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Data has been collected and interpreted in respect to reports and research of Holden (2008), Hakuta (2011), Üsdiken (2010), Szkudlarek (2009), Chirsheva (2009), Grosjean (2011, 2009), and Filipi (2012), which reflect upon the Marxist conflict and the indifferent attitudes of numerous political influences about poor socioconomic status. Conscientious educators such as Hakuta have sought to prevent such problems, and a problem resolution and accurate interpretation of the typical pro-Western research course is essential to the resolving of the problems that are created by unreported populations of secondary students who do not complete high-school graduation requirements, who receive but a placebo certificate, and who are not prepared to succeed at a college or university. Such students represent approximately 25 percent of the entire population of fourth-year secondary students in California. Although instructors are implementing formative assessments, evidence indicates that they continue to teach to the test and to ignore students who have been placed in other programs such as special education and remedial programs (Rice University, 2008; Lauen & Gaddis, 2012; Shelly, 2012). Political and educational reform is mandatory (DeBray-Pelot & McGuinn, 2009). The research takes a cyclic or helical route to investigate the unreported categories that are the California Department of Education include as a category of students who do not achieve actual high-school diplomas (2012). The research presents findings that do refute and support some of the non-Western evaluations of pro-Western research in respect to the political, ethical, and epistemological divide that continues to cause disrespect about multicultural and bilingual education over socioeconomic differences.
Judul Asli
VIP Research About Inequities of the CDE Public School System
Data has been collected and interpreted in respect to reports and research of Holden (2008), Hakuta (2011), Üsdiken (2010), Szkudlarek (2009), Chirsheva (2009), Grosjean (2011, 2009), and Filipi (2012), which reflect upon the Marxist conflict and the indifferent attitudes of numerous political influences about poor socioconomic status. Conscientious educators such as Hakuta have sought to prevent such problems, and a problem resolution and accurate interpretation of the typical pro-Western research course is essential to the resolving of the problems that are created by unreported populations of secondary students who do not complete high-school graduation requirements, who receive but a placebo certificate, and who are not prepared to succeed at a college or university. Such students represent approximately 25 percent of the entire population of fourth-year secondary students in California. Although instructors are implementing formative assessments, evidence indicates that they continue to teach to the test and to ignore students who have been placed in other programs such as special education and remedial programs (Rice University, 2008; Lauen & Gaddis, 2012; Shelly, 2012). Political and educational reform is mandatory (DeBray-Pelot & McGuinn, 2009). The research takes a cyclic or helical route to investigate the unreported categories that are the California Department of Education include as a category of students who do not achieve actual high-school diplomas (2012). The research presents findings that do refute and support some of the non-Western evaluations of pro-Western research in respect to the political, ethical, and epistemological divide that continues to cause disrespect about multicultural and bilingual education over socioeconomic differences.
Data has been collected and interpreted in respect to reports and research of Holden (2008), Hakuta (2011), Üsdiken (2010), Szkudlarek (2009), Chirsheva (2009), Grosjean (2011, 2009), and Filipi (2012), which reflect upon the Marxist conflict and the indifferent attitudes of numerous political influences about poor socioconomic status. Conscientious educators such as Hakuta have sought to prevent such problems, and a problem resolution and accurate interpretation of the typical pro-Western research course is essential to the resolving of the problems that are created by unreported populations of secondary students who do not complete high-school graduation requirements, who receive but a placebo certificate, and who are not prepared to succeed at a college or university. Such students represent approximately 25 percent of the entire population of fourth-year secondary students in California. Although instructors are implementing formative assessments, evidence indicates that they continue to teach to the test and to ignore students who have been placed in other programs such as special education and remedial programs (Rice University, 2008; Lauen & Gaddis, 2012; Shelly, 2012). Political and educational reform is mandatory (DeBray-Pelot & McGuinn, 2009). The research takes a cyclic or helical route to investigate the unreported categories that are the California Department of Education include as a category of students who do not achieve actual high-school diplomas (2012). The research presents findings that do refute and support some of the non-Western evaluations of pro-Western research in respect to the political, ethical, and epistemological divide that continues to cause disrespect about multicultural and bilingual education over socioeconomic differences.
How Concepts about Metacognition, Transformation, and Globalization
Influence Education Today
Research Project That Relates to the Researchers Background in Psychology, Phil0sophy, and Education
by C. Gallagher
Toward Work that Applies to an ME
June, 2013
Gallagher, C. 2 Table of Contents I. Topic Paