
a(st"acting f"o- the fact that &e a"e thin.ing it# >uch is the case &ith
E*icu"eanis-% the *a"a)ig- of all -ate"ialis-% &hich clai-s that thought
can access the a(solute natu"e of all things th"ough the notions of ato-s
an) /oi)% an) &hich asse"ts that this natu"e is not necessa"ily co""elate)
&ith an act of thought% since thought exists only in an aleato"y -anne"%
(eing i--anent to contingent ato-ic co-*oun)s (fo" the go)s
the-sel/es a"e )eco-*osa(le!% &hich a"e in0essential fo" the existence of
ele-enta"y natu"es# $y &ay of cont"ast% the co""elationist *e"s*ecti/e
insists that it is i-*ossi(le to a(st"act f"o- the "eal the fact that it is
al&ays0al"ea)y gi/en to an entity% an) that since it is not *ossi(le to thin.
anything that &oul) not al&ays0al"ea)y (e gi/en0to% &e cannot thin. a
&o"l) &ithout an entity ca*a(le of "ecei/ing this gi/enness6 that is to say%
&ithout an entity ca*a(le of +thin.ing+ this &o"l) in the -ost gene"al
sense% i#e# intuiting it an) )iscou"sing a(out it# 3e &ill "efe" to this fi"st
)ecision of st"ong co""elationis- as that of +the *"i-acy of the unse*a0
"ate)+ o" +the *"i-acy of the co""elate+#
The secon) )ecision of st"ong co""elationis- &ill occu*y us a little
longe"# Fo" st"ong co""elationis- -ust &a") off a secon) .in) of a(solute6
one that is -o"e "e)ou(ta(le than the *"ece)ing /a"iety (ecause it see-s
to (e -o"e consistent# This secon) -eta*hysical st"ategy% &hich &e
e/o.e) /e"y ("iefly in Cha*te" =% consists in a(soluti;ing the co""elation
itself# Its (asic line of a"gu-ent -ay (e su--a"i;e) as follo&s2 it &as
clai-e) that the 7antian notion of the thing0in0itself &as not only
un.no&a(le% (ut also unthin.a(le# $ut if so% then it see-s that the &isest
cou"se is si-*ly to a(olish any such notion of the in0itself# Acco")ingly% it
&ill (e -aintaine) that the notion of the in0itself is )e/oi) of t"uth
(ecause it is unthin.a(le% an) that it shoul) (e a(olishe) so that only the
"elation (et&een su(:ect an) o(:ect "e-ains% o" so-e othe" co""elation
)ee-e) to (e -o"e fun)a-ental# A -eta*hysics of this ty*e -ay select
f"o- a-ong /a"ious fo"-s of su(:ecti/ity% (ut it is in/a"ia(ly
cha"acte"i;e) (y the fact that it hy*ostati;es so-e -ental% sentient% o"
/ital te"-2 "e*"esentation in the <ei(ni;ian -ona)6 >chelling+s Natu"e% o"
the o(:ecti/e su(:ect0o(:ect6 8egelian Min)6 >cho*enhaue"+s 3ill6 the
3ill (o" 3ills! to 'o&e" in Niet;sche6 *e"ce*tion loa)e) &ith -e-o"y in
$e"gson6 Deleu;e+s <ife% etc# E/en in those cases &he"e the /italist
hy*ostati;ation of the co""elation (as in Niet;sche o" Deleu;e! is ex*licitly
i)entifie) &ith a c"iti1ue of +the su(:ect+ o" of +-eta*hysics+% it sha"es &ith
s*eculati/e i)ealis- the sa-e t&ofol) )ecision &hich ensu"es its
i""e)uci(ility to nai/e "ealis- o" so-e /a"iant of t"anscen)ental i)ealis-2
=# Nothing can (e unless it is so-e fo"- of "elation0to0the0&o"l)
(conse1uently% the E*icu"ean ato-% &hich has neithe" intelligence% no"
&ill% no" life% is i-*ossi(le!#
2# The *"e/ious *"o*osition -ust (e un)e"stoo) in an a(solute sense%
"athe" than as -e"ely "elati/e to ou" .no&le)ge#
The *"i-acy of the unse*a"ate) has (eco-e so *o&e"ful that in the
-o)e"n e"a% e/en s*eculati/e -ate"ialis- see-s to ha/e (een )o-inate)
(y these anti0"ationalist )oct"ines of life an) &ill% to the )et"i-ent of a
+-ate"ialis- of -atte"+ &hich ta.es se"iously the *ossi(ility that the"e is
nothing li/ing o" &illing in the ino"ganic "eal-# Thus% the "i/al"y (et&een
the -eta*hysics of <ife an) the -eta*hysics of Min) -as.s an un)e"lying
ag"ee-ent &hich (oth ha/e inhe"ite) f"o- t"anscen)entalis- 0 anything
that is totally a0su(:ecti/e cannot (e#
<et us continue ou" analysis of this -o)el# If st"ong co""elationis- can
easily "e(uff the "ealist &ho figu"es as its +exte"nal+ a)/e"sa"y% it is
altogethe" -o"e )ifficult fo" it to )efeat the +su(:ecti/ist+ -eta*hysician
&ho is its +inte"nal+ a)/e"sa"y# Fo" ho& is one to legiti-ate the asse"tion
that so-ething su(sists (eyon) ou" "e*"esentations &hen one has al"ea)y
insiste) that this (eyon) is "a)ically inaccessi(le to thought5 It is at this
stage that st"ong co""elationis-+s secon) )ecision inte"/enes 0 a )ecision
that no longe" *e"tains to the co""elation% (ut "athe" to the facticity of the
co""elation# <et us go (ac. to 7ant# 3hat is it that )istinguishes the
7antian *"o:ect 0 that of t"anscen)ental i)ealis- 0 f"o- the 8egelian
*"o:ect 0 that of s*eculati/e i)ealis-5 The -ost )ecisi/e )iffe"ence see-s
to (e the follo&ing2 7ant -aintains that &e can only )esc"i(e the a *"io"i
fo"-s of .no&le)ge (s*ace an) ti-e as fo"-s of intuition an) the t&el/e
catego"ies of the un)e"stan)ing!% &he"eas 8egel insists that it is *ossi(le
to )e)uce the-# Unli.e 8egel then% 7ant -aintains that it is i-*ossi(le to
)e"i/e the fo"-s of thought f"o- a *"inci*le o" syste- ca*a(le of
en)o&ing the- &ith a(solute necessity# These fo"-s constitute a +*"i-a"y
fact+ &hich is only susce*ti(le to )esc"i*tion% an) not to )e)uction (in the
genetic sense!# An) if the "eal- of the in0itself can (e )istinguishe) f"o-
the *heno-enon% this is *"ecisely (ecause of the facticity of these fo"-s%
the fact that they can only (e )esc"i(e)% fo" if they &e"e )e)uci(le% as is
the case &ith 8egel% thei"s &oul) (e an uncon)itional necessity that
a(olishes the *ossi(ility of the"e (eing an in0itself that coul) )iffe" f"o-
the-#
Thus a(solute i)ealis- an) st"ong co""elationis- sha"e an i)entical
sta"ting *oint 0 that of the unthin.a(ility of the in0itself 0 (ut then go on to
)"a& t&o o**osite conclusions f"o- it 0 that the a(solute is thin.a(le% o"
that it is unthin.a(le% "es*ecti/ely# It is the i""e-e)ia(le facticity of the
co""elational fo"-s &hich allo&s us to )istinguish (oth clai-s in fa/ou"
of the latte"# Fo" once one has "efuse) any *ossi(ility of )e-onst"ating the
a(solute necessity of these fo"-s% it is i-*ossi(le to *"osc"i(e the
*ossi(ility that the"e coul) (e an in0itself that )iffe"s fun)a-entally f"o-
&hat is gi/en to us# <i.e 7antianis-% st"ong co""elationis- insists u*on
the facticity of these fo"-s% (ut )iffe"s f"o- the fo"-e" (y exten)ing this
facticity to logical fo"- as &ell 0 &hich is to say% to the *"inci*le of non0
cont"a)iction% fo" :ust as &e can only )esc"i(e the a *"io"i fo"-s of
sensi(ility an) the un)e"stan)ing% si-ila"ly% &e can only )esc"i(e the
logical *"inci*les inhe"ent in e/e"y thin.a(le *"o*osition% (ut &e cannot
)e)uce thei" a(solute t"uth# Conse1uently% the"e is no sense in clai-ing to
.no& that cont"a)iction is a(solutely i-*ossi(le% fo" the only thing that is
gi/en to us is the fact that &e cannot thin. anything that is self0
cont"a)icto"y#
<et us t"y to attain a (ette" g"as* of the natu"e of this facticity% since its
"ole in the *"ocess of )e0a(soluti;ation see-s to (e :ust as fun)a-ental as
that of the co""elation# Fi"st of all% f"o- the *e"s*ecti/e of the st"ong
-o)el% it is essential to )istinguish this facticity f"o- the -e"e
*e"isha(ility of &o"l)ly entities# In fact% the facticity of fo"-s has nothing
to )o &ith the )est"ucta(ility of a -ate"ial o(:ect% o" &ith /ital
)egene"ation# 3hen I -aintain that this o" that entity o" e/ent is
contingent% I .no& so-ething *ositi/e a(out the- 0= .no& that this house
can (e )est"oye)% I .no& that it &oul) ha/e (een *hysically *ossi(le fo"
this *e"son to act )iffe"ently% etc# Contingency ex*"esses the fact that
*hysical la&s "e-ain in)iffe"ent as to &hethe" an e/ent occu"s o" not 0
they allo& an entity to e-e"ge% to su(sist% o" to *e"ish# $ut facticity% (y
&ay of cont"ast% *e"tains to those st"uctu"al in/a"iants that su**ose)ly
go/e"n the &o"l) 0 in/a"iants &hich -ay )iffe" f"o- one /a"iant of
co""elationis- to anothe"% (ut &hose function in e/e"y case is to *"o/i)e
the -ini-al o"gani;ation of "e*"esentation2 *"inci*le of causality% fo"-s
of *e"ce*tion% logical la&s% etc# These st"uctu"es a"e fixe) 0 I ne/e"
ex*e"ience thei" /a"iation% an) in the case of logical la&s% I cannot e/en
"e*"esent to -yself thei" -o)ification (thus fo" exa-*le% I cannot
"e*"esent to -yself a (eing that is cont"a)icto"y o" non self0i)entical!# $ut
although these fo"-s a"e fixe)% they constitute a fact% "athe" than an
a(solute% since I cannot g"oun) thei" necessity 0 thei" facticity "e/eals
itself &ith the "eali;ation that they can only (e )esc"i(e)% not foun)e)#
$ut this is a fact that 0 cont"a"y to those -e"ely e-*i"ical facts &hose
(eing0othe"&ise I can ex*e"ience 0 )oes not *"o/i)e -e &ith any *ositi/e
.no&le)ge# Fo" if contingency consists in .no&ing that &o"l)ly things
coul) (e othe"&ise% facticity :ust consists in not .no&ing &hy the
co""elational st"uctu"e has to (e thus# This is a *oint that shoul) (e (o"ne
in -in) th"oughout &hat follo&s2 in insisting u*on the facticity of
co""elational fo"-s% the co""elationist is not saying that these fo"-s coul)
actually change6 he is -e"ely clai-ing that &e cannot thin. &hy it shoul)
(e i-*ossi(le fo" the- to change% no" &hy a "eality &holly othe" than the
one that is gi/en to us shoul) (e *"osc"i(e) a *"io"i# Conse1uently% &e
-ust )istinguish (et&een2
=# The int"a0&o"l)ly contingency &hich is *"e)icate) of e/e"ything that
can (e o" not (e% occu" o" not occu"% &ithin the &o"l) &ithout
cont"a/ening the in/a"iants of language an) "e*"esentation th"ough &hich
the &o"l) is gi/en to us#
2# The facticity of these in/a"iants as such% &hich is a function of ou"
ina(ility to esta(lish eithe" thei" necessity o" thei" contingency#
3hat I ex*e"ience &ith facticity is not an o(:ecti/e "eality% (ut "athe" the
unsu"*assa(le li-its of o(:ecti/ity conf"onte) &ith the fact that the"e is a
&o"l)6 a &o"l) that is )esc"i(a(le an) *e"ce*ti(le% an) st"uctu"e) (y
)ete"-inate in/a"iants# It is the shee" fact of the &o"l)+s logicality% of its
gi/enness in a "e*"esentation% &hich e/a)es the st"uctu"es of logical an)
"e*"esentational "eason# The in0itself (eco-es o*a1ue to the *oint &he"e
it is no longe" *ossi(le to -aintain that it exists% so that the te"- ten)s to
)isa**ea" to the (enefit of facticity alone#
Facticity the"e(y fo"ces us to g"as* the +*ossi(ility+ of that &hich is &holly
othe" to the &o"l)% (ut &hich "esi)es in the -i)st of the &o"l) as such#
9et it is necessa"y to *lace in/e"te) co--as a"oun) the te"- +*ossi(ility+
insofa" as &hat is o*e"ati/e in facticity is not .no&le)ge of the actual
*ossi(ility of the &holly othe"% (ut "athe" ou" ina(ility to esta(lish its
i-*ossi(ility# It is a *ossi(ility &hich is itself hy*othetical% in)icating that
fo" us e/e"y hy*othesis conce"ning the in0itself "e-ains e1ually /ali) 0
that it is% that it is necessa"y% that it is not% that it is contingent% etc# Thus
this +*ossi(ility+ )oes not a-ount to any so"t of *ositi/e .no&le)ge of this
&holly othe"6 not e/en the *ositi/e .no&le)ge that the"e is% o" coul) (e
so-ething &holly othe" 0it is :ust the -a". of ou" essential finitu)e% as
&ell as of the &o"l) itself (e/en if the latte" has no *hysical li-its!# Fo"
facticity f"inges (oth .no&le)ge an) the &o"l) &ith an a(sence of
foun)ation &hose con/e"se is that nothing can (e sai) to (e a(solutely
i-*ossi(le% not e/en the unthin.a(le# In othe" &o")s% facticity *ushes the
c"iti1ue of the *"inci*le of sufficient "eason to its ulti-ate ext"e-e% (y
*ointing out not only that the ontological a"gu-ent is illegiti-ate% (ut also
that the *"inci*le of non0cont"a)iction itself is &ithout "eason% an) that
conse1uently it can only (e the no"- fo" &hat is thin.a(le (y us% "athe"
than fo" &hat is *ossi(le in an a(solute sense# Facticity is the +un0"eason+
(the a(sence of "eason! of the gi/en as &ell as of its in/a"iants# Thus the
st"ong -o)el of co""elationis- can (e su--e) u* in the follo&ing thesis2
it is unthin.a(le that the unthin.a(le (e i-*ossi(le# I cannot *"o/i)e a
"ational g"oun) fo" the a(solute i-*ossi(ility of a cont"a)icto"y "eality% o"
fo" the nothingness of all things% e/en if the -eaning of these te"-s
"e-ains in)ete"-inate# Acco")ingly% facticity entails a s*ecific an) "athe"
"e-a".a(le conse1uence2 it (eco-es "ationally illegiti-ate to )is1ualify
i""ational )iscou"ses a(out the a(solute on the *"etext of thei" i""ationality#
F"o- the *e"s*ecti/e of the st"ong -o)el% in effect% "eligious (elief has
e/e"y "ight to -aintain that the &o"l) &as c"eate) out of nothingness f"o-
an act of lo/e% o" that Ao)+s o-ni*otence allo&s hi- to )issol/e the
a**a"ent cont"a)iction (et&een his co-*lete i)entity an) 8is )iffe"ence
&ith his >on# These )iscou"ses continue to (e -eaningful 0in a
-ythological o" -ystical "egiste" 0 e/en though they a"e scientifically an)
logically -eaningless# Conse1uently% the -ost gene"al thesis of the st"ong
-o)el *e"tains to the existence of a "egi-e of -eaning that "e-ains
inco--ensu"a(le &ith "ational -eaning (ecause it )oes not *e"tain to the
facts of the &o"l)% (ut "athe" to the /e"y fact that the"e is a &o"l)# 9et
co""elationis- itself )oes not -aintain any i""ational *osition% &hethe"
"eligious o" *oetic6 it -a.es no *ositi/e *"onounce-ents &hatsoe/e"
a(out the a(solute6 "athe" it confines itself to thin.ing the li-its of
thought% these functioning fo" language li.e a f"ontie" only one si)e of
&hich can (e g"as*e)# Thus% co""elationis- *"o/i)es no *ositi/e g"oun)
fo" any s*ecific /a"iety of "eligious (elief% (ut it un)e"-ines "eason+s
clai- to (e a(le to )is1ualify a (elief on the g"oun)s that its content is
unthin.a(le#
The st"ong -o)el in this cha"acte"i;ation see-s to us to (e "e*"esente) as
-uch (y 3ittgenstein as (y 8ei)egge"% &hich is to say% (y the t&o
e-(le-atic "e*"esentati/es of the t&o *"inci*al cu""ents of t&entieth0
centu"y *hiloso*hy2 analytic *hiloso*hy an) *heno-enology# Thus% the
T"actatus -aintains that the logical fo"- of the &o"l) cannot (e state) in
the &ay in &hich facts in the &o"l) can (e6 it can only (e +sho&n+% that is
to say% in)icate) in acco")ance &ith a )iscu"si/e "egiste" that cannot (e
(oun) (y the catego"ies of science o" logic# Conse1uently% it is the /e"y
fact that the &o"l) is saya(le (that is to say% lia(le to fo"-ulation
acco")ing to a logical syntax! that cannot (e (oun) (y logical )iscou"se#
3hence *"o*osition H#F222 +The"e a"e in)ee) things that cannot (e *ut
into &o")s# They -a.e the-sel/es -anifest# They a"e &hat is -ystical#+
$ut the -ystical )oes not consist in othe"0&o"l)ly .no&le)ge 0 it is the
in)ication of science+s ina(ility to thin. the fact that the"e is a &o"l)#
8ence *"o*osition H#GG2 +It is not ho& things a"e in the &o"l) that is
-ystical% (ut that it exists#+ >i-ila"ly% &e ha/e al"ea)y seen ho& fo"
8ei)egge" it is the /e"y fact that the"e a"e (eings% an) that the"e is a
gi/enness of (eings% that *oints to the "ift inhe"ent in "e*"esentation2 +,f
all (eings% only the hu-an (eing% calle) u*on (y the /oice of $eing%
ex*e"iences the &on)e" of all &on)e"s2 that (eings a"e# + In (oth cases% the
fact that (eings a"e% o" the fact that the"e is a logical &o"l)% is *"ecisely
&hat cannot (e enco-*asse) (y the so/e"eignty of logic an)
-eta*hysical "eason% an) this (ecause of the facticity of the +the"e is+6 a
facticity &hich can ce"tainly (e thought 0 since it is not g"as*e) th"ough a
t"anscen)ent "e/elation% (ut -e"ely th"ough a g"as* of the +inte"nal li-its+
of this &o"l) 0 (ut thought solely on account of ou" ina(ility to gain
access to the a(solute g"oun) of &hat is# I cannot thin. the unthin.a(le%
(ut I can thin. that it is not i-*ossi(le fo" the i-*ossi(le to (e#
In su--a"y2 &he"e the &ea. -o)el of co""elationis- )e0a(soluti;e) the
*"inci*le of sufficient "eason (y )is1ualifying e/e"y *"oof of
uncon)itional necessity% the st"ong -o)el *ushes this )is1ualification of
the *"inci*le of sufficient "eason still fu"the"% an) )e0a(soluti;es the
*"inci*le of non0cont"a)iction (y "e0insc"i(ing e/e"y "e*"esentation &ithin
the (oun)s of the co""elationist ci"cle# 3e ha/e no& i)entifie) the t&o
o*e"ations that un)e"lie the conte-*o"a"y :ustification fo" the
"enunciation of the a(solute 0 not only that of the *"i-acy of the
co""elation against e/e"y fo"- of +nai/e "ealis-+% (ut also that of the
facticity of the co""elation against e/e"y fo"- of +s*eculati/e i)ealis-+#
8o&e/e"% t&o fun)a-ental ty*es of st"ong co""elationis- can (e
en/isage)% each c"ystalli;ing an) o**osing the othe" a"oun) the follo&ing
1uestion2 )oes the )e0a(soluti;ation of thought also i-*ly the )e0
uni/e"sali;ation of thought5 Those *hiloso*he"s &ho "es*on) to this
1uestion in the negati/e &ill situate the-sel/es as hei"s of 7ant+s c"itical
legacy an) &ill atte-*t% in the &a.e of 7ant% to unco/e" the uni/e"sal
con)itions fo" ou" "elation to the &o"l)% &hethe" these (e const"ue) as
con)itions fo" e-*i"ical science% con)itions fo" linguistic co--unication
(et&een in)i/i)uals% con)itions fo" the *e"ce*ti(ility of the entity% etc#
$ut e/en a +st"ong+ co""elationist &ho clai-s to "e-ain faithful to the s*i"it
of the C"itical *hiloso*hy &ill not allo& he"self to :ustify the uni/e"sality
of non0cont"a)iction (y in/o.ing its *utati/e a(soluteness O "athe" than
cha"acte"i;ing the fo"-e" as a *"o*e"ty of the thing0in0itself% she &ill
const"ue it as a uni/e"sal con)ition fo" the saya(ility of the gi/en% o" fo"
inte"su(:ecti/e co--unication 0 it &ill (e a no"- of the thin.a(le% not of
the *ossi(le# Cont"a"ily% those *hiloso*he"s% such as the *a"tisans of
+"a)ical finitu)e+ o" of +*ost-o)e"nity+% &ho )is-iss e/e"y /a"iety of
uni/e"sal as a -ystificato"y "elic of the ol) -eta*hysics &ill clai- that it
is necessa"y to thin. the facticity of ou" "elation to the &o"l) in te"-s of a
situation that is itself finite% an) hence -o)ifia(le (y "ight6 a situation
&hich it &oul) (e illuso"y to thin. &e coul) gain enough )istance f"o- to
fo"-ulate state-ents that &oul) (e /ali) fo" all hu-ans% in all ti-es an)
all *laces# Acco")ingly% the co""elations &hich )ete"-ine +ou"+ &o"l) &ill
(e i)entifie) &ith a situation ancho"e) in a )ete"-inate e"a of the histo"y
of (eing% o" in a fo"- of life ha"(ou"ing its o&n language0ga-es% o" in a
)ete"-inate cultu"al an) inte"*"etati/e co--unity% etc#
The only "e-aining legiti-ate 1uestion fo" (oth *a"ties is the follo&ing2
shoul) this li-itation of ou" .no&ing to ou" "elation to the &o"l) exten)
so fa" as to )is1ualify the *ossi(ility of -aintaining a uni/e"sal )iscou"se
conce"ning the /e"y natu"e of this "elation5 $oth *a"ties &ill concu"
"ega")ing the )esuetu)e of uncon)itional necessity% so that the sole
"e-aining 1uestion &ill conce"n the status of the co""elation+s con)itional
necessity6 that is to say% the status of the con)itions of *ossi(ility of
language an) the gi/en# The -eta*hysical state-ent +if an entity is thus% it
-ust a(solutely (e+ gi/es &ay to the *ost0-eta*hysical state-ent +if an
entity gi/es itself i--e)iately as thus (as *e"ce*ti(le% saya(le% etc#!% it
&ill ha/e as its -o"e gene"al (i#e# )ee*e"% -o"e o"igina"y! con)ition to (e
thus (to (e gi/en (y a)u-("ations% to (e non0cont"a)icto"y% etc#!+# It is no
longe" a -atte" of +N is thus% the"efo"e N -ust (e+% (ut +if as a -atte" of
fact N is gi/en as thus% then it has as its con)ition to (e thus+# The )e(ate
&ill (e a(out the )ete"-ination of these con)itions% i#e# a(out &hethe" o"
not the"e a"e uni/e"sal con)itions of language an) the gi/en#
>t"ong co""elationis- is not al&ays the-ati;e) as such (y those &ho
es*ouse it 0 yet its conte-*o"a"y *"e)o-inance see-s to us to (e
inti-ately connecte) to the i--unity f"o- the const"aints of conce*tual
"ationality &hich "eligious (elief cu""ently see-s to en:oy# 3hat
*hiloso*he" no&a)ays &oul) clai- to ha/e "efute) the *ossi(ility% of the
Ch"istian T"inity on the g"oun)s that he ha) )etecte) a cont"a)iction in it5
3oul)n+t a *hiloso*he" &ho )is-isse) <e/inas+ thought of the +&holly
,the"+ as a(su") on the g"oun)s that it is "ef"acto"y to logic (e )e"i)e) as
a )usty f"eethin.e"% inca*a(le of "ising to the heights of <e/inas+
)iscou"se5 It is i-*o"tant to un)e"stan) &hat un)e"lies this attitu)e2
"eligious (elief is consi)e"e) to (e (eyon) the "each of "ational "efutation
(y -any conte-*o"a"y *hiloso*he"s not only (ecause such (elief is
)ee-e) (y )efinition in)iffe"ent to this .in) of c"iti1ue% (ut (ecause it
see-s to these *hiloso*he"s to (e conce*tually illegiti-ate to un)e"ta.e
such a "efutation# A 7antian &ho (elie/e) in the T"inity &oul) ha/e (een
o(lige) to )e-onst"ate that the i)ea of the latte" is not self0cont"a)icto"y%
(ut a st"ong co""elationist only has to )e-onst"ate that "eason has no "ight
to )e*loy its o&n "esou"ces to )e(ate the t"uth o" falsity of this )og-a# It
shoul) (e un)e"line) that this ga* that se*a"ates conte-*o"a"y
*hiloso*he"s f"o- the 7antian *osition is fa" f"o- innocuous# It *oints to
a -a:o" shift that has occu""e) in ou" conce*tion of thought f"o- 7ant+s
ti-e to ou"s# This shift% f"o- the un.no&a(ility of the thing0in0itself to its
unthin.a(ility% in)icates that thought has "eache) the stage &he"e it
legiti-ates (y its o&n )e/elo*-ent the fact that (eing has (eco-e so
o*a1ue fo" it that thought su**oses the latte" to (e ca*a(le of
t"ansg"essing the -ost ele-enta"y *"inci*les of the logos# 3he"e the
'a"-eni)ean *ostulate% +(eing an) thin.ing a"e the sa-e+% "e-aine) the
*"esc"i*tion fo" all *hiloso*hy u* to an) inclu)ing 7ant% it see-s that the
fun)a-ental *ostulate of st"ong co""elationis- can (e fo"-ulate) thus2
+(eing an) thin.ing -ust (e thought as ca*a(le of (eing &holly othe"=#
Again% this is not to say that the co""elationist (elie/es he"self to (e in a
*osition to )ecla"e the fun)a-ental inco--ensu"a(ility (et&een thought
an) (eing% such as (y )ecla"ing the actual existence of a Ao)
inco--ensu"a(le &ith all conce*tuali;ation% since this &oul) assu-e a
.no&le)ge of the in0itself &hich she has co-*letely a(:u"e)# $ut she sees
he"self as at least a(le to e-*hasi;e a facticity of the thought0(eing
co""elation so "a)ical that it )e*"i/es he" of any "ight to "ule out the
*ossi(ility of the"e (eing no co--on -easu"e (et&een the in0itself an)
&hat thought can concei/e# This "a)icali;ation of the co""elation has
gi/en "ise to &hat &e -ight call a +*ossi(le &hole alte"ation+ of thought
an) (eing# The unthin.a(le can only )"a& us (ac. to ou" ina(ility to thin.
othe"&ise% "athe" than to the a(solute i-*ossi(ility of things (eing &holly
othe"&ise#
It then (eco-es clea" that this t"a:ecto"y cul-inates in the )isa**ea"ance
of the *"etension to thin. any a(solutes% (ut not in the )isa**ea"ance of
a(solutes6 since in )isco/e"ing itself to (e -a".e) (y an i""e-e)ia(le
li-itation% co""elational "eason the"e(y legiti-ates all those )iscou"ses
that clai- to access an a(solute% the only *"o/iso (eing that nothing in
these )iscou"ses "ese-(les a "ational :ustification of thei" /ali)ity# Fa"
f"o- a(olishing the /alue of the a(solute% the *"ocess that continues to (e
"efe""e) to to)ay as +the en) of a(solutes+ g"ants the latte" an
un*"ece)ente) licence 0*hiloso*he"s see- to as. only one thing of these
a(solutes2 that they (e )e/oi) of the slightest *"etension to "ationality#
The en) of -eta*hysics% un)e"stoo) as the +)e0a(soluti;ation of thought+%
is the"e(y seen to consist in the "ational legiti-ation of any an) e/e"y
/a"iety of "eligious (o" +*oetico0"eligious+! (elief in the a(solute% so long
the latte" in/o.es no autho"ity (esi)e itself# To *ut it in othe" &o")s2 (y
fo"(i))ing "eason any clai- to the a(solute% the en) of -eta*hysics has
ta.en the fo"- of an exace"(ate) "etu"n of the "eligious# ," again2 the en)
of i)eologies has ta.en the fo"- of the un1ualifie) /icto"y of "eligiosity#
The"e a"e ce"tainly histo"ical "easons fo" the conte-*o"a"y "esu"gence of
"eligiosity% &hich it &oul) (e nai/e to "e)uce to )e/elo*-ents in
*hiloso*hy alone6 (ut the fact that thought% un)e" the *"essu"e of
co""elationis-% has "elin1uishe) its "ight to c"itici;e the i""ational &hen
the latte" lays clai- to the a(solute% shoul) not (e un)e"esti-ate) &hen
consi)e"ing the extent of this *heno-enon# 9et e/en to)ay% this +"etu"n of
the "eligious+ continues to (e -isun)e"stoo) on account of a *o&e"ful
histo"ical t"o*is-% f"o- &hich &e -ust ext"act ou"sel/es once an) fo" all#
This t"o*is-% this conce*tual (lin)ness% can (e )esc"i(e) as follo&s#
The"e a"e -any &ho continue to (elie/e that e/e"y c"iti1ue of
-eta*hysics +natu"ally+ goes han) in han) &ith a c"iti1ue of "eligion# $ut
in fact% this +*a"tne"shi* (et&een c"iti1ues+ "e-ains a function of a /e"y
s*ecific configu"ation of the lin. (et&een -eta*hysics an) "eligion#
3hene/e" one clai-s to (e ca""ying out a c"iti1ue of +-eta*hysico0
"eligious+ a(solutes% one has in -in) the c"iti1ue of onto0theology insofa"
as the latte" coinci)es &ith the c"iti1ue of Pu)aeo0Ch"istian theology+s
clai- that its (elief in a uni1ue Ao) is foun)e) u*on su**ose)ly "ational
t"uths% all of &hich a"e ancho"e) in the i)ea of a su*"e-e (eing &ho is the
*"i-e -o/e" of all things# $ut it is necessa"y to *oint out so-ething
&hich% cu"iously enough% is not% o" is no longe"% self0e/i)ent# This is the
fact that in c"itici;ing -eta*hysics+ *"etension to thin. the a(solute% &e
-ay 0 as in)ee) *"o/e) to (e the case 0 succee) in un)e"-ining a
*a"ticula" "eligion &hich a**eale) to +natu"al "eason+ in o")e" to )ecla"e
the su*e"io"ity of its *a"ticula" (eliefs o/e" those of othe" "eligions# Thus%
fo" exa-*le% (y )est"oying e/e"y fo"- of *"oof fo" the existence of a
su*"e-e (eing% one "e-o/es the "ational su**o"t &hich a s*ecific
-onotheistic "eligion in/o.e) against e/e"y fo"- of *olytheistic "eligion#
Conse1uently% (y )est"oying -eta*hysics% one has effecti/ely "en)e"e) it
i-*ossi(le fo" a *a"ticula" "eligion to use a *seu)o0"ational a"gu-entation
against e/e"y othe" "eligion# $ut in )oing so 0 an) this is the )ecisi/e *oint
0 one has ina)/e"tently :ustifie) (elief+s clai- to (e the only -eans of
access to the a(solute# ,nce the a(solute has (eco-e unthin.a(le% e/en
atheis-% &hich also ta"gets Ao)+s inexistence in the -anne" of an
a(solute% is "e)uce) to a -e"e (elief% an) hence to a "eligion% al(eit of the
nihilist .in)# Faith is *itche) against faith% since &hat )ete"-ines ou"
fun)a-ental choices cannot (e "ationally *"o/e)# In othe" &o")s% the )e0
a(soluti;ation of thought (oils )o&n to the -o(ili;ation of a fi)eist
a"gu-ent6 (ut a fi)eis- that is +fun)a-enal+ "athe" than -e"ely +histo"ical+
in natu"e 0 that is to say% a fi)eis- that has (eco-e thought+s )efence of
"eligiosity in gene"al% "athe" than of a s*ecific "eligion (as &as the case in
the sixteenth centu"y &ith Catholic fi)eis-% o" &hat clai-e) to (e such!#
Fi)eis- in/a"ia(ly consists in a sce*tical a"gu-ent )i"ecte) against the
*"etension of -eta*hysics% an) of "eason -o"e gene"ally% to (e a(le to
access an a(solute t"uth ca*a(le of sho"ing u* (o" a fo"tio"i% of
)enig"ating! the /alue of faith# $ut it is ou" con/iction that the
conte-*o"a"y en) of -eta*hysics is nothing othe" than the /icto"y of such
a fi)eis- 0 &hich is actually of ancient *"o/enance (it &as initiate) (y the
Counte"0Refo"-ation% an) Montaigne is its +foun)ing fathe"+! 0 o/e"
-eta*hysics# Fa" f"o- seeing in fi)eis- 0 as is all too often the case 0 a
-e"e guise &o"n (y anti0-eta*hysical sce*ticis- at its o"igins% (efo"e the
latte" &ent on to "e/eal its i""eligious essence% &e see sce*ticis- as an
authentic fi)eis-% &hich is )o-inant to)ay% (ut in a fo"- that has (eco-e
+essential+% &hich is to say% one that has sh"ugge) off e/e"y *a"ticula"
o(e)ience to a )ete"-inate (elief syste-# 8isto"ical fi)eis- is not the
+guise+ that i""eligiosity &o"e at its (eginnings6 "athe"% it is "eligiosity as
such% &hich a)o*te) the +guise+ of a s*ecific a*ologia (on (ehalf of one
"eligion o" (elief syste- "athe" than anothe"!% (efo"e "e/ealing itself to (e
the gene"al a"gu-ent fo" the su*e"io"ity of *iety o/e" thought# The
conte-*o"a"y en) of -eta*hysics is an en) &hich% (eing sce*tical% coul)
only (e a "eligious en) of -eta*hysics#
>ce*ticis- &ith "ega") to the -eta*hysical a(solute the"e(y legiti-ates
)e :u"e e/e"y /a"iety &hatsoe/e" of (elief in an a(solute% the (est as &ell
as the &o"st# The )est"uction of the -eta*hysical "ationali;ation of
Ch"istian theology has "esulte) in a gene"ali;e) (eco-ing0"eligious of
thought% /i;#% in a fi)eis- of any (elief &hatsoe/e"# 3e &ill call this
(eco-ing0"eligious of thought% &hich fin)s its *a"a)oxical su**o"t in a
"a)ically s.e*tical a"gu-entation% the "eligioni;ing ?en"elige-ent@ of
"eason2 this ex*"ession% &hich echoes that of "ationali;ation% )enotes a
-o/e-ent of thought &hich is the exact cont"a"y to that of the
*"og"essi/e "ationali;ation of Pu)aeo0Ch"istianity un)e" the influence of
A"ee. *hiloso*hy# To)ay% e/e"ything ha**ens as if *hiloso*hy consi)e"e)
itself of its o&n acco") 0"athe" than (ecause of *"essu"e exe"te) u*on it (y
an exte"nal (elief 0 to (e the se"/ant of theology 0 exce*t that it no&
consi)e"s itself to (e the li(e"al se"/ant of any theology &hatsoe/e"% e/en
an atheology# In lea/ing the "eal- of -eta*hysics% the a(solute see-s to
ha/e (een f"ag-ente) into a -ulti*licity of (eliefs that ha/e (eco-e
in)iffe"ent% all of the- e1ually legiti-ate f"o- the /ie&*oint of
.no&le)ge% an) this si-*ly (y /i"tue of the fact that they the-sel/es
clai- to (e nothing (ut (eliefs# 3hence a *"ofoun) t"ansfo"-ation in the
natu"e of inc"e)ulity% &hich is to say% in the natu"e of its a"gu-entation#
8a/ing continuously u**e) the ante &ith sce*ticis- an) c"iticis-s of the
*"etensions of -eta*hysics% &e ha/e en)e) u* acco")ing all legiti-acy in
-atte"s of /e"acity to *"ofessions of faith 0 an) this no -atte" ho&
ext"a/agant thei" content# As a "esult% the st"uggle against &hat the
Enlighten-ent calle) +fanaticis-+ has (een con/e"te) into a *"o:ect of
-o"ali;ation2 the con)e-nation of fanaticis- is ca""ie) out solely in the
na-e of its *"actical (ethico0*olitical! conse1uences% ne/e" in the na-e of
the ulti-ate falsity of its contents# ,n this *oint% the conte-*o"a"y
*hiloso*he" has co-*letely ca*itulate) to the -an of faith# Fo" thought
su**lies the latte" &ith "esou"ces that su**o"t his initial )ecision2 if the"e
is an ulti-ate t"uth% only *iety can *"o/i)e it% not thought# 3hence the
i-*otence of -e"ely -o"al c"iti1ues of conte-*o"a"y o(scu"antis-% fo" if
nothing a(solute is thin.a(le% the"e is no "eason &hy the &o"st fo"-s of
/iolence coul) not clai- to ha/e (een sanctione) (y a t"anscen)ence that
is only accessi(le to the elect fe&#
It is i-*o"tant to note that the "eligioni;ing of "eason )oes not )esignate
the act of faith as such 0 since the latte" can o(/iously *"o/e ext"e-ely
/alua(le# The "eligioni;ing of "eason )esignates the conte-*o"a"y fo"- of
the connection (et&een thin.ing an) *iety 0 an) hence a -o/e-ent of
thought itself "elati/e to *iety6 s*ecifically% its non0-eta*hysical
su(o")ination to the latte"# $ette" still2 its su(o")ination to *iety /ia a
s*ecific -o)e of the )est"uction of -eta*hysics# >uch is the sense of )e0
a(soluti;ation 0 thought no longe" *"o/i)es an a *"io"i )e-onst"ation of
the t"uth of a s*ecific content of *iety6 instea)% it esta(lishes ho& any
*iety &hatsoe/e" en:oys an e1ual an) exclusi/e "ight to g"as* the ulti-ate
t"uth# Cont"a"y to the fa-ilia" /ie& acco")ing to &hich ,cci)ental
-o)e"nity consists in a /ast ente"*"ise of the secula"i;ation of thought% &e
consi)e" the -ost st"i.ing featu"e of -o)e"nity to (e the follo&ing2 the
-o)e"n -an is he &ho has (een "e0ligioni;e) *"ecisely to the extent that
he has (een )e0Ch"istiani;e)# The -o)e"n -an is he &ho% e/en as he
st"i**e) Ch"istianity of the i)eological (-eta*hysical! *"etension that its
(elief syste- &as su*e"io" to all othe"s% has )eli/e"e) hi-self (o)y an)
soul to the i)ea that all (elief syste-s a"e e1ually legiti-ate in -atte"s of
/e"acity#
Thus% the conte-*o"a"y closu"e of -eta*hysics see-s to us to a-ount to a
+sce*tico0fi)eist+ closu"e of -eta*hysics% )o-inate) (y &hat one coul)
call the thought of the +&holly0othe"+# 3ittgenstein an) 8ei)egge" a"e the
e-(le-atic "e*"esentati/es of this thought an)% fa" f"o- inaugu"ating a
"a)ical ("ea. &ith the *ast in this -atte"% (oth "e-ain hei"s to the legacy
of a /ene"a(le an) &ell )ocu-ente) fi)eist t"a)ition (inaugu"ate) (y
Montaigne an) )e/elo*e) nota(ly (y Aassen)i an) $ayle!% &hose anti0
-eta*hysical cha"acte" has al&ays (een inten)e) to *"otect *iety f"o- the
incu"sions of "ationality% an) &hich "eaches its cul-inating *oint in these
t&o thin.e"s# The +-ystical+ e/o.e) in 3ittgenstein+s T"actatus <ogico0
'hiloso*hicus% o" the theology that 8ei)egge" a)-itte) he ha) long
consi)e"e) &"iting 0 on con)ition that it containe) nothing *hiloso*hical%
not e/en the &o") +(eing+ 0 a"e ex*"essions of an as*i"ation to&a")s an
a(soluteness &hich &oul) no longe" "etain anything -eta*hysical% an)
&hich one is gene"ally ca"eful to )esignate (y anothe" na-e# This is a
*iety that has (een e/acuate) of content% an) that is no& cele("ate) fo" its
o&n sa.e (y a thin.ing that has gi/en u* t"ying to su(stantiate it# Fo" the
a*ex of fi)eis- occu"s at the *oint &he"e it (eco-es the thought of *iety+s
su*e"io"ity to thin.ing% &ithout any s*ecific content (eing *"i/ilege)%
since it is a -atte" of esta(lishing th"ough thin.ing that it is the
*"e"ogati/e of *iety% an) of *iety= alone% to *osit its o&n contents#
Acco")ingly% the conte-*o"a"y )e/olution to&a")s the &holly0othe" (the
othe"&ise e-*ty o(:ect of the *"ofession of faith! is the st"ict an)
ine/ita(le o(/e"se of inte"*"eting the o(solescence of the *"inci*le of
sufficient "eason as "eason+s )isco/e"y of its o&n essential ina(ility to
unco/e" an a(solute 0 thus% fi)eis- is -e"ely the othe" na-e fo" st"ong
co""elationis-#
CCC
3e a"e t"ying to g"as* the sense of the follo&ing *a"a)ox2 the -o"e
thought a"-s itself against )og-atis-% the -o"e )efenceless it (eco-es
(efo"e fanaticis-# E/en as it fo"ces -eta*hysical )og-atis- to "et"eat%
sce*tico0fi)eis- "einfo"ces "eligious o(scu"antis-# No&% it &oul) (e
a(su") to accuse all co""elationists of "eligious fanaticis-% :ust as it &oul)
(e a(su") to accuse all -eta*hysicians of i)eological )og-atis-# $ut it is
clea" to &hat extent the fun)a-ental )ecisions that un)e"lie -eta*hysics
in/a"ia(ly "ea**ea"% al(eit in a ca"icatu"al fo"-% in i)eologies (&hat is
-ust (e!% an) to &hat extent the fun)a-ental )ecisions that un)e"lie
o(scu"antist (elief -ay fin) su**o"t in the )ecisions of st"ong
co""elationis- (it -ay (e that the &holly0othe" is!# Conte-*o"a"y
fanaticis- cannot the"efo"e si-*ly (e att"i(ute) to the "esu"gence of an
a"chais- that is /iolently o**ose) to the achie/e-ents of 3este"n c"itical
"eason6 on the cont"a"y% it is the effect of c"itical "ationality% an) this
*"ecisely insofa" as 0 this nee)s to (e un)e"line) 0 this "ationality &as
effecti/ely e-anci*ato"y6 &as effecti/ely% an) than.fully% successful in
)est"oying )og-atis-# It is than.s to the c"itical *o&e" of co""elationis-
that )og-atis- &as effecti/ely /an1uishe) in *hiloso*hy% an) it is
(ecause of co""elationis- that *hiloso*hy fin)s itself inca*a(le of
fun)a-entally )istinguishing itself f"o- fanaticis-# The /icto"ious
c"iti1ue of i)eologies has (een t"ansfo"-e) into a "ene&e) a"gu-ent fo"
(lin) faith#
3e the"e(y g"as* that &hat is at sta.e in a c"iti1ue of the )e0a(soluti;ing
i-*lication (/i;#% that if -eta*hysics is o(solete% so is e/e"y fo"- of
a(solute! goes (eyon) that of the legiti-ation of ancest"al state-ents#
3hat is u"gently "e1ui"e)% in effect% is that &e "e0thin. &hat coul) (e
calle) +the *"e:u)ices of c"itical0sense+6 /i;#% c"itical *otency is not
necessa"ily on the si)e of those &ho &oul) un)e"-ine the /ali)ity of
a(solute t"uths% (ut "athe" on the si)e of those &oul) succee) in c"itici;ing
(oth i)eological )og-atis- an) sce*tical fanaticis-# Against )og-atis-%
it is i-*o"tant that &e u*hol) the "efusal of e/e"y -eta*hysical a(solute%
(ut against the "easone) /iolence of /a"ious fanaticis-s% it is i-*o"tant
that &e "e0)isco/e" in thought a -o)icu- of a(soluteness 0 enough of it%
in any case% to counte" the *"etensions of those &ho &oul) *"esent
the-sel/es as its *"i/ilege) t"ustees% solely (y /i"tue of so-e "e/elation#

Cha*te" E The '"inci*le of Factiality
Although not Ca"tesian in *"inci*le% ou" *"oce)u"e is ho-ologous &ith
the one follo&e) (y Desca"tes in his Me)itations% afte" he ha)
successfully esta(lishe) the t"uth of the cogito in the secon) Me)itation#
Follo&ing Desca"tes+ exa-*le% &e a"e atte-*ting to -o/e (eyon) a
+cogito+ (y accessing an a(solute ca*a(le of foun)ing science+s (ancest"al!
)iscou"se# $ut the cogito in 1uestion is no longe" the Ca"tesian cogito 0 it
is a +co""elationist cogito+ that encloses thought in a "eci*"ocal "elation to
(eing% one &hich is -e"ely the -as. fo" thought+s un)e"lying "elation to
itself# This cogito )iffe"s f"o- the Ca"tesian cogito in at least t&o &ays2
=# The co""elationist cogito cannot necessa"ily (e i)entifie) &ith a
-eta*hysics of "e*"esentation% since it can (e a function of a conce*tion
of the co""elation (et&een thought an) (eing othe" than the one (et&een
su(:ect an) o(:ect (e#g# 8ei)egge"+s co0*"o*"iation of -an an) $eing!#
2# It is not st"ictly s*ea.ing a soli*sistic cogito% (ut "athe" a +cogita-us+%
since it foun)s science+s o(:ecti/e t"uth u*on an inte"su(:ecti/e consensus
a-ong consciousnesses# 9et the co""elationist cogito also institutes a
ce"tain .in) of soli*sis-% &hich coul) (e calle) a +s*ecies soli*sis-+% o" a
+soli*sis- of the co--unity+% since it "atifies the i-*ossi(ility of thin.ing
any "eality that &oul) (e ante"io" o" *oste"io" to the co--unity of
thin.ing (eings# This co--unity only has )ealings &ith itself% an) &ith
the &o"l) &ith &hich it is conte-*o"aneous#
To ext"act ou"sel/es f"o- this co--unita"ian o" inte"su(:ecti/e
soli*sis- is to access a g"eat out)oo"s that &oul) *e"fo"- the sa-e
function fo" the -athe-atics containe) in ancest"al state-ents as the
/e"acious Ao) *e"fo"-e) fo" exten)e) su(stance#
These then a"e the coo")inates of the *"o(le-% acco")ing to &hat &e ha/e
esta(lishe) so fa"2
=# If the ancest"al is to (e thin.a(le% then an a(solute -ust (e thin.a(le#
2# 3e acce*t the )is1ualification of e/e"y a"gu-ent inten)e) to esta(lish
the a(solute necessity of an entity 0 thus the a(solute &e see. cannot (e
)og-atic#
E# 3e -ust o/e"co-e the o(stacle of the co""elationist ci"cle% &hile
ac.no&le)ging that &ithin the st"ong -o)el &hich g"ants it its full extent%
the latte" not only )is1ualifies the )og-atic a(solute (as )i) the "efutation
of the ontological a"gu-ent!% (ut e/e"y fo"- of a(solute in gene"al# It is
the a(soluti;ing a**"oach as such% an) not :ust the a(solutist one ((ase)
on the *"inci*le of sufficient "eason!% &hich see-s to shatte" against the
o(stacle *"esente) (y the /icious ci"cle of co""elation2 to thin. so-ething
a(solute is to thin. an a(solute fo"0us% an) hence not to thin. anything
a(solute#
3hat &e see. then is a non0-eta*hysical a(solute% ca*a(le of sli**ing
th"ough the -eshes of the st"ong -o)el% &hile ac.no&le)ging that2
0 a "ealist a(solute (e#g# E*icu"ean! cannot *ass th"ough the -eshes of
the co""elation (fi"st *"inci*le of the st"ong -o)el!6
0 a co""elationist a(solute (one that is su(:ecti/ist% i#e#% i)ealist o" /italist!
cannot *ass th"ough the -eshes of facticity (secon) *"inci*le of st"ong
co""elationis-!#
8o& then is thought to ca"/e out a *ath to&a")s the outsi)e fo" itself5
CCC
The *osition of the *"o(le-% an) the )"astic con)itions fo" its "esolution%
(oth in)icate &hat a**ea"s to (e the only "e-aining *ath a/aila(le# In
o")e" to counte" the st"ong -o)el% &e -ust ta.e as ou" exe-*la" the fi"st
-eta*hysical counte"0offensi/e against 7antian t"anscen)entalis- 0 in
othe" &o")s% &e too -ust a(soluti;e the /e"y *"inci*le that allo&s
co""elationis- to )is1ualify a(soluti;ing thought# This is *"ecisely &hat
/a"ious su(:ecti/ist -eta*hysicians )i) 0 they tu"ne) the co""elation itself%
the inst"u-ent of e-*i"ico0c"itical )e0a(soluti;ation% into the -o)el fo" a
ne& ty*e of a(solute# In )oing so% these -eta*hysicians )i) not si-*ly
+t"ic.+ co""elationis-6 they &e"e not t"ying to +unea"th+ an a(solute that
they coul) then )eftly tu"n against c"itico0sce*ticis-% &ith the hel* of its
o&n a"gu-entation# It &as -o"e a case of t"ying to thin. the *"ofoun)
t"uth f"o- &hich this a"gu-entation )e"i/e) its fo"ce# They
ac.no&le)ge) co""elationis-+s )isco/e"y of a fun)a-ental const"aint
0/i;#% that &e only ha/e access to the fo"0us% not the in0itself 0 (ut instea)
of conclu)ing f"o- this that the in0itself is un.no&a(le% they conclu)e)
that the co""elation is the only /e"ita(le in0itself# In so )oing% they g"as*e)
the ontological t"uth hi))en (eneath the sce*tical a"gu-entation 0 they
con/e"te) "a)ical igno"ance into .no&le)ge of a (eing finally un/eile) in
its t"ue a(soluteness#
9et this fi"st &a/e of the counte"0offensi/e against co""elationis- ca-e to
g"ief against the secon) *"inci*le of co""elationis- 0 that of the essential
facticity of the co""elation% &hich has *"o/en to (e its -ost *"ofoun)
)ecision 0 the one &hich )is1ualifies i)ealist as &ell as "ealist )og-atis-#
Acco")ingly% the t"ail &e ha/e to follo& is al"ea)y -a".e) out fo" us 0 if
an a(solute ca*a(le of &ithstan)ing the "a/ages of the co""elationist ci"cle
"e-ains concei/a(le% it can only (e the one that "esults f"o- the
a(soluti;ation of the st"ong -o)el+s secon) )ecision 0 &hich is to say%
facticity# In othe" &o")s% if &e can )isco/e" an ontological t"uth hi))en
(eneath facticity6 if &e can succee) in g"as*ing &hy the /e"y sou"ce
&hich len)s its *o&e" to the st"ategy of )e0a(soluti;ation th"ough fact
also fu"nishes the -eans of access to an a(solute (eing6 then &e &ill ha/e
gaine) access to a t"uth that is in/ulne"a(le to co""elationist sce*ticis-#
Fo" this ti-e% the"e &ill (e no thi") *"inci*le lia(le to counte" such an
a(soluti;ation# Acco")ingly% &e -ust t"y to un)e"stan) &hy it is not the
co""elation (ut the facticity of the co""elation that constitutes the a(solute#
3e -ust sho& &hy thought% fa" f"o- ex*e"iencing its int"insic li-its
th"ough facticity% ex*e"iences "athe" its .no&le)ge of the a(solute th"ough
facticity# 3e -ust g"as* in facticity not the inaccessi(ility of the a(solute
(ut the un/eiling of the in0itself an) the ete"nal *"o*e"ty of &hat is% as
o**ose) to the -a". of the *e"ennial )eficiency in the thought of &hat is#
3hat coul) such *"o*ositions -ean5
Initially% it see-s a(su") to thin. of facticity as an a(solute% since the
latte" is su**ose) to ex*"ess thought+s ina(ility to unco/e" the "eason &hy
&hat is% is# $y tu"ning an ina(ility into an a(solute% )o &e not en) u* &ith
an a(solute ina(ility5 The ans&e" is no 0 at least not if &e follo& the
*"oce)u"e &hich su(:ecti/ist -eta*hysicians a)o*te) &ith "ega") to the
co""elation# As &e sa&% the fo"-e" unco/e"e) the /e"ita(le instance of
a(solute (eing in the /e"y o(stacle e"ecte) against a(soluti;ation# 3e
-ust no& en)ea/ou" to )o the sa-e &ith facticity# No )ou(t% this &ill
"e1ui"e a +change in outloo.+% (ut once the latte" has (een achie/e)% the
su*"e-e necessity asc"i(e) to the co""elationist ci"cle &ill a**ea" as the
o**osite of &hat it fi"st see-e) 0 facticity &ill (e "e/eale) to (e a
.no&le)ge of the a(solute (ecause &e a"e going to *ut (ac. into the thing
itself &hat &e -ista.enly too. to (e an inca*acity in thought# In othe"
&o")s% instea) of const"uing the a(sence of "eason inhe"ent in e/e"ything
as a li-it that thought encounte"s in its sea"ch fo" the ulti-ate "eason% &e
-ust un)e"stan) that this a(sence of "eason is% an) can only (e the
ulti-ate *"o*e"ty of the entity# 3e -ust con/e"t facticity into the "eal
*"o*e"ty &he"e(y e/e"ything an) e/e"y &o"l) is &ithout "eason% an) is
the"e(y ca*a(le of actually (eco-ing othe"&ise &ithout "eason# 3e -ust
g"as* ho& the ulti-ate a(sence of "eason% &hich &e &ill "efe" to as
+un"eason+% is an a(solute ontological *"o*e"ty% an) not the -a". of the
finitu)e of ou" .no&le)ge# F"o- this *e"s*ecti/e% the failu"e of the
*"inci*le of "eason follo&s% 1uite si-*ly% f"o- the falsity (an) e/en f"o-
the a(solute falsity! of such a *"inci*le 0 fo" the t"uth is that the"e is no
"eason fo" anything to (e o" to "e-ain thus an) so "athe" than othe"&ise%
an) this a**lies as -uch to the la&s that go/e"n the &o"l) as to the things
of the &o"l)# E/e"ything coul) actually colla*se2 f"o- t"ees to sta"s% f"o-
sta"s to la&s% f"o- *hysical la&s to logical la&s6 an) this not (y /i"tue of
so-e su*e"io" la& &he"e(y e/e"ything is )estine) to *e"ish% (ut (y /i"tue
of the a(sence of any su*e"io" la& ca*a(le of *"ese"/ing anything% no
-atte" &hat% f"o- *e"ishing#
<et us t"y to (e -o"e *"ecise a(out &hat &e -ean (y such an a(solute%
an) fi"st of all% let us t"y to ex*lain in &hat "ega") this a(soluti;ation of
facticity is ca*a(le of o/e"co-ing the o(stacle *"esente) (y the
co""elationist ci"cle#
The co""elationist coul) o(:ect to ou" thesis as follo&s2 +To clai- that
facticity -ust (e un)e"stoo) as the .no&le)ge of the actual a(sence of
"eason fo" anything is to co--it an ele-enta"y -ista.e% fo" it is to
conflate facticity &ith contingency# Contingency )esignates the
*ossi(ility &he"e(y so-ething can eithe" *e"sist o" *e"ish% &ithout eithe"
o*tion cont"a/ening the in/a"iants that go/e"n the &o"l)# Thus%
contingency is an instance of .no&le)ge6 the .no&le)ge I ha/e of the
actual *e"isha(ility of a )ete"-inate thing# I .no& fo" exa-*le that this
(oo. coul) (e )est"oye)% e/en if I )o not .no& &hen o" &he"e this
)est"uction &ill occu" 0 &hethe" it &ill soon (e to"n u* (y -y little gi"l% o"
"otte) a&ay )eca)es f"o- no& (y -oul)# $ut this is to .no& so-ething
*ositi/e a(out this (oo.% /i;#% its actual f"agility% the *ossi(ility of its not0
(eing# 8o&e/e"% facticity can no -o"e (e i)entifie) &ith contingency than
&ith necessity% since it )esignates ou" essential igno"ance a(out eithe" the
contingency o" the necessity of ou" &o"l) an) its in/a"iants# $y tu"ning
facticity into a *"o*e"ty of things the-sel/es 0 a *"o*e"ty &hich I a-
allege) to .no& 0 I tu"n facticity f"o- so-ething that a**lies only to &hat
is in the &o"l) into a fo"- of contingency ca*a(le of (eing a**lie) to the
in/a"iants that go/e"n the &o"l) (i#e# its *hysical an) logical la&s!# In so
)oing% I clai- to .no& that the &o"l) is *e"isha(le% :ust as I .no& that this
(oo. is *e"isha(le# $ut I a- no -o"e ca*a(le of )e-onst"ating that
facticity can (e e1uate) &ith this contingency% consi)e"e) as t"ue in itself%
than I &as ca*a(le of )e-onst"ating the existence of a su**ose)ly
necessa"y -eta*hysical *"inci*le f"o- &hich ou" &o"l) o"iginates#
Acco")ingly% the co""elational ci"cle un)e"-ines the thesis of the a(solute
contingency of e/e"ything :ust as effecti/ely as it un)e"-ine) the thesis of
the a(solute necessity of a su*"e-e (eing 0 fo" ho& &oul) one .no& that
the a**a"ent un"eason of the &o"l) is an un"eason in0itself 0 i#e# the "eal
*ossi(ility of e/e"ything+s (eco-ing othe" &ithout "eason 0 "athe" than
:ust an un"eason fo"0us 0 i#e# si-*ly a function of ou" ina(ility to )isco/e"
the t"ue necessa"y "eason fo" e/e"ything% hi))en (ehin) the /eil of
*heno-ena5 This -o/e-ent f"o- the fo"0us to the in0itself is no -o"e
acce*ta(le in the case of contingency than it &as in the case of necessity#+
The"e is only one &ay fo" us to counte" this a"gu-ent2 &e ha/e to sho&
that the co""elationist ci"cle 0 an) &hat lies at the hea"t of it% /i;#% the
)istinction (et&een the in0itself an) the fo"0us 0 is only concei/a(le
insofa" as it al"ea)y *"esu**oses an i-*licit a)-ission of the a(soluteness
of contingency# Mo"e *"ecisely% &e -ust )e-onst"ate ho& the facticity of
the co""elation% &hich *"o/i)es the (asis fo" the co""elationist+s
)is1ualification of )og-atic i)ealis- as &ell as of )og-atic "ealis-% is
only concei/a(le on con)ition that one a)-its the a(soluteness of the
contingency of the gi/en in gene"al# Fo" if &e can succee) in
)e-onst"ating that the ca*acity0to0(e0othe" of e/e"ything is the a(solute
*"esu**ose) (y the ci"cle itself% then &e &ill ha/e succee)e) in
)e-onst"ating that one cannot )e0a(soluti;e contingency &ithout
incu""ing the self0)est"uction of the ci"cle 0 &hich is anothe" &ay of
saying that contingency &ill tu"n out to ha/e (een i--uni;e) against the
o*e"ation &he"e(y co""elationis- "elati/i;es the in0itself to the fo"0us#
3e can -a.e things clea"e" (y consi)e"ing the follo&ing exa-*le# <et us
su**ose that t&o )og-atists a"e a"guing a(out the natu"e of ou" futu"e
*ost0-o"te-# The Ch"istian )og-atist clai-s to .no& ((ecause he has
su**ose)ly )e-onst"ate) it! that ou" existence continues afte" )eath% an)
that it consists in the ete"nal conte-*lation of a Ao) &hose natu"e is
inco-*"ehensi(le f"o- &ithin the confines of ou" *"esent existence# Thus%
the latte" clai-s to ha/e )e-onst"ate) that &hat is in0itself is a Ao) &ho%
li.e the Ca"tesian Ao)% can (e sho&n (y ou" finite "eason to (e
inco-*"ehensi(le fo" ou" finite "eason# $ut the atheist )og-atist clai-s to
.no& that% on the cont"a"y% ou" existence is co-*letely a(olishe) (y
)eath% &hich utte"ly annihilates us#
It is at this stage that the co""elationist co-es along to )is1ualify (oth of
thei" *ositions (y )efen)ing a st"ict theo"etical agnosticis-# All (eliefs
st"i.e he" as e1ually legiti-ate gi/en that theo"y is inca*a(le of
*"i/ileging one e/entuality o/e" anothe"# Fo" :ust as I cannot .no& the in0
itself &ithout con/e"ting it into a fo"0-e% I cannot .no& &hat &ill ha**en
to -e &hen I a- no longe" of this &o"l)% since .no&le)ge *"esu**oses
that one is of the &o"l)# Conse1uently% the agnostic has little )ifficulty in
"efuting (oth of these *ositions 0 all she has to )o is )e-onst"ate that it is
self0cont"a)icto"y to clai- to .no& &hat is &hen one is no longe" ali/e%
since .no&le)ge *"esu**oses that one is still of this &o"l)# Acco")ingly%
the t&o )og-atists a"e *"offe"ing "ealist theses a(out the in0itself% (oth of
&hich a"e /itiate) (y the inconsistency *"o*e" to all "ealis- 0 that of
clai-ing to thin. &hat the"e is &hen one is not#
$ut then anothe" )is*utant inte"/enes2 the su(:ecti/e i)ealist# The latte"
)ecla"es that the *osition of the agnostic is e/e"y (it as inconsistent as
those of the t&o "ealists# Fo" all th"ee (elie/e that the"e coul) (e an in0
itself "a)ically )iffe"ent f"o- ou" *"esent state% &hethe" it is a Ao) &ho is
inaccessi(le to natu"al "eason% o" a shee" nothingness# $ut this is *"ecisely
&hat is unthin.a(le% fo" I a- no -o"e ca*a(le of thin.ing a t"anscen)ent
Ao) than the annihilation of e/e"ything 0 -o"e *a"ticula"ly% I cannot thin.
of -yself as no longe" existing &ithout% th"ough that /e"y thought%
cont"a)icting -yself# I can only thin. of -yself as existing% an) as
existing the &ay I exist6 thus% I cannot (ut exist% an) al&ays exist as I exist
no&# Conse1uently% -y -in)% if not -y (o)y% is i--o"tal# Death% li.e
e/e"y othe" fo"- of "a)ical t"anscen)ence% is annulle) (y the i)ealist% in
the sa-e &ay as he annuls e/e"y i)ea of an in0itself that )iffe"s f"o- the
co""elational st"uctu"e of the su(:ect# $ecause an in0itself that )iffe"s f"o-
the fo"0us is unthin.a(le% the i)ealist )ecla"es it to (e i-*ossi(le#
The 1uestion no& is un)e" &hat con)itions the co""elationist agnostic can
"efute not only the theses of the t&o "ealists% (ut also that of the i)ealist#
In o")e" to counte" the latte"% the agnostic has no choice2 she -ust
-aintain that -y ca*acity0to0(e0&holly0othe" in )eath (&hethe" )a;;le)
(y Ao)% o" annihilate)! is :ust as thin.a(le as -y *e"sisting in -y self0
i)entity# The +"eason+ fo" this is that I thin. -yself as )e/oi) of any "eason
fo" (eing an) "e-aining as I a-% an) it is the thin.a(ility of this un"eason
0 of this facticity 0 &hich i-*lies that the othe" th"ee thesis 0those of the
t&o "ealists an) the i)ealist 0 a"e all e1ually *ossi(le# Fo" e/en if I cannot
thin. of -yself% fo" exa-*le% as annihilate)% neithe" can I thin. of any
cause that &oul) "ule out this e/entuality# The *ossi(ility of -y not (eing
is thin.a(le as the counte"*a"t of the a(sence of any "eason fo" -y (eing%
e/en if I cannot thin. &hat it &oul) (e not to (e# Although "ealists
-aintain the *ossi(ility of a *ost0-o"te- con)ition that is unthin.a(le as
such (&hethe" as /ision of Ao) o" as shee" nothingness!% the thesis they
-aintain is itself thin.a(le 0 fo" e/en if I cannot thin. the unthin.a(le% I
can thin. the *ossi(ility of the unthin.a(le (y )int of the un"eason of the
"eal# Conse1uently% the agnostic can "ecuse all th"ee *ositions as instances
of a(solutis- 0 all th"ee clai- to ha/e i)entifie) a necessa"y "eason
i-*lying one of the th"ee states )esc"i(e) a(o/e% &he"eas no such "eason
is a/aila(le#
$ut no& a final )is*utant ente"s the )e(ate2 the s*eculati/e *hiloso*he"#
>he -aintains that neithe" the t&o )og-atists% no" the i)ealist ha/e
-anage) to i)entify the a(solute% (ecause the latte" is si-*ly the ca*acity0
to0(e0othe" as such% as theo"i;e) (y the agnostic# The a(solute is the
*ossi(le t"ansition% )e/oi) of "eason% of -y state to&a")s any othe" state
&hatsoe/e"# $ut this *ossi(ility is no longe" a +*ossi(ility of igno"ance+6
/i;#% a *ossi(ility that is -e"ely the "esult of -y ina(ility to .no& &hich
of the th"ee afo"e-entione) theses is co""ect 0 "athe"% it is the .no&le)ge
of the /e"y "eal *ossi(ility of all of these e/entualities% as &ell as of a
g"eat -any othe"s# 8o& then a"e &e a(le to clai- that this ca*acity0to0(e0
othe" is an a(solute 0 an in)ex of .no&le)ge "athe" than of igno"ance5 The
ans&e" is that it is the agnostic he"self &ho has con/ince) us of it# Fo"
ho& )oes the latte" go a(out "efuting the i)ealist5 >he )oes so (y
-aintaining that &e can thin. ou"sel/es as no longe" (eing6 in othe"
&o")s% (y -aintaining that ou" -o"tality% ou" annihilation% an) ou"
(eco-ing0&holly0othe" in Ao)% a"e all effecti/ely thin.a(le# $ut ho& a"e
these states concei/a(le as *ossi(ilities5 ,n account of the fact that &e
a"e a(le to thin. 0 (y )int of the a(sence of any "eason fo" ou" (eing 0 a
ca*acity0to0(e0othe" ca*a(le of a(olishing us% o" of "a)ically t"ansfo"-ing
us# $ut if so% then this ca*acity0to0(e0othe" cannot (e concei/e) as a
co""elate of ou" thin.ing% *"ecisely (ecause it ha"(ou"s the *ossi(ility of
ou" o&n non0(eing# In o")e" to thin. -yself as -o"tal% as the atheist )oes
0 an) hence as ca*a(le of not (eing 0 I -ust thin. -y ca*acity0not0to0(e
as an a(solute *ossi(ility% fo" if I thin. this *ossi(ility as a co""elate of -y
thin.ing% if I -aintain that the *ossi(ility of -y not0(eing only exists as a
co""elate of -y act of thin.ing the *ossi(ility of -y not0(eing% then J can
no longe" concei/e the *ossi(ility of -y not0(eing% &hich is *"ecisely the
thesis )efen)e) (y the i)ealist# Fo" I thin. -yself as -o"tal only if I thin.
that -y )eath has no nee) of -y thought of )eath in o")e" to (e actual# If
-y ceasing to (e )e*en)e) u*on -y continuing to (e so that I coul) .ee*
thin.ing -yself as not (eing% then I &oul) continue to agoni;e
in)efinitely% &ithout e/e" actually *assing a&ay# In othe" &o")s% in o")e"
to "efute su(:ecti/e i)ealis-% I -ust g"ant that -y *ossi(le annihilation is
thin.a(le as so-ething that is not :ust the co""elate of -y thought of this
annihilation# Thus% the co""elation0ist+s "efutation of i)ealis- *"ocee)s (y
&ay of an a(soluti;ation (&hich is to say% a )e0co""elation! of the
ca*acity0to0(e0othe" *"esu**ose) in the thought of facticity 0 this latte" is
the a(solute &hose "eality is thin.a(le as that of the in0itself as such in its
in)iffe"ence to thought6 an in)iffe"ence &hich confe"s u*on it the *o&e"
to )est"oy -e#
E/en so% the co""elationist -ight still -a.e the follo&ing o(:ection2 +The
s*eculati/e thesis is no -o"e ce"tain than those of the "ealists an) the
i)ealist# Fo" it is i-*ossi(le to gi/e a "eason in fa/ou" of the hy*othesis of
the "eal *ossi(ility of e/e"y en/isagea(le *ost0-o"te- e/entuality% "athe"
than in fa/ou" of the necessity of one a-ong those states *"o*ose) (y the
)og-atic hy*otheses# Thus% (oth the s*eculati/e an) the -eta*hysical
theses a"e e1ually concei/a(le% an) &e cannot )eci)e (et&een the-#+ $ut
ou" ans&e" to this -ust (e that% on the cont"a"y% the"e is in)ee) a *"ecise
"eason fo" the su*e"io"ity of the s*eculati/e thesis% an) it is the agnostic
he"self &ho has *"o/i)e) us &ith it% /i;#% the agnostic cannot )e0
a(soluti;e the ca*acity0to0(e0othe" &ithout the"e(y a(soluti;ing it once
again# Fo" he" o(:ection% in effect% "elies once -o"e u*on the
concei/a(ility of a ca*acity0to0(e0othe" &hich -ust (e thought of as
a(solute% the"e(y lea/ing e/e"y e/entuality o*en% "athe" than closing the-
in fa/ou" of one of the- alone% li.e the )og-atists )o# The co""elationist
)oes the o**osite of &hat she says 0 she says that &e can thin. that a
-eta*hysical thesis% &hich na""o&s the "eal- of *ossi(ility% -ight (e t"ue%
"athe" than the s*eculati/e thesis% &hich lea/es this "eal- enti"ely o*en6
(ut she can only say this (y thin.ing an o*en *ossi(ility% &he"ein no
e/entuality has any -o"e "eason to (e "eali;e) than any othe"# This o*en
*ossi(ility% this +e/e"ything is e1ually *ossi(le+% is an a(solute that cannot
(e )e0a(soluti;e) &ithout (eing thought as a(solute once -o"e#
This is a *oint &o"th la(ou"ing% fo" the enti"ety of the *"ece)ing
)e-onst"ation )e*en)s u*on it# 3hat the co""elationist tells us is this2
+3hen I say that the -eta*hysical theses a(out the in0itself 0 call the- Ml
an) M2 0 a"e e1ually *ossi(le% the te"- 4*ossi(le4 he"e )esignates a
*ossi(ility of igno"ance# 3hat I -ean (y this ex*"ession is that this
*ossi(ility is -e"ely a function of the fact that I )o not .no& &hich is the
co""ect thesis% Ml o" M2# $ut I )o not -ean to clai- that Ml o" M2 a"e not
necessa"y in0the-sel/es% since the necessity of one of these e/entualities
coul) (e "eal% (ut unfatho-a(le# The s*eculati/e thesis is a thi") thesis
&hich consists in -aintaining that Ml an) M2 a"e (oth "eal *ossi(ilities%
eithe" one of &hich is e1ually ca*a(le of (eing "eali;e)% *e"ha*s e/en one
afte" the othe"# $ut I -aintain that &e )o not .no& &hich of these th"ee
theses 0 i#e# =! necessity of Ml6 2! necessity of M26 E! "eal *ossi(ility of
Ml an) M2 0 is t"ue# Conse1uently% -y clai- is that &hat &e a"e )ealing
&ith he"e is th"ee *ossi(ilities of igno"ance (=% 2% E!% an) not &ith t&o "eal
*ossi(ilities (Ml% M2!#+
8e"e no& is the s*eculati/e *hiloso*he"+s "es*onse2 +3hen you thin. of
all th"ee of these theses as 4*ossi(le4% ho& a"e you a(le to access this
*ossi(ility5 8o& a"e you a(le to thin. this 4*ossi(ility of igno"ance4%
&hich lea/es all th"ee e/entualities o*en5 The t"uth is that you a"e only
a(le to thin. this *ossi(ility of igno"ance (ecause you ha/e actually
thought the a(soluteness of this *ossi(ility% &hich is to say% its non0
co""elational cha"acte"# <et -e -a.e -yself clea"% fo" this is the c"ux of
the -atte"# >o long as you -aintain that you" sce*ticis- to&a")s all
.no&le)ge of the a(solute is (ase) u*on an a"gu-ent% "athe" than u*on
-e"e (elief o" o*inion% then you ha/e to g"ant that the co"e of any such
a"gu-ent -ust (e thin.a(le# $ut the co"e of you" a"gu-ent is that &e can
access e/e"ything+s ca*acity0not0to0(e% o" ca*acity0to0(e0othe"6 ou" o&n
as &ell as the &o"l)+s# $ut once again% to say that one can thin. this is to
say that one can thin. the a(soluteness of the *ossi(ility of e/e"y thing#
This is the *"ice of )istinguishing (et&een the 4in0itself4 an) the 4fo"0us4%
since this )iffe"ence is (ase) u*on the concei/a(ility of the a(solute+s
ca*acity0to0(e0othe" "elati/e to the gi/en# 9ou" gene"al inst"u-ent of )e0
a(soluti;ation only &o".s (y conce)ing that &hat the s*eculati/e
*hiloso*he" consi)e"s to (e a(solute is actually thin.a(le as an a(solute6
o" (ette" still% is actually thought 0 (y you 0 as a(solute% since &e"e this not
the case% it &oul) ne/e" ha/e occu""e) to you not to (e a su(:ecti/e (o"
s*eculati/e! i)ealist# The /e"y i)ea of the )iffe"ence (et&een the in0itself
an) the fo"0us &oul) ne/e" ha/e a"isen &ithin you% ha) you not
ex*e"ience) &hat is *e"ha*s hu-an thought+s -ost "e-a".a(le *o&e" 0 its
ca*acity to access the *ossi(ility of its o&n non0(eing% an) thus to .no&
itself to (e -o"tal# 3hat you ex*e"ience in you" thought )"a&s its
"e)ou(ta(le *o&e" f"o- the *"ofoun) t"uth &hich is i-*licate) &ithin it 0
you ha/e 4touche) u*on4 nothing less than an a(solute% the only /e"ita(le
one% an) &ith its hel* you ha/e )est"oye) all the false a(solutes of
-eta*hysics% those of i)ealis- as &ell as those of "ealis-#
+Conse1uently% you a"e *e"fectly &ell a(le to )istinguish (et&een the
*ossi(ility of igno"ance an) the *ossi(ility of the a(solute# $ut this
)istinction &ill al&ays (e (ase) u*on the sa-e a"gu-ent 0 it is (ecause
one can thin. that it is a(solutely *ossi(le fo" the in0itself to (e othe" than
the gi/en% that &hat I (elie/e to (e "eally *ossi(le -ay not (e "eally
*ossi(le# ,nce this has (een conce)e)% you a"e caught in an infinite
"eg"ess% fo" e/e"y ti-e you clai- that &hat I call a "eal *ossi(ility is
-e"ely a *ossi(ility of igno"ance% you &ill )o so (y &ay of an a"gu-ent
that &o".s 0 i#e# continues to )is1ualify i)ealis-% &hich is you" othe"
*"inci*al a)/e"sa"y 0 only (y thin.ing as an a(solute the *ossi(ility you
clai- to (e )e0a(soluti;ing# In othe" &o")s% one cannot thin. un"eason 0
&hich is the e1ual an) in)iffe"ent *ossi(ility of e/e"y e/entuality 0 as
-e"ely "elati/e to thought% since only (y thin.ing it as an a(solute can -e
)e0a(soluti;e e/e"y )og-atic thesis#+
3e ha/e no& i)entifie) the faultline that lies "ight at the hea"t of co""e0
lationis-6 the one th"ough &hich &e can ("each its )efences 0 it is the fact
that the a"gu-ent of )e0a(soluti;ation% &hich see-e) unans&e"a(le% can
only function (y ca""ying out an i-*licit a(soluti;ation of one of its t&o
)ecisions# Eithe" I choose 0 against i)ealis- 0 to )e0a(soluti;e the
co""elation6 (ut at the cost of a(soluti;ing facticity# ," I choose% against
the s*eculati/e *hiloso*he"% to )e0a(soluti;e facticity 0 I su(-it the latte"
to the *"i-acy of the co""elation (e/e"ything I thin. -ust (e co""elate)
&ith an act of thought! (y asse"ting that this facticity is only t"ue fo"0-e%
not necessa"ily in0itself# $ut this is at the cost of an i)ealist a(soluti;ation
of the co""elation 0 fo" -y ca*acity0not0to0(e (eco-es unthin.a(le once I
it is const"ue) as nothing -o"e than the co""elate of -y act of thought# I
Thus% co""elationis- cannot )e0a(soluti;e (oth of its *"inci*les at once%
since it al&ays nee)s one of the- in o")e" to )e0a(soluti;e the othe"# As a
"esult% &e ha/e t&o &ays out of the co""elationist ci"cle2 eithe" (y
a(soluti;ing the co""elation% o" (y a(soluti;ing facticity# $ut &e ha/e
al"ea)y )is1ualifie) the -eta*hysical o*tion (y "ecusing the ontological
a"gu-ent6 conse1uently% &e cannot ta.e the i)ealist *ath% &hich is still
(ehol)en to the i)ea of "eal necessity% acco")ing to &hich so-e
)ete"-inate entity (>*i"it% 3ill% <ife!% -ust a(solutely (e# It "e-ains fo"
us to follo& the *ath of facticity% &hile ta.ing ca"e to ensu"e that its
a(soluti;ation not lea) (ac. to a )og-atic thesis#
CCC
It see-s &e ha/e "eache) ou" goal% &hich &as to i)entify the faultline in
the co""elationist ci"cle that &oul) allo& us to cut th"ough it to&a")s an
a(solute# 3e -ust no& t"y to cla"ify the -eaning of this a(soluti;ation of
facticity# 3e sai) that the a(solute &e see. shoul) not (e a )og-atic
a(solute2 the illegiti-acy of the ontological a"gu-ent con/ince) us that
all -eta*hysics 0 inclu)ing the su(:ecti/ist -eta*hysics that ete"nali;e)
the co""elation 0 ha) to (e "efuse)% an) &ith it e/e"y *"o*osition of the
ty*e2 this entity% o" this )ete"-inate .in) of entity% -ust a(solutely (e#
,u" tas. &as to unco/e" an a(solute that &oul) not (e an a(solute entity#
This is *"ecisely &hat &e o(tain (y a(soluti;ing facticity 0 &e )o not
-aintain that a )ete"-inate entity exists% (ut that it is a(solutely necessa"y
that e/e"y entity -ight not exist# This is in)ee) a s*eculati/e thesis% since
&e a"e thin.ing an a(solute% (ut it is not -eta*hysical% since &e a"e not
thin.ing any thing any (entity! that &oul) (e a(solute# The a(solute is the
a(solute i-*ossi(ility of a necessa"y (eing# 3e a"e no longe" u*hol)ing a
/a"iant of the *"inci*le of sufficient "eason% acco")ing to &hich the"e is a
necessa"y "eason &hy e/e"ything is the &ay it is "athe" than othe"&ise% (ut
"athe" the a(solute t"uth of a *"inci*le of un"eason# The"e is no "eason fo"
anything to (e o" to "e-ain the &ay it is6 e/e"ything -ust% &ithout "eason%
(e a(le not to (e an)Jo" (e a(le to (e othe" than it is#
3hat &e ha/e he"e is a *"inci*le% an) e/en% &e coul) say% an anhy*o0
thetical *"inci*le6 not in the sense in &hich 'lato use) this te"- to
)esc"i(e the I)ea of the Aoo)% (ut "athe" in the A"istotelian sense# $y
+anhy*othetical *"inci*le+% A"istotle -eant a fun)a-ental *"o*osition that
coul) not (e )e)uce) f"o- any othe"% (ut &hich coul) (e *"o/e) (y
a"gu-ent# This *"oof% &hich coul) (e calle) +in)i"ect+ o" +"efutational+%
*"ocee)s not (y )e)ucing the *"inci*le f"o- so-e othe" *"o*osition 0 in
&hich &e case it &oul) no longe" count as a *"inci*le 0 (ut (y *ointing
out the ine/ita(le inconsistency into &hich anyone contesting the t"uth of
the *"inci*le is (oun) to fall# ,ne esta(lishes the *"inci*le &ithout
)e)ucing it% (y )e-onst"ating that anyone &ho contests it can )o so only
(y *"esu**osing it to (e t"ue% the"e(y "efuting hi- o" he"self# A"istotle
sees in non0cont"a)iction *"ecisely such a *"inci*le% one that is esta(lishe)
+"efutationally+ "athe" than )e)ucti/ely% (ecause any cohe"ent challenge to
it al"ea)y *"esu**oses its acce*tance# 9et the"e is an essential )iffe"ence
(et&een the *"inci*le of un"eason an) the *"inci*le of non0cont"a)iction6
/i;# &hat A"istotle )e-onst"ates +"efutationally+ is that no one can thin. a
cont"a)iction% (ut he has not the"e(y )e-onst"ate) that cont"a)iction is
a(solutely i-*ossi(le# Thus the st"ong co""elationist coul) cont"ast the
facticity of this *"inci*le to its a(soluti;ation 0 she &oul) ac.no&le)ge
that she cannot thin. cont"a)iction% (ut she &oul) "efuse to ac.no&le)ge
that this *"o/es its a(solute i-*ossi(ility# Fo" she &ill insist that nothing
*"o/es that &hat is *ossi(le in0itself -ight not )iffe" toto caelo f"o- &hat
is thin.a(le fo" us# Conse1uently% the *"inci*le of non0cont"a)iction is
anhy*othetical &ith "ega") to &hat is thin.a(le% (ut not &ith "ega") to
&hat is *ossi(le#
$y &ay of cont"ast% the *"inci*le of un"eason is a *"inci*le that "e/eals
itself to (e not only anhy*othetical% (ut also a(solute 0 fo" as &e ha/e
seen% one cannot contest its a(solute /ali)ity &ithout the"e(y
*"esu**osing its a(solute t"uth# The sce*tic is only a(le to concei/e of the
)iffe"ence (et&een the +in0itself an) the +fo"0us+ (y su(-itting the +fo"0us+
to an a(sence of "eason &hich *"esu**oses the a(soluteness of the latte"#
It is (ecause &e can concei/e of the a(solute *ossi(ility that the +in0itself
coul) (e othe" than the +fo"0us+ that the co""elationist a"gu-ent can ha/e
any efficacy# Acco")ingly% the anhy*otheticity of the *"inci*le of
un"eason *e"tains to the +in0itself as &ell as to the +fo"0us+% an) thus to
contest this *"inci*le is al"ea)y to ha/e *"esu**ose) it# >i-ila"ly% to 1ue"y
its a(soluteness is al"ea)y to ha/e *"esu**ose) the latte"#
This *oint (eco-es "ea)ily un)e"stan)a(le if &e "elate this ca*acity0to0
(e0othe"0&ithout0"eason to the i)ea of a ti-e that &oul) (e ca*a(le of
("inging fo"th o" a(olishing e/e"ything# This is a ti-e that cannot (e
concei/e) as ha/ing e-e"ge) o" as (eing a(olishe) exce*t in ti-e% &hich
is to say% in itself# No )ou(t% this is a (anal a"gu-ent on the face of it2 +it is
i-*ossi(le to thin. the )isa**ea"ance of ti-e unless this )isa**ea"ance
occu"s in ti-e6 conse1uently% the latte" -ust (e concei/e) to (e ete"nal#+
$ut &hat *eo*le fail to notice is that this (anal a"gu-ent can only &o".
(y *"esu**osing a ti-e that is not (anal 0 not :ust a ti-e &hose ca*acity
fo" )est"oying e/e"ything is a function of la&s% (ut a ti-e &hich is
ca*a(le of the la&less )est"uction of e/e"y *hysical la&# It is *e"fectly
*ossi(le to concei/e of a ti-e )ete"-ine) (y the go/e"nance of fixe) la&s
)isa**ea"ing in so-ething othe" than itself 0 it &oul) )isa**ea" in anothe"
ti-e go/e"ne) (y alte"nati/e la&s# $ut only the ti-e that ha"(ou"s the
ca*acity to )est"oy e/e"y )ete"-inate "eality% &hile o(eying no
)ete"-inate la& 0 the ti-e ca*a(le of )est"oying% &ithout "eason o" la&%
(oth &o"l)s an) things 0 can (e thought as an a(solute# ,nly un"eason can
(e thought as ete"nal% (ecause only un"eason can (e thought as at once
anhy*othetical an) a(solute# Acco")ingly% &e can say that it is *ossi(le to
)e-onst"ate the a(solute necessity of e/e"ything+s non0necessity# In othe"
&o")s% it is *ossi(le to esta(lish% th"ough in)i"ect )e-onst"ation% the
a(solute necessity of the contingency of e/e"ything#
9et this +contingency+ -ust (e )istinguishe) f"o- the conce*t of the sa-e
na-e in/o.e) ea"lie" &hen &e s*o.e of the e-*i"ical contingency of
-ate"ial o(:ects# Facticity can (e legiti-ately i)entifie) &ith contingency
insofa" as the fo"-e" -ust not (e thought of as co-*"ising a *ossi(ility of
igno"ance% (ut "athe" as co-*"ising a *ositi/e .no&le)ge of e/e"ything+s
ca*acity0to0(e0othe" o" ca*acity0not0to0(e# $ut a(solute contingency
)iffe"s f"o- e-*i"ical contingency in the follo&ing &ay2 e-*i"ical
contingency 0 &hich &e &ill hencefo"th "efe" to using the te"-
+*"eca"iousness+ 0 gene"ally )esignates a *e"isha(ility that is (oun) to (e
"eali;e) soone" o" late"# This (oo.% this f"uit% this -an% this sta"% a"e all
(oun) to *e"ish soone" o" late"% so long as *hysical an) o"ganic la&s
"e-ain as they ha/e (een u* until no&# Thus +*"eca"iousness+ )esignates a
*ossi(ility of not0(eing &hich -ust e/entually (e "eali;e)# $y &ay of
cont"ast% a(solute contingency 0 fo" &hich &e shall hencefo"th "ese"/e the
te"- +contingency+ 0 )esignates a *u"e *ossi(ility6 one &hich -ay ne/e" (e
"eali;e)# Fo" &e cannot clai- to .no& fo" su"e &hethe" o" not ou" &o"l)%
although it is contingent% &ill actually co-e to an en) one )ay# 3e .no&%
in acco")ance &ith the *"inci*le of un"eason% that this is a "eal *ossi(ility%
an) that it coul) occu" fo" no "eason &hatsoe/e"6 (ut &e also .no& that
the"e is nothing that necessitates it# To asse"t the o**osite% /i;#% that
e/e"ything -ust necessa"ily *e"ish% &oul) (e to asse"t a *"o*osition that is
still -eta*hysical# A"ante)% this thesis of the *"eca"iousness of e/e"ything
&oul) no longe" clai- that a )ete"-inate entity is necessa"y% (ut it &oul)
continue to -aintain that a )ete"-inate situation is necessa"y% /i;#% the
)est"uction of this o" that# $ut this is still to o(ey the in:unction of the
*"inci*le of "eason% acco")ing to &hich the"e is a necessa"y "eason &hy
this is the case (the e/entual )est"uction of N!% "athe" than othe"&ise (the
en)less *e"sistence of N!# $ut &e )o not see (y /i"tue of &hat the"e &oul)
(e a "eason necessitating the *ossi(ility of )est"uction as o**ose) to the
*ossi(ility of *e"sistence# The une1ui/ocal "elin1uish-ent of the *"inci*le
of "eason "e1ui"es us to insist that (oth the )est"uction an) the *e"*etual
*"ese"/ation of a )ete"-inate entity -ust e1ually (e a(le to occu" fo" no
"eason# Contingency is such that anything -ight ha**en% e/en nothing at
all% so that &hat is% "e-ains as it is#
It no& (eco-es *ossi(le to en/isage a s*eculati/e c"iti1ue of co""ela0
tionis-% fo" it (eco-es *ossi(le to )e-onst"ate that the latte" "e-ains
co-*licit &ith the fi)eist (elief in the &holly0othe" insofa" as it actually
continues to "e-ain faithful to the *"inci*le of "eason# If the st"ong -o)el
of co""elationis- legiti-ates "eligious )iscou"se in gene"al% this is (ecause
it has faile) to )e0legiti-ate the *ossi(ility that the"e -ight (e a hi))en
"eason% an unfatho-a(le *u"*ose un)e"lying the o"igin of ou" &o"l)# This
"eason has (eco-e unthin.a(le% (ut it has (een *"ese"/e) as unthin.a(le6
sufficiently so to :ustify the /alue of its e/entual un/eiling in a
t"anscen)ent "e/elation# This (elief in an ulti-ate Reason "e/eals the t"ue
natu"e of st"ong co""elationis- 0 fa" f"o- "elin1uishing the *"inci*le of
"eason% st"ong co""elationis- is in fact the a*ologia fo" the no& i""ational
(elief in this /e"y *"inci*le# $y &ay of cont"ast% s*eculation *"ocee)s (y
accentuating thought+s "elin1uish-ent of the *"inci*le of "eason to the
*oint &he"e this "elin1uish-ent is con/e"te) into a *"inci*le% &hich alone
allo&s us to g"as* the fact that the"e is a(solutely no ulti-ate Reason%
&hethe" thin.a(le o" unthin.a(le# The"e is nothing (eneath o" (eyon) the
-anifest g"atuitousness of the gi/en 0 nothing (ut the li-itless an)
la&less *o&e" of its )est"uction% e-e"gence% o" *e"sistence#
CCC
3e can no& clai- to ha/e *asse) th"ough the co""elationist ci"cle 0 o" at
least to ha/e ("o.en th"ough the &all e"ecte) (y the latte"% &hich
se*a"ate) thought f"o- the g"eat out)oo"s% the ete"nal in0itself% &hose
(eing is in)iffe"ent to &hethe" o" not it is thought# 3e no& .no& the
location of the na""o& *assage th"ough &hich thought is a(le to exit f"o-
itself 0 it is th"ough facticity% an) th"ough facticity alone% that &e a"e a(le
to -a.e ou" &ay to&a")s the a(solute#
9et e/en &e"e one to g"ant that &e ha/e in)ee) ("o.en the ci"cle% it &oul)
see- that this /icto"y o/e" co""elationis- has (een &on at such a cost%
an) &ith so -any concessions to the latte"% that ou"s is actually a 'y""hic
/icto"y# Fo" the only a(solute &e ha/e -anage) to "escue f"o- the
conf"ontation &oul) see- to (e the /e"y o**osite of &hat is usually
un)e"stoo) (y that te"-% &hich is su**ose) to *"o/i)e a foun)ation fo"
.no&le)ge# ,u" a(solute% in effect% is nothing othe" than an ext"e-e fo"-
of chaos% a hy*e"0Chaos% fo" &hich nothing is o" &oul) see- to (e%
i-*ossi(le% not e/en the unthin.a(le# This a(solute lies at the fu"thest
"e-o/e f"o- the a(soluti;ation &e sought2 the one that &oul) allo&
-athe-atical science to )esc"i(e the in0itself# 3e clai-e) that ou"
a(soluti;ation of -athe-atics &oul) confo"- to the Ca"tesian -o)el an)
&oul) *"ocee) (y i)entifying a *"i-a"y a(solute (the analogue of Ao)!%
f"o- &hich &e &oul) )e"i/e a secon)a"y a(solute% &hich is to say% a
-athe-atical a(solute (the analogue of exten)e) su(stance!# 3e ha/e
succee)e) in i)entifying a *"i-a"y a(solute (Chaos!% (ut cont"a"y to the
/e"acious Ao)% the fo"-e" &oul) see- to (e inca*a(le of gua"anteeing
the a(soluteness of scientific )iscou"se% since% fa" f"o- gua"anteeing
o")e"% it gua"antees only the *ossi(le )est"uction of e/e"y o")e"#
If &e loo. th"ough the a*e"tu"e &hich &e ha/e o*ene) u* onto the
a(solute% &hat &e see the"e is a "athe" -enacing *o&e" 0 so-ething
insensi(le% an) ca*a(le of )est"oying (oth things an) &o"l)s% of ("inging
fo"th -onst"ous a(su")ities% yet also of ne/e" )oing anything% of "eali;ing
e/e"y )"ea-% (ut also e/e"y night-a"e% of engen)e"ing "an)o- an)
f"enetic t"ansfo"-ations% o" con/e"sely% of *"o)ucing a uni/e"se that
"e-ains -otionless )o&n to its ulti-ate "ecesses% li.e a clou) (ea"ing the
fie"cest sto"-s% then the ee"iest ("ight s*ells% if only fo" an inte"/al of
)is1uieting cal-# 3e see an o-ni*otence e1ual to that of the Ca"tesian
Ao)% an) ca*a(le of anything% e/en the inconcei/a(le6 (ut an
o-ni*otence that has (eco-e autono-ous% &ithout no"-s% (lin)% )e/oi)
of the othe" )i/ine *e"fections% a *o&e" &ith neithe" goo)ness no"
&is)o-% ill0)is*ose) to "eassu"e thought a(out the /e"acity of its )istinct
i)eas# 3e see so-ething a.in to Ti-e% (ut a Ti-e that is inconcei/a(le
fo" *hysics% since it is ca*a(le of )est"oying% &ithout cause o" "eason%
e/e"y *hysical la&% :ust as it is inconcei/a(le fo" -eta*hysics% since it is
ca*a(le of )est"oying e/e"y )ete"-inate entity% e/en a go)% e/en Ao)#
This is not a 8e"aclitean ti-e% since it is not the ete"nal la& of (eco-ing%
(ut "athe" the ete"nal an) la&less *ossi(le (eco-ing of e/e"y la&# It is a
Ti-e ca*a(le of )est"oying e/en (eco-ing itself (y ("inging fo"th%
*e"ha*s fo"e/e"% fixity% stasis% an) )eath#
8o& coul) such a )isaste" *"o/i)e the foun)ation fo" scientific )iscou"se5
8o& coul) Chaos *ossi(ly legiti-ate .no&le)ge of the ancest"al5
In o")e" to tac.le this *"o(le- of the -o/e-ent f"o- ou" *"i-a"y
(chaotic! a(solute% to ou" )e"i/e) (-athe-atical! a(solute% &e -ust ta.e a
close" loo. at the t"ansfo"-ation &hich &e ha/e &"ought in the notion of
facticity% (y )isco/e"ing in the latte" a *"inci*le% "athe" than an igno"ance
of *"inci*le# >o long as the *"o*osition +e/e"ything is *ossi(le% e/en the
unthin.a(le+ "e-aine) a co""elationist *"o*osition% &e &e"e )ealing &ith a
*ossi(ility of igno"ance# 3hat the sce*tic -eant (y this *"o*osition &as
that any thesis a(out the in0itself coul)% (y "ight% (e t"ue% &ithout anyone
(eing a(le to )isco/e" &hich# An) it see-s that (y -aintaining the
a(soluteness of chaos &e ha/e gaine) nothing in te"-s of .no&le)ge of
the in0itself "elati/e to the *osition of the sce*tic 0 fo" instea) of saying
that the in0itself coul) actually (e anything &hatsoe/e" &ithout anyone
.no&ing &hat% &e -aintain that the in0itself coul) actually (e anything
&hatsoe/e" an) that &e .no& this# 3hat the sce*tic const"ue) as
igno"ance 0 e/e"ything is *ossi(le 0 &e no& const"ue as .no&le)ge% (ut a
.no&le)ge &hose content see-s as in)ete"-inate as the -ost co-*lete
igno"ance#
9et if &e loo. -o"e closely% &e can )etect a s*ecific an) significant
)iffe"ence (et&een these t&o state-ents# If the co""elationist+s state-ent
a-ounts to a *u"e a/o&al of igno"ance% this is (ecause she is inca*a(le of
)is1ualifying any hy*othesis a(out the natu"e of the a(solute 0 he" clai-
is that it coul) (e anything at all# $ut this is no longe" the case &hen &e
const"ue facticity as an a(solute# Fo" &e .no& t&o things that the sce*tic
)i) not2 fi"st% that contingency is necessa"y% an) hence ete"nal6 secon)%
that contingency alone is necessa"y# $ut f"o- this a(solute necessity of
contingency alone &e can infe" an i-*ossi(ility that is e/e"y (it as
a(solute 0 fo" the"e is in fact so-ething that this *"i-a"y ato- of
.no&le)ge ensu"es us is a(solutely i-*ossi(le% e/en fo" all *o&e"ful
chaos% an) this so-ething% &hich chaos &ill ne/e" (e a(le to *"o)uce% is a
necessa"y entity# E/e"ything is *ossi(le% anything can ha**en 0 exce*t
so-ething that is necessa"y% (ecause it is the contingency of the entity that
is necessa"y% not the entity# 8e"e &e ha/e a )ecisi/e )iffe"ence (et&een
the *"inci*le of un"eason an) co""elational facticity% fo" &e no& .no& that
a -eta*hysical state-ent can ne/e" (e t"ue# 3e coul) ce"tainly en/isage
the e-e"gence of an entity &hich% as a -atte" of fact% &oul) (e
in)isce"ni(le f"o- a necessa"y entity% /i;#% an e/e"lasting entity% &hich
&oul) go on existing% :ust li.e a necessa"y entity# 9et this entity &oul)
not (e necessa"y% an) &e &oul) not (e a(le to say of it that it &ill actually
last fo"e/e"% only that% as a -atte" of fact% an) u* until no&% it has ne/e"
cease) to (e# >o &hat theo"etical a)/antage can &e ex*ect to gain f"o-
these *"o*ositions% /i;#% +only non0necessity is necessa"y+% an) +nothing can
exist that cannot (ut exist+5
These *"o*ositions a"e c"ucial (ecause they ha"(ou" the *"inci*le of an
auto0li-itation o" auto0no"-ali;ation of the o-ni*otence of chaos# 3e
can only ho*e to )e/elo* an a(solute .no&le)ge 0 a .no&le)ge of chaos
&hich &oul) not si-*ly .ee* "e*eating that e/e"ything is *ossi(le 0 on
con)ition that &e *"o)uce necessa"y *"o*ositions a(out it (esi)es that of
its o-ni*otence# $ut this "e1ui"es that &e )isco/e" no"-s o" la&s to
&hich chaos itself is su(:ect# 9et the"e is nothing o/e" an) a(o/e the
*o&e" of chaos that coul) const"ain it to su(-it to a no"-# If chaos is
su(:ect to const"aints% then this can only (e a const"aint &hich co-es f"o-
the natu"e of chaos itself% f"o- its o&n o-ni*otence# No&% the only
necessity *"o*e" to chaos is that it "e-ain chaos% an) hence that the"e (e
nothing ca*a(le of "esisting it 0 that &hat is al&ays "e-ain contingent% an)
that &hat is ne/e" (e necessa"y# 8o&e/e" 0 an) he"e &e co-e to the c"ux
of the -atte" 0 ou" con/iction is that in o")e" fo" an entity to (e contingent
an) un0necessa"y in this &ay% it cannot (e anything &hatsoe/e"# This is to
say that in o")e" to (e contingent an) un0necessa"y% the entity -ust
confo"- to ce"tain )ete"-inate con)itions% &hich can then (e const"ue) as
so -any a(solute *"o*e"ties of &hat is# 3e then (egin to un)e"stan) &hat
the "ational )iscou"se a(out un"eason 0 an un"eason &hich is not i""ational
0 &oul) consist in2 it &oul) (e )iscou"se that ai-s to esta(lish the
const"aints to &hich the entity -ust su(-it in o")e" to exe"cise its
ca*acity0not0to0(e an) its ca*acity0to0(e0othe"#
3hat a"e these con)itions% an) ho& a"e &e to o(tain the-5
3e )istinguishe) (et&een t&o -o)els of co""elationis-% the &ea. o"
7antian -o)el% &hich -aintaine) the concei/a(ility of the in0itself% an)
the st"ong -o)el% &hich conteste) e/en this concei/a(ility# The chaos
&hich &e ha/e )esc"i(e) thus fa" a-ounts to the +o(:ectiflcation+ of the
*ossi(ility co--ensu"ate &ith the st"ong -o)el% insofa" as &e )esc"i(e)
the fo"-e" as ca*a(le of ("inging a(out the unthin.a(le% the illogical% an)
the self0cont"a)icto"y# Coul) &e not +cu"(+ the *otency of this chaos% so as
to tu"n the latte" into an +o(:ectification+ of the &ea. o" 7antian -o)el
instea)5 Might it not (e *ossi(le to esta(lish that chaos% in o")e" to "e-ain
chaos% cannot actually ("ing fo"th the unthin.a(le5 Mo"e *"ecisely% &e a"e
as.ing &hethe" the necessity of contingency -ight not i-*ose the
a(solute t"uth of the t&o state-ents &hich 7ant ha) fo"-ulate) a(out the
a(out the in0itself% an) &hich ensu"e) its concei/a(ility2
=# The thing0in0itself is non0cont"a)icto"y6
2# The"e is a thing0in0itself#
3e a"e no& going to see that these t&o state-ents a(out the in0itself%
&hich 7ant si-*ly assu-e) &ithout atte-*ting to *"o/i)e any fu"the"
:ustification fo" the-% can (e )e-onst"ate) to (e a(solutely t"ue th"ough
the *"inci*le of un"eason# <et us see ho&#
CCC
3e ha/e o(taine) t&o ontological state-ents a(out un"eason2
=# A necessa"y entity is i-*ossi(le6
2# The contingency of the entity is necessa"y#
Although (oth these state-ents say -o"e o" less the sa-e thing% thei"
se*a"ate fo"-ulations a"e going to allo& us to infe" f"o- the- the t"uth of
(oth of 7ant+s state-ents a(out the in0itself#
=# 8e"e is the fi"st thesis2 a cont"a)icto"y entity is a(solutely i-*ossi(le%
(ecause if an entity &as cont"a)icto"y% it &oul) (e necessa"y# $ut a
necessa"y entity is a(solutely i-*ossi(le6 conse1uently% so too is
cont"a)iction#
>ince the"e is e/e"y li.elihoo) that the "ea)e" &ill )is-iss such an
a"gu-ent as nonsensical% it is *"o(a(ly (est that &e (egin (y exa-ining
the *"inci*al "easons &hy he o" she is lia(le to "efuse such an infe"ence#
Mo"e *"ecisely% &e &ill (egin (y ex*oun)ing the o(:ections against the
/e"y i)ea of a )e-onst"ation conce"ning non0cont"a)iction% (efo"e
ente"ing into the inte"nal logic of the a"gu-ent#
a! Fi"st% it &ill (e o(:ecte) that the"e is nothing to say a(out a
cont"a)icto"y entity% since the latte" is nothing% an) nothing can (e
asse"te) a(out &hat is nothing#
$ut this is al"ea)y to assu-e *"ecisely &hat nee)s to (e )e-onst"ate)% fo"
ho& )o &e .no& that a cont"a)icto"y entity is nothing5 No )ou(t% a "eal
cont"a)iction is inconcei/a(le% (ut the &hole *"o(le- is to .no& &hat
allo&s us to infe" an a(solute i-*ossi(ility f"o- this inconcei/a(ility#
Thus% the o(:ection that nothing can (e sai) a(out cont"a)iction (ecause
the cont"a)icto"y is nothing si-*ly (egs the 1uestion% since one is in)ee)
the"e(y asse"ting so-ething a(out the cont"a)icto"y entity% /i;#% that it is
a(solutely nothing% yet one is )oing so &ithout :ustifying this asse"tion%
unli.e the a"gu-ent &hich one is su**ose)ly c"itici;ing#
(! >econ)% it &ill (e o(:ecte) that this a"gu-ent is necessa"ily ci"cula"%
since non0cont"a)iction is *"esu**ose) in all "ational a"gu-entation#
Conse1uently% the /e"y clai- to )e-onst"ate the t"uth of non0
cont"a)iction is cont"a)icto"y% since one+s "easoning al"ea)y assu-es &hat
is su**ose) to (e )e-onst"ate)#
This o(:ection also -isconst"ues &hat &e a"e see.ing to esta(lish# 3e a"e
not contesting the fact that non0cont"a)iction is the -ini-al no"- fo" all
a"gu-entation# $ut this *"inci*le (y itself cannot suffice to gua"antee the
a(solute i-*ossi(ility of cont"a)iction% since it sti*ulates the no"- of the
thin.a(le% not of the *ossi(le# 3e sa& this in the case of A"istotle+s
const"ual of non0cont"a)iction 0 the latte" -anage) to esta(lish this
*"inci*le+s necessity fo" thought% (ut not fo" the in0itself# The"e is no
)ou(ting the fact that ou" "easoning confo"-s to this *"inci*le% (ut this
)oes not -a.e it ci"cula"% since it *"ocee)s only f"o- the inconcei/a(ility
of cont"a)iction (&hich &e assu-e!% in o")e" to infe" the latte"+s
i-*ossi(ility% &hich is a )istinct thesis# ,u" "easoning &oul) only (e
ci"cula" if &e assu-e) at the sta"t the i-*ossi(ility of cont"a)iction# $ut it
is not the a(solute i-*ossi(ility of cont"a)iction &hich allo&s the
a"gu-ent to function6 it is the a(solute i-*ossi(ility of necessity% &hich
has (een in)e*en)ently esta(lishe) th"ough the anhy*othetical *"inci*le
of un"eason# It is (ecause the entity cannot (e necessa"y 0 an) not (ecause
the entity -ust (e logically consistent 0 that &e infe" the i-*ossi(ility of
cont"a)iction#
c! No& co-es the thi") o(:ection% &hich clai-s that ou" "easoning is &ell
an) t"uly ci"cula"% (ecause in o")e" to &o".% it has to *"esu**ose &hat it is
su**ose) to )e-onst"ate% /i;#% the a(solute i-*ossi(ility (an) not :ust the
inconcei/a(ility! of cont"a)iction# Fo" if one )oes not assu-e the a(solute
status of cont"a)iction% &hy then only infe" f"o- cont"a)iction the
necessity% an) not also the contingency% of the entity5 It is (ecause it
see-s cont"a)icto"y to us to -aintain that an entity coul) (e at once
necessa"y an) contingent that &e infe" f"o- its (eing cont"a)icto"y a
)ete"-inate *"o*osition% i#e# its (eing necessa"y% "athe" than its
cont"a)icto"y% i#e# its (eing contingent# $ut &hy shoul) chaos% &hich is
su**ose) to (e ca*a(le of *"o)ucing the unthin.a(le% not (e ca*a(le of
"en)e"ing t"ue the *"o*osition +&hat is necessa"y is contingent+5 To )eny
this *ossi(ility is al"ea)y to ha/e assu-e) &hat one clai-e) to (e
)e-onst"ating% /i;#% the a(solute status of non0cont"a)iction#
This thi") o(:ection is the -ost se"ious# In o")e" to "efute it% &e -ust
ex*lain the inte"nal logic of ou" a"gu-ent#
It is custo-a"y to const"ue those thin.e"s &ho affi"-e) the shee"
(eco-ing of all things as thin.e"s &ho -aintaine) the "eality of
cont"a)iction# The notion of "eal cont"a)iction is then inte"*"ete) in te"-s
of the i)ea of a flux in &hich e/e"y thing ceaselessly (eco-es othe" than
it is% an) &he"ein (eing *asses ceaselessly into non0(eing% an) non0(eing
into (eing# 9et it see-s to us *"ofoun)ly inaccu"ate to associate the thesis
of "eal cont"a)iction &ith the thesis of so/e"eign flux# 3e ha/e al"ea)y
*ut fo"&a") ou" o&n account of the uni/e"sal (eco-ing of all things2 the
latte" consists in a chaos so chaotic that e/en (eco-ing -ay a"ise an)
*e"ish &ithin it# $ut the only thing that coul) ne/e" a"ise an) *e"ish in
such a chaos% the only thing that &oul) "e-ain exe-*t f"o- all (eco-ing
as &ell as f"o- all -o)ification% the utte"ly I--uta(le instance against
&hich e/en the o-ni*otence of contingency &oul) co-e to g"ief% &oul)
(e a cont"a)icto"y entity# An) this fo" the *"ecise "eason that such an
entity coul) ne/e" (eco-e othe" than it is (ecause the"e &oul) (e no
alte"ity fo" it in &hich to (eco-e#
<et us su**ose that a cont"a)icto"y entity existe) 0 &hat coul) *ossi(ly
ha**en to it5 Coul) it la*se into non0(eing5 $ut it is cont"a)icto"y% so that
e/en if it ha**ene) not to (e% it &oul) still continue to (e e/en in not0
(eing% since this &oul) (e in confo"-ity &ith its *a"a)oxical +essence+# It
&oul) exe-*lify the t"uth of the *"o*osition2 +&hat is% is not% an) &hat is
not% is#+ 'e"ha*s it -ight (e o(:ecte) that in such a case% one coul) neithe"
say that it is o" that it is not5 $ut this is not an o*tion% since &e a"e al"ea)y
assu-ing that such a cont"a)icto"y entity exists# The"efo"e% (y hy*othesis%
this entity exists% an) so &e -ust (e content si-*ly to exa-ine the &ay in
&hich this cont"a)icto"y entity can exist# $ut it then (eco-es a**a"ent
that one of the )efining cha"acte"istics of such an entity &oul) (e to
continue to (e e/en &e"e it not to (e# Conse1uently% if this entity existe)%
it &oul) (e i-*ossi(le fo" it si-*ly to cease to exist 0 un*e"tu"(e)% it
&oul) inco"*o"ate the fact of not existing into its (eing# Thus% as an
instance of a "eally cont"a)icto"y (eing% this entity &oul) (e *e"fectly
ete"nal#
9et this entity &oul) also *"o/e inca*a(le of un)e"going any so"t of
actual (eco-ing 0 it coul) ne/e" (eco-e othe" than it is% since it al"ea)y is
this othe"# As cont"a)icto"y% this entity is al&ays0al"ea)y &hate/e" it is
not# Thus% the int"o)uction of a cont"a)icto"y entity into (eing &oul)
"esult in the i-*losion of the /e"y i)ea of )ete"-ination 0 of (eing such
an) such% of (eing this "athe" than that# >uch an entity &oul) (e
tanta-ount to a +(lac. hole of )iffe"ences+% into &hich all alte"ity &oul) (e
i""e-e)ia(ly s&allo&e) u*% since the (eing0othe" of this entity &oul) (e
o(lige)% si-*ly (y /i"tue of (eing othe" than it% not to (e othe" than it#
Acco")ingly% "eal cont"a)iction can in no &ay (e i)entifie) &ith the thesis
of uni/e"sal (eco-ing% fo" in (eco-ing% things -ust (e this% then othe"
than this6 they a"e% then they a"e not# This )oes not in/ol/e any
cont"a)iction% since the entity is ne/e" si-ultaneously this an) its
o**osite% existent an) non0existent# A "eally illogical entity consists "athe"
in the syste-atic )est"uction of the -ini-al con)itions fo" all (eco-ing 0
it su**"esses the )i-ension of alte"ity "e1ui"e) fo" the )e*loy-ent of any
*"ocess &hatsoe/e"% li1ui)ating it in the fo"-less (eing &hich -ust
al&ays al"ea)y (e &hat it is not# Thus it is not (y chance that the g"eatest
thin.e" of cont"a)iction% that is to say% 8egel% &as not the thin.e" of the
so/e"eignty of (eco-ing% (ut on the cont"a"y% the thin.e" of a(solute
i)entity% of the i)entity of i)entity an) )iffe"ence# Fo" &hat 8egel sa& so
acutely is that the necessa"y entity *a" excellence coul) only (e the entity
that ha) nothing outsi)e it an) that &oul) not (e li-ite) (y any alte"ity#
Thus the >u*"e-e $eing coul) only (e the (eing that "e-ains in itself
e/en as it *asses into its othe"% the entity that contains cont"a)iction &ithin
itself as a -o-ent of its o&n )e/elo*-ent% the entity that /e"ifies the
su*"e-e cont"a)iction of not (eco-ing anything othe" e/en as it (eco-es
othe"# It is su*"e-e% "e*osing ete"nally &ithin itself% (ecause it a(so"(s
(oth )iffe"ence an) (eco-ing into its su*e"io" i)entity# An) it ha"(ou"s
the su*e"io" fo"- of ete"nity (ecause it is at once te-*o"al an) ate-*o"al%
*"ocessual an) i--uta(le#
3e a"e no& in a *osition to see &hy the thi") o(:ection outline) a(o/e is
in/ali)# This o(:ection clai-e) that (y infe""ing the necessity of the entity
f"o- its (eing0cont"a)icto"y% &e &e"e al"ea)y *"esu**osing the
a(soluteness of the *"inci*le of non0cont"a)iction% fo" othe"&ise &e coul)
:ust as &ell ha/e infe""e) the entity+s contingency# To this &e -ust "e*ly
that one -ay ce"tainly say of a cont"a)icto"y entity that it is at once
necessa"y an) unnecessa"y% (ut in )oing so% one continues to )esc"i(e it as
a su*"e-ely necessa"y entity% since one continues to *"eclu)e any
)i-ension of alte"ity th"ough &hich the entity coul) (e su(:ecte) to
change# Although one -ay say anything at all a(out a cont"a)icto"y
entity% ne/e"theless% one is the"e(y )oing so-ething /e"y s*ecific%
(ecause one is in)istinguishing e/e"ything% an) conse1uently eli-inating
any *ossi(ility of thin.ing this entity+s (eing0othe"&ise# The only
*ossi(ility of "eint"o)ucing )iffe"ence into (eing% an) the"e(y a
concei/a(le (eco-ing% &oul) (e (y no longe" allo&ing oneself the "ight
to -a.e cont"a)icto"y state-ents a(out an entity#
Conse1uently% &e .no& (y the *"inci*le of un"eason &hy non0
cont"a)iction is an a(solute ontological t"uth2 (ecause it is necessa"y that
&hat is (e )ete"-ine) in such a &ay as to (e ca*a(le of (eco-ing% an) of
(eing su(se1uently )ete"-ine) in so-e othe" &ay# It is necessa"y that this
(e this an) not that% o" anything else &hatsoe/e"% *"ecisely in o")e" to
ensu"e that this can (eco-e that o" anything else &hatsoe/e"#
Acco")ingly% it (eco-es a**a"ent that the ontological -eaning of the
*"inci*le of non0cont"a)iction% fa" f"o- )esignating any so"t of fixe)
essence% is that of the necessity of contingency% o" in othe" &o")s% of the
o-ni*otence of chaos#
<ei(ni; foun)e) -eta*hysical "ationality u*on t&o *"inci*les &hose
sco*e &as consi)e"e) to (e a(solute2 the *"inci*le of non0cont"a)iction
an) the *"inci*le of sufficient "eason# 8egel sa& that the a(soluti;ation of
the *"inci*le of sufficient "eason (&hich -a".e) the cul-ination of the
(elief in the necessity of &hat is! "e1ui"e) the )e/aluation of the *"inci*le
of non0cont"a)iction# >t"ong (3ittgensteinian08ei)egge"ian!
co""elationis- insiste) u*on )e0a(soluti;ing (oth the *"inci*le of "eason
an) the *"inci*le of non0cont"a)iction# $ut the *"inci*le of un"eason
teaches us that it is (ecause the *"inci*le of "eason is a(solutely false that
the *"inci*le of non0cont"a)iction is a(solutely t"ue#
2# 3e -o/e no& to the secon) 1uestion# This ti-e it is a -atte" of
)e-onst"ating the thesis &hich states that the thing0in0itself actually
exists% an) that the"e is a "eal- of the in0itself% an) not :ust the
*heno-enal "eal- of the +fo"0us+# 3e &ill call this the thesis of the +the"e
is+# Ulti-ately% this (oils )o&n to conf"onting the <ei(ni;ian 1uestion2
+&hy is the"e so-ething "athe" than nothing5+ It is a -atte" of
)e-onst"ating that it is a(solutely necessa"y that the in0itself exists% an)
hence that the latte" cannot )issol/e into nothingness% &he"eas on the
cont"a"y% the "eal- of the +fo"0us+ is essentially *e"isha(le% since it "e-ains
co""elati/e &ith the existence of thin.ing an)Jo" li/ing (eings# 3e -ust
)e-onst"ate that e/e"ything &oul) not la*se into nothingness &ith the
annihilation of li/ing c"eatu"es% an) that the &o"l) in0itself &oul) su(sist
)es*ite the a(olition of e/e"y "elation0to0the0&o"l)#
$ut &e )o not *"o*ose to fo"-ulate (o" "esol/e! this 1uestion in the
-anne" of -eta*hysicians% &hich is to say% (y un/eiling the existence of a
'"i-e Mo/e" o" >u*"e-e $eing &hich &oul) su**ose)ly *"o/i)e the
"eason fo" the fact that the"e is anything at all# 3hat &e *"o*ose to )o is
offe" a "esolution of this *"o(le- &hich &oul) (e at once non0theological
(fo"egoing any a**eal to an ulti-ate "eason! an) non0fl)eist# ,u" ai- is to
"ecuse (oth of these attitu)es to the 1uestion 0 the -eta*hysical attitu)e%
&hich "esol/es it (y using the *"inci*le of "eason an) (y in/o.ing a
>u*"e-e Reason6 an) the fi)eist attitu)e% &hich -aintains i"onically that
the 1uestion has no -eaning fo" *hiloso*hy 0 not in o")e" to a(olish it% (ut
only so as to han) it o/e" to so-e non0"ational )iscou"se# ,u" suggestion
he"e is that it is not the atheist (ut "athe" the (elie/e" 0 in his
conte-*o"a"y sce*tico0fl)eist inca"nation 0 &ho insists that <ei(ni;+s
1uestion has no "ational -eaning# Fo" in )oing so% the (elie/e" is a(le to
en)o& the 1uestion &ith a *u"ely "eligious significance% &he"e(y (eing is
const"ue) as the -anifestation of a *"o)igy% a -i"aculous )eli/e"ance
f"o- nothingness 0 a -i"acle &hich% since it is g"atuitous an) un0
necessa"y% can (e const"ue) as f"agile an) "e/e"si(le# Ulti-ately% the
fi)eist is so-eone &ho -a"/els at the fact that the"e is so-ething "athe"
than nothing (ecause he (elie/es that the"e is no "eason fo" it% an) that
(eing is a *u"e gift% &hich -ight ne/e" ha/e occu""e)#
Conse1uently% the"e a"e t&o *ositions &hich &e ha/e to counte"2 the one
that clai-s to *"o/i)e a "ational ans&e" to the 1uestion (y in/o.ing a Ao)
o" Ulti-ate '"inci*le% an) the one that clai-s to )eli/e" the 1uestion f"o-
the :u"is)iction of "eason to the (enefit of Ao) o" so-e instance of the
3holly ,the"# In othe" &o")s% &e -ust c"itici;e the )og-atic "esolution
of the 1uestion as &ell as its i"onic )issolution% &hose theo"etical
sce*ticis- actually *e"*etuates (&hethe" a/o&e)ly o" not! its "eligious
-eaning% &hich alone is )ee-e) ca*a(le of extolling its *"ofun)ity#
Face) &ith these t&o &ays of en)o&ing the *"o(le- &ith an ele/ate)
-eaning 0 a -eaning &hich in (oth cases lea)s st"aight to the )i/ine 0the
s*eculati/e stance "e1ui"es that &e t"eat the 1uestion *"osaically# The
*oint is to )e0)"a-ati;e this 1uestion% to "e)uce it to its *"o*e" )eg"ee of
i-*o"tance% &hich is not ;e"o% (ut secon)a"y# Thus the 1uestion -ust (e
"esol/e)% since clai-s that it is insolu(le o" -eaningless a"e :ust anothe"
&ay of legiti-ating its continuing exaltation# $ut instea) of ele/ating us
to the e-inence of a fi"st cause% its "esolution shoul) se"/e "athe" as a
"e-in)e" of the latte"+s ete"nal a(sence# 3e -ust f"ee ou"sel/es of the
1uestion 0 (ut this "e1ui"es not :ust that &e "esol/e it% (ut that &e
fo"-ulate an ans&e" to it &hich is necessa"ily )isa**ointing% so that this
)isa**oint-ent (eco-es its -ost inst"ucti/e as*ect# The only *"o*e"
attitu)e &hen conf"onte) &ith such a *"o(le- is to -aintain that the"e is
little at sta.e in it% an) that the s*i"itual t"e-ulousness &hich it ins*i"es%
&hethe" sa")onic o" *"ofoun)% is ina**"o*"iate# A-ong the s*eculati/e
c"ite"ia fo" the *"o*e" solution to the *"o(le- shoul) (e the so(e"ing
effect in)uce) in the "ea)e" &hen she un)e"stan)s the solution% an) says
to he"self% +so that+s &hat it &as ###+
>o let us atte-*t a )eflationa"y solution#
Ulti-ately% this )e"i/ation of the +the"e is+ is a -atte" of s*ecifying the
-eaning of the state-ent f"o- &hich &e (egan2 facticity is a(solute% it is
not a fact &hich -ight not (e the case# The -eaning of the *"inci*le of
un"eason consists in the clai- that facticity is not :ust anothe" fact in the
&o"l) 0 facticity is not on the sa-e le/el as facts% li.e an ext"a fact &hich
coul) (e a))e) to the latte"# I can )ou(t the *e"-anence of facts% (ut I
cannot )ou(t the *e"-anence of facticity &ithout the"e(y "eite"ating it as
an a(solute# 9et this state-ent a(out the non0facticity of facticity can (e
un)e"stoo) in t&o &ays% &hich &e &ill "efe" to as the &ea. an) st"ong
inte"*"etations of the *"inci*le of un"eason#
The &ea. inte"*"etation of the *"inci*le can (e fo"-ulate) as follo&s2 to
say that contingency is necessa"y is to say that if so-ething is% then it
-ust (e contingent# The st"ong inte"*"etation% (y &ay of cont"ast%
-aintains the follo&ing2 to say that contingency is necessa"y% is to say
(oth that things -ust (e contingent an) that the"e -ust (e contingent
things# The &ea. inte"*"etation clai-s that it is not :ust a fact 0 one -o"e
fact alongsi)e othe"s 0 that existing things a"e factual% as o**ose) to
necessa"y6 (ut the st"ong inte"*"etation also clai-s that neithe" is it a fact 0
one -o"e fact alongsi)e othe"s 0 that factual things exist% as o**ose) to
not existing#
If one acce*ts the *"inci*le of un"eason% one is at least co--itte) to its
&ea. inte"*"etation 0 this is the -ini-al sense of the *"inci*le% acco")ing
to &hich if so-ething is% then it -ust (e contingent# To "e:ect the &ea.
inte"*"etation &oul) (e to "e:ect the *"inci*le of un"eason# $ut since% (y
hy*othesis% &e ha/e al"ea)y acce*te) the *"inci*le% then &e -ust also
acce*t its &ea. inte"*"etation# $ut one coul) /e"y &ell acce*t the
*"inci*le of factuality &hile "e:ecting its st"ong inte"*"etation 0 thus one
coul) -aintain that if so-ething exists% then it -ust (e contingent% &hile
insisting that this in no &ay entails that so-ething -ust exist O if things
exist% then they necessa"ily exist as facts% (ut nothing necessitates that
the"e (e factual things# Conse1uently% the 1uestion +&hy is the"e
so-ething "athe" than nothing5+ ta.es the follo&ing fo"- fo" us2 can one%
cont"a"y to the *"ece)ing thesis &hich confines itself to the &ea.
inte"*"etation% :ustify a st"ong inte"*"etation of the *"inci*le of un"easonK
If this inte"*"etation &e"e to (e acce*te)% then &e &oul) ha/e succee)e)
in esta(lishing that it is necessa"y that so-ething exist% (ecause it is
necessa"y that contingent things exist#
In o")e" to t"y an) legiti-ate the st"ong inte"*"etation% let us (egin (y
assu-ing that only the &ea. inte"*"etation is /ali)# If so% &hat exactly
&oul) this entail5 3e &oul) ha/e to say that it is a fact% not a necessity%
that factual things exist# Thus% the /e"y existence of facticity &oul) ha/e
to (e )esc"i(e) as a fact% fo" if nothing existe)% then nothing &oul) (e
factual% an) conse1uently the"e &oul) (e no facticity# $ut the only &ay
fo" -e to -aintain such a thesis &oul) (e (y asse"ting a facticity of
facticity% &hich is to say% a +secon)0o")e"+ facticity# I &oul) ha/e to clai-
that the"e is a fi"st0o")e" facticity% &hich &oul) (e the facticity of things%
an) &hich entails that it is *ossi(le fo" e/e"y )ete"-inate st"uctu"e o"
thing not to exist6 (ut also a secon)0o")e" facticity% a facticity of the
facticity of things% &hich &oul) entail that fi"st0o")e" facticity -ight not
o(tain in the a(sence of the actual existence of factual things# $ut if &e
"ecall ho& &e esta(lishe) the *"inci*le of un"eason% it is easy to see that
this thesis is self0"efuting# Fo" as &e sa& ea"lie"% in o")e" to )ou(t the
necessity of so-ething% I -ust g"ant that the facticity of this thing can (e
thought as an a(solute# Mo"eo/e"% in o")e" fo" the &o"l) in its enti"ety to
(e thought as ca*a(le of not (eing% o" of not (eing as it is% I -ust assu-e
that the *ossi(ility of its not0(eing (its facticity! can (e thought (y -e as
an a(solute (an) thus as not :ust the co""elate of -y thought!# ," again% as
&e sa& a(o/e% in o")e" to g"as* -y o&n -o"tality% I -ust const"ue -y
)eath% the *ossi(ility of -y not0(eing% as an a(solute *ossi(ility#
Acco")ingly% I cannot )ou(t the a(soluteness of facticity &ithout
i--e)iately "e0instating it as an a(solute# 3hen I clai- that the facticity
of things (fi"st0o")e" facticity! is a fact% I also assu-e that the facticity of
facticity (secon)0o")e" facticity! can (e thought as an a(solute# $ut then I
(eco-e caught in an infinite "eg"ess% fo" if I clai- that secon)0o")e"
facticity is also a fact% I can only )o so (y assu-ing that the"e is a thi")0
o")e" facticity &hich is itself a(solute% an) so on#
In othe" &o")s% the act of )ou(ting the necessity of facticity is self0
"efuting% (ecause it assu-es an a(soluteness of facticity in the act of
thin.ing &hile si-ultaneously )enying it in the content of this sa-e
thought# Acco")ingly% facticity cannot (e thought of as anothe" fact in the
&o"l) 0 it is not a fact that things a"e factual% :uts as it is not a fact that
factual things exist# Thus the only cohe"ent inte"*"etation of the *"inci*le
of factuality is the st"ong one2 it is not a fact (ut "athe" an a(solute
necessity that factual things exist#
9et he"e &e can en/isage anothe" o(:ection% &hich &e &ill once -o"e set
fo"th in the fo"- of a )i"ect )iscou"se2 +9ou" thesis is in/ali) fo" the
follo&ing "eason2 contingency )esignates not only *ositi/e facts
*e"taining to existing things o" e/ents that coul) ha/e not existe) (such as%
fo" exa-*le% the fact that 4this leaf is on -y ta(le4!% (ut also 4negati/e
facts4 *e"taining to non0existing things o" e/ents that coul) ha/e existe)
(ut )i)n+t (such as fo" exa-*le the fact that 4it is not "aining to)ay4!# Thus
to say that contingency is necessa"y is to say that it is necessa"y that the"e
(e non0existing things that coul) exist (negati/e facts that ha/e no "eason
to "e-ain negati/e!% as &ell as existing things that coul) not0exist# 3hy
then not say that contingency coul) su(sist as the contingency of negati/e
facts alone+K This &oul) -ean that the"e a"e non0existing things ca*a(le
of existing% (ut the"e a"e no existing things ca*a(le of not0existing#
E/e"ything &oul) "e-ain 4*otential4 in the -i)st of chaos &ithout
facticity (eing a(olishe)% since a negati/e fact "e-ains a fact#
Contingency &oul) *e"tain only to e/entualities o" *"o*ensities to (e%
none of &hich &oul) ha/e (een actuali;e) 0 it &oul) (e contingent that
*"o*ensities "e-ain -e"e *"o*ensities% yet in fact% none of the- &oul)
ha/e (een actuali;e)# Fo" afte" all% if one is &illing to a)-it that
so-ething that exists coul)% in fact% continue to exist in)efinitely% then
one -ust also a)-it that anything that )oes not exist coul)% in fact%
continue to *e"sist in)efinitely in its /i"tual0(eing#+
This o(:ection can (e "efute) as follo&s2 although ou" inte"locuto" )oes
not )eny that facticity can (e thought as an a(solute% he -aintains that this
a(soluteness can (e thought as the (e/entual! a(soluteness of negati/e
facts alone# Thus the necessity of facticity is no longe" the gua"anto" of
the existence of *ositi/e facts# 9et to a)-it that facticity can (e thought
as an a(solute is a fo"tio"i to a)-it that it can (e thought full sto*# $ut I
cannot thin. facticity -e"ely as the *ossi(ility that existing things coul)
not exist% o" that non0existing things coul) exist 0 the *e"sistence of the
t&o "eal-s of existence an) non0existence *"o/i)es the /e"y con)ition fo"
the concei/a(ility of facticity# Fo" although I can thin. the contingency of
this existing thing% I cannot thin. the contingency of existence as such (o"
of the fact that so-ething exists in gene"al!# Thus% I a- *e"fectly
inca*a(le of thin.ing the a(olition of existence% an) so (eco-ing0
inexistent is only concei/a(le as the (eco-ing of a )ete"-inate existent%
not as the (eco-ing of existence in gene"al# To clai- that an existent can
not exist% an) to clai- -o"eo/e" that this *ossi(ility is an ontological
necessity% is also to clai- that the shee" existence of the existent% :ust li.e
the shee" inexistence of the inexistent% a"e the t&o i-*e"isha(le *oles
&hich allo& the *e"isha(ility of e/e"ything to (e thought# Conse1uently% I
can no -o"e concei/e of the contingency of negati/e facts alone than I
can concei/e of the non0(eing of existence as such# >ince contingency is
thin.a(le (as an a(solute!% (ut unthin.a(le &ithout the *e"sistence of the
t&o "eal-s of existence an) inexistence% &e ha/e to say that it is
necessa"y that the"e al&ays (e this o" that existent ca*a(le of not existing%
an) this o" that inexistent ca*a(le of existing#
Thus the solution to the *"o(le- is as follo&s2 it is necessa"y that the"e (e
so-ething "athe" than nothing (ecause it is necessa"ily contingent that
the"e is so-ething "athe" than so-ething else# The necessity of the
contingency of the entity i-*oses the necessa"y existence of the
contingent entity#
In the context of t"anscen)ental i)ealis-% the unsu"*assa(le facticity of
the a *"io"i fo"-s of "e*"esentation *"ohi(ite) the i)entification of the
latte" &ith the *"o*e"ties of the thing0in0itself 0 this facticity *"eclu)e) the
s*eculati/e )e)uction of the catego"ies as necessa"y *"o*e"ties of the in0
itself# Thus% facticity constitute) the co"e of 7ant+s C"itical )e0a(soluti0
;ation# 9et 7ant inf"inge) the li-its he ha) i-*ose) u*on ou" a(ility to
thin. the in0itself on t&o counts% &ithout -a.ing any se"ious atte-*t to
:ustify this inf"inge-ent 0 he assu-e) that the thing0in0itself existe)% an)
he assu-e) that it &as non0cont"a)icto"y#
$y &ay of cont"ast% non0-eta*hysical s*eculation *"ocee)s in the fi"st
instance (y stating that the thing0in0itself is nothing othe" than the
facticity of the t"anscen)ental fo"-s of "e*"esentation# Then% in the secon)
instance% it goes on to )e)uce f"o- the a(soluteness of this facticity those
*"o*e"ties of the in0itself &hich 7ant fo" his *a"t too. to (e self0e/i)ent#
CCC
'hiloso*hy is the in/ention of st"ange fo"-s of a"gu-entation% necessa"ily
(o")e"ing on so*hist"y% &hich "e-ains its )a". st"uctu"al )ou(le# To
*hiloso*hi;e is al&ays to )e/elo* an i)ea &hose ela(o"ation an) )efence
"e1ui"e a no/el .in) of a"gu-entation% the -o)el fo" &hich lies neithe" in
*ositi/e science 0 not e/en in logic 0 no" in so-e su**ose)ly innate
faculty fo" *"o*e" "easoning# Thus it is essential that a *hiloso*hy *"o)uce
inte"nal -echanis-s fo" "egulating its o&n infe"ences 0 sign*osts an)
c"iticis-s th"ough &hich the ne&ly constitute) )o-ain is e1ui**e) &ith a
set of const"aints that *"o/i)e inte"nal c"ite"ia fo" )istinguishing (et&een
licit an) illicit clai-s#
Fa" f"o- seeing in c"iticis- a th"eat to its consistency% the exa-ination of
the )ete"-inate con)itions fo" a(solute un"eason shoul) st"i/e to -ulti*ly
o(:ections% the (ette" to "einfo"ce the (in)ing textu"e of its a"gu-entati/e
fa("ic# It is (y ex*osing the &ea.nesses in ou" o&n a"gu-ents that &e
&ill unco/e"% (y &ay of a -eticulous% ste* (y ste* exa-ination of the
ina)e1uacies in ou" "easoning% the i)ea of a non0-eta*hysical an) non0
"eligious )iscou"se on the a(solute# Fo" it is (y *"og"essi/ely unco/e"ing
ne& *"o(le-s% an) a)e1uate "es*onses to the-% that &e &ill gi/e life an)
existence to a logos of contingency% &hich is to say% a "eason e-anci*ate)
f"o- the *"inci*le of "eason 0 a s*eculati/e fo"- of the "ational that &oul)
no longe" (e a -eta*hysical "eason#
8e"e is (ut one exa-*le of such a *"o(le-ati;ation of the s*eculati/e
a**"oach# 3e clai-e) to ha/e esta(lishe) the necessity of non0
cont"a)iction (ecause a cont"a)icto"y (eing &oul) (e a necessa"y (eing#
$ut it coul) (e o(:ecte) that &e ha/e conflate) cont"a)iction an)
inconsistency# In fo"-al logic% an +inconsistent syste-+ is a fo"-al syste-
all of &hose &ell0fo"-e) state-ents a"e t"ue# If this fo"-al syste-
co-*"ises the o*e"ato" of negation% &e say that an axio-atic is
inconsistent if e/e"y cont"a)iction &hich can (e fo"-ulate) &ithin it is
t"ue# $y &ay of cont"ast% a fo"-al syste- is sai) to (e non0cont"a)icto"y
&hen ((eing e1ui**e) &ith the o*e"ato" of negation! it )oes not allo& any
cont"a)iction to (e t"ue# Acco")ingly% it is *e"fectly *ossi(le fo" a logical
syste- to (e cont"a)icto"y &ithout the"e(y (eing inconsistent 0 all that is
"e1ui"e) is that it gi/e "ise to so-e cont"a)icto"y state-ents &hich a"e
t"ue% &ithout *e"-itting e/e"y cont"a)iction to (e t"ue# This is the case
&ith +*a"aconsistent+ logics% in &hich so-e (ut not all cont"a)ictions a"e
t"ue# Clea"ly then% fo" conte-*o"a"y logicians% it is not non0cont"a)iction
that *"o/i)es the c"ite"ion fo" &hat is thin.a(le% (ut "athe" inconsistency#
3hat e/e"y logic 0 as &ell as e/e"y logos -o"e gene"ally 0 &ants to a/oi)
is a )iscou"se so t"i/ial that it "en)e"s e/e"y &ell0fo"-ulate) state-ent% as
&ell as its negation% e1ually /ali)# $ut cont"a)iction is logically thin.a(le
so long as it "e-ains +confine)+ &ithin li-its such that it )oes not entail
the t"uth of e/e"y cont"a)iction#
Conse1uently% ou" thesis is ina)e1uate on t&o counts2
=# 3e -aintaine) that cont"a)iction is unthin.a(le% &he"eas it is logically
concei/a(le#
2# 3e clai-e) that a cont"a)icto"y (eing &oul) (e in)istinguisha(le f"o-
e/e"y othe" (eing% &he"eas in fact this &oul) only (e the case fo" an
inconsistent (eing# Fo" only &ith "ega") to an inconsistent (eing coul)
one -aintain e/e"y *"o*osition as &ell as its negation# 9et it is *ossi(le to
concei/e of a &o"l) &he"ein one *a"ticula" cont"a)iction &oul) (e t"ue
(e#g# a -a"e that is not a -a"e!% (ut not anothe" cont"a)iction (e#g# a
feathe"less (i*e) that is not a (i*e)!# Acco")ingly% it (eco-es *ossi(le to
thin. a *lu"ality of cont"a)icto"y &o"l)s% each )iffe"ent f"o- the othe"#
These &o"l)s coul) (e consi)e"e) to (e contingent in confo"-ity &ith the
s*eculati/e c"ite"ia outline) a(o/e% since it &oul) (e *e"fectly
concei/a(le fo" the- to (eco-e othe" than they a"e no& 0 thus% a &o"l)
e-(o)ying cont"a)iction A coul) (eco-e a &o"l) no longe" e-(o)ying
cont"a)iction A (ut cont"a)iction $% o" (oth A an) $% etc# $ut if a
cont"a)icto"y (eing can (e thought as contingent% then &e ha/e not
"efute) its *ossi(ility in light of the *"inci*le of un"eason# >uch
consi)e"ations -ight also lea) one to conclu)e that &e ha/e not
con/incingly "efute) the 8egelian )ialectic% since the latte" ne/e"
-aintains the (eing0t"ue of e/e"y cont"a)iction% (ut only of ce"tain
)ete"-inate cont"a)ictions that gi/e "ise to othe" )ete"-inate
cont"a)ictions 0 thus% the )ialectic is cont"a)icto"y% (ut not inconsistent#
9et fa" f"o- un)e"-ining ou" s*eculati/e en1ui"y% this o(:ection f"o-
*a"aconsistent logic *"o/i)es us &ith an o**o"tunity to flesh it out# 3e
&oul) nee) to )o this in t&o ste*s2
=# In the fi"st ste*% &e &oul) nee) to co""ect ou" thesis (y "efo"-ulating it
in te"-s of consistency 0 &hat &e ha/e actually )e-onst"ate) is that an
inconsistent (eing is i-*ossi(le (ecause it &oul) (e necessa"y if it
existe)# Thus% ou" fi"st tas. &oul) (e to /e"ify that the "easoning th"ough
&hich &e a""i/e) at the i-*ossi(ility of cont"a)iction also -anages to
esta(lish the clai- +nothing can (e inconsistent (ecause nothing can (e
necessa"y+#
2# In the secon) ste*% the s*eculati/e en1ui"y &oul) nee) to (e exten)e)
so as to inclu)e cont"a)iction itself# This ti-e the 1uestion &oul) (e to
.no& &hethe" o" not &e coul) also use the *"inci*le of un"eason to
)is1ualify the *ossi(ility of "eal cont"a)iction# 3e &oul) nee) to *oint
out that *a"aconsistent logics &e"e not )e/elo*e) in o")e" to account fo"
actual cont"a)icto"y facts% (ut only in o")e" to *"e/ent co-*ute"s% such as
ex*e"t -e)ical syste-s% f"o- )e)ucing anything &hatsoe/e" f"o-
cont"a)icto"y )ata (fo" instance% conflicting )iagnoses a(out a single
case!% (ecause of the *"inci*le of ex falso 1uo)li(et# Thus% it &oul) (e a
-atte" of asce"taining &hethe" cont"a)iction% &hich can (e concei/e) in
te"-s of incohe"ent )ata a(out the &o"l)% can still (e concei/e) in te"-s
of non0linguistic occu""ences# 3e &oul) then ha/e to t"y to )e-onst"ate
that )ialectics an) *a"aconsistent logics a"e only e/e" )ealing &ith
cont"a)ictions inhe"ent in state-ents a(out the &o"l)% ne/e" &ith "eal
cont"a)ictions in the &o"l) 0 in othe" &o")s% they )eal &ith cont"a)icto"y
theses a(out a single "eality% "athe" than &ith a cont"a)icto"y "eality#
Dialectics an) *a"aconsistent logics &oul) (e sho&n to (e stu)ies of the
&ays in &hich the cont"a)ictions of thought *"o)uce effects in thought%
"athe" than stu)ies of the su**ose)ly ontological cont"a)ictions &hich
thought )isco/e"s in the su""oun)ing &o"l)# Finally% ou" in/estigation
&oul) ha/e to conclu)e (y )e-onst"ating that "eal cont"a)iction an) "eal
inconsistency (oth /iolate the con)itions fo" the concei/a(ility of
contingency#
3e &ill not *u"sue this in/estigation any fu"the" he"e 0 &e -e"ely &ishe)
to suggest that% fa" f"o- cul-inating in i""ationality% the *"inci*le of
un"eason allo&s us to gene"ate a )o-ain of s*ecific *"o(le-s &he"ein the
logos -ay *"og"essi/ely unfol) the axes of its a"gu-entation#
CCC
<et us settle on a te"-inology# F"o- no& on% &e &ill use the te"-
+factiality+ to )esc"i(e the s*eculati/e essence of facticity% /i;#% that the
facticity of e/e"y thing cannot (e thought as a fact# Thus factiality -ust (e
un)e"stoo) as the non0facticity of facticity# 3e &ill call +non0ite"a(ility of
facticity+ the i-*ossi(ility of a**lying facticity to itself 0 this non0
ite"a(ility )esc"i(es the genesis of the only a(solute necessity a/aila(le to
non0)og-atic s*eculation 0 the necessity fo" e/e"ything that is to (e a
fact# Acco")ingly% f"o- no& on% &e &ill "e*lace the ex*"ession +*"inci*le
of un"eason+% &hich has the incon/enience of (eing *u"ely negati/e% &ith
the ex*"ession +*"inci*le of factiality+ ?factualite@% &hich *"o/i)es a
*ositi/e )ete"-ination of the actual )o-ain of ou" in/estigation% /i;#% that
of the non0factual essence of fact as such% &hich is to say% its necessity% as
&ell as that of its )ete"-inate con)itions# To (e is necessa"ily to (e a fact%
(ut to (e a fact is not :ust to (e anything &hatsoe/e"# 3e &ill call +factial+
?factuale@ the ty*e of s*eculation &hich see.s an) i)entifies the
con)itions of factiality ((ut &e &ill so-eti-es say +the factial+ fo" sho"t
&hen s*ea.ing of this s*eculati/e "egiste"!# 3e &ill call +)e"i/ation+ the
)e-onst"ation &hich esta(lishes that a state-ent is a con)ition of
facticity# <astly% &e &ill "efe" to these con)itions% &hich inclu)e non0
cont"a)iction an) the +the"e is+ (i#e# that the"e is so-ething "athe" than
nothing!% as +figu"es+#
Acco")ingly% the *"inci*le of factiality can (e state) as follo&s2 only
facticity is not factual 0 /i;#% only the contingency of &hat is% is not itself
contingent# $ut it is i-*o"tant to (ea" in -in) the follo&ing2 the *"inci*le
of factiality )oes not clai- that contingency is necessa"y6 its *"ecise clai-
is that contingency alone is necessa"y 0 an) only this *"e/ents it f"o-
(eing -eta*hysical# Fo" the state-ent +contingency is necessa"y+ is in fact
enti"ely co-*ati(le &ith -eta*hysics# Thus% 8egelian -eta*hysics
-aintains the necessity of a -o-ent of i""e-e)ia(le contingency in the
unfol)ing of the a(solute6 a -o-ent that occu"s in the -i)st of natu"e as
the *u"e contingency% the "eality )e/oi) of actuality% the shee" finitu)e
&hose chaos an) g"atuitousness a"e "ecalcit"ant to the la(ou" of the
Notion% (ut th"ough &hich the infinite 0 to &hich nothing can "e-ain
exte"nal% fo" this &oul) li-it it an) "en)e" it finite 0 -ust *ass#
Acco")ingly% fo" 8egel% the fact that natu"e only *a"tially co""es*on)s to
the 8egelian conce*t of natu"e is the -a". of the fo"-e"+s necessa"y
)efecti/eness 0 a )efecti/eness th"ough &hich the a(solute -ust *ass in
o")e" to (e a(solute# Fo" it is necessa"y that the"e (e a -o-ent of shee"
i""ationality in the -i)st of the unfol)ing of the a(solute 0 a contingency
that is *e"i*he"al yet "eal% *"o/i)ing the 3hole &ith a gua"antee that the
i""ational )oes not su(sist outsi)e it% an) the"e(y ensu"ing that the latte"
t"uly is the 3hole# $ut this contingency is )e)uce) f"o- the unfol)ing of
the a(solute% &hich in itself% 1ua "ational totality% is )e/oi) of
contingency# Thus% in 8egel% the necessity of contingency is not )e"i/e)
f"o- contingency as such an) contingency alone% (ut f"o- a 3hole that is
ontologically su*e"io" to the latte"# This is *"ecisely &hat se*a"ates the
factial f"o- the )ialectical 0 o" to *ut it -o"e gene"ally% an) using ou" o&n
te"-inology% &hat se*a"ates the s*eculati/e f"o- the -eta*hysical#
$y fo"-ulating a s*eculati/e *"inci*le an) i)entifying a s*ecific
*"oce)u"e of )e"i/ation% &e ha/e -anage) to *ut in *lace &hat &e set out
to loo. fo"% /i;#% the *ossi(ility of "esol/ing the *"o(le- of ancest"ality (y
a(soluti;ing -athe-atical )iscou"se# Conse1uently% the *"o(le- can no&
(e state) as follo&s2 &e ha/e )e"i/e) f"o- the *"inci*le of factiality t&o
*"o*ositions 0 non0cont"a)iction an) the necessity of the +the"e is+ 0 &hich
ha/e allo&e) us to secu"e 7ant+s thesis a(out the concei/a(ility of the
thing0in0itself# In ou" )ete"-ination of chaos% &e -o/e) f"o- the thesis of
st"ong co""elationis- (chaos can )o anything &hatsoe/e"!% to the thesis of
&ea. co""elationis- (chaos can )o anything exce*t fo" the unthin.a(le!#
Thus% fo" the -o-ent% &e +occu*y+ a 7antian in0itself# Conse1uently% in
o")e" to legiti-ate science+s ancest"al )iscou"se% &e -ust no& "eali;e% (y
&ay of a factial )e"i/ation% the t"ansition f"o- the t"uth of the 7antian in0
itself to the t"uth of the Ca"tesian in0itself0 a t"ansition &he"ein it is no
longe" the logical *"inci*le of non0cont"a)iction that is a(soluti;e)% (ut
"athe" the -athe-atical state-ent 1ua -athe-atical#
As &e sai) ea"lie"% &e cannot *"esent the co-*lete "esolution of the
*"o(le- he"e# >o &e shall content ou"sel/es &ith *"o/i)ing a -o"e
*"ecise fo"-ulation of the 1uestion of ancest"ality (y fu"the" s*ecifying
&hat &e -ean (y +-athe-atical+ an) &hat &e -ean to a(soluti;e th"ough
this /oca(le#

Cha*te" G 8u-e+s '"o(le-
>o long as &e (elie/e that the"e -ust (e a "eason &hy &hat is% is the &ay
it is% &e &ill continue to fuel su*e"stition% &hich is to say% the (elief that
the"e is an ineffa(le "eason un)e"lying all things# >ince &e &ill ne/e" (e
a(le to )isco/e" o" un)e"stan) such a "eason% all &e can )o is (elie/e in it%
o" as*i"e to (elie/e in it# >o long as &e const"ue ou" access to facticity in
te"-s of thought+s )isco/e"y of its o&n int"insic li-its an) of its ina(ility
to unco/e" the ulti-ate "eason fo" things% ou" a(olition of -eta*hysics
&ill only ha/e se"/e) to "esuscitate "eligiosity in all its fo"-s% inclu)ing
the -ost -enacing ones# >o long as &e const"ue facticity as a li-it fo"
thought% &e &ill a(an)on &hate/e" lies (eyon) this li-it to the "ule of
*iety# Thus% in o")e" to inte""u*t this see0sa&ing (et&een -eta*hysics an)
fi)eis-% &e -ust t"ansfo"- ou" *e"s*ecti/e on un"eason% sto* const"uing
it as the fo"- of ou" )eficient g"as* of the &o"l) an) tu"n it into the
/e"i)ical content of this &o"l) as such 0 &e -ust *"o:ect un"eason into
things the-sel/es% an) )isco/e" in ou" g"as* of facticity the /e"ita(le
intellectual intuition of the a(solute# +Intuition+% (ecause it is actually in
&hat is that &e )isco/e" a contingency &ith no li-it othe" than itself6
+intellectual+ (ecause this contingency is neithe" /isi(le no" *e"ce*ti(le in
things an) only thought is ca*a(le of accessing it% :ust as it accesses the
chaos that un)e"lies the a**a"ent continuity of *heno-ena#
No )ou(t% this is yet anothe" (i) to o/e"tu"n 'latonis-% (ut it )iffe"s
fun)a-entally f"o- those &ith &hich &e a"e all fa-ilia"# Unli.e
Niet;sche% it is not a -atte" of a(olishing the i--uta(le "eal- of i)eality
on (ehalf of the sensi(le (eco-ing of all things% no" e/en of "elin1uishing
t"a)itional *hiloso*hical )enunciations of *heno-enal ti-e an) of the
illusions of the senses# Rathe"% it is a -atte" of "elin1uishing the (elief%
co--on to 'latonis- an) anti0'latonis-% that (eco-ing *e"tains to
*heno-ena &hile intelligi(ility *e"tains to the i--uta(le% an) of
)enouncing% /ia intellectual intuition% the +sta(ilist+ illusion of sensi(le
(eco-ing 0 the illusion that the"e a"e in/a"iants o" i--uta(le la&s of
(eco-ing# The s*eculati/e "eleases us f"o- the *heno-enal sta(ility of
e-*i"ical constants (y ele/ating us to the *u"ely intelligi(le chaos that
un)e"lies e/e"y as*ect of it#
3e sai) a(o/e that so long as &e continue to (elie/e that the"e is a "eason
&hy things a"e the &ay they a"e "athe" than so-e othe" &ay% &e &ill
const"ue this &o"l) as a -yste"y% since no such "eason &ill e/e" (e
/ouchsafe) to us# An) yet 0 &e co-e no& to the issue that is going to
occu*y us 0 the "e1ui"e-ent that the"e (e a necessitating "eason is not :ust
a sy-*to- of i)eological )elusion o" of theo"etical ti-o"ousness# It
follo&s f"o- a *"inci*le) "e:ection of the factial (ase) u*on an a**a"ently
)ecisi/e o(:ection against the latte"6 an o(:ection &hich &e shall ha/e to
ex*oun) an) "efute if &e &ant ou" s*eculati/e a**"oach to "etain a
-ini-al )eg"ee of c"e)i(ility#
This o(:ection is the follo&ing2 it see-s a(su") to -aintain that not only
things (ut also *hysical la&s a"e "eally contingent% fo" if this &as the case%
&e &oul) ha/e to a)-it that these la&s coul) actually change at any
-o-ent fo" no "eason &hatsoe/e"#
An) in)ee)% one una/oi)a(le conse1uence of the *"inci*le of factiality is
that it asse"ts the actual contingency of the la&s of natu"e# If &e a"e
se"iously -aintaining that e/e"ything that see-s to us to ha/e no "eason
to (e the &ay it is% is actually )e/oi) of any necessa"y "eason to (e the
&ay it is% an) coul) actually change fo" no "eason% then &e -ust se"iously
-aintain that the la&s of natu"e coul) change% not in acco")ance &ith
so-e su*e"io" hi))en la& 0 the la& of the -o)ification of la&s% &hich &e
coul) once -o"e const"ue as the -yste"ious an) i--uta(le constant
go/e"ning all su(o")inate t"ansfo"-ations 0 (ut fo" no cause o" "eason
&hatsoe/e"#
8o&e/e"% the o(:ection continues% anyone &ho acce*ts the fo"egoing
thesis &oul) ha/e to ex*ect o(:ects to (eha/e in the -ost ca*"icious
fashion at e/e"y -o-ent% an) than. the hea/ens that this is not the case%
an) that things continue to confo"- to e/e"y)ay constants# Those of us
&ho en)o"se this clai- &oul) ha/e to s*en) ou" ti-e fea"ing that fa-ilia"
o(:ects coul) at any -o-ent (eha/e in the -ost unex*ecte) &ays%
cong"atulating ou"sel/es e/e"y e/ening on ha/ing -a)e it th"ough the )ay
&ithout a hitch 0 (efo"e &o""ying a(out &hat the night -ight hol) in
sto"e# >uch a conce*tion of "eality o" "elation0to0the0&o"l) see-s so
a(su") that no one coul) since"ely -aintain it# 3e all .no& the ol) a)age
acco")ing to &hich the"e is no a(su")ity that has not at one ti-e o"
anothe" (een se"iously )efen)e) (y so-e *hiloso*he"# ,u" o(:ecto" -ight
ace"(ically "e-a". that &e ha/e :ust *"o/e) this a)age false% fo" the"e &as
one a(su")ity that no one ha) yet *"oclai-e)% an) &e ha/e :ust unea"the)
it#
,u" o(:ecto" &ill conclu)e that &e ha/e no choice (ut to a)-it that la&s
a"e un)e"&"itten (y a necessity that "ules out such ca*"icious )iso")e"#
>ince this "eal necessity cannot (e )e"i/e) f"o- logic o" -athe-atics
alone 0 fo" &e can concei/e of -any *hysical uni/e"ses othe" than ou"
o&n &ithout cont"a)iction 0 the"e is nothing fo" it (ut to -aintain that the
&o"l) is un)e"&"itten (y a necessity that is not logico0-athe-atical (ut
"athe" int"insically *hysical% an) fo" &hich it &ill al&ays (e i-*ossi(le to
*"o/i)e a co-*"ehensi(le "eason# $ut 0 an) he"e is the c"ux of the
o(:ection 0 &e cannot gi/e u* the i)ea of such a necessity on the g"oun)s
of its enig-atic cha"acte" &ithout also gi/ing u* the -anifest sta(ility of
ou" &o"l)# Fo"% sho"t of stu*efying coinci)ence% a &o"l) &ithout *hysical
necessity &oul) (e "i/en at each instant an) in each of its *oints (y an
i--ense -ulti*licity of )isconnecte) *ossi(ilities% on account of &hich it
&oul) i-*lo)e into a "a)ical )iso")e" infusing e/en its tiniest -ate"ial
*a"ticles# In othe" &o")s% the o(:ection goes% if *hysical la&s &e"e
actually contingent% &e &oul) al"ea)y ha/e notice) it 0 -o"eo/e"% it is
1uite li.ely that &e &oul) not e/en (e he"e to notice it% since the )iso")e"
"esulting f"o- such contingency &oul) no )ou(t ha/e ato-i;e) all
consciousness% as &ell as the &o"l) that is gi/en to it to *e"cei/e# Thus%
the fact of the sta(ility of the la&s of natu"e see-s sufficient to "efute the
/e"y i)ea of thei" *ossi(le contingency 0 unless% of cou"se% &e &e"e to
att"i(ute this sta(ility to a 1uite ext"ao")ina"y )eg"ee of coinci)ence%
&hich &oul) ha/e allo&e) us to li/e u* until no& a-i)st constants of
1uite i-*ecca(le sta(ility 0 a statistical -i"acle &hich &e &oul) ha/e
goo) "eason to -a"/el at% (ut &hose i--inent colla*se% &hethe" in the
co-ing )ay o" the co-ing -inute% &e &oul) also ha/e e/e"y "eason to
fea"#
$ut it is *"ecisely this clai- a(out the "eal contingency of *hysical la&s
that &e *"o*ose to )efen) in all se"iousness# 9et &e )o not gi/e than.s at
e/e"y instant that &e li/e in a sta(le &o"l)# Fo" although &e -aintain that
the la&s of natu"e coul) actually change fo" no "eason% ne/e"theless% li.e
e/e"yone else% &e )o not ex*ect the- to change incessantly# In othe"
&o")s% ou" clai- is that it is *ossi(le to since"ely -aintain that o(:ects
coul) actually an) fo" no "eason &hatsoe/e" (eha/e in the -ost e""atic
fashion% &ithout ha/ing to -o)ify ou" usual e/e"y)ay "elation to things#
This is &hat &e -ust no& atte-*t to :ustify#
CCC
The )ifficulty &hich &e ha/e :ust i)entifie) is a fa-ilia" *hiloso*hical
*"o(le- 0 it is .no&n as +8u-e+s *"o(le-+# To ans&e" the fo"egoing
c"iticis- of the clai- that *hysical la&s a"e contingent is to *"o*ose a
s*eculati/e solution to 8u-e+s *"o(le-#
3hat is this *"o(le-5 In its t"a)itional /e"sion% it can (e fo"-ulate) as
follo&s2 is it *ossi(le to )e-onst"ate that the sa-e effects &ill al&ays
follo& f"o- the sa-e causes cete"is *a"i(us% i#e# all othe" things (eing
e1ual5 In othe" &o")s% can one esta(lish that in i)entical ci"cu-stances%
futu"e successions of *heno-ena &ill al&ays (e i)entical to *"e/ious
successions5 The 1uestion "aise) (y 8u-e conce"ns ou" ca*acity to
)e-onst"ate the necessity of the causal connection#
,u" account &ill focus on the *"inci*le of causality% also .no&n as +the
*"inci*le of the unifo"-ity of natu"e+ (y those sus*icious of the te"-
+cause+# 3hate/e" na-e one *"efe"s% the fo"-ulation is essentially the
sa-e2 this *"inci*le assu-es that gi/en the sa-e initial con)itions% the
sa-e "esults in/a"ia(ly follo&# 8o&e/e"% &e -ust )is*el an all too
f"e1uent -isun)e"stan)ing he"e (y *ointing out that the necessity of this
*"inci*le has ne/e" (een se"iously calle) into 1uestion (y the /a"ieties of
falsificationis- inaugu"ate) (y 7a"l 'o**e"# Falsificationis- )oes not
clai- that the la&s of natu"e coul) change fo" no "eason in the futu"e% (ut
+only+ that the theo"ies es*ouse) (y the sciences of natu"e a"e al&ays
susce*ti(le to "efutation (y unex*ecte) ex*e"i-ental "esults# Fo"
falsificationis-% it is a -atte" of (eing fo"ce) to "econsi)e" ou" (elief in
the *e"-anence of *hysical theo"ies (ecause of the i-*ossi(ility of
attaining ce"tain .no&le)ge of the +acti/e facto"s+ that -ay (e *"esent in
natu"e# Thus neithe" 'o**e" no" any othe" e*iste-ologist clai-s that a
theo"y coul) (e su(/e"te) (ecause of a "an)o- t"ansfo"-ation in the
st"uctu"e of "eality# 'o**e" )oes not -aintain that gi/en i)entical
ci"cu-stances% *hysical la&s coul) so-e )ay change 0 he -aintains only
that &e can ne/e" )e-onst"ate that a )ete"-inate *hysical theo"y &ill
al&ays (e /ali)% since it is i-*ossi(le to "ule out a *"io"i the futu"e
*ossi(ility of an ex*e"i-ent (eha/ing in the -anne" of an as yet un0
catalogue) )atu- that coul) in/ali)ate the *"e)ictions of the theo"y in
1uestion# 'hysicists &e"e )"i/en to a(an)on Ne&tonian *hysics in fa/ou"
of Relati/ity *hysics (y ne& ex*e"i-ents% o" ne& inte"*"etations of ol)
ex*e"i-ents% not (y so-e su))en t"ansfo"-ation in the st"uctu"e of natu"e
occu""ing so-eti-e a"oun) =I0F (the )ate of the *u(lication of the
>*ecial Theo"y of Relati/ity!% an) &hich -o)ifie) the *hysical uni/e"se
itself# Thus 'o**e" assu-es &ithout fu"the" a"gu-ent that the *"inci*le of
the unifo"-ity of natu"e is /e"i)ical% an) ne/e" genuinely conf"onts
8u-e+s *"o(le-% &hich is not a(out the 1uestion of the futu"e /ali)ity of
ou" theo"ies of natu"e% (ut a(out the futu"e sta(ility of natu"e itself#
3e -ust also -a.e a fu"the" cla"ification# The *"o(le- of causality as
"aise) (y 8u-e is a *"o(le- that conce"ns the constancy of natu"al la&s
"ega")less of &hethe" these a"e const"ue) )ete"-inistically o"
in)ete"-inistically% i#e# *"o(a(ilistically# ,(/iously% 8u-e fo"-ulate) his
*"o(le- &ithin the )ete"-inistic f"a-e&o". of the *hysics of his )ay% (ut
the natu"e of the *"o(le- is actually unaffecte) (y the 1uestion of
&hethe" o" not natu"al la&s &ill tu"n out to (e *"o(a(ilistic# It is a -atte"
of .no&ing &hethe" gi/en *e"fectly i)entical ci"cu-stances% the sa-e
la&s &ill (e /e"ifie) in the futu"e% i""es*ecti/e of the natu"e of these la&s#
In the case of a )ete"-inistic la&% &e &oul) ha/e to as. &hethe" gi/en
con)itions N then e/ent 9% an) only e/ent 9% &ill continue to occu"
to-o""o& in the sa-e &ay it occu""e) to)ay# In the case of a *"o(a(ilistic
la&% &e &oul) ha/e to as. &hethe" gi/en con)itions N% e/ent 9 &ill ha/e
the sa-e *"o(a(ility of occu""ing o" not occu""ing to-o""o& as it )oes
to)ay# Thus% the *"o(le- of causality as fo"-ulate) (y 8u-e -ust not (e
conflate) &ith the *"o(le- of )ete"-inis- 0 it is a -o"e gene"al *"o(le-
conce"ning all la&s of natu"e% i""es*ecti/e of thei" e/entual s*ecificity#
The sa-e *oint can (e *ut )iffe"ently (y saying that 8u-e+s *"o(le-
"aises the 1uestion of &hethe" &e can ha/e any gua"antee that *hysics as
such 0 an) not :ust this o" that /a"iety of *hysics 0 &ill continue to (e
*ossi(le in the futu"e# The con)ition of *ossi(ility fo" *hysics is the
"e*eata(ility of ex*e"i-ents% &hich is the fun)a-ental gua"anto" of the
/ali)ity of a theo"y# $ut if &e foun) to-o""o& that successi/e
ex*e"i-ents ca""ie) out un)e" exactly the sa-e con)itions yiel)e)
co-*letely )iffe"ent "esults% if it (eca-e i-*ossi(le to gua"antee sta(le
effects o" sta(le *"o(a(ilities f"o- one )ay to the next fo" the sa-e
ex*e"i-ental con)itions% then it is the /e"y i)ea of *hysical science that
&oul) (e un)e"-ine)# Thus% 8u-e+s 1uestion can (e fo"-ulate) as
follo&s2 can &e )e-onst"ate that the ex*e"i-ental science &hich is
*ossi(le to)ay &ill still (e *ossi(le to-o""o&5
This is the *"o*e" fo"-ulation of the *"o(le-% to &hich u* until no&%
th"ee ty*es of "es*onses ha/e (een en/isage)2 a -eta*hysical "es*onse% a
sce*tical "es*onse (the one es*ouse) (y 8u-e hi-self!% an) of cou"se
7ant+s t"anscen)ental "es*onse# 3e &ill ("iefly "eite"ate the essential
ele-ents of all th"ee "es*onses (efo"e outlining those of the s*eculati/e
"es*onse#
=# A -eta*hysical "es*onse to 8u-e+s 1uestion &oul) *"ocee) (y
)e-onst"ating the existence of a su*"e-e *"inci*le go/e"ning ou" &o"l)#
Thus% fo" instance% one -ight *"ocee) in the -anne" of a )isci*le of
<ei(ni;% an) (egin (y )e-onst"ating the necessa"y existence of a *e"fect
Ao)% (efo"e *"ocee)ing to infe" f"o- the latte" the fact that such a Ao)
can only ha/e c"eate) the (est of all *ossi(le &o"l)s% &hich is to say% ou"s#
Acco")ingly% the ete"nity of ou" &o"l)% o" at least of the *"inci*les that
go/e"n it% &oul) (e gua"antee) (y the ete"nity of )i/ine *e"fection itself#
This &oul) (e &hat coul) (e calle) a )i"ect an) uncon)itional *"oof of
causal necessity *"o)uce a *ositi/e )e-onst"ation that the existence of
Ao) is uncon)itionally necessa"y (that it *"ocee)s f"o- 8is essence alone%
"athe" than f"o- so-e exte"nal con)ition!% (efo"e )i"ectly infe""ing f"o- it
that ou" &o"l) -ust (e an) "e-ain the &ay it is#
2# The sce*tical solution is the one that 8u-e *"o*ose) in "es*onse to his
o&n 1uestion# 8is "es*onse can (e ("o.en )o&n into t&o *a"ts2
a! 8u-e (egins (y "e:ecting e/e"y -eta*hysical solution to the *"o(le-
of causality 0 it is i-*ossi(le% he insists% to esta(lish the futu"e sta(ility of
natu"al la&s (y any so"t of a *"io"i "easoning# Acco")ing to 8u-e% &e
ha/e only t&o -eans at ou" )is*osal &hen it co-es to esta(lishing the
t"uth of an existence o" non0existence 0 ex*e"ience an) the *"inci*le of
non0cont"a)iction# $ut neithe" of these &ill allo& us to )e-onst"ate the
necessity of the causal connection# Fo" ex*e"ience can only info"- us
a(out the *"esent o" the *ast% not the futu"e# It -ay tell us that a la& exists%
o" is susce*ti(le to /e"ification in the sa-e &ay in &hich it has existe) o"
(een /e"ifie) in the *ast% (ut it cannot esta(lish that this la& &ill continue
to (e /e"ifie) in the futu"e# As fo" the *"inci*le of non0cont"a)iction% it
allo&s us to esta(lish a *"io"i% an) in)e*en)ently of any "ecou"se to
ex*e"ience% that a cont"a)icto"y e/ent is i-*ossi(le% that it cannot occu"
eithe" to)ay o" to-o""o&# $ut fo" 8u-e the"e is nothing cont"a)icto"y in
thin.ing that the sa-e causes coul) *"o)uce )iffe"ent effects to-o""o&#
<et us cite 8u-e+s o&n illust"ation of his a"gu-ent in >ection IQ of the
En1ui"y Conce"ning 8u-an Un)e"stan)ing2
3hen I see% fo" instance% a $illia")0(all -o/ing in a st"aight line to&a")s
anothe"6 e/en su**ose -otion in the secon) (all shoul) (y acci)ent (e
suggeste) to -e% as the "esult of thei" contact o" i-*ulse6 -ay I not
concei/e% that a hun)"e) )iffe"ent e/ents -ight as &ell follo& f"o- that
cause5 May not (oth these (alls "e-ain at a(solute "est5 May not the fi"st
(all "etu"n in a st"aight line% o" lea* off f"o- the secon) in any line o"
)i"ection5 All these su**ositions a"e consistent an) concei/a(le# 3hy
then shoul) &e gi/e the *"efe"ence to one% &hich is no -o"e consistent o"
concei/a(le than the "est5 All ou" "easonings a *"io"i &ill ne/e" (e a(le to
she& us any foun)ation fo" this *"efe"ence# (8u-e =IFR2 GG!
It is not :ust causal necessity% (ut &hat <ei(ni; calle) +the *"inci*le of
"eason+ that is (eing calle) into 1uestion he"e# 3e ha/e seen ho&%
acco")ing to such a *"inci*le% the"e -ust (e a "eason &hy e/e"ything is as
it is "athe" than othe"&ise# $ut &hat 8u-e tells us is that such a "eason is
enti"ely inaccessi(le to thought% fo" since &e cannot )e-onst"ate that the
la&s -ust "e-ain as they a"e% &e cannot )e-onst"ate the necessity of any
fact 0 on the cont"a"y% it &oul) (e *e"fectly co-*ati(le &ith the
"e1ui"e-ents of logic an) ex*e"ience fo" e/e"ything to (eco-e othe" than
it is% &hethe" natu"al *"ocesses% things% o" e/ents# The"e is no "eason fo"
anything to (e o" to "e-ain self0i)entical#
(! $ut 8u-e is not content &ith )is1ualifying e/e"y *ossi(ility of a
"es*onse to his 1uestion 0 he -o)ifies the 1uestion itself in such a &ay as
to "e*lace it &ith a *"o(le- &hich )oes a)-it of a solution# >ince &e
cannot )e-onst"ate the necessity of the causal connection% he a"gues% &e
shoul) sto* as.ing ou"sel/es &hy the la&s a"e necessa"y an) as. instea)
a(out the o"igin of ou" (elief in thei" necessity# This a-ounts to a
"elocation of the *"o(le- that "e*laces a 1uestion a(out the natu"e of
things &ith a 1uestion a(out ou" "elation to things 0 one no longe" as.s
&hy the la&s a"e necessa"y% (ut &hy &e a"e con/ince) that they a"e#
8u-e+s ans&e" to this 1uestion can (e su--e) u* in a single &o")2 ha(it%
o" custo-# 3hen a fact "ecu"s% it engen)e"s in us a s*ontaneous feeling of
ha(ituation &hich gi/es "ise to the ce"tainty that the sa-e thing &ill "e0
occu" in the futu"e# It is this *"o*ensity to (elie/e that &hat has al"ea)y
"ecu""e) &ill in/a"ia(ly "ecu" in the sa-e &ay in the futu"e that go/e"ns
ou" enti"e "elation to natu"e#
E# <astly% the thi") ty*e of "es*onse to 8u-e+s *"o(le- is 7ant+s
t"anscen)ental "es*onse 0 -o"e *"ecisely% the o(:ecti/e )e)uction of the
catego"ies as ela(o"ate) in the C"iti1ue of 'u"e Reason+s +Analytic of
Conce*ts+# This )e)uction is ce"tainly one of the -ost )ifficult sections of
the C"iti1ue% (ut its (asic *"inci*le is easy enough to g"as*# 3e &ill
("iefly "eca*itulate it he"e% (ecause &e shall ha/e occasion to "etu"n to it#
The t"anscen)ental solution )iffe"s f"o- the classical -eta*hysical
solution to the *"o(le- (y su(stituting an in)i"ect an) con)itional *"oof
fo" a )i"ect an) uncon)itional one# 3e sa& a(o/e ho& a -eta*hysical o"
)og-atic "es*onse to 8u-e+s *"o(le- o*e"ate) (y *"o)ucing a *ositi/e
)e-onst"ation that the"e exists an a(solutely necessa"y *"inci*le% then
)e"i/ing the necessity of ou" &o"l) f"o- it# $y &ay of cont"ast% the
t"anscen)ental en1ui"y *"o)uces an in)i"ect *"oof of causal necessity%
&hich is to say% a *"oof (y "e)uctio a) a(su")u-# It *"ocee)s as follo&s2
&e (egin (y assu-ing that the"e is no causal necessity% an) then &e
exa-ine &hat ensues# $ut &hat ensues% acco")ing to 7ant% is the
co-*lete )est"uction of e/e"y fo"- of "e*"esentation% fo" the "esulting
)iso")e" a-ong *heno-ena &oul) (e such as to *"eclu)e the lasting
su(sistence of any so"t of o(:ecti/ity an) e/en of any so"t of
consciousness# Conse1uently% 7ant consi)e"s the hy*othesis of the
contingency of the la&s of natu"e to (e "efute) (y the -e"e fact of
"e*"esentation# This is the "ega") in &hich 7ant+s "es*onse is con)itional 0
he )oes not say that it is a(solutely i-*ossi(le that causality coul) cease
to go/e"n the &o"l) in the futu"e6 he -e"ely says that it &oul) (e
i-*ossi(le fo" such an occu""ence to -anifest itself to consciousness 0
an) this (ecause if causality cease) to go/e"n the &o"l)% e/e"ything &oul)
(eco-e )e/oi) of consistency% an) hence nothing &oul) (e "e*"esenta(le#
This is &hy 8u-e+s i-agina"y scena"io of the (illia")0(alls is i-*ossi(le
0 fo" in this scena"io% it is only the (illia")0(alls that esca*e causality% not
the ta(le u*on &hich they "oll% o" the hall containing the ta(le# It is
*"ecisely (ecause the context "e-ains sta(le that &e a"e still a(le to
"e*"esent so-ething to ou"sel/es &hen &e i-agine the fantastical
*ossi(ilities suggeste) (y 8u-e# 8o&e/e"% says 7ant% if "e*"esentation
&e"e no longe" st"uctu"e) (y causality (along &ith the othe" catego"ies of
the un)e"stan)ing!% it &oul) no longe" st"uctu"e any as*ect of the
*heno-enon at all% an) nothing &oul) "e-ain% &hethe" in the su(:ect o"
the o(:ect% ca*a(le of sustaining ou" conte-*lation of it as s*ectato"s#
Thus% causal necessity is a necessa"y con)ition fo" the existence of
consciousness an) the &o"l) it ex*e"iences# In othe" &o")s% it is not
a(solutely necessa"y that causality go/e"ns all things% (ut if consciousness
exists% then this can only (e (ecause the"e is a causality that necessa"ily
go/e"ns *heno-ena#
Fo" all thei" a**a"ent )iffe"ences% all th"ee of these "es*onses to 8u-e+s
*"o(le- sha"e a co--on assu-*tion# 3hat they all ha/e in co--on is
the fact that none of the- e/e" calls into 1uestion the t"uth of the causal
necessity# In all th"ee cases% the 1uestion is ne/e" &hethe" causal necessity
actually exists o" not (ut "athe" &hethe" o" not it is *ossi(le to fu"nish a
"eason fo" its necessity# The self0e/i)ence of this necessity is ne/e" calle)
into 1uestion# This is o(/ious in the case of the -eta*hysical an) the
t"anscen)ental solutions% since they (oth *"ocee) (y t"ying to )e-onst"ate
its t"uth% (ut &hat is less o(/ious is that 8u-e too ne/e" "eally )ou(ts
causal necessity 0 he -e"ely )ou(ts ou" ca*acity to g"oun) the latte"
th"ough "easoning# Fo" 8u-e% the +ulti-ate cause of any natu"al o*e"ation+
-ust "e-ain un.no&n to us 0 &e -ay &ell (e a(le to "e)uce the *"inci*les
that un)e"lie natu"al *heno-ena to a fe& gene"al causes6 ne/e"theless%
8u-e insists% +as to the causes of these gene"al causes% &e shoul) in /ain
atte-*t thei" )isco/e"y ?###@ These ulti-ate s*"ings an) *"inci*les a"e
totally shut u* f"o- hu-an cu"iosity an) en1ui"y#+ In othe" &o")s% &e
-ay &ell (e a(le to unco/e" the (asic la&s that go/e"n the uni/e"se 0 (ut
the cause that un)e"lies those la&s the-sel/es% an) &hich en)o&s the-
&ith necessity% &ill "e-ain inaccessi(le to us# This is to conce)e that
*hysical *"ocesses a"e in)ee) *ossesse) of ulti-ate necessity# An) it is
*"ecisely (ecause 8u-e conce)es this that he can cha"acte"i;e his o&n
*osition as sce*tical 0 fo" to (e a sce*tic is to conce)e that "eason is
inca*a(le of *"o/i)ing a (asis fo" ou" a)he"ence to a necessity &e assu-e
to (e "eal#
,u" o&n s*eculati/e *osition "efuses this assu-*tion &hich all th"ee of
the afo"e-entione) solutions sha"e% in o")e" to finally ta.e se"iously &hat
the 8u-ean 0 not 7antian 0 a *"io"i teaches us a(out the &o"l)% /i;#% that
the sa-e cause -ay actually ("ing a(out +a hun)"e) )iffe"ent e/ents+ (an)
e/en -any -o"e!# 3hat 8u-e tells us is that a *"io"i% &hich is to say
f"o- a *u"ely logical *oint of /ie&% any cause -ay actually *"o)uce any
effect &hatsoe/e"% *"o/i)e) the latte" is not cont"a)icto"y# The"e can (e
no )ou(t that this is the e/i)ent lesson of "eason% &hich is to say% of the
thin.ing &hose only fealty is to the "e1ui"e-ents of logical intelligi(ility 0
"eason info"-s us of the *ossi(ility that ou" (illia")0(alls -ight f"olic
a(out in a thousan) )iffe"ent &ays (an) -any -o"e! on the (illia")0ta(le%
&ithout the"e (eing eithe" a cause o" a "eason fo" this (eha/iou"# Fo" if
"eason .no&s of no a *"io"is othe" than that of non0cont"a)iction% then it is
*e"fectly co-*ati(le &ith "eason fo" any consistent *ossi(ility to a"ise%
&ithout the"e (eing a )isc"i-inato"y *"inci*le that &oul) fa/ou" one
*ossi(ility o/e" anothe"# Acco")ingly% it see-s st"ange to (egin (y
"ecusing the /ie&*oint of "eason as o(/iously illuso"y% an) then to
atte-*t to *"o/i)e a "ational foun)ation fo" this "ecusal% o" to conclu)e
that the latte" cannot (e "ationally su**o"te)# 8o& coul) "eason% fo" &hich
the o(/ious falsity of causal necessity is (lin)ingly e/i)ent% &o". against
itself (y )e-onst"ating the t"uth of such a necessity5 It is ou" senses that
i-*ose this (elief in causality u*on us% not thought# Thus% it &oul) see-
that a -o"e :u)icious a**"oach to the *"o(le- of the causal connection
&oul) (egin on the (asis of the e/i)ent falsity of this connection% "athe"
than on the (asis of its su**ose) t"uth# In any case% it is astonishing to
note ho& in this -atte"% *hiloso*he"s% &ho a"e gene"ally the *a"tisans of
thought "athe" than of the senses% ha/e o*te) o/e"&hel-ingly to t"ust thei"
ha(itual *e"ce*tions% "athe" than the lu-inous cla"ity of intellection#
The sce*tical *osition is the -ost *a"a)oxical% fo" on the one han) it see.s
to sho& ho& the *"inci*le of "eason is inca*a(le of foun)ing its
ontological *"etensions% yet on the othe"% it continues to (elie/e in the
necessity 0 the "eal% *hysical necessity 0 that this *"inci*le has in:ecte)
into the &o"l)# Although 8u-e no longe" (elie/es in -eta*hysics% he
continues to (elie/e in the necessity that -eta*hysics has ext"a*olate)
into things# Cou*le) &ith the unthin.ing *"o*ensity to (elie/e in &hate/e"
"ecu"s% this inco-*lete "e:ection of -eta*hysics "esults in a -e"ely
o"ganic a)he"ence to the *hantas-atic &o"l) of -eta*hysics# 8u-e
(elie/es (lin)ly in the &o"l) that -eta*hysicians thought they coul)
*"o/e# Thus% &e shoul) not (e su"*"ise) at the ease &ith &hich such
sce*ticis- tu"ns into su*e"stition% fo" to asse"t an) (elie/e that the"e is an
unfatho-a(le necessity to the &ay of the &o"l) is to (e *"e*a"e) to
(elie/e in a g"eat )eal of *"o/i)ence# It see-s to us that it &oul) (e &ise"
to (elie/e in "eason% an) the"e(y to *u"ge "eality of the hinte"0&o"l) of
causal necessity#
3e can no& see in &hat "ega") the s*eculati/e *osition eli-inates the
cont"a)ictions usually atten)ing 8u-e+s *"o(le-# F"o- ou" *oint of /ie&%
if the necessity of the causal connection cannot (e )e-onst"ate)% then this
is si-*ly (ecause the causal connection is )e/oi) of necessity# $ut this is
not to say that the s*eculati/e *osition eli-inates e/e"y )ifficulty# Fo" in
fact &e a"e going to "efo"-ulate 8u-e+s *"o(le- in such a &ay as to shift
its )ifficulty else&he"e# This "efo"-ulation can (e state) as follo&s2
instea) of as.ing ho& &e -ight )e-onst"ate the su**ose)ly genuine
necessity of *hysical la&s% &e -ust as. ho& &e a"e to ex*lain the
-anifest sta(ility of *hysical la&s gi/en that &e ta.e these to (e
contingent# ,nce "efo"-ulate)% 8u-e+s 1uestion is in fact the one &e
"aise) ea"lie"2 if la&s a"e contingent% an) not necessa"y% then ho& is it that
thei" contingency )oes not -anifest itself in su))en an) continual
t"ansfo"-ations5 8o& coul) la&s fo" &hich the"e is no *e"-anent
foun)ation gi/e "ise to a sta(le &o"l)5 ,u" &age" is that this fo"-ulation
of the *"o(le-% unli.e its canonical /e"sion% allo&s of a satisfacto"y
solution &hich "e1ui"es no li-itation of the ca*acities of "ationality#
Fo" the "ea)e" &ho fin)s it )eci)e)ly )ifficult to conce)e that la&s coul)
actually (e contingent% *e"ha*s the follo&ing analogy &ill hel*# 3e a"e
all fa-ilia" &ith the +a)/entu"e+ that ga/e (i"th to non0Eucli)ean
geo-et"ies2 in o")e" to *"o/e Eucli)+s *ostulate that the"e is exactly one
*a"allel to a "ight angle f"o- a gi/en *oint% <o(ache/s.y assu-e) that
this thesis is false% an) that it is *ossi(le to )"a& infinitely -any lines
th"ough the *oint that a"e all *a"allel to the o"iginal line# 8e )i) so
assu-ing it &oul) lea) to a cont"a)iction% &hich &oul) "esult in a *"oof
(y "e)uctio of Eucli)+s *ostulate# $ut instea) of such a *"oof%
<o(ache/s.y )isco/e"e) a ne& geo-et"y% &hich is :ust as consistent as
that of Eucli)% (ut )iffe"s f"o- it# 'e"ha*s those &ho a"e "eluctant to
acce*t the thesis &e a"e *"o*osing -ight (e &illing to countenance the
follo&ing suggestion2 let us su**ose &e a"e con/ince) of the necessity of
the causal connection% (ut )o not (elie/e in the *ossi(ility of *"o/i)ing a
-eta*hysical )e-onst"ation of its necessity 0 coul) &e not atte-*t a *"oof
(y "e)uctio of the actuality of the causal connection5 Coul) &e not cancel
this necessity in thought an) see if it )oes in)ee) lea) us into a(su")ity5 If
it )oes% &e &ill ha/e *"o/e) a*agogically &hat &e t"ie) in /ain to *"o/e
(y in/o.ing a -eta*hysical *"inci*le of unifo"-ity# $ut ou" &age" is that
&hat ha**ene) to those geo-ete"s in the case of Eucli)+s *ostulate &ill
also ha**en to us 0 little (y little% &e &ill )isco/e" that the acausal
uni/e"se is :ust as consistent an) :ust as ca*a(le of accounting fo" ou"
actual ex*e"ience as the causal uni/e"se# $ut &e &ill also )isco/e" that the
fo"-e" is a uni/e"se )e/oi) of all those enig-as that a"e *a"t an) *a"cel of
the (elief in *hysical necessity# In othe" &o")s% &e ha/e nothing to lose
(y -o/ing f"o- a causal to an acausal uni/e"se 0 nothing exce*t enig-as#
$ut it is i--e)iately a**a"ent that such an a**"oach is going to conflict
fun)a-entally &ith the t"anscen)ental solution to 8u-e+s *"o(le-# Fo" as
&e sa& a(o/e% the t"anscen)ental )e)uction uses an a"gu-ent (y "e)uctio
in o")e" to infe" f"o- the a(sence of causal necessity the )est"uction of
"e*"esentation# ,u" clai-% on the cont"a"y% is that the hy*othetical
sus*ension of causal necessity )oes not necessa"ily entail conse1uences
that a"e inco-*ati(le &ith the con)itions of "e*"esentation# Acco")ingly%
ou" *"o(le- can (e "en)e"e) still -o"e *"ecise2 in o")e" to esta(lish the
/ali)ity of ou" s*eculati/e solution to 8u-e+s *"o(le-% &e -ust ex*ose
the natu"e of the logical fallacy inhe"ent in the t"anscen)ental )e)uction%
so as to sho&% cont"a"y to &hat the latte" -aintains% that the constancy of
the *heno-enal &o"l) )oes not a-ount to a "efutation of the contingency
of *hysical la&s# In othe" &o")s% &e -ust sho& &hy it is a -ista.e to
infe"% as 7ant )oes% the )est"uction of "e*"esentation f"o- the non0
necessity of la&s#
CCC
Fo" 7ant% if ou" "e*"esentations of the &o"l) &e"e not go/e"ne) (y
necessa"y connections 0 &hich he calls the +catego"ies+% a-ong &hich is
the *"inci*le of causality 0 the &o"l) &oul) (e nothing (ut a )iso")e"e)
-ass of confuse) *e"ce*tions% inca*a(le of yiel)ing the ex*e"ience of a
unifie) consciousness# Thus% acco")ing to 7ant% the /e"y i)ea of
consciousness an) ex*e"ience "e1ui"es a st"uctu"ing of "e*"esentation
ca*a(le of -a.ing ou" &o"l) into so-ething othe" than a *u"ely a"(it"a"y
se1uence of )isconnecte) i-*"essions# This is the cent"al thesis of the so0
calle) +o(:ecti/e+ )e)uction of the catego"ies% the ai- of &hich is to
legiti-ate the a**lication of the catego"ies to ex*e"ience (the catego"ies
(eing un)e"stoo) as those uni/e"sal connections *"esu**ose) (y *hysics
in *a"ticula"!# The"e can (e no consciousness &ithout the *ossi(ility of a
science of *heno-ena% (ecause the /e"y i)ea of consciousness
*"esu**oses the i)ea of a "e*"esentation that is unifie) in ti-e# $ut if the
&o"l) &as not go/e"ne) (y necessa"y la&s% it &oul) ("ea. u* into
ex*e"iences &ithout cohe"ence o" succession% f"o- &hence no
consciousness in the st"ict sense of the &o") coul) issue# Acco")ingly% the
necessity of la&s (eco-es an incont"o/e"ti(le fact once one has const"ue)
it as the /e"y con)ition fo" consciousness#
No )ou(t% &e can only ac.no&le)ge the see-ingly i""efuta(le cha"acte"
of this +con)itioning+ a"gu-ent 0 (ut this ac.no&le)ge-ent -ust (e
i--e)iately 1ualifie) &ith the o(se"/ation that it is only i""efuta(le
insofa" as it a**lies to the notion of sta(ility% "athe" than to that of
necessity# Fo" the only incont"o/e"ti(le 0 (ut also tautological 0 clai- that
can (e un"ese"/e)ly acco")e) to 7ant is that the sta(ility of *heno-ena
*"o/i)es the con)ition fo" consciousness as &ell as fo" a science of natu"e#
$oth the fact of this sta(ility an) its status as con)ition fo" science a"e
o(/iously incontesta(le# $ut the sa-e cannot (e sai) of the infe"ence 0
&hich &e &ill hencefo"th call +the necessita"ian infe"ence+ 0 un)e"lying the
clai- that the sta(ility of la&s *"esu**oses% as its i-*e"ati/e con)ition%
the necessity of those la&s# 3hat &e -ust no& exa-ine a"e the st"uctu"e
an) assu-*tions un)e"lying this infe"ence#
3hy )oes the incontesta(le fact of the sta(ility of the la&s of natu"e%
&hich is to say% the exce*tionless sta(ility of natu"e+s *"inci*le of
unifo"-ity% lea) us to infe" the necessity of this unifo"-ity5 $y &hat
"easoning )o &e -o/e f"o- the fact of sta(ility 0 &hich is in)ee) gene"al
insofa" as it has yet to (e un)e"-ine) 0 to an ontological necessity5 The
+necessita"ian+ infe"ence that un)e"lies this "easoning can (e ("o.en )o&n
into th"ee ste*s2
=# If the la&s coul) actually change &ithout "eason 0 i#e# if they &e"e not
necessa"y 0 they &oul) f"e1uently change fo" no "eason#
2# $ut the la&s )o not f"e1uently change fo" no "eason#
E# Conse1uently% the la&s cannot change fo" no "eason 0 in othe" &o")s%
they a"e necessa"y#
No one can contest *"o*osition 2% &hich si-*ly states the fact of the
(-anifest! sta(ility of natu"e# Acco")ingly% the ("unt of ou" e/aluation of
this infe"ence -ust (ea" u*on an assess-ent of i-*lication =% fo" if this
i-*lication tu"ne) out to (e +falsifia(le+% then the infe"ence itself &oul)
colla*se as a "esult of the )is1ualification of one of its *"e-ises# This
i-*lication *"ocee)s f"o- the contingency of la&s 0 &hich is to say% f"o-
the *ossi(ility of thei" alte"ation 0 to the actual f"e1uency of thei"
alte"ation# This is &hy &e &ill "efe" to it as the +f"e1uentialist i-*lication+
0 fo" only if one acce*ts the /ali)ity of the i-*lication that *"ocee)s f"o-
the *ossi(ility of change to its f"e1uency% can one acce*t the /ali)ity of
the +necessita"ian+ infe"ence# In o")e" to ex*ose the in/ali)ity of this latte"
infe"ence% it is (oth necessa"y an) sufficient to esta(lish in &hat "ega")%
an) un)e" &hat *"ecise con)itions% it (eco-es *ossi(le to "e:ect the
fo"-e" i-*lication#
Fi"st of all% it is i-*o"tant to note that the f"e1uentialist i-*lication not
only un)e"lies the 7antian a"gu-ent in fa/ou" of causal necessity% (ut
also the co--on (elief in this necessity# To asse"t% as co--on o*inion
)oes% that if the la&s of natu"e &e"e contingent% +&e &oul) ha/e notice)+%
o" to asse"t% as 7ant )oes% that &e &oul) ha/e (een notice) to such an
extent that &e &oul) .no& nothing% is in eithe" case to -aintain that the
contingency of la&s &oul) entail an alte"ation of natu"al la&s f"e1uent
enough to (e -anifeste) in ex*e"ience% o" e/en to )est"oy the /e"y
*ossi(ility of ex*e"ience# $oth theses% the co--on thesis an) the 7antian
thesis% "ely on the sa-e a"gu-ent 0 /i;#% that contingency i-*lies f"e1uent
t"ansfo"-ation 0 )iffe"ing only &ith "ega") to the intensity of the
f"e1uency &hich they infe" f"o- contingency (fo" the co--on thesis% the
f"e1uency &oul) (e lo& (ut -anifest% &hile fo" the 7antian thesis% the
f"e1uency &oul) (e so high as to )est"oy "e*"esentation!# 3e -ust *ause
an) ta.e a close" loo. at this i-*lication% an) t"y to un)e"stan) &hy it
see-s so o(/ious that 7ant executes it &ithout e/en (othe"ing to :ustify it
0 so-ething that coul) also (e sai) of co--on sense an) of the -a:o"ity
of the *a"tisans of *hysical necessity#
3e a"e ai)e) in this tas. (y Pean0Rene Qe"nes+ C"iti1ue of Aleato"y
Reason% &hich *"o/i)es us &ith a /alua(le "esou"ce# The chief -e"it of
this ("ief essay% &"itten &ith a concision &o"thy of the *hiloso*he"s of the
se/enteenth centu"y% lies in the &ay in &hich it ex*oses the "easoning
u*on &hich (oth 8u-e an) 7ant i-*licitly "ely &hen they assu-e that
the necessity of la&s is o(/ious# $ut it is i-*o"tant to *oint out "ight
a&ay that fo" Qe"nes this "easoning is legiti-ate 0 thus% he hol)s the (elief
in the necessity of *hysical la&s to (e &ell0foun)e)# Qe"nes+ *"o:ect
consists in "en)e"ing ex*licit the "easoning that is i-*licit in 8u-e an)
7ant% the (ette" to un)e"line the sense in &hich it is t"ue# $y &ay of
cont"ast% the "ele/ance of Qe"nes+ thesis fo" us is that (y exca/ating this
"easoning an) ex*osing its t"ue natu"e% he allo&s us to )isco/e" its &ea.0
*oint#
Qe"nes+ thesis is the follo&ing2 the infe"ence &he"e(y &e *"ocee)
i-*licitly f"o- the sta(ility of la&s to thei" necessity consists in a *iece of
*"o(a(ilistic "easoning 0 +*"o(a(ilistic+ in the -athe-atical sense of the
te"-# Recall 8u-e+s text a(out the (illia")0(alls% &hich &e cite) a(o/e#
Acco")ing to Qe"nes% this text ha"(ou"s (oth the (ex*licit! "oot of the
*"o(le- of causality% an) the (unnotice)! .ey to its "ational solution#
3hat lies at the "oot of the *"o(le-5 The fact that the"e is a -assi/e
)iffe"ence (et&een the a *"io"i o" +i-agina"y+ *ossi(ilities 0 -o"e
gene"ally% all those *ossi(ilities that a"e concei/a(le (non0cont"a)icto"y! 0
an) those *ossi(ilities that a"e actually ex*e"ience)# Cont"a"y to 7ant+s
i)entification of the a *"io"i &ith necessity an) of the e-*i"ical "eal-
&ith contingency% fo" Qe"nes it is the a *"io"i that *"esents us &ith
contingency% &hile it is ex*e"ience that *"esents us &ith necessity# The
enig-a "esi)es in the fact that a *"io"i +a hun)"e) )iffe"ent e/ents+ as
8u-e says 0 o" e/en% as Qe"nes *uts it% +a *"actically infinite nu-(e"+ of
)iffe"ent e/ents 0 coul) a"ise f"o- the sa-e se"ies of causes% cete"is
*a"i(us# Thus% a *"io"i% the (alls -ight (eha/e in thousan)s u*on
thousan)s of )iffe"ent &ays% &he"eas in ex*e"ience% only one of those
*ossi(ilities is effectuate) each ti-e 0 the *ossi(ility that confo"-s to the
*hysical la& of i-*acts#
$ut (y &hat "ight then )o &e conclu)e f"o- this )iffe"ence (et&een the a
*"io"i an) the ex*e"iential that it is the a *"io"i that is )ece*ti/e% an) not
ex*e"ience that is illuso"y5 3hat is it that allo&s us clai- that the
constancy of ex*e"ience o*ens onto a genuine necessity% &he"eas the a
*"io"i )oes not o*en onto a /e"ita(le contingency5 The ans&e" is that ou"
assu-*tion in this case is exactly the sa-e as that &hich &oul) lea) a
ga-(le" to sus*ect (at the /e"y least! that a )ie that al&ays lan)s the sa-e
face u* is /e"y *"o(a(ly loa)e)# <et us ta.e a set of e/ents configu"e) in
such a &ay that the"e is a *"io"i no "eason &hy any one of the- shoul)
occu" "athe" than any othe"# This &oul) (e the case fo" a set of )ice% (oth
of &hich &e assu-e to (e *e"fectly ho-ogeneous an) sy--et"ical% an)
a(out &hich &e can assu-e a *"io"i that the"e is no "eason fo" any one of
thei" faces to tu"n u* -o"e f"e1uently than any othe" gi/en an un(iase)
th"o&# 3hen% a"-e) &ith this hy*othesis% &e atte-*t to calculate the
li.elihoo) of one e/ent occu""ing (un)e"stoo) as this o" that outco-e of
th"o&ing the )ice!% &e i-*licitly assu-e the follo&ing a *"io"i *"inci*le2
&hate/e" is e1ually thin.a(le is e1ually *ossi(le# It is *"ecisely this
1uantitati/e e1uality (et&een the thin.a(le an) the *ossi(le that allo&s us
to &o". out the *"o(a(ility o" f"e1uency of an e/ent &hen &e *lay a ga-e
of chance 0 gi/en that% in the .in)s of ci"cu-stances outline) a(o/e% one
of t&o e/ents has no -o"e (this +-o"e+ (eing st"ictly -athe-atical! "eason
to occu" than the othe" (&hethe" as the "esult of th"o&ing the )ice% o" of
tossing a coin% o" of s*inning a "oulette &heel% etc#!% then &e -ust assu-e
that each has as -uch chance of actually occu""ing as the othe"% an) use
this assu-*tion to a""i/e at calcula(le esti-ations as to the *"o(a(ility of
co-*lex e/ents enti"ely co-*ose) of this initial e1ui0*"o(a(ility (such as
the chance of the )ice tu"ning u* a )ou(le0six% o" of the "oulette &heel
tu"ning u* 0 th"ee ti-es in "o&% etc#!#
$ut no& let us su**ose that the )ice &ith &hich &e ha/e (een *laying fo"
an hou" ha/e continually (een lan)ing &ith the sa-e face u*# 3e &oul)
say to ou"sel/es% in/o.ing the *"inci*le acco")ing to &hich e/ents that a"e
e1ually *ossi(le a"e e1ually *"o(a(le% that the"e is only a /e"y s-all
li.elihoo) that this is the "esult of genuine chance# The"e -ust (e a cause
(*e"ha*s a lea) (all hi))en in the )ice! necessitating this single "esult# $ut
let us no& su**ose that the )ice &e a"e *laying &ith ha/e (een lan)ing
&ith the sa-e face u* not :ust fo" an hou"% (ut th"oughout ou" enti"e li/es%
an) e/en as fa" (ac. as hu-an -e-o"y st"etches# An) let us also su**ose
that these )ice a"e not :ust six0si)e)% (ut *ossess -illions an) -illions of
si)es# 3e no& fin) ou"sel/es in the sa-e situation as 8u-e *on)e"ing his
(illia")0(alls 0 fo" each e/ent gi/en in ex*e"ience% &e can concei/e a
*"io"i of a g"eat -any )iffe"ent e-*i"ical outco-es (in)ee)% a nu-(e" so
i--ense it see-s /ain to t"y to )ete"-ine it!% all of &hich a**ea" to us to
(e e1ually *ossi(le# 9et &e continue to o(tain the sa-e outco-e% &hich
is to say% the sa-e effects f"o- the sa-e causes# Thus% &hen 8u-e o"
7ant assu-e that the necessity of la&s is self0e/i)ent% thei" "easoning is
exactly the sa-e as that of the ga-(le" face) &ith loa)e) )ice% (ecause
they i-*licitly assu-e the /ali)ity of the infe"ence unea"the) (y Qe"nes%
/i;#% that if *hysical la&s &e"e actually contingent% it &oul) (e cont"a"y to
the la&s that go/e"n chance if this contingency ha) ne/e" -anifeste)
itself# Conse1uently% the"e -ust (e a necessitating "eason% al(eit hi))en 0
:ust as the"e -ust (e a lea) (all i-(e))e) in the )ice 0 that ex*lains the
in/a"iance in the "esult#
The i-*licit *"inci*le go/e"ning the necessita"ian infe"ence no& (eco-es
clea"2 the latte" *"ocee)s (y exten)ing the *"o(a(ilistic "easoning &hich
the ga-(le" a**lie) to an e/ent that is inte"nal to ou" uni/e"se (the th"o&
of the )ice an) its "esult!% to the uni/e"se as such# This "easoning can (e
"econst"ucte) as follo&s2 I const"ue ou" o&n *hysical uni/e"se as one
a-ong an i--ense nu-(e" of concei/a(le (i#e# non0cont"a)icto"y!
uni/e"ses each go/e"ne) (y )iffe"ent sets of *hysical la&s6 uni/e"ses in
&hich the i-*act of t&o (illia")0(alls )oes not confo"- to the la&s that
go/e"n ou" o&n uni/e"se (ut "esults "athe" in (oth (alls flying off into the
ai"% o" fusing togethe"% o" tu"ning into t&o i--aculate (ut "athe" g"u-*y
-a"es% o" into t&o -a"oon (ut "athe" affa(le lilies% etc# Thus% I -entally
const"uct a +)ice0uni/e"se+ &hich I i)entify &ith the Uni/e"se of all
uni/e"ses% (oun) glo(ally (y the *"inci*le of non0cont"a)iction alone%
each face of &hich constitutes a single uni/e"se go/e"ne) (y a
)ete"-inate set of *hysical la&s# Then% fo" any situation gi/en in
ex*e"ience% I "oll these )ice in -y -in) (I en/isage all the concei/a(le
conse1uences of this e/ent!% yet in the en)% I fin) that the sa-e "esult
(gi/en the sa-e ci"cu-stances! al&ays occu"s2 the )ice0uni/e"se al&ays
lan)s &ith the face "e*"esenting +-y+ uni/e"se u*% an) the la&s of i-*act
a"e ne/e" /iolate)# E/e"y ti-e it is th"o&n% this )ice0uni/e"se in/a"ia(ly
"esults in the sa-e *hysical uni/e"se 0 -ine% the one I ha/e al&ays (een
a(le to o(se"/e on a )aily (asis# No )ou(t% theo"etical *hysics &ill al&ays
(e a(le to teach -e ne& an) ex*ecte) things a(out the *a"ticula" face0
uni/e"se I inha(it O (ut this &ill si-*ly a-ount to a )ee*e" .no&le)ge of
-y uni/e"se% "athe" than to an aleato"y t"ansfo"-ation of the uni/e"se
itself# The latte" has ne/e" inf"inge) the *"inci*le of unifo"-ity6 it has
al&ays *"esente) -e &ith the sa-e "esult gi/en the sa-e initial
con)itions# The i-*"o(a(ility of this sta(ility in the outco-e see-s so
a(e""ant that I )o not e/en *ause to consi)e" the *ossi(ility that it -ight
(e solely the "esult of chance# Conse1uently% I infe" f"o- it 0 /ia an
infe"ence &hich is gene"ally execute) too 1uic.ly e/en to (e notice) 0 the
existence of a necessa"y "eason% (ut a necessity that is ext"a0logical as
&ell as ext"a0-athe-atical# This necessity *"o/i)es the ineli-ina(le
su**le-ent to the a"gu-entati/e necessity of logico0-athe-atical
"easoning% since the latte" *"esents -e &ith a )ice0uni/e"se that is
ho-ogeneous 0 in othe" &o")s% each face of &hich is e1ually concei/a(le#
Thus% I "e)ou(le the necessity *"o*e" to logico0-athe-atical notation
&ith a secon) ty*e of necessity% a "eal o" *hysical necessity% &hich alone 0
li.e the lea) (all i-(e))e) in the )ice 0 is ca*a(le of fu"nishing the
"eason fo" the o(/ious +fixing+ of the outco-e# It is then enti"ely u* to -e
&hethe" to call the sou"ce of this secon) necessity +-atte"+ (as Qe"nes
)oes! o" +*"o/i)ence+ 0 &hate/e" I choose to call it% it &ill "e-ain a
*"i-o")ial an) enig-atic fact#
To su- u*2 the 8u-ean07antian infe"ence is an instance of *"o(a(ilistic
"easoning a**lie) not to an e/ent in ou" uni/e"se% (ut "athe" to ou"
uni/e"se itself consi)e"e) as -e"ely one a-ong a totality of *ossi(le
uni/e"ses# The nu( of the a"gu-ent consists in "egiste"ing the i--ense
nu-e"ical ga* (et&een those *ossi(ilities that a"e concei/a(le an) those
that a"e actually ex*e"ience)% in such a &ay as to )e"i/e f"o- this ga* the
follo&ing *"o(a(ilistic a(e""ation (&hich *"o/i)es the sou"ce fo" the
f"e1uentialist i-*lication!2 if *hysical la&s coul) actually change fo" no
"eason% it &oul) (e ext"ao")ina"ily i-*"o(a(le if they )i) not change
f"e1uently% not to say f"enetically# In)ee)% they &oul) change so
f"e1uently that &e &oul) ha/e to say 0 an) he"e &e -o/e f"o- 8u-e to
7ant 0 not :ust that &e &oul) ha/e notice) it al"ea)y% (ut that &e &oul)
ne/e" ha/e (een he"e to notice it in the fi"st *lace% since the ensuing chaos
&oul) ha/e *"eclu)e) the -ini-al )eg"ee of o")e" an) continuity
"e1ui"e) fo" the co""elation (et&een consciousness an) &o"l)# Thus%
necessity is *"o/en (y a fact of i--ensely i-*"o(a(le sta(ility% /i;#% the
*e"-anence of the la&s of natu"e% an) (y the su(:ecti/e o(/e"se of this
*e"-anence% &hich is the consciousness of a su(:ect ca*a(le of science#
>uch is the logic of the necessita"ian a"gu-ent% an) -o"e *a"ticula"ly% of
the f"e1uentialist i-*lication that un)e"lies it#
$efo"e &e *"ocee) to outline the s*eculati/e "efutation of the
necessita"ian a"gu-ent% it is necessa"y to note that the"e is a &ell .no&n
"e:oin)e" to such an a"gu-ent% an) it consists in )e-onst"ating that the
continuing existence of ou" &o"l) can in fact (e ex*laine) (y chance
alone# It *"ocee)s in the sa-e &ay as the E*icu"eans ex*laine) the
a**a"ently *u"*oseful existence of li/ing (eings 0 one co-*a"es the
e-e"gence of the -ost co-*lex o"ganis-s to anothe"% suita(ly
i-*"o(a(le outco-e (such as% fo" exa-*le% &"iting the Ilia) (y "an)o-ly
th"o&ing lette"s at a gi/en su"face!% (efo"e *ointing out that e/en this
outco-e ceases to (e ano-alous gi/en a sufficiently gigantic nu-(e" of
atte-*ts# >i-ila"ly% one "es*onse to the afo"e-entione) *"o(a(ilistic
o(:ection &oul) (e to *oint out that ou" o&n highly st"uctu"e) &o"l)
coul) ha/e (een the "esult of a gigantic nu-(e" of chaotic e-e"gences
that finally sta(ili;e) the-sel/es in the configu"ation of ou" uni/e"se#
9et this "es*onse to the necessita"ian a"gu-ent cannot satisfy us6 an) this
fo" the /e"y si-*le "eason that it continues to *"esu**ose the necessity of
*hysical la&s# Thus% it is i-*o"tant to notice that the /e"y notion of
chance is only concei/a(le on con)ition that the"e a"e unalte"a(le *hysical
la&s# This is *"ecisely &hat the exa-*le of the )ice0th"o& sho&s2 an
aleato"y se1uence can only (e gene"ate) on con)ition that the )ice
*"ese"/e thei" st"uctu"e f"o- one th"o& to the next% an) that the la&s
allo&ing the th"o& to (e ca""ie) out not change f"o- one cast to the next#
If f"o- one th"o& to the next the )ice i-*lo)e)% o" (eca-e flat o"
s*he"ical% o" if g"a/ity cease) to o*e"ate an) they fle& off into the ai"% o"
on the cont"a"y% &e"e *"o:ecte) un)e"g"oun)% etc#% then the"e &oul) (e no
aleato"y se1uence% an) it &oul) (e i-*ossi(le to esta(lish a calculus of
*"o(a(ilities# Thus chance al&ays *"esu**oses so-e fo"- of *hysical
in/a"iance 0 fa" f"o- *e"-itting us to thin. the contingency of *hysical
la&s% chance itself is nothing othe" than a ce"tain ty*e of *hysical la& 0
one that is +in)ete"-inistic+# In E*icu"us fo" instance% it is clea" that the
clina-en% the tiny aleato"y )e/iation in the t"a:ecto"y of ato-s%
*"esu**oses the i--uta(ility of *hysical la&s2 the s*ecific sha*e of
ato-s (s-ooth% hoo.e)% etc#!% the nu-(e" of )iffe"ent .in)s of ato-s% the
in)i/isi(le cha"acte" of these ele-enta"y *hysical units% the existence of
the /oi)% etc# 0 none of these can e/e" (e -o)ifie) (y the clina-en itself%
since they *"o/i)e the con)itions fo" its effectuation#
$ut ou" "es*onse to the necessita"ian o(:ection -ust allo& us to concei/e
of a &o"l) )e/oi) of any *hysical necessity that &oul) still (e co-*ati(le
&ith the fact of the sta(ility of la&s# Acco")ingly% &e -ust )e*loy an
a"gu-ent that )oes not at any *oint "e)ou(le the *u"ely logical necessity
of non0cont"a)iction (&hich &e )e"i/e) f"o- the *"inci*le of factiality%
an) &hich is the only necessity that is "ecogni;e) as t"ue a *"io"i (y
8u-e! &ith a "eal necessity% &hich is to say% &ith a necessity that &oul)
install a *"inci*le of *"efe"ence (et&een e1ually concei/a(le o*tions# 9et
it is *"ecisely such a *"inci*le of *"efe"ence that the aleato"y "es*onse to
the necessita"ian o(:ection int"o)uces% since the"e is no cont"a)iction
in/ol/e) in thin.ing a -o)ification in the )ete"-inate con)itions that
allo& a "an)o- *"ocess to (e ca""ie) out (fo" exa-*le2 a -o)ification in
the fo"- of the )ice% o" in thei" nu-(e" of faces% o" in the la&s that go/e"n
thei" th"o&s% etc#!# Mo"eo/e"% such a "es*onse &oul) not con/ince anyone%
fo" it conce)es to the o(:ecto" the notion that &e ha/e u* until no&
(enefite) f"o- a fa/ou"a(le )"a&% an) hence f"o- a luc. that -ight &ell
tu"n% incessantly *"o)ucing )iffe"ent outco-es# 3e &oul) then (e
*lunge) into that "elation to the &o"l) &hich &e ea"lie" 1ualifie) as
a(su")% an) &hich &oul) incite us to fea" at e/e"y -o-ent the "an)o-
(eha/iou" of "eality#
Thus% the "efutation of the f"e1uential i-*lication cannot consist in
)e-onst"ating that the sta(ility of the &o"l) confo"-s to the la&s of
chance 0 "athe"% it shoul) )e-onst"ate that the contingency of natu"al la&s
"e-ains inaccessi(le to aleato"y "easoning# Cont"a"y to "es*onses of the
E*icu"ean ty*e% &e shoul) not g"ant the legiti-acy of ou" o**onent+s
"easoning% an) then t"y to "en)e" it co-*ati(le &ith actual ex*e"ience#
Instea)% &e -ust )is1ualify this "easoning as such (y sho&ing that it
-a.es ina**"o*"iate use of the catego"ies of chance an) *"o(a(ility
outsi)e thei" legiti-ate fiel) of a**lication# In othe" &o")s% &e -ust sho&
that one cannot a**ly these catego"ies to the la&s of the *hysical &o"l) as
such% an) that the use of *"o(a(ilistic "easoning in such a context is
-eaningless# 3e &ill then ha/e succee)e) in sho&ing ho& the sta(ility of
la&s is co-*ati(le &ith thei" a(solute contingency% an) &e &ill ha/e )one
so a**a"ently cont"a"y to all +healthy *"o(a(ility+# 3e &ill also ha/e )one
so (y )is1ualifying the a(su") fea" of continual )iso")e"% since this fea"
"elies *"ecisely on the aleato"y conce*tion of *hysical la&s that
encou"ages us to inte"*"et the actual sta(ility of "e*"esentations as an
ext"ao")ina"y *iece of luc.# In othe" &o")s% &e -ust ela(o"ate a conce*t
of the contingency of la&s that is fun)a-entally )istinct f"o- the conce*t
of chance#
9et it &oul) ce"tainly (e *ossi(le to esta(lish this )iffe"ence (et&een the
t&o notions solely &ith the hel* of the *"ece)ing "e-a". a(out chance%
&hich is to say% (y -aintaining that the contingency of la&s shoul) not (e
confuse) &ith chance% since the effectuation of the latte" al"ea)y
*"esu**oses a *"e0existing set of la&s# 3e coul) then -aintain that the
contingency of la&s cannot (e su(:ecte) to the catego"ies of chance% since
such contingency is ca*a(le of affecting the /e"y con)itions that allo&
chance e/ents to occu" an) exist# 3e &oul) the"e(y )is1ualify the
f"e1uentialist i-*lication that "easons a(out la&s as if they &e"e the "esult
of an aleato"y th"o&% failing to see that it is *"ecisely such la&s that
*"o/i)e the con)ition fo" the th"o&# 8o&e/e"% e/en if it is not
fun)a-entally inco""ect% such a "es*onse on ou" *a"t &oul) (e
)isa**ointing# It &oul) confine itself to safegua")ing contingency f"o- a
s*ecific o(:ection% &ithout atte-*ting to )ee*en its conce*t# 3e &oul)
confine ou"sel/es to saying &hat contingency is not (i#e# chance!% &ithout
ta.ing a)/antage of the necessita"ian o(:ection as an o**o"tunity fo"
stating -o"e *"ecisely &hat it is# $ut factial ontology is not inten)e) to (e
a +negati/e ontology+ 0 &e )o not &ish to confine ou"sel/es to -aintaining
that contingency as &e un)e"stan) it is not accessi(le to this o" that ty*e
of "easoning6 "athe"% ou" ai- is to ela(o"ate an e/e" -o"e )ete"-inate%
e/e" "iche" conce*t of contingency# Acco")ingly% e/e"y )ifficulty
encounte"e) (y factial s*eculation shoul) (e con/e"te) into a -eans fo"
i)entifying a )ete"-inate con)ition of chaos ca*a(le of allo&ing us to
o/e"co-e the o(stacle# This is the (asic *"inci*le of a "eason that has
(een e-anci*ate) f"o- the *"inci*le of "eason 0 its *"og"essi/e unfol)ing
)e-an)s that &e exhi(it the *ositi/e an) )iffe"entiate) *"o*e"ties of the
a(sence of "eason# Thus% a genuinely satisfacto"y s*eculati/e "esolution of
8u-e+s *"o(le- shoul) ex*lain &hat coul) constitute a *"ecise con)ition
fo" the -anifest sta(ility of chaos# This con)ition &oul) allo& us to
*enet"ate -o"e )ee*ly into the natu"e of a te-*o"ality )eli/e"e) f"o- "eal
necessity# $ut as &e a"e a(out to see% such a con)ition exists% an) it is
-athe-atical in natu"e2 it is the t"ansf-ite#
CCC
In o")e" to counte" the f"e1uentialist i-*lication% &e -ust (egin (y
i)entifying its fun)a-ental ontological *"esu**osition# Fo" in fact% this
i-*lication hol)s only in a /e"y *a"ticula" case% an) on con)ition of a
singula"ly st"ong ontological hy*othesis% (ecause it con:oins the (eing of
the *ossi(le an) the (eing of the 3hole# Thus% this *"o(a(ilistic "easoning
is only /ali) on con)ition that &hat is a *"io"i *ossi(le (e thin.a(le in
te"-s of a nu-e"ical totality#
A"ante)% the f"e1uentialist i-*lication )oes not ha/e to *"o/i)e a *"ecise
)ete"-ination of the ca")inality of concei/a(le *ossi(ilities in o")e" to
+&o".+ an) to "e-ain legiti-ate 0 the g"eate" the nu-(e" (y &hich the
concei/a(le *ossi(ilities excee) the nu-(e" of actually ex*e"ience)
*ossi(ilities% the g"eate" the extent of the *"o(a(ilistic ano-aly% an) it is
o(/ious that the"e a"e in any case i--ensely -o"e concei/a(le
*ossi(ilities than ex*e"ience) ones# It )oes not e/en "eally -atte" &hethe"
this totality of *ossi(ilities is finite o" infinite% since the infinite is no
o(stacle to the a**lication of *"o(a(ilities# Any o(:ect% e/en one )i"ectly
gi/en in ex*e"ience% can *"o/i)e -e &ith the o**o"tunity fo" a
*"o(a(ilistic calculation on the infinite# This infinity% &hich is tie) to the
continuity of the o(:ect un)e" consi)e"ation% )oes not *"eclu)e the
*ossi(ility of ca""ying out a *ositi/e e/aluation of the sought0fo" e/ent#
Ta.e fo" exa-*le a ho-ogeneous "o*e of )ete"-inate length% (oth of
&hose ext"e-ities a"e (eing su(:ecte) to e1ual tension# I can calculate the
*ositi/e *"o(a(ility that it &ill ("ea. at one of its *oints% e/en though
these +("ea.ing *oints+ a"e theo"etically infinite in nu-(e" along the length
of the "o*e% since they a"e +)i-ensionless+# Mo"eo/e"% I can )o so )es*ite
the a**a"ent *a"a)ox% acco")ing to &hich% since the *"o(a(ility of any one
of these +)i-ensionless+ *oints (eing the ("ea.ing *oint is one o/e"
infinity% then the "o*e is inca*a(le of ("ea.ing at any of its *oints# 9et all
that is necessa"y to o(/iate this +*a"a)ox+ is to select a seg-ent of "o*e%
ho&e/e" s-all% an) *"o(a(ility once -o"e (eco-es a**lica(le to the latte"
as efficiently as in those cases &he"e the nu-(e" of *ossi(ilities is a
natu"al &hole nu-(e"#
Thus% all that is "e1ui"e) fo" the f"e1uentialist i-*lication to &o". is the
assu-*tion that the"e )oes in)ee) exist a totality of non0cont"a)icto"y
concei/a(le *ossi(ilities% an) the sti*ulation that this totality% &hate/e" its
ca")inality% is i--ensely la"ge" than the set of *hysically *ossi(le e/ents#
$ut this is to say that in o")e" fo" the infe"ence to (e legiti-ate% the"e is
one unci"cu-/enta(le con)ition that -ust (e satisfie)% /i;#% that the"e is a
totality of concei/a(le *ossi(ilities# It is necessa"y to assu-e that a set of
*ossi(le &o"l)s (the +)ice0uni/e"se+ &e in/o.e) ea"lie"! is actually
concei/a(le% if not intuita(le% &ithin &hich &e can then ca""y out ou"
extension of *"o(a(ilistic "easoning f"o- o(:ects that a"e inte"nal to ou"
uni/e"se (the )ice% the "o*e! to the uni/e"se as such# Thus% *"o(a(ilistic
"easoning is concei/a(le on con)ition that it (e *ossi(le to concei/e a
totality of cases &ithin &hich one can then calculate f"e1uencies (y
)ete"-ining the "atio of the nu-(e" of fa/ou"a(le cases to the nu-(e" of
*ossi(le cases# If you "e/o.e the notion of a set of cases an) the i)ea of a
total0uni/e"se f"o- &hence the e/ents su(-itte) to analysis a"e )"a&n%
then aleato"y "easoning (eco-es -eaningless#
Acco")ingly% aleato"y "easoning 0 &hich is to say% the /e"y i)ea of chance
insofa" as the latte" is su(:ect to a calculus of f"e1uency 0 *"esu**oses the
notion of nu-e"ical totality# 3hen totality is inte"nal to ou" uni/e"se% then
it is eithe" )i"ectly gi/en to us in ex*e"ience (as in the case of the nu-(e"
of faces of the )ice% o" the nu-(e" of seg-ents of the co")!% o" in)i"ectly%
/ia an o(se"/ation of the f"e1uency of a gi/en *heno-enon# $ut &hen I
atte-*t to a**ly *"o(a(ilistic "easoning to ou" uni/e"se as a &hole% I
assu-e 0 &ithout the"e (eing anything in ex*e"ience that coul) /ali)ate
this assu-*tion 0 that it is legiti-ate to consi)e" the concei/a(le as
anothe" instance of a totality of cases# Thus% I su(:ect the concei/a(le to a
-athe-atical hy*othesis2 I tu"n it into a set% ho&e/e" la"ge# I tu"n it into
the set of *ossi(le &o"l)s (ecause I consi)e" it a *"io"i legiti-ate to thin.
the *ossi(le as a 3hole#
$ut it is *"ecisely this totali;ation of the thin.a(le &hich can no longe" (e
gua"antee) a *"io"i# Fo" &e no& .no& 0 in)ee)% &e ha/e .no&n it at least
since Canto"+s "e/olutiona"y set0theo"y 0 that &e ha/e no g"oun)s fo"
-aintaining that the concei/a(le is necessa"ily totali;a(le# Fo" one of the
fun)a-ental co-*onents of this "e/olution &as the )etotali;ation of
nu-(e"% a )etotali;ation also .no&n as +the t"ansfinite+#
,n this *a"ticula" *oint% it is the signal &o". of Alain $a)iou 0 an)
*"i-a"ily $eing an) E/ent 0 that has (een )ecisi/e fo" us# A-ong
$a)iou+s fun)a-ental theses is the one &he"e(y he -aintains 0 th"ough
his o&n *"esc"i*tions 0 the ontological *e"tinence of Canto"+s theo"e-% in
such a &ay as to "e/eal the -athe-atical concei/a(ility of the
)etotali;ation of (eing01ua0(eing# Although ou" inte"*"etation of the
ontological sco*e of this )etotali;ation is not the sa-e as $a)iou+s% it is
than.s to his singula" *"o:ect that &e ha/e (een a(le to )isco/e" the
-eans th"ough &hich to ext"icate ou"sel/es f"o- the ontological
con)itions inhe"ent in the necessita"ian infe"ence# Fo" one of the -ost
fo"ceful as*ects of $eing an) E/ent "esi)es in the &ay in &hich it uses
-athe-atics itself to effect a li(e"ation f"o- the li-its of calculato"y
"eason% a gestu"e altogethe" -o"e *o&e"ful than any exte"nal c"iti1ue of
calculation in the na-e of so-e su**ose)ly su*e"io" "egiste" of
*hiloso*hical thought# In this "ega")% as &ell as th"ough -any othe"
as*ects of his thought% Alain $a)iou has ca""ie) out a *"ofoun)
"ein/est-ent of the inaugu"al )ecisions of *hiloso*hy as such% fo" the"e is
no fun)a-ental e*iso)e in *hiloso*hy since 'lato that has not *"ocee)e)
/ia a "e0inte"*"etation of its o"igina"y alliance &ith -athe-atics#
Mo"eo/e"% he has also% &e (elie/e% su--one) each of us to t"y to g"as*
ane& the -eaning of this *"i/ilege) lin. (et&een these t&o )iscou"ses#
Fo" ou" *a"t% an) to (egin &ith% &e ha/e atte-*te) to "e-ain faithful to
this gestu"e th"ough the follo&ing thesis2 the"e is a -athe-atical &ay of
"igo"ously )istinguishing contingency f"o- chance% an) it is *"o/i)e) (y
the t"ansfinite#
In o")e" to (e as concise an) as clea" as *ossi(le a(out the issue of the
t"ansfinite% &e can *ut things in the follo&ing &ay2 one of the -ost
"e-a".a(le as*ects of the stan)a") axio-ati;ation of set0theo"y (.no&n as
+BF+% fo" +Be"-elo0F"aen.el+!% *"og"essi/ely ela(o"ate) )u"ing the fi"st half
of the t&entieth centu"y on the (asis of Canto"+s &o".% consists in its
unenco-*assa(le *lu"ali;ation of infinite 1uantities# +Canto"+s theo"e-+% as
it is .no&n% can (e intuiti/ely glosse) as follo&s2 ta.e any set% count its
ele-ents% then co-*a"e this nu-(e" to the nu-(e" of *ossi(le g"ou*ings
of these ele-ents ((y t&o% (y th"ee 0 (ut the"e a"e also g"ou*ings +(y one+%
o" +(y all+% &hich is i)entical &ith the &hole set!# 9ou &ill al&ays o(tain
the sa-e "esult2 the set $ of *ossi(le g"ou*ings (o" *a"ts! of a set A is
al&ays (igge" than A 0 e/en if A is infinite# It is *ossi(le to const"uct an
unli-ite) succession of infinite sets% each of &hich is of a 1uantity
su*e"io" to that of the set &hose *a"ts it collects togethe"# This succession
is .no&n as the se"ies of ale*hs% o" the se"ies of t"ansfinite ca")inals# $ut
this se"ies itself cannot (e totali;e)% in othe" &o")s% it cannot (e collecte)
togethe" into so-e +ulti-ate+ 1uantity# Fo" it is clea" that &e"e such a
1uantitati/e totali;ation to exist% then it &oul) also ha/e to allo& itself to
(e su"*asse) in acco")ance &ith the *"oce)u"e of the g"ou*ing of *a"ts#
Thus% the set T (fo" Totality! of all 1uantities cannot +contain+ the 1uantity
o(taine) (y the set of the *a"ts of T# Conse1uently% this +1uantity of all
1uantities+ is not const"ue) as (eing +too (ig+ to (e g"as*e) (y thought 0it
is si-*ly const"ue) as not existing# 3ithin the stan)a") set0theo"etical
axio-atic% that &hich is 1uantifia(le% an) e/en -o"e gene"ally% that &hich
is thin.a(le 0 &hich is to say% sets in gene"al% o" &hate/e" can (e
const"ucte) o" )e-onst"ate) in acco")ance &ith the "e1ui"e-ent of
consistency 0 )oes not constitute a totality# Fo" this totality of the
thin.a(le is itself logically inconcei/a(le% since it gi/es "ise to a
cont"a)iction# 3e &ill "etain the follo&ing t"anslation of Canto"+s
t"ansfinite2 the (1uantifia(le! totality of the thin.a(le is unthin.a(le#
Acco")ingly% the st"ategy fo" "esol/ing 8u-e+s *"o(le- can no& (e state)
in the follo&ing &ay#
3e a"e not clai-ing that the non0totali;ing axio-atic is the only *ossi(le
(i#e# thin.a(le! one# Conse1uently% &e a"e not clai-ing that the *ossi(le is
al&ays untotali;a(le% e/en if this is the case in the stan)a") axio-atic of
sets# Fo" &e cannot )eny a *"io"i the *ossi(ility that it coul) also (e
thin.a(le that the thin.a(le constitutes a totality# The fact that the
untotali;a(le is thin.a(le &ithin a gi/en axio-atic )oes not *"e/ent
anyone f"o- choosing anothe" axio-atic% in &hich the f"e1uentialist
i-*lication &oul) still (e /ali)# The"e is al&ays -o"e than one axio-atic%
an) )es*ite its e-inence% that of stan)a") set0theo"y is only one a-ong
-any# Thus% &e cannot "ule out a *"io"i the *ossi(ility of selecting an
axio-atic in &hich the "eal- of *ossi(le &o"l)s &oul) constitute an
ulti-ate an) )ete"-inate nu-e"ical totality# $ut this at least -ust (e
acco")e) to us2 &e ha/e at ou" )is*osal one axio-atic ca*a(le of
*"o/i)ing us &ith the "esou"ces fo" thin.ing that the *ossi(le is
untotali;a(le# 8o&e/e"% the -e"e fact that &e a"e a(le to assu-e the t"uth
of this axio-atic ena(les us to )is1ualify the necessita"ian infe"ence% an)
&ith it e/e"y "eason fo" continuing to (elie/e in the existence of the
necessity of *hysical la&s 0 a necessity that is -yste"iously su*e"i-*ose)
onto the fact of the sta(ility of these sa-e la&s#
3hat the set0theo"etical axio-atic )e-onst"ates is at the /e"y least a
fun)a-ental unce"tainty "ega")ing the totali;a(ility of the *ossi(le# $ut
this unce"tainty alone ena(les us to ca""y out a )ecisi/e c"iti1ue of the
necessita"ian infe"ence (y )est"oying one of the latte"+s fun)a-ental
*ostulates2 &e can only -o/e i--e)iately f"o- the sta(ility of la&s to
thei" necessity so long as &e )o not 1uestion the notion that the *ossi(le is
a *"io"i totali;a(le# $ut since this totali;ation is at (est only o*e"ati/e
&ithin ce"tain axio-atics% "athe" than in all of the-% &e can no longe"
continue to clai- that the f"e1uentialist i-*lication is a(solutely /ali)#
3e ha/e no &ay of .no&ing &hethe" the *ossi(le can (e totali;e) in the
sa-e &ay as the faces of a set of )ice can (e totali;e)# This igno"ance
suffices to ex*ose the illegiti-acy of exten)ing aleato"y "easoning (eyon)
a totality that is al"ea)y gi/en in ex*e"ience# >ince &e cannot )eci)e a
*"io"i (i#e# th"ough the use of logical0-athe-atical *"oce)u"es alone!
&hethe" o" not a totality of the *ossi(le exists% then &e shoul) "est"ict the
clai-s of aleato"y "easoning solely to o(:ects of ex*e"ience% "athe" than
exten)ing it 0 as 7ant i-*licitly )oes in his o(:ecti/e )e)uction 0 to the
/e"y la&s that go/e"n ou" uni/e"se% as if &e .ne& that the latte"
necessa"ily (elongs to so-e g"eate" 3hole# >ince (oth theses (/i;#% that
the *ossi(le is nu-e"ically totali;a(le% an) that it is not! a"e a *"io"i
concei/a(le% only ex*e"ience can *"o/i)e us &ith an assu"ance as to the
/ali)ity of aleato"y "easoning% (y acting as gua"anto" fo" the actual
existence of the totality &hich is "e1ui"e) in o")e" fo" that "easoning to
&o". 0 &hethe" in the fo"- of a )i"ect ex*e"ience of a su**ose)ly
ho-ogeneous o(:ect (e#g# the )ice o" the "o*e!% o" in the fo"- of a
statistical analysis ()ete"-ination of a/e"age /alues an) of a**"o*"iate
f"e1uencies fo" an i)entifia(le *heno-enon!# Acco")ingly% the only
totalities a/aila(le to us that a"e ca*a(le of legiti-ating this ty*e of
aleato"y "easoning -ust (e gi/en to us &ithin ou" uni/e"se 0 &hich is to
say% ex*e"ientially# 7ant+s (elief in the necessity of la&s is the"e(y
"e/o.e) as an instance of aleato"y "eason+s un&a""ante) *"etension to
"each (eyon) the li-its of ex*e"ience#
Fo" it is in fact this illegiti-ate a**lication of *"o(a(ilities (eyon) the
li-its of ou" ex*e"ience that allo&s 7ant% at se/e"al :unctu"es in the =st
C"iti1ue% to )e"i/e f"o- the hy*othesis of the contingency of la&s% F the
necessity of thei" f"e1uent -o)ification# Thus% in the follo&ing *assage%
the infe"ence f"o- the *ossi(ility of contingency to the necessa"y
f"e1uency of its effectuation is *a"ticula"ly e/i)ent2
Unity of synthesis acco")ing to e-*i"ical conce*ts ?&hich in this context
-eans *"i-a"ily the a**lication of the "elation of causality to *heno-ena
0 QM@ &oul) (e altogethe" contingent% if these latte" &e"e not (ase) on a
t"anscen)ental g"oun) of unity# ,the"&ise% it &oul) (e *ossi(le fo"
a**ea"ances to c"o&) in u*on the soul% an) yet to (e such as &oul) ne/e"
allo& of ex*e"ience# >ince connection in acco")ance &ith uni/e"sal an)
necessa"y la&s &oul) (e lac.ing% all "elation of .no&le)ge to o(:ects
&oul) fall a&ay# The a**ea"ances -ight in)ee) constitute intuition
&ithout thought% (ut not .no&le)ge% an) conse1uently &oul) (e fo" us as
goo) as nothing# (7ant =I2I2 =E% Alll 0 -y e-*hasis!
7ant infe"s f"o- the assu-*tion of the actual contingency of *heno-enal
la&s -o)ifications of "eality so ext"e-e that they &oul) necessa"ily entail
the )est"uction of the /e"y *ossi(ility of .no&le)ge% an) e/en of
consciousness# $ut ho& is 7ant a(le to )ete"-ine the actual f"e1uency of
the -o)ification of la&s% assu-ing the latte" to (e contingent5 8o& )oes
he .no& that this f"e1uency &oul) (e so ext"ao")ina"ily significant as to
)est"oy the /e"y *ossi(ility of science% an) e/en of consciousness5 $y
&hat "ight )oes he "ule out a *"io"i the *ossi(ility that contingent la&s
-ight only /e"y "a"ely change 0 so "a"ely in)ee) that no one &oul) e/e"
ha/e ha) the o**o"tunity to &itness such a -o)ification5 It can only (e (y
the "ight &hich he )e"i/es f"o- a**lying the calculus of *"o(a(ility to ou"
&o"l) as a &hole% "athe" than to any *heno-enon gi/en &ithin the &o"l)%
an) hence f"o- an a *"io"i totali;ation of the *ossi(le% &hich &e .no&%
since Canto"% can no longe" lay clai- to any logical o" -athe-atical
necessity 0 &hich is to say% to any so"t of a *"io"i necessity#
CCC
3hat has (een ou" a**"oach to 8u-e+s *"o(le-% an) to &hat extent can
&e clai- to ha/e *"o/i)e) a solution to it5
3e (egan (y "efo"-ulating the *"o(le-2 instea) of assu-ing that 8u-e+s
i-agina"y hy*othesis conce"ning +a hun)"e) )iffe"ent e/ents+ "esulting
f"o- the sa-e causal se1uence &as a chi-e"a &hich ha) to (e "efute)% &e
sought to unco/e" &hat it &as exactly that *"e/ente) us f"o- (elie/ing in
the t"uth of such a hy*othesis% gi/en that "eason% on the cont"a"y% issue)
an e-*hatic in/itation to acce*t it# 3e then notice) that at the "oot of this
*"esu**osition lay an instance of *"o(a(ilistic "easoning a**lie) to the
la&s of natu"e the-sel/es6 a *iece of "easoning &hich the"e &as no "eason
to acce*t once its con)ition 0 the clai- that concei/a(le *ossi(ilities
constitute a totality 0 &as "e/eale) to (e no -o"e than a hy*othesis% as
o**ose) to an in)u(ita(le t"uth#
In )oing so% although &e ha/e not *ositi/ely )e-onst"ate) that the
*ossi(le is untotali;a(le% &e ha/e i)entifie) an alte"nati/e (et&een t&o
o*tions 0 /i;#% the *ossi(le eithe" )oes o" )oes not constitute a totality
0&ith "ega") to &hich &e ha/e e/e"y "eason to o*t fo" the secon) 0 e/e"y
"eason% since it is *"ecisely the secon) o*tion that allo&s us to follo&
&hat "eason in)icates 0 /i;#% that the"e is no necessity to *hysical la&s 0
&ithout &asting fu"the" ene"gy t"ying to "esol/e the enig-as inhe"ent in
the fi"st o*tion# Fo" &hoe/e" totali;es the *ossi(le legiti-ates the
f"e1uential i-*lication% an) the"e(y the sou"ce of the (elief in "eal
necessity% the "eason fo" &hich no one &ill e/e" (e a(le to un)e"stan) 0
thus% &hoe/e" )oes so -ust -aintain (oth that *hysical la&s a"e
necessa"y an) that no one can .no& &hy it is these la&s% "athe" than
othe"s% &hich necessa"ily exist# $ut on the cont"a"y% &hoe/e" )etotali;es
the *ossi(le is a(le to thin. the sta(ility of la&s &ithout ha/ing to
"e)ou(le the- &ith an enig-atic *hysical necessity# Conse1uently% &e
can a**ly ,c.ha-+s "a;o" to the hy*othesis of "eal necessity2 since the
latte" is an +entity+ that is su*e"fluous fo" ex*laining the &o"l)% &e can
safely )is*ense &ith it &ithout )e*"i/ing ou"sel/es of anything exce*t fo"
a -yste"y# Thus% the "esolution of 8u-e+s *"o(le- allo&s us to "e-o/e a
fun)a-ental o(stacle to the co-*lete e-("ace of the *"inci*le of
factiality% (ecause it "ules out% as a hencefo"th fa-ilia" so*his-% the
t"anscen)ental o(:ection &hich in/a"ia(ly infe"s an actual% "an)o-
)iso")e" of "e*"esentations f"o- the contingency of la&s#
CCC
3e .no& that the te"-s +chance+ (f"o- the Qulga" <atin2 ca)entia! an)
+aleato"y+ (f"o- the <atin2 alea! (oth "efe" (ac. to "elate) ety-ologies2 +to
fall+% an) +falling+ in the case of the fo"-e"6 +)ice+% +)ice0th"o&+% o" +ga-e of
)ice+ in the case of the latte"# Thus% these te"-s ("ing togethe" notions that%
fa" f"o- (eing o**ose) to one anothe"% a"e actually inse*a"a(le 0the
notions of *lay an) of calculation% an) of the calculation of chance &hich
is inhe"ent in e/e"y ga-e of )ice# E/e"y thin.ing in &hich the
i)entification of (eing &ith chance is )o-inant fo"eg"oun)s the the-e of
the )ice0totality (&hich is to say% of the unalte"a(le enclosu"e of the
nu-(e" of the *ossi(le!% of the a**a"ent g"atuity of the ga-e (the *lay of
life an) of a &o"l) &hose su*e"io" a"tificiality is ac.no&le)ge)!% (ut also
that of the cool calculation of f"e1uencies (the &o"l) of life insu"ance an)
e/alua(le "is.s!# The ontology of the enclosu"e of *ossi(ilities ine/ita(ly
situates us &ithin a &o"l) &hose a/e"sion to g"a/ity is (ut the o(/e"se of
the fact that it only ta.es counting techni1ues se"iously#
$y &ay of cont"ast% the te"- +contingency+ "efe"s (ac. to the <atin
continge"e% -eaning +to touch% to (efall+% &hich is to say% that &hich
ha**ens% (ut &hich ha**ens enough to ha**en to us# The contingent% in a
&o")% is so-ething that finally ha**ens 0 so-ething othe"% so-ething
&hich% in its i""e)uci(ility to all *"e0"egiste"e) *ossi(ilities% *uts an en) to
the /anity of a ga-e &he"ein e/e"ything% e/en the i-*"o(a(le% is
*"e)icta(le# 3hen so-ething ha**ens to us% &hen no/elty g"a(s us (y the
th"oat% then no -o"e calculation an) no -o"e *lay 0 it is ti-e to (e
se"ious# $ut &hat is -ost fun)a-ental in all this 0 an) this &as al"ea)y
one of the gui)ing intuitions of $eing an) E/ent 0 is the i)ea that the -ost
*o&e"ful conce*tion of the incalcula(le an) un*"e)icta(le e/ent is
*"o/i)e) (y a thin.ing that continues to (e -athe-atical 0 "athe" than one
&hich is a"tistic% *oetic% o" "eligious# It is (y &ay of -athe-atics that &e
&ill finally succee) in thin.ing that &hich% th"ough its *o&e" an) (eauty%
/an1uishes 1uantities an) soun)s the en) of *lay#
CCC
In light of the fo"egoing% &e can no& g"as* the gene"al teno" of the factual
a**"oach# ,u" *"o:ect can in fact (e fo"-ulate) as follo&s2 ou" ai- is to
su**lant the conte-*o"a"y )issolution of -eta*hysical *"o(le-s (y a
non0-eta*hysical *"eci*itation of these sa-e *"o(le-s# <et us 1uic.ly
ex*lain &hat this su**lanting entails#
3hat &ill (e the "eaction of -any conte-*o"a"y *hiloso*he"s (al(eit
fe&e" an) fe&e"! &hen conf"onte) (y 8u-e+s *"o(le-% o" (y the 1uestion
as to &hy the"e is so-ething "athe" than nothing5 Aene"ally s*ea.ing%
they &ill t"y to fin) the easiest &ay to sh"ug thei" shoul)e"s# They &ill t"y
to )e-onst"ate to you that the"e is nothing enig-atic a(out you" 1uestion%
(ecause it )oes not e/en nee) to (e "aise) any -o"e# Thus% they &ill
en)ea/ou"% in a s*i"it of cha"ity 0 ti"elessly "e*eating the Ducha-*ian0
3ittgensteinian gestu"e 0 to -a.e you un)e"stan) that the"e is no enig-a%
(ecause the"e is no *"o(le-# These *hiloso*he"s &ill clai- to ha/e
)issol/e) you" +nai/e+ *"o(le- 0 +nai/e+ (ecause -eta*hysical% )og-atic%
etc# 0 (y un/eiling the (linguistic% histo"ical! sou"ce of this /ain
1uestioning# Ulti-ately% &hat they a"e "eally inte"este) in is fin)ing out
ho& it &as *ossi(le (an) ho& it is still *ossi(le 0 you% the 1uestione"%
(eing *"oof of it! to (e *e"*lexe) (y such +*seu)o0*"o(le-s+#
The en) of -eta*hysics is still la"gely i)entifie) &ith this ty*e of
)issol/ent a**"oach 0 it is no longe" a -atte" of as.ing oneself
-eta*hysical 1uestions% since the latte" a"e -e"e se-(lances of 1uestions%
o" 1uestions that a"e no& i""e-e)ia(ly o(solete% (ut "athe" of "aising
1uestions on% o" a(out -eta*hysics# $ut &e no& .no& that the
conte-*o"a"y (elief in the insolu(ility of -eta*hysical 1uestions is
-e"ely the conse1uence of the continuing (elief in the *"inci*le of "eason
0 fo" only so-eone &ho continues to (elie/e that to s*eculate is to see.
out the ulti-ate "eason fo" things (eing thus an) so% also (elie/es that
the"e is no ho*e of "esol/ing -eta*hysical 1uestions# ,nly so-eone &ho
(elie/es that the essence of the ans&e" to a -eta*hysical 1uestion lies in
)isco/e"ing a cause o" a necessa"y "eason can esti-ate% "ightly% that these
*"o(le-s &ill ne/e" (e "esol/e)# This is a )iscou"se of the li-its of
thought% &hich &e no& .no& to (e a conse1uence of the *e"*etuating
)enial of -eta*hysics# Acco")ingly% &e can no& see that the /e"ita(le en)
of -eta*hysics is -ate"iali;e) (y the atte-*t to ext"act f"o- this
)issolution the *"eci*itate of these /ene"a(le 1uestions% no& "esto"e) to
thei" so/e"eign legiti-acy# Fo" it is (y "esol/ing the 1uestions of
-eta*hysics that &e (eco-e a(le to un)e"stan) that the essence of the
latte" consiste) in gene"ating *"o(le-s that it coul) not ans&e" so long as
it "etaine) its fun)a-ental *ostulate 0 only (y a(an)oning the *"inci*le of
"eason can &e (egin to -a.e sense of these *"o(le-s#
Thus% the factial stance *"ocee)s (y a(an)oning the )issol/ent a**"oach
to -eta*hysics as a *"oce)u"e that has itself (eco-e o(solete# Fo" the
*ostulate of )issolution 0 /i;#% that -eta*hysical *"o(le-s a"e not "eally
*"o(le-s% (ut false *"o(le-s% *seu)o01uestions constitute) in such a &ay
that it -a.es no sense to assu-e they coul) e/e" a)-it of a solution 0 this
*ostulate (egins to c"u-(le once &e lea"n to "enounce the *"inci*le of
"eason# As a "esult% -eta*hysical *"o(le-s a"e "e/eale) al&ays to ha/e
(een genuine *"o(le-s% since they )o a)-it of a solution# $ut thei"
"esolution )e*en)s on one *"ecise an) highly const"aining con)ition 0that
&e (egin to un)e"stan) that in "e*ly to those -eta*hysical 1uestions that
as. &hy the &o"l) is thus an) not othe"&ise% the "es*onse +fo" no "eason+
is a genuine ans&e"# Instea) of laughing o" s-iling at 1uestions li.e
+3he"e )o &e co-e f"o-5+% +3hy )o &e exist5+% &e shoul) *on)e" instea)
the "e-a".a(le fact that the "e*lies +F"o- nothing# Fo" nothing+ "eally a"e
ans&e"s% the"e(y "eali;ing that these "eally &e"e 1uestions 0 an) excellent
ones at that# The"e is no longe" a -yste"y% not (ecause the"e is no longe" a
*"o(le-% (ut (ecause the"e is no longe" a "eason#
CCC
8o&e/e"% &e -ust "etu"n to ou" *"o*ose) "esolution of 8u-e+s *"o(le-%
fo" the fo"-e" cannot &holly satisfy us# As &e sa&% this "esolution is
fun)a-entally non07antian insofa" as it ai-s to esta(lish the concei/0
a(ility of the actual contingency of the la&s of natu"e# 9et it &oul) not (e
1uite "ight to asse"t that ou" "esolution itself is une1ui/ocally s*eculati/e%
:ust (ecause it is anti0t"anscen)ental in intent# Fo" although the thesis &e
a)/ance) &as ontological% an) )i) in)ee) asse"t so-ething a(out the in0
itself "athe" than *heno-ena in -aintaining the )etotali;ation of the
*ossi(le% ne/e"theless% it &as only a)/ance) as an ontological hy*othesis#
3e ha/e not esta(lishe) &hethe" this non0totali;ation actually o(tains% &e
ha/e -e"ely su**ose) it% an) )"a&n the conse1uences of the fact that such
a su**osition is *ossi(le# In othe" &o")s% although ou" *"o*ose)
"esolution of 8u-e+s *"o(le- gi/es us g"oun)s fo" not i--e)iately
gi/ing u* on the i)ea of factial s*eculation% it has not itself (een
engen)e"e) as a t"uth (y -eans of s*eculati/e "easoning# Fo" a *"o*e"ly
factial "esolution of 8u-e+s *"o(le- &oul) "e1ui"e that &e )e"i/e the
non0totali;ation of the *ossi(le f"o- the *"inci*le of factiality itself# In
o")e" to ela(o"ate such a solution% &e &oul) ha/e to )e"i/e the non0&hole
as a figu"e of factiality% :ust as &e s.etche) the )e"i/ation of consistency
an) of the +the"e is+# This &oul) entail a(soluti;ing the t"ansfinite in the
sa-e &ay in &hich &e a(soluti;e) consistency 0 &hich is to say that &e
&oul) ha/e to thin. the fo"-e" as an ex*licit con)ition of contingent0
(eing% "athe" than -e"ely const"uing it as a -athe-atically fo"-ulate)
hy*othesis that can (e a)/antageously su**o"te) (y the s*eculati/e# $ut it
is clea" that such "esolution of the *"o(le- &oul) "e1ui"e that &e (e in a
*osition to )o fo" -athe-atical necessity &hat &e t"ie) to )o fo" logical
necessity# 3e &oul) ha/e to (e a(le to "e)isco/e" an in0itself that is
Ca"tesian% an) no longe" :ust 7antian 0 in othe" &o")s% &e &oul) ha/e to
(e a(le to legiti-ate the a(solute (ea"ing of the -athe-atical 0 "athe" than
-e"ely logical 0 "estitution of a "eality that is const"ue) as in)e*en)ent of
the existence of thought# It &oul) (e a 1uestion of esta(lishing that the
*ossi(ilities of &hich chaos 0 &hich is the only in0itself 0 is actually
ca*a(le cannot (e -easu"e) (y any nu-(e"% &hethe" finite o" infinite% an)
that it is *"ecisely this su*e"0i--ensity of the chaotic /i"tual that allo&s
the i-*ecca(le sta(ility of the /isi(le &o"l)#
$ut it is clea" that such a )e"i/ation &oul) not only ha/e to (e fa" -o"e
co-*lex% (ut also -o"e a)/entu"ous than that of consistency% since it
&oul) ha/e to )e-onst"ate ho& a s*ecific -athe-atical theo"e-% an) not
:ust a gene"al "ule of the logos% is one of the a(solute con)itions of
contingency# Acco")ingly% it -ight see- &ise" to confine ou"sel/es to ou"
hy*othetical "esolution of 8u-e+s *"o(le-% since the latte" see-s
sufficient to /an1uish the o(:ection f"o- *hysical sta(ility% &hich
*"o/i)e) the only +"ational+ -oti/e fo" not si-*ly a(an)oning e/e"y
/a"iant of the *"inci*le of "eason# 8o&e/e"% the"e is anothe" *"o(le- that
"ules out such caution% an) it is *"ecisely the *"o(le- of ancest"ality# Fo"
as &e sa&% the "esolution of the latte" )e-an)e) an une1ui/ocal
)e-onst"ation of the a(soluteness of -athe-atical )iscou"se# 3e (egin to
see then% al(eit )i-ly% that the"e no& see- to (e t&o *"o(le-s tie) to the
issue of the a(solute sco*e of -athe-atics 0 the *"o(le- of the a"che0
fossil an) the *"o(le- of 8u-e# It "e-ains fo" us to connect the- in such
a &ay as to *"o/i)e a *"ecise fo"-ulation of the tas. fo" non0-eta*hysical
s*eculation#

Cha*te" F 'tole-y+s Re/enge
The *"o(le- of ancest"ality% o" of the a"che0fossil% such as &e )esc"i(e) it
in Cha*te" =% (ea"s u*on the follo&ing gene"al 1uestion2 ho& a"e &e to
un)e"stan) the -eaning of scientific state-ents a(out a -anifestation of
the &o"l) &hich is su**ose) to (e ante"io" to any hu-an fo"- of the
"elation to the &o"l)5 ," again2 ho& a"e &e to concei/e of the -eaning of
a )iscou"se &hich const"ues the "elation to the &o"l)% &hethe" li/ing an)J
o" thin.ing% as a fact insc"i(e) &ithin a te-*o"ality in &hich this "elation
is -e"ely one e/ent a-ong othe"s 0 a fact situate) in a se1uence of &hich
it is -e"ely a stage% an) not the o"igin5 8o& is science e/en ca*a(le of
concei/ing such state-ents% an) in &hat "ega") a"e &e to att"i(ute an
e/entual t"uth to the-5
3e -ust no& t"y to "en)e" the fo"-ulation of this 1uestion -o"e *"ecise#
Close" ins*ection "e/eals that the *"o(le- of the a"che0fossil is not
confine) to ancest"al state-ents# Fo" it conce"ns e/e"y )iscou"se &hose
-eaning inclu)es a te-*o"al )isc"e*ancy (et&een thin.ing an) (eing 0
thus% not only state-ents a(out e/ents occu""ing *"io" to the e-e"gence of
hu-ans% (ut also state-ents a(out *ossi(le e/ents that a"e ulte"io" to the
extinction of the hu-an s*ecies# Fo" the sa-e *"o(le- a"ises &hen &e t"y
to )ete"-ine the con)itions of -eaning fo" hy*otheses a(out the cli-actic
an) geological conse1uences of a -eteo" i-*act extinguishing all life on
ea"th# 3e &ill use the te"- +)ia0ch"onicity= to *"o/i)e a gene"al
cha"acte"i;ation of all such state-ents a(out e/ents that a"e ante"io" o"
ulte"io" to e/e"y te""est"ial0"elation0to0the0&o"l) 0 the fo"-e" ex*"essing
the te-*o"al hiatus (et&een &o"l) an) "elation0to0the0&o"l) that is
inhe"ent in the /e"y -eaning of such )iscou"se# Acco")ingly% it is the
con)itions of -eaning fo" )ia0ch"onic state-ents in gene"al that conce"n
us#
$ut the latte" )oes not only *e"tain to ce"tain ty*es of scientific state-ent%
o" only to a s*ecific ty*e of scientific "esea"ch% such as coul) (e "est"icte)
to the science of )ating% fo" instance# Fo" &hat is at sta.e in )ia0ch"onicity
is in)ee) the natu"e of e-*i"ical science in gene"al# The *"o(le- of )ia0
ch"onicity is not :ust a function of the fact that science has actually
esta(lishe) a te-*o"al hiatus (et&een (eing an) te""est"ial thought6 it
conce"ns the fact that this is a *ossi(ility that &as "en)e"e) -eaningful (y
the /e"y ince*tion of -o)e- science# It is not the 1uestion of fact that &e
a"e conce"ne) &ith 0 i#e# the fact that )ia0ch"onic state-ents a"e /e"ifie)
o" falsifie) 0 (ut "athe" the 1uestion of "ight o" *"inci*le6 that is to say% the
1uestion of the status of the )iscou"se &hich "en)e"s the /e"ification o"
falsification of such state-ents -eaningful# >cience coul) in *"inci*le
ha/e )isco/e"e) a synch"onicity (et&een hu-anity an) &o"l)% since the"e
is nothing to "ule out a *"io"i the co-*ati(ility (et&een -athe-atical
*hysics an) such a hy*othesis (i#e# the hy*othesis of a hu-an s*ecies as
ol) as the cos-os! 0 yet this &oul) not ha/e *"e/ente) us f"o- "aising the
*"o(le- of )ia0ch"onicity in s*ite of it# Fo" the fun)a-ental *oint is this2
e/en if science ha) )isco/e"e) this synch"onicity% this &oul) still ha/e
(een a )isco/e"y 0 &hich is to say that it is *"ecisely insofa" as -o)e"n
science is -athe-ati;e) that it is ca*a(le of "aising the 1uestion of a
*ossi(le te-*o"al hiatus (et&een thin.ing an) (eing 0 of const"uing the
latte" as a -eaningful hy*othesis% of gi/ing it -eaning% of "en)e"ing it
t"acta(le 0 &hethe" in o")e" to "efute it o" confi"- it# It is *"ecisely this
ca*acity of scientific )iscou"se &hich conce"ns us 0 its a(ility to gi/e
-eaning to the *ossi(ility of the )ia0ch"onic 0 not &hethe" this *ossi(ility
is confi"-e) o" "e:ecte)# Ancest"ality has allo&e) us to highlight the
)ifficulty &hich -o)e"n *hiloso*hy has &hen it co-es to thin.ing a
ce"tain ty*e of conte-*o"a"y scientific )iscou"se 0 (ut &hat &e a"e
ulti-ately conce"ne) &ith *e"tains to &hat see-s to us to (e the
fun)a-ental *"o*e"ty o" t"ait of Aalileis-% &hich is to say% of the -athe0
-ati;ation of natu"e#
In o")e" to *"o*e"ly g"as* the natu"e of this *"o*e"ty% it is necessa"y to
un)e"stan) in &hat "ega") Aalileis- en)o&e) )ia0ch"onic )iscou"se &ith
a hithe"to un*"ece)ente) sco*e# Ce"tainly% hu-ans )i) not ha/e to &ait
fo" the a)/ent of e-*i"ical science in o")e" to *"o)uce accounts of &hat
ha) *"ece)e) hu-an existence 0 &hethe" in the sha*e of Cyclo*es% Titans%
o" Ao)s# $ut the fun)a-ental )i-ension *"esente) (y -o)e"n science
f"o- the -o-ent of its ince*tion &as the fact that its asse"tions coul)
(eco-e *a"t of a cogniti/e *"ocess# They &e"e no longe" of the o")e" of
-yths% theogonies% o" fa(ulations% an) instea) (eca-e hy*otheses
susce*ti(le to co""o(o"ation o" "efutation (y actual ex*e"i-ents# The te"-
+hy*othesis+ he"e is not inten)e) to suggest a .in) of un/e"ifia(ility that
&oul) (e *eculia" to such state-ents# 3e )o not -ean to i-*ly the i)ea
that no +)i"ect+ /e"ification of )ia0ch"onic state-ents is *ossi(le (y
)efinition% since the occu""ences to &hich they "efe" a"e *osite) as
ante"io" o" ulte"io" to the existence of hu-an ex*e"ience# Fo" as a -atte"
of fact% this a(sence of +)i"ect /e"ification+ hol)s fo" a g"eat -any
scientific state-ents% if not fo" all of the-% gi/en that /e"y fe& t"uths can
(e attaine) th"ough i--e)iate ex*e"ience an) that gene"ally s*ea.ing%
science is not (ase) u*on si-*le o(se"/ations% (ut "athe" u*on )ata that
ha/e al"ea)y (een *"ocesse) an) 1uantifie) (y e/e" -o"e ela(o"ate
-easu"ing inst"u-ents# Thus% in 1ualifying the state-ents of e-*i"ical
science as +hy*otheses+% &e )o not see. to un)e"-ine thei" cogniti/e /alue
(ut "athe" to confe" u*on the- thei" full /alue as instances of .no&le)ge#
It is the )iscou"se of e-*i"ical science &hich% fo" the fi"st ti-e% gi/es
-eaning to the i)ea of a "ational )e(ate a(out &hat )i) o" )i) not exist
*"io" to the e-e"gence of hu-an.in)% as &ell as a(out &hat -ight
e/entually succee) hu-anity# Theo"ies can al&ays (e i-*"o/e) an)
a-en)e)% (ut the /e"y fact that the"e can (e such )ia0ch"onic theo"ies is
the "e-a".a(le featu"e -a)e *ossi(le (y -o)e"n .no&le)ge# It &as
science that -a)e it -eaningful to )isag"ee a(out &hat the"e -ight ha/e
(een &hen &e )i) not exist% an) &hat the"e -ight (e &hen &e no longe"
exist 0 :ust as it is science that *"o/i)es us &ith the -eans to "ationally
fa/ou" one hy*othesis o/e" anothe" conce"ning the natu"e of a &o"l)
&ithout us#
$ut if science the"e(y "en)e"s )ia0ch"onic .no&le)ge *ossi(le% this is
(ecause it allo&s us to consi)e" all of its state-ents 0 o" at least all its
state-ents a(out the ino"ganic 0 f"o- a )ia0ch"onic *oint of /ie&# Fo" the
t"uth o" falsity of a *hysical la& is not esta(lishe) &ith "ega") to ou" o&n
existence 0 &hethe" &e exist o" )o not exist has no (ea"ing u*on its t"uth#
Ce"tainly% the *"esence of an o(se"/e" -ay e/entually affect the
effectuation of a *hysical la&% as is the case fo" so-e of the la&s of
1uantu- *hysics 0 (ut the /e"y fact that an o(se"/e" can influence the la&
is itself a *"o*e"ty of the la& &hich is not su**ose) to )e*en) u*on the
existence of an o(se"/e"# ,nce again% the fun)a-ental *oint at issue is not
the fact that science is s*ontaneously "ealist% since the sa-e coul) (e sai)
of e/e"y )iscou"se% (ut "athe" the fact that science )e*loys a *"ocess
&he"e(y &e a"e a(le to .no& &hat -ay (e &hile &e a"e not% an) that this
*"ocess is lin.e) to &hat sets science a*a"t2 the -athe-ati;ation of
natu"e#
<et us t"y to (e -o"e *"ecise a(out this# 3hat fun)a-ental change )i)
Aalileo ("ing a(out in ou" un)e"stan)ing of the lin. that ties -athe-atics
to the &o"l)5 The"e &as nothing ne& a(out the geo-et"ical )esc"i*tion of
*heno-ena% since A"ee. ast"ono-y ha) al"ea)y )esc"i(e) stella"
t"a:ecto"ies in geo-et"ical te"-s# $ut these )esc"i*tions *e"taine) to the
+i--e)iately geo-et"ic+ as*ect of the *heno-enon 0 &hat &as su(:ecte)
to -athe-atics &as the unalte"a(le fo"- of a t"a:ecto"y o" a )ete"-inate
su"face a"ea 0 in othe" &o")s% a -otionless ex*anse# Aalileo% (y &ay of
cont"ast% concei/es of -o/e-ent itself in -athe-atical te"-s% an)
*a"ticula"ly the -o/e-ent &hich a**ea"s to (e the -ost changea(le of all2
the falling of te""est"ial (o)ies# In )oing so% he unco/e"e)% (eyon) the
/a"iations of *osition an) s*ee)% the -athe-atical in/a"iant of -o/e-ent
0 that is to say% accele"ation# F"o- that *oint on% the &o"l) (eco-es
exhausti/ely -athe-ati;a(le 0 the -athe-ati;a(le no longe" )esignates
an as*ect of the &o"l) that is essentially i--e"ge) &ithin the non0
-athe-ati;a(le (i#e# a su"face o" t"a:ecto"y% &hich is -e"ely the su"face o"
t"a:ecto"y of a -o/ing (o)y!% it no& in)icates a &o"l) ca*a(le of
autono-y 0 a &o"l) &he"ein (o)ies as &ell as thei" -o/e-ents can (e
)esc"i(e) in)e*en)ently of thei" sensi(le 1ualities% such as fla/ou"% s-ell%
heat% etc# The &o"l) of Ca"tesian extension is a &o"l) that ac1ui"es the
in)e*en)ence of su(stance% a &o"l) that &e can hencefo"th concei/e of as
in)iffe"ent to e/e"ything in it that co""es*on)s to the conc"ete% o"ganic
connection that &e fo"ge &ith it 0 it is this glacial &o"l) that is "e/eale) to
the -o)e"ns% a &o"l) in &hich the"e is no longe" any u* o" )o&n% cent"e
o" *e"i*he"y% no" anything else that -ight -a.e of it a &o"l) )esigne) fo"
hu-ans# Fo" the fi"st ti-e% the &o"l) -anifests itself as ca*a(le of
su(sisting &ithout any of those as*ects that constitute its conc"eteness fo"
us#
It is this ca*acity &he"e(y -athe-ati;e) science is a(le to )e*loy a &o"l)
that is se*a"a(le f"o- -an 0 a ca*acity that Desca"tes theo"i;e) in all its
*o&e" 0 that "en)e"e) *ossi(le the essential alliance (et&een the Aalilean
an) Co*e"nican "e/olutions# In s*ea.ing of +the Co*e"nican "e/olution+%
&hat &e ha/e in -in) is not so -uch the ast"ono-ical )isco/e"y of the
)ecent"ing of the te""est"ial o(se"/e" &ithin the sola" syste-% (ut "athe"
the -uch -o"e fun)a-ental )ecent"ing &hich *"esi)e) o/e" the
-athe-ati;ation of natu"e% /i;#% the )ecent"ing of thought "elati/e to the
&o"l) &ithin the *"ocess of .no&le)ge# The Aalilean0Co*e"nican
"e/olution effecti/ely consiste) in the fact that (oth these e/ents 0
ast"ono-ical )ecent"ing an) -athe-ati;ation of natu"e 0 &e"e sei;e)
u*on (y thei" conte-*o"a"ies as inti-ately co""ecte)# An) this co""ection
in tu"n consiste) in the fact that the -athe-ati;e) &o"l) ha"(ou"e) &ithin
it &hat 'ascal% on (ehalf of the li(e"tine% ha) )iagnose) as the ete"nal an)
f"ightening silence of infinite s*aces 0 that is to say% the )isco/e"y that the
&o"l) *ossesses a *o&e" of *e"sistence an) *e"-anence that is co-*letely
unaffecte) (y ou" existence o" inexistence# F"o- its ince*tion% the
-athe-ati;ation of the &o"l) (o"e &ithin it the *ossi(ility of unco/e"ing
.no&le)ge of a &o"l) -o"e in)iffe"ent than e/e" to hu-an existence% an)
hence in)iffe"ent to &hate/e" .no&le)ge hu-anity -ight ha/e of it# In
this &ay% science ca""ie) &ithin it the *ossi(ility of t"ansfo"-ing e/e"y
)atu- of ou" ex*e"ience into a )ia0ch"onic o(:ect 0 into a co-*onent of a
&o"l) that gi/es itself to us as in)iffe"ent% in (eing &hat it is% to &hethe" it
is gi/en o" not# Thus% the Aalilean0Co*e"nican "e/olution has no othe"
-eaning than that of the *a"a)oxical un/eiling of thought+s ca*acity to
thin. &hat the"e is &hethe" thought exists o" not# The sense of )esolation
an) a(an)on-ent &hich -o)e"n science instils in hu-anity+s conce*tion
of itself an) of the cos-os has no -o"e fun)a-ental cause than this2 it
consists in the thought of thought+s contingency fo" the &o"l)% an) the
"ecognition that thought has (eco-e a(le to thin. a &o"l) that can
)is*ense &ith thought% a &o"l) that is essentially unaffecte) (y &hethe" o"
not anyone thin.s it#
<et+s cla"ify the sense of this latte" asse"tion# 3e clai-e) that the )ia0
ch"onic state-ent ex*"esse) the /e"y essence of -o)e"n science% insofa"
as the latte" -a)e it *ossi(le to integ"ate such state-ents into the "eal- of
.no&le)ge% as o**ose) to that of -yth o" fa(ulation# >uch state-ents
ce"tainly )o not clai- that the"e coul) (e no "elation to the &o"l) othe"
than the hu-an "elation to the &o"l) 0 &e cannot *"o/e that )ia0ch"onic
e/ents coul) not ha/e (een the co""elates of a non0hu-an "elation to thei"
occu""ence (i#e# &e cannot *"o/e that they &e"e not &itnesse) (y a go) o"
(y a li/ing c"eatu"e!# $ut science+s )ia0ch"onic state-ents assu-e that the
+1uestion of the &itness+ has (eco-e i""ele/ant to .no&le)ge of the e/ent#
In othe" &o")s% the )ecay of the "a)ioacti/e -ate"ial% o" the natu"e of the
stella" e-ission% a"e )esc"i(e) in such a &ay that they -ust (e assu-e) to
(e a)e1uate to &hat &e -anage to thin. a(out the-% &hile the 1uestion as
to &hethe" o" not they &e"e &itnesse) (eco-es i""ele/ant to the a)e1uacy
of this )esc"i*tion# ," again2 (oth this )ecay an) this e-ission a"e
concei/e) in such a &ay that they &oul) ha/e (een i)entical to &hat &e
thin. a(out the- e/en if hu-an thought ha) ne/e" existe) to thin. the-#
This is in any case a feasi(le hy*othesis% &hich science "en)e"s
-eaningful% an) &hich ex*"esses the latte"+s gene"al ca*acity to (e a(le to
fo"-ulate la&s i""es*ecti/e of the 1uestion of the existence of a .no&ing
su(:ect#
Thus% the )ecent"ing inhe"ent in the Co*e"nican0Aalilean "e/olution
*"ocee)s (y &ay of a Ca"tesian thesis% /i;#% that &hate/e" is
-athe-atically concei/a(le is a(solutely *ossi(le# $ut it is i-*o"tant to
note that the a(solute he"e is not un)e"stoo) in te"-s of the ca*acity of
-athe-atics to )esignate a "efe"ent that is assu-e) to (e necessa"y o"
int"insically i)eal 0 "athe"% the a(soluteness at issue he"e ex*"esses the
follo&ing i)ea2 it is -eaningful to thin. (e/en if only in a hy*othetical
"egiste"! that all those as*ects of the gi/en that a"e -athe-atically
)esc"i(a(le can continue to exist "ega")less of &hethe" o" not &e a"e the"e
to con/e"t the latte" into so-ething that is gi/en0to o" -anifeste)0fo"#
Conse1uently% this )ia0ch"onic "efe"ent -ay (e consi)e"e) to (e
contingent &hile si-ultaneously (eing consi)e"e) to (e a(solute2 it can (e
const"ue) as an e/ent% an o(:ect% o" a *"ocessual sta(ility% that nee) not (e
sho&n to (e uncon)itionally necessa"y% since this &oul) (e cont"a"y to
ou" ontology# ,n the othe" han)% ho&e/e"% the -eaning of the )ia0ch"onic
state-ent a(out a "a)ioacti/e )ecay ol)e" than all te""est"ial life is only
concei/a(le if it is const"ue) as a(solutely in)iffe"ent to the thought that
en/isages it# Acco")ingly% the a(soluteness of that &hich is
-athe-ati;a(le -eans2 the *ossi(ility of factial existence outsi)e thought
0 an) not2 the necessity of existence outsi)e thought# 3hate/e" is
-athe-ati;a(le can (e *osite) hy*othetically as an ontologically
*e"isha(le fact existing in)e*en)ently of us# In othe" &o")s% -o)e"n
science unco/e"s the s*eculati/e (ut hy*othetical i-*o"t of e/e"y
-athe-atical "efo"-ulation of ou" &o"l)# Conse1uently% the Aalilean0
Co*e"nican )ecent"ing &"ought (y science can (e state) as follo&s2 &hat
is -athe-ati;a(le cannot (e "e)uce) to a co""elate of thought#
9et this is &he"e &e encounte" a "athe" )isconce"ting *a"a)ox# This
*a"a)ox is the follo&ing2 &hen *hiloso*he"s "efe" to the "e/olution in
thought institute) (y 7ant as +the Co*e"nican "e/olution+% they "efe" to a
"e/olution &hose -eaning is the exact o**osite of the one &e ha/e :ust
i)entifie)# Fo" as e/e"yone .no&s% in the '"eface to the secon) e)ition of
the C"iti1ue of 'u"e Reason% 7ant *"esents his o&n "e/olution in thought
un)e" the (anne" of the "e/olution &"ought (y Co*e"nicus 0 instea) of
.no&le)ge confo"-ing to the o(:ect% the C"itical "e/olution -a.es the
o(:ect confo"- to ou" .no&le)ge# 9et it has (eco-e a(un)antly clea" that
a -o"e fitting co-*a"ison fo" the 7antian "e/olution in thought &oul) (e
to a +'tole-aic counte"0"e/olution+% gi/en that &hat the fo"-e" asse"ts is
not that the o(se"/e" &ho- &e thought &as -otionless is in fact o"(iting
a"oun) the o(se"/e) sun% (ut on the cont"a"y% that the su(:ect is cent"al to
the *"ocess of .no&le)ge# $ut &hat &as the goal of this 'tole-aic
"e/olution in *hiloso*hy% an) &hat )i) it ho*e to achie/e5 3hat &as the
fun)a-ental 1uestion on the (asis of &hich the =st C"iti1ue "econfigu"e)
the &hole of *hiloso*hy5 It &as the 1uestion a(out the con)itions un)e"
&hich -o)e"n science is thin.a(le 0 that is to say% the con)itions of the
Co*e"nican "e/olution in the lite"al an) genuine sense of the te"-# In
othe" &o")s% the *hiloso*he" &ho *lace) the tas. of un)e"stan)ing the
con)itions of *ossi(ility fo" -o)e"n science at the hea"t of his *"o:ect is
also the *hiloso*he" &ho "es*on)e) to this exigency (y a(olishing its
initial con)ition 0 thus% the Co*e-ico0Aalilean )ecent"ing ca""ie) out (y
-o)e- science ga/e "ise to a 'tole-aic counte"0"e/olution in *hiloso*hy#
E/en as thought "eali;e) fo" the fi"st ti-e that it *ossesse) in -o)e"n
science the ca*acity to actually unco/e" .no&le)ge of a &o"l) that is
in)iffe"ent to any "elation to the &o"l)% t"anscen)ental *hiloso*hy insiste)
that the con)ition fo" the concei/a(ility of *hysical science consiste) in
"e/o.ing all non0co""elational .no&le)ge of this sa-e &o"l)#
It is i-*o"tant to un)e"line the +/iolence+ of this cont"a)iction% the
ext"ao")ina"y nexus that it see-s to constitute2 e/e" since the 7antian
"e/olution% it has (een incu-(ent u*on +se"ious+ *hiloso*he"s to thin. that
the con)ition fo" the concei/a(ility of the Co*e"nican )ecent"ing &"ought
(y -o)e"n science is actually *"o/i)e) (y a 'tole-aic "e0cent"ing of
thought# 3hile -o)e"n science )isco/e"e) fo" the fi"st ti-e thought+s
ca*acity to acce)e to .no&le)ge of a &o"l) in)iffe"ent to thought+s
"elation to the &o"l)% *hiloso*hy "eacte) to this )isco/e"y (y )isco/e"ing
the nai/ety of its o&n *"e/ious +)og-atis-+% seeing in the +"ealis-+ of *"e0
C"itical -eta*hysics the *a"a)ig- of a )eci)e)ly out-o)e) conce*tual
nai/ety# The *hiloso*hical e"a of co""elation co""es*on)s to the scientific
e"a of )ecent"ing% an) co""es*on)s to it as its /e"y solution# Fo" it &as in
"es*onse to the /e"y fact of science that *hiloso*hy e-("ace) the /a"ious
-o)es of co""elation 0 science+s )ecent"ing of thought "elati/e to the
&o"l) le) *hiloso*hy to concei/e of this )ecent"ing in te"-s of thought+s
un*"ece)ente) cent"ality "elati/e to this sa-e &o"l)# >ince =R= (the )ate
of the =st e)ition of the C"iti1ue of 'u"e Reason!% to thin. science
*hiloso*hically has (een to -aintain that *hiloso*hical 'tole-ais-
ha"(ou"s the )ee*e" -eaning of scientific Co*e-icanis-# Ulti-ately%
*hiloso*hy -aintains that the *atently "ealist -eaning of the clai-s of
-o)e"n science is -e"ely a**a"ent% secon)a"y% an) )e"i/ati/e6 the
sy-*to- of an attitu)e that is +nai/e+ o" +natu"al+ 0 a)-itte)ly% the latte" is
not -e"ely the "esult of a si-*le +e""o"+% since it (elongs to the essence of
science to a)o*t such an attitu)e 0 (ut once again% it is a )e"i/ati/e
attitu)e% a -e"e offshoot of that *"i-o")ial "elation to the &o"l) &hich it
falls to the *hiloso*he" to unco/e"#
E/e" since 7ant% to thin. science as a *hiloso*he" has (een to clai- that
science ha"(ou"s a -eaning othe" than the one )eli/e"e) (y science itself 0
a -eaning that is )ee*e"% -o"e o"igina"y% an) that fu"nishes us &ith the
t"uth of the latte"# An) this -o"e o"igina"y -eaning is co""elational2 it
const"ues those ele-ents that see- to (e in)iffe"ent to ou" "elation to the
&o"l) in te"-s of that "elation itself# It colla*ses the )ecent"ing &"ought
(y science onto a cent"ing &hich )eli/e"s its /e"ita(le -eaning# The
*hiloso*he" the"e(y clai-s to ha/e also ca""ie) out &hat he calls%
follo&ing 7ant% his o&n +Co*e"nican "e/olution+ 0 a clai- &hich cannot
(ut st"i.e us as a fantastic o(fuscation# In *hiloso*hical :a"gon%
+Co*e"nican "e/olution+ -eans that the )ee*e" -eaning of science+s
Co*e"nican "e/olution is *"o/i)e) (y *hiloso*hy+s 'tole-aic
counte""e/olution# 3e &ill hencefo"th "efe" to this +"e/e"sal of the
"e/e"sal+ as the +schis-+ of -o)e"n *hiloso*hy% &hich ex*"esses the
follo&ing *a"a)ox2 it is only since *hiloso*hy has atte-*te) to thin.
"igo"ously the "e/olution in the "eal- of .no&le)ge ("ought a(out (y the
a)/ent of -o)e"n science that *hiloso*hy has "enounce) the /e"y thing
that constitute) the essence of this "e/olution6 that is to say% science+s non0
co""elational -o)e of .no&ing% in othe" &o")s% its e-inently s*eculati/e
cha"acte"#
It is &o"th linge"ing a little longe" o/e" the astonishing singula"ity of the
7antian "e/olution% &hose "e*e"cussions continue to (e felt a-ong the
*hiloso*hical co--unity# This "e/olution consiste)% fi"st of all% in
*"o/i)ing a )ecisi/e "atification of science+s *"i-acy o/e" -eta*hysics in
the "eal- of .no&le)ge# It &as 7ant &ho succee)e) in thin.ing 0 &ith a
)eg"ee of "a)icality un-atche) (y any of his *"e)ecesso"s 0 science+s
*"o-otion o/e" -eta*hysics as *"i/ilege) gua"anto" of .no&le)ge#
8encefo"th% it is the -an of science% "athe" than the -eta*hysician% &ho
(eco-es% (y 7ant+s o&n a)-ission% the +*iston of .no&le)ge+# >ince 7ant%
-eta*hysics has (een fo"ce) to "e/ise its clai- to (e in *ossession of a
theo"etical .no&le)ge of "ealities that a"e e1ual o" e/en su*e"io" to those
.no&n (y the sciences# An) since 7ant% *hiloso*he"s in gene"al ha/e
(eco-e &illing to a)-it that science an) science alone *"o/i)es us &ith
theo"etical .no&le)ge of natu"e% an) that s*eculati/e -eta0*hysics can no
longe" *"esent itself as ha"(ou"ing .no&le)ge of a su**ose)ly highe"
"eality (i#e# cos-os% soul% o" Ao)! than the "eality accessi(le to us (y
-eans of e-*i"ical science#
$ut science+s *"o-otion o/e" *hiloso*hy as gua"anto" of .no&le)ge has
(eco-e the locus of a -isun)e"stan)ing% not to say &"ong0footing% that
a**ea"s to (e &ithout *"ece)ent in the annals of thought 0 fo" it is at the
/e"y -o-ent &hen *hiloso*hy atte-*te) fo" the fi"st ti-e to thin.
"igo"ously the *"i-acy of scientific .no&le)ge that it )eci)e) to a(:u"e
*"ecisely that as*ect of thought &hich constitute) the "e/olutiona"y
cha"acte" of scientific .no&le)ge2 its s*eculati/e i-*o"t# It is at the /e"y
-o-ent &hen *hiloso*hy clai-e) to (e ac.no&le)ging its o&n
su*e"session (y science in the "eal- of .no&le)ge that it "enounce) as
+-oth0eaten )og-atis-+ its o&n ca*acity to thin. the o(:ect +in0itself
0*"ecisely the -o)e of thin.ing that% fo" the fi"st ti-e% &as concu""ently
(eing *"o-ote) to the status of *otential .no&le)ge in the context of this
/e"y science# E/en as science% (y /i"tue of its *o&e" of )ecent"ing%
"e/eale) to thought the latte"+s o&n s*eculati/e *o&e"% *hiloso*hy% at the
/e"y -o-ent &hen it &as "atifying this ta.eo/e"% )i) so (y a(:u"ing all
s*eculation% &hich is to say% (y "enouncing any *ossi(ility of thin.ing the
natu"e of this "e/olution# >o-ething a.in to a +catast"o*he+ occu""e) in this
changeo/e" f"o- -eta*hysics to science as gua"anto" of .no&le)ge
0Co*e"nican science *"o/i)e) the i-*etus fo" *hiloso*hy+s a(an)on-ent
of s*eculati/e -eta*hysics% (ut this a(an)on-ent &as "eflecte) (ac. onto
Co*e"nican science as *hiloso*hy+s 'tole-aic inte"*"etation of the latte"#
Thus% *hiloso*hy+s -essage to science &as2 +it is you (an) not s*eculati/e
-eta*hysics! that hol)s the "eins of .no&le)ge% (ut the un)e"lying natu"e
of this .no&le)ge is the /e"y o**osite of &hat it see-s to you#+ In othe"
&o")s% in *"o/i)ing the i-*etus fo" *hiloso*hy+s )est"uction of
s*eculati/e -eta*hysics% science also )est"oye) any *ossi(ility of a
*hiloso*hical un)e"stan)ing of its o&n essence#
Mo"eo/e"% fa" f"o- (eing -itigate)% this +schis-+ has only (een fu"the"
+agg"a/ate)+ since 7ant# Fo" the -o"e science has exhi(ite) thought+s
actual ca*acity to *"o(e e/e" -o"e )ee*ly into a &o"l) ante"io" to all
hu-anity% the -o"e +se"ious+ *hiloso*hy has exace"(ate) the co""elational
'tole-ais- inaugu"ate) (y 7ant% continually tightening the a-(it of the
co""elation &hile asc"i(ing to this inc"easingly const"icti/e "eal- the t"ue
-eaning of the e/e" ex*an)ing )o-ain of scientific .no&le)ge# 3hile
+the -an of science+ has intensifie) the )ecent"ing )ue to scientific
.no&le)ge (y unco/e"ing )iach"onic occu""ences of inc"easingly ancient
*"o/enance% +the -an of *hiloso*hy+ has (een na""o&ing the a-(it of the
co""elation to&a")s an o"iginally finite +(eing0in0the0&o"l)+% o" an e*och
of $eing% o" a linguistic co--unity6 &hich is to say% an e/e" na""o&e"
+;one+% te""ain% o" ha(itat% (ut one of &hich the *hiloso*he" "e-ains lo")
an) -aste" (y /i"tue of the allege) singula"ity of his s*ecific ("an) of
.no&le)ge# 3hile the Co*e"nican "e/olution has "e/eale) its full extent%
*hiloso*he"s ha/e accentuate) thei" o&n *seu)o0Co*e"nican counte"0
"e/olution% "e-o"selessly ex*osing the -eta*hysical nai/ety of thei"
*"e)ecesso"s (y cont"acting the (oun)s of .no&le)ge e/e" -o"e
st"ingently &ithin the li-its of hu-anity+s *"esent situation# An) so it is
that *hiloso*he"s to)ay /ie &ith one anothe" in te"-s of 'tole-aic
na""o&ness &hile ho*ing to un/eil the genuine -eaning of a Co*e"nican
)ecent"ing &hose sco*e has ne/e" see-e) so /ast o" (lin)ingly e/i)ent as
it is no&#
8o& )i) &e a""i/e at Ms state of affai"s5 3hat ha**ene) in *hiloso*hy
afte" 7ant to "en)e" *hiloso*he"s 0 an) only the-% it see-s 0 inca*a(le of
un)e"stan)ing science+s Co*e"nican "e/olution as a genuine Co*e"nican
"e/olution5 3hy )i) *hiloso*hy not ta.e the cou"se exactly o**osite to
the one follo&e) (y t"anscen)ental o" *heno-enological i)ealis-% /i;#%
the cou"se of a thought ca*a(le of accounting fo" the non0co""elational
sco*e of -athe-atics% &hich is to say% fo" the /e"y existence of science%
the latte" (eing *"o*e"ly un)e"stoo) as the *o&e" to )ecent"e thought5
3hy )i) *hiloso*hy% in atte-*ting to thin. science% e"" to&a")s
t"anscen)ental i)ealis- instea) of "esolutely o"ienting itself% as it shoul)
ha/e% to&a")s a s*eculati/e -ate"ialis-+K 8o& is it that the -ost u"gent
1uestion &hich science *oses to *hiloso*hy has (eco-e% as fa" as
*hiloso*hy itself is conce"ne)% the *ointless 1uestion *a" excellence% /i;#
ho& is thought a(le to thin. &hat the"e can (e &hen the"e is no thoughtK
3e shoul) not (e )ecei/e)2 no co""elationis-% ho&e/e" insistent its anti0
su(:ecti/ist "heto"ic% is ca*a(le of thin.ing a )ia0ch"onic state-ent
&ithout )est"oying its /e"ita(le -eaning% an) this at the /e"y -o-ent
&hen it clai-s to ha/e exca/ate) its su**ose)ly )ee*e" -eaning# The
/e"ita(le -eaning of the )ia0ch"onic state-ent is in)ee)% as &e ha/e seen%
its lite"al -eaning% &hich -ust concu""ently (e thought as its )ee*est
-eaning# The -eaning of the )ia0ch"onic state-ent is2 +e/ent N occu""e)
at such an) such ti-e *"io" to the existence of thought+ 0 an) not% let us
e-*hasi;e it2 +e/ent N occu""e) *"io" to the existence of thought fo"
thought# The fi"st state-ent )oes not clai- that e/ent N occu""e) *"io" to
thought fo" thought 0 &hat it says is that thought can thin. that e/ent N
can actually ha/e occu""e) *"io" to all thought% an) in)iffe"ently to it# $ut
no /a"iety of co""elationis-% no -atte" ho& /ehe-ently it insists that it
shoul) not (e confuse) &ith su(:ecti/e i)ealis- a la $e".eley% can a)-it
that this state-ent+s lite"al -eaning is also its )ee*est -eaning# An) as a
-atte" of fact% once one has conce)e) that it -a.es no sense to clai- that
&hat is can (e thought in)e*en)ently of the fo"-s th"ough &hich it is
gi/en to a thin.ing (eing% then it is no longe" *ossi(le to acco") to science
that &hat it says is in)ee) the last &o") a(out &hat it says# It (eco-es
i-*ossi(le to assign to *hiloso*hy the tas. of g"as*ing the ulti-ate
-eaning of science in science+s )ia0ch"onic state-ent% o" of un)e"stan)ing
ho& such a state-ent is *ossi(le as its ulti-ate -eaning# Thus%
co""elationis- &ill ha/e no o*tion (ut to t"y to "eca*tu"e this )ia0
ch"onicity of scientific )iscou"se in te"-s of the alte"nati/e &e exa-ine)
ea"lie"2
=# Eithe"% this ante"io"ity is only actually ante"io" to hu-anity insofa" as it
is the co""elate of a thought that cannot (e "e)uce) to ou" e-*i"ical
existence6 in &hich case &e *"ocee) to ete"nali;e the co""elation in a
-anne" co-*a"a(le to 8usse"l+s ete"nali;ation of the t"anscen)ental ego%
&hich su**ose)ly su"/i/es the )eath of e/e"y e-*i"ical ego#
2# ,"% the genuine -eaning of this ante"io"ity consists in its (eing no -o"e
than *"esent thought+s "et"o:ection of a *ast that gi/es itself to thought as
ante"io" to thought#
>ince the fi"st o*tion (the ete"nali;ation of the co""elation! &oul) (e
tanta-ount to a "etu"n to -eta*hysics (the a(soluti;ation of the
su**ose)ly *"i-o")ial )ete"-inations of su(:ecti/ity!% co""elationis- in
the st"ict sense &ill al&ays o*t fo" the secon) o*tion% an) hence fo" the
"et"o:ection of the )ia0ch"onic *ast on the (asis of the li/ing *"esent in
&hich it is gi/en# In this &ay% the schis- of -o)e"nity 0 acco")ing to
&hich the 'tole-ais- of thought ha"(ou"s the )ee*e" -eaning of the
Co*e"nicanis- of science 0 "eaches its a*ogee in this +to*sy0tu"/y+ *ast%
&hich has (een t"otte) out an) "e0utili;e) in -any )iffe"ent fo"-s (y
thought# This is the ulti-ate ex*"ession of the schis-2 the )ee* -eaning
of the *"e0hu-an *ast consists in its (eing "et"o:ecte) on the (asis of a
hu-an *"esent that is itself histo"ically situate)# 3hile science% th"ough
its "igo"ous -athe-ati;ation of natu"e% unco/e"e) a ti-e &he"ein
hu-anity coul) co-e into existence o" (e a(olishe) &hile that ti-e
"e-aine) unaffecte)% *hiloso*hical ti-e has sought to )e-ote the ti-e of
science to the le/el of a +/ulga"+% +)e"i/ati/e+% o" +stan)a")i;e)+ fo"- of
o"igina"y co""elational te-*o"ality% (eing0in0the0&o"l)% o" the "elation to a
su**ose)ly *"i-o")ial histo"icality# An) this t"ans-utation of the )ia0
ch"onic *ast into a "et"o:ecti/e co""elation exe"ts such a s&ay o/e" thought
to)ay that it so-eti-es see-s as though it enca*sulate) the -o)icu- of
.no&le)ge *hiloso*he"s can still lay clai- to# 9ou thought that &hat
ca-e (efo"e ca-e (efo"e5 Not at all2 fo" the"e is a )ee*e" le/el of
te-*o"ality% &ithin &hich &hat ca-e (efo"e the "elation0to0the0&o"l) is
itself (ut a -o)ality of that "elation0to0the0&o"l)# It is this counte"sensical
te-*o"ality that *"o/i)es the o"igina"y sense fo" the nai/e natu"al attitu)e
es*ouse) (y non0*hiloso*he"s% inclu)ing those &ho a"e -ost
.no&le)gea(le# An) the -ost -a"/ellous thing of all a(out this &hole
(usiness is that this (eco-ing 0 in &hich &hat ca-e (efo"e no longe"
co-es (efo"e% an) &hat co-es afte" no longe" co-es afte" 0 allo&s
&ho-e/e" g"as*s its t"uth to *"o*agate its counte"0sense in such a &ay as
to un)e"-ine e/e"y "ecei/e) i)ea# 9ou thin. that a *"ecu"so" is so-eone
&ho co-es (efo"e those &ho follo& afte"5 3ell% you+"e &"ong2 the
*"ecu"so" is not the one &ho co-es (efo"e% (ut "athe" the one &ho- the
successo"s su(se1uently clai- ca-e (efo"e# Thus% the *"ecu"so" 1ua
*"ecu"so" co-es afte" he" successo"s### This is the *eculia" .no&le)ge to
&hich *hiloso*he"s lay clai-% a .no&le)ge that so-eti-es see-s to
a-ount to little -o"e than these "ig-a"oles &he"ein ti-e is tu"ne) u*si)e
)o&n% the (ette" to cont"i/e a counte"sensical "e)ou(ling of the ti-e of
science# A *eculia" .no&le)ge in)ee)% &hich "en)e"s us inca*a(le of
g"as*ing *"ecisely that &hich is actually -ost g"i**ing a(out the
te-*o"ality of science 0 the fact that science )oes in)ee) thin. that &hat
co-es (efo"e co-es (efo"e% an) that &hat ca-e (efo"e us ca-e (efo"e us#
Fo" it is *"ecisely this *o&e" of thought an) none othe" that constitutes the
fo"-i)a(le *a"a)ox of -anifestation unco/e"e) (y science% &hich
*hiloso*hy shoul) ha/e (een en)ea/ou"ing to thin. )u"ing these *ast t&o
centu"ies2 ho& is e-*i"ical .no&le)ge of a &o"l) ante"io" to all
ex*e"ience *ossi(le5
<et us "etu"n to ou" o"iginal 1uestion2 &hat is it that has .e*t this
alte"nati/e cou"se of thought (loc.e) e/e" since 7ant5 3hy )i)
t"anscen)entalis-+s "e:ection of s*eculati/e thought exe"t such an
un)i/i)e) s&ay o/e" the "eal- of *hiloso*hy at the /e"y -o-ent &hen
science calle) 0 as it ha) ne/e" )one (efo"e 0 fo" the constitution of a fo"-
of s*eculation ca*a(le of i)entifying its con)itions of *ossi(ility5 3hat is
the -eaning of this +7antian catast"o*he+% of &hich conte-*o"a"y
co""elationis- is -e"ely an exace"(ate) conse1uence5 3hy ha/e
*hiloso*he"s acco--o)ate) the-sel/es fo" so long to this co""elationist
)ece*tion% &hich &as su**ose) to *"o/i)e the- &ith the .ey to a
scientific "e/olution that has continually cont"a)icte) thei" clai-s5 3e
only ha/e to listen to 7ant fo" the ans&e"2 &ho &as it that% (y his o&n
a)-ission% +&o.e+ hi- f"o- his +)og-atic slu-(e"s+5 3ho encou"age)
hi- 0 an) e/e"y su(se1uent co""elationist 0 to "elin1uish e/e"y fo"- of
a(solute in thought5 7ant tells us ex*licitly2 it &as Da/i) 8u-e 0 that is
to say% the *"o(le- of the causal connection as "aise) (y 8u-e 0 o" to *ut
it -o"e gene"ally% the )est"uction of the a(solute /ali)ity of the *"inci*le
of sufficient "eason# It no& (eco-es *ossi(le to i)entify the th"ee
fun)a-ental stages of the 7antian +catast"o*he+% as &ell as the natu"e of
the )ece*tion &hich lies at its sou"ce2
=# The Co*e"nico0Aalilean e/ent institutes the i)ea of a -athe-atical
.no&le)ge of natu"e 0 a natu"e that is hencefo"th st"i**e) of its sensi(le
1ualities# It is Desca"tes &ho *"o/i)es the initial *hiloso*hical "atifi0 c
cation fo" the Aalilean e/ent# An initial e1uili("iu- (et&een *hysics an)
-eta*hysics is esta(lishe) th"ough Desca"tes+ "igo"ous )istinction
(et&een the -athe-atical .no&le)ge of natu"e an) the .no&le)ge of
those 1ualia that a"e consi)e"e) to (e att"i(utes of thin.ing alone# In sho"t%
it is Desca"tes &ho "atifies the i)ea that natu"e is )e/oi) of thought (&hich
is also to say that it is )e/oi) of life% since the t&o a"e e1ui/alent fo" hi-!%
an) that thought is a(le to thin. this )e0su(:ecti/ate) natu"e th"ough
-athe-atics# $ut the a(solute sco*e of -athe-atics is foun)e) u*on the
-eta*hysical )e-onst"ation of a so/e"eign% *e"fect an) su**ose)ly
/e"acious Ao) &ho alone is a(le to gua"antee the ne& science+s ca*acity
to .no& the t"uth#
2# 8o&e/e"% as the Aalileo0e/ent unfol)s% "e/ealing the fallaciousness of
all *"e/ious /a"ieties of -eta*hysical .no&le)ge% it also ex*oses the
/anity of e/e"y atte-*t to *"o/i)e a -eta*hysical foun)ation fo" *hysics#
Fo" the Aalilean e/ent )oes not only consist in the -athe-atical )e0
su(:ecti/ation of the &o"l)% (ut also in the )est"uction of e/e"y fo"- of a
*"io"i .no&le)ge of &hy the &o"l) is as it is# The i)ea that &e coul)
ac1ui"e )efiniti/e an) necessa"y .no&le)ge a(out &hat exists in this
&o"l) 0 "athe" than ha/ing to (e satisfie) &ith "econst"ucting it as a fact 0
is g"a)ually e"o)e) as science exhi(its its a(ility to )est"oy all *"e/ious
fo"-s of .no&le)ge 0 inclu)ing those that ha) (een *"o*ose) un)e" the
aegis of the ne& science% as &as the case &ith Ca"tesian /o"tices# Thus%
the 8u-e0e/ent constitutes the secon) *hiloso*hical "atification of the
Aalileo0e/ent (y )e-onst"ating the fallaciousness of all -eta*hysical
fo"-s of "ationality% &hich is to say% (y )e-onst"ating the fallaciousness
of the a(soluteness of the *"inci*le of sufficient "eason 0 thought -ust
"enounce e/e"y fo"- of )e-onst"ation inten)e) to esta(lish a *"io"i that
&hate/e" gi/es itself as (eing thus an) so -ust uncon)itionally (e thus
an) so# The &o"l)+s (eing0thus0an)0so can only (e )isco/e"e) (y &ay of
ex*e"ience% it cannot (e )e-onst"ate) to (e a(solutely necessa"y#
E# The 7ant0e/ent then ex*oses this colla*se of -eta*hysics in its
)efiniti/e an) en)u"ingly sta(le fo"- (y tu"ning co""elational .no&le)ge
into the only *hiloso*hically legiti-ate fo"- of .no&le)ge#
Co""elationis- (eco-es the only licit fo"- of *hiloso*hy as the
hencefo"th con)itional .no&le)ge of ou" "elation0to0the0&o"l)% &hich
alone is ca*a(le of thin.ing science insofa" as the latte" has )e*ose)
s*eculati/e -eta*hysics% e/en though science itself has not "enounce)
e/e"y fo"- of uni/e"sality# >ince &e can no longe" acce)e to an
uncon)itionally necessa"y t"uth of the .in) sought fo" (y <ei(ni;
(&hethe" in the fo"- of an infinitely *e"fect Ao) o" the (est of all *ossi(le
&o"l)s!% &e -ust "enounce e/e"y /a"iety of theo"etical a(solute% an)
content ou"sel/es &ith unco/e"ing the gene"al con)itions fo" the
gi/enness of *heno-ena# In othe" &o")s% in o")e" to sal/age the
*ossi(ility of *"o)ucing a *"io"i state-ents% *hiloso*hy -ust )issociate
the a *"io"i f"o- a(solute t"uths% an) const"ue it instea) as the
)ete"-ination of the uni/e"sal con)itions of "e*"esentation#
Acco")ingly% the )ece*tion that *"esi)es o/e" this catast"o*he is "e/eale)
to (e &hat &e ea"lie" "efe""e) to as the +)e0a(soluti;ing i-*lication+% that
is to say% the i)ea that the"e is an i""efuta(le infe"ence f"o- the en) of
-eta*hysics to the en) of a(solutes# >ince science has con/ince) us that
all -eta*hysics is illuso"y% an) since e/e"y a(solute is -eta*hysical% then
it follo&s that% in o")e" to thin. science% &e -ust "enounce e/e"y fo"- of
a(solute# $ut (y the sa-e to.en% &e -ust also "enounce the (elief in the
a(solute sco*e of -athe-atics 0 the a(solute sco*e that actually
constitutes the /e"y essence of the "e/olution in thought engen)e"e) (y
-o)e"n science# Thus% the 7antian catast"o*he &ithin &hose *a"a-ete"s
&e continue to o*e"ate )oes in)ee) consist in "enouncing e/e"y .in) of
a(solute along &ith e/e"y /a"iety of -eta*hysics#
9et this &as not &hat -o)e"n science actually "e1ui"e)# Ce"tainly% the
latte"+s ca*acity to un)e"-ine all *"e/ious fo"-s of .no&le)ge en:oine)
us to sto* (elie/ing that .no&le)ge coul) )e-onst"ate that a )ete" -inate
"eality -ust% a(solutely an) necessa"ily% (e the &ay it is "athe" than so-e
othe" &ay6 (ut it also en:oine) us to thin. that othe" -o)e of a(soluteness
that it ha) int"o)uce) fo" the fi"st ti-e into thought% in the fo"- of the
latte"+s Co*e"nican )ecent"ing# An) this is &hy% if &e a"e to thin. the
Aalilean0Co*e"nican fact of science &ithout )enatu"ing it fu"the"% &e
-ust thin.% as Desca"tes )i)% the s*eculati/e i-*o"t of -athe-atics% (ut
this ti-e &ithout "elying% as he )i)% u*on the -eta*hysical *"etension to
(e a(le to *"o/e the existence of a *e"fect (eing% &hich alone is
su**ose)ly ca*a(le of gua"anteeing -athe-atics+ o&n int"insic -o)e of
t"uth# 'hiloso*hy+s tas. consists in "e0a(soluti;ing the sco*e of
-athe-atics 0 the"e(y "e-aining% cont"a"y to co""elationis-% faithful to
thought+s Co*e"nican )e0cent"ing 0 (ut &ithout la*sing (ac. into any so"t
of -eta*hysical necessity% &hich has in)ee) (eco-e o(solete# It is a
-atte" of hol)ing fast to the Ca"tesian thesis 0 acco")ing to &hich
&hate/e" can (e -athe-ati;e) can (e "en)e"e) a(solute 0 &ithout
"eacti/ating the *"inci*le of "eason# An) this see-s to us to (e the tas. of
the *"inci*le of factiality% a tas. that is not only *ossi(le (ut also u"gent2
to )e"i/e% as a Figu"e of factiality% the ca*acity% *"o*e" to e/e"y
-athe-atical state-ent% th"ough &hich the latte" is ca*a(le of
fo"-ulating a *ossi(ility that can (e a(soluti;e)% e/en if only
hy*othetically# It is a 1uestion of a(soluti;ing +the+ -athe-atical :ust as
&e a(soluti;e) +the+ logical (y g"as*ing in the fun)a-ental c"ite"ion fo"
e/e"y -athe-atical state-ent a necessa"y con)ition fo" the contingency
of e/e"y entity#
Clea"ly% then% ou" s*eculati/e "efo"-ulation of &hat &e -ust no& call
+7ant+s *"o(le-+ can (e state) as follo&s2 ho& is a -athe-ati;e) science
of natu"e *ossi(le5 This *"o(le- can (e ("o.en )o&n into t&o othe"s%
each of &hich conce"ns the s*eculati/e i-*o"t of -athe-atics% (ut in a
)iffe"ent &ay#
=# Fi"st% the s*eculati/e "esolution of 7ant+s *"o(le- *"esu**oses the
factial "esolution of the *"o(le- of ancest"ality (o" of )ia0ch"onicity!%
&hich is to say% a )e-onst"ation to the effect that e/e"y -athe-atical
state-ent 0 *"ecisely insofa" as it is -athe-atical 0 is not necessa"ily t"ue%
(ut a(solutely *ossi(le# Thus% &e -ust esta(lish the follo&ing thesis%
&hich &e ha/e al"ea)y state)% (y )e"i/ing it f"o- the *"inci*le of
factiality2 &hat is -athe-atically concei/a(le is a(solutely *ossi(le#
2# Mo"eo/e" 0 an) he"e &e co-e (ac. to ou" ea"lie" )iscussion of the
*"o(le- of the causal connection 0 the "esolution of 7ant+s *"o(le-
*"esu**oses that &e ha/e achie/e) a s*eculati/e "athe" than -e"ely
hy*othetical "esolution of 8u-e+s *"o(le-# Fo" it is also necessa"y to
esta(lish the legiti-acy of the assu-*tion that the sta(ility of natu"al
la&s% &hich is the con)ition fo" e/e"y science of natu"e% can (e
a(soluti;e)# If e-*i"ical science is actually *ossi(le% &e sai)% this is on
account of the actual sta(ility of the la&s of natu"e# $ut it is no& clea"
that this sta(ility -ust (e esta(lishe) as a -in)0in)e*en)ent fact if &e
&ant to achie/e a )ecisi/e ("ea. &ith conte-*o"a"y 'tole-ais-# Thus% it
is a 1uestion of esta(lishing that the la&s of natu"e )e"i/e thei" factual
sta(ility f"o- a *"o*e"ty of te-*o"ality that is itself a(solute% &hich is to
say% f"o- a *"o*e"ty of ti-e that is in)iffe"ent to ou" existence% /i;#% that
of the non0totali;a(ility of its *ossi(ilities# This is :ust to "eite"ate once
-o"e the nee) to esta(lish the s*eculati/e sco*e of -athe-atics% (ut &ith
one significant )iffe"ence 0 it &oul) no longe" (e a -atte"% he"e% of
)e"i/ing the a(solute though hy*othetical sco*e of any -athe-atical
state-ent &hatsoe/e"% (ut "athe" of )e"i/ing the a(solute an) no&
uncon)itionally necessa"y sco*e of a *a"ticula" theo"e-% /i;#% the theo"e-
that allo&s us to -aintain the non0totali;a(ility of the t"ansfinite#
Conse1uently% &e a"e face) &ith the "e1ui"e-ent of a t&ofol) a(solu0
ti;ation of -athe-atics# The a(soluti;ation inhe"ent in the *"o(le- of )ia0
ch"onicity (asically asse"ts that e/e"y -athe-atical state-ent )esc"i(es
an entity &hich is essentially contingent% yet ca*a(le of existing in a
&o"l) )e/oi) of hu-anity 0 "ega")less of &hethe" this entity is a &o"l)% a
la&% o" an o(:ect# Acco")ingly% this is an a(soluti;ation that coul) (e
calle) ontical2 it *e"tains to entities that a"e *ossi(le o" contingent% (ut
&hose existence can (e thought as in)iffe"ent to thought# $y &ay of
cont"ast% the a(soluti;ation of the Canto"ian non0All "e1ui"es an
a(soluti;ation that is ontological% "athe" than ontical% (ecause it no& states
so-ething a(out the st"uctu"e of the *ossi(le as such% "athe" than a(out
this o" that *ossi(le "eality# It is a -atte" of asse"ting that the *ossi(le as
such% "athe" than this o" that *ossi(le entity% -ust necessa"ily (e un0
totali;a(le# Conse1uently% &e a"e o(lige) to *"o)uce a factial )e"i/ation
ca*a(le of esta(lishing that% e/en if the"e a"e concei/a(le -athe-atical
axio-atics that "ule out the t"ansfinite o" )is1ualify the i-*ossi(ility of a
set of all sets% this )oes not i-*ly that the non0All is -e"ely one
*ossi(ility a-ong othe"s# It -ust not i-*ly that the"e a"e ce"tain &o"l)s
&hose *ossi(ilities a"e totali;a(le% &hile the"e a"e othe"s &hose
*ossi(ilities a"e not# 3hat -ust (e )e-onst"ate) at this :unctu"e is that
only those theo"ies that "atify the non0All ha"(ou" an ontological sco*e%
&hile those othe"s% &hich allo& fo" so-e so"t of concei/a(ility of the All%
&oul) (e -e"ely ontical in sco*e% since the totality &hich they in/o.e% o"
the non0totality &hich they "efuse to "atify% (et"ay the fact that they a"e
)esc"i(ing a totali;a(le entity% o" a totali;a(le &o"l)% as o**ose) to the
un0totali;a(le (eing of &o"l)s#
It is clea" then that the s*eculati/e "esolution of 7ant+s *"o(le- &ill ha/e
to *"ocee) (y &ay of a )e"i/ation of the a(soluti;ing sco*e of
-athe-atics ca*a(le of "esol/ing (oth the *"o(le- of )ia0ch"onicity an)
that of 8u-e# The con)ition fo" the "esolution of the fi"st *"o(le- is a
s*eculati/e "esolution of the gene"al *"o(le- 0 &ithout &hich science
loses its int"insically Co*e"nican sense6 &hile the "esolution of the secon)
*"o(le- "e1ui"es a non0-eta*hysical "esolution of the gene"al *"o(le- 0
&ithout &hich science loses itself in the -yste"ies of "eal necessity# $ut
(oth "e1ui"e a factial "esolution of the *"o(le-% insofa" as the factial is
)efine) as the /e"y a"ena fo" a s*eculation that exclu)es all -eta*hysics#
No )ou(t the 1uestion "e-ains o(scu"e in this fo"-ulation# $ut ou" goal
he"e &as not to tac.le this "esolution as such# ,u" only ai- has (een to t"y
to con/ince the "ea)e" not only that it is *ossi(le to "e)isco/e" thought+s
a(soluti;ing sco*e% (ut that it is u"gent that &e )o so% gi/en the extent to
&hich the )i/o"ce (et&een science+s Co*e"nicanis- an) *hiloso*hy+s
'tole-ais- has (eco-e a(yssal% "ega")less of all those )enials that se"/e
only to *e"*etuate this schis-# If 8u-e+s *"o(le- &o.e 7ant f"o- his
)og-atic slu-(e"% &e can only ho*e that the *"o(le- of ancest"ality
succee)s in &a.ing us f"o- ou" co""elationist slu-(e"% (y en:oining us to
"econcile thought an) a(solute#
$i(liog"a*hy
A"istotle (=I2! Meta*hysica% in The 3o".s of A"istotle# Qol# QIII% 3# D#
Ross
(e)#! (,xfo")2 Cla"en)on '"ess!
$a)iou% A# (200H! $eing an) E/ent% t"# ,# Feltha- (<on)on2 Continuu-!
$e".eley% A# (=II! A T"eatise Conce"ning the '"inci*les of
8u-an Un)e"stan)ing% P# Dancy (e)#! (,xfo")2 ,xfo") Uni/e"sity '"ess!
$loch-ann% E# an) 8ei)egge"% M# (=II0! Ma"tin 8ei)egge" O Elisa(eth
$loch-ann# $"ief&echsel =I=0=IHI% Poachi- 3# >to"c. (e)#! (Ma"(ach
a- Nec.a"2 Deutsches <ite"atu"0A"chi/!
$ou"sin% P# <# (=II! Co-*"en)"e les *"o(a(ilites ('a"is2 A"-an) Colin!
$"ague% R# (200G! The 3is)o- of the 3o"l)2 The 8u-an Ex*e"ience of
The Uni/e"se in 3este"n Thought% t"# T# <a/en)e" 'agan (Chicago2
Uni/e"sity of Chicago '"ess! $"aha-i% R (200=! <e t"a/ail )u
sce*ticis-e# Montaigne% $ayle% 8u-e ('a"is2 'UF!
Cla/ie"% '# (=IIR! 7ant# <es i)ees cos-ologi1ues ('a"is2 'UF! Conche%
M# (=IR! E*icu"e# <ett"es et -axi-es ('a"is2 'UF! Da Costa% N# C# A#
(=IIR! <ogi1ues classi1ues et non0classi1ues ('a"is2 Masson! Desca"tes%
R# (=IFa! Me)itations on Fi"st 'hiloso*hy% in P# Cottingha-% R#
>toothoff% D# Mu")och (e)s!% The 'hiloso*hical 3"itings of Desca"tes#
Qol# II (Ca-("i)ge2 Ca-("i)ge Uni/e"sity '"ess!
SS (=IF(! The '"inci*les of 'hiloso*hy% in The 'hiloso*hical
3"itings of Desca"tes# Qol# I% @# Cottingha-% R# >toothoff% D# Mu")och
(e)s! (Ca-("i)ge2 Ca-("i)ge Uni/e"sity '"ess!
SS (=II=! The 'hiloso*hical 3"itings of Desca"tes# Qol# Ill% P#
Cottingha-% R# >toothoff% D# Mu")och% A# 7enny (e)s! (Ca-("i)ge2
Ca-("i)ge Uni/e"sity '"ess!
8egel% A# 3# F# (=IR0! The 'hiloso*hy of Natu"e% @# M# 'et"y (e)#!
(<on)on2 Alien an) Un&in!
SS (=IRR! The 'heno-enology of >*i"it% t"# A#Q# Mille" (,xfo")2
,xfo") Uni/e"sity '"ess!
SS (2000! +8o& the ,")ina"y 8u-an Un)e"stan)ing Ta.es 'hiloso*hy
(As Dis*laye) in the 3o".s of M"# 7"ug+% in $et&een 7ant an) 8egel2
Texts in the De/elo*-ent of 'ost07antian I)ealis-% A# D# Aio/anni an)
8# ># 8a""is (e)s! (In)iana*olis2 8ac.ett!
8ei)egge"% M# (=IHI! I)entity an) Diffe"ence% t"# P# >ta-(augh (Ne&
9o".2 8a"*e" an) Ro&!
SS (=IH! Bu"ich >e-ina"% in Aesa-tausga(e% $an) I> (F"an.fu"t2
Qitto"io 7loste"-ann!
SS (=IIG! A"un)s)t;e )es Den.ens% in Aesa-tausga(e% $an) RI
(F"an.fu"t2 Qitto"io 7loste"-ann!
SS (=IIH! The '"inci*le of Reason% t"# R# <illy ($loo-ington an)
In)iana*olis2 In)iana Uni/e"sity '"ess!
SS (=IIa! +,n the Question of $eing+% in 'ath-a".s% 3# McNeill (e)#!
(Ca-("i)ge2 Ca-("i)ge Uni/e"sity '"ess!#
SS (=II(! +'ostsc"i*t to 43hat is Meta*hysics4+% in 'ath-a".s% 3#
McNeill (e)#! (Ca-("i)ge2 Ca-("i)ge Uni/e"sity '"ess! 8u-e% D# (=IFR!
En1ui"y Conce"ning 8u-an Un)e"stan)ing% C# 3# 8en)el
(e)#! (Ne& 9o".2 <i(e"al A"ts '"ess!
SS (=IG! A T"eatise of 8u-an Natu"e% C# Mossne" (e)#!
(8a"-on)s&o"th2
'enguin! 8une-an% '# an) 7ulich% E# (=IIR! Int"o)uction a la
*heno-enologie ('a"is2 A"-an) Colin! 8usse"l% E# (2002! +Foun)ational
In/estigations of the 'heno-enological ,"igin of the >*atiality of Natu"e2
The ,"igina"y A".% The Ea"th% Does Not Mo/e+% in 8usse"l at the <i-its
of 'heno-enology% <# <a&lo" an) $# $e"go (e)s! (E/anston% I<2
No"th&este"n Uni/e"sity '"ess! 7ant% I# (=I2I! C"iti1ue of 'u"e
Reason% t"# N# 7# >-ith (<on)on2 Mac-illan!
SS (=IF0! '"olego-ena to Any Futu"e Meta*hysics% <#3# $ec. (e)#!
(Ne& 9o".2 <i(e"al A"ts '"ess!
SS (=I=! Uni/e"sal Natu"al 8isto"y an) Theo"y of the 8ea/ens% t"# >#
<# Pa.i
(E)in(u"gh2 >cottish Aca)e-ic '"ess! 7oy"e% A# (=IH! F"o- the Close)
3o"l) to the Infinite Uni/e"se ($alti-o"e2 Pohns 8o*.ins!
SS (=IF! Etu)es )+histoi"e )e la *ensee scientifi1ue ('a"is2 Aalli-a")!
<alou% A# an) Qala)os% A# (=IF! +The"-olu-inescence+% in E# Roth an)
$# 'outy (e)s! Metho)es )e )otation *a" les *heno-enes nucleates
natu"els#
A**lications ('a"is2 Masson! <a")ic% P# M# (=II! +<a contingence che;
8egel+% in Co--ent le sens
co--un co-*"en) la *hiloso*hie (A"ies2 Actes >u)! <ecou"t% D# (=II2!
<+A-e"i1ue ent"e la $i(le et Da"&in ('a"is2 'UF! <ei(ni;% A# 3# (=II0!
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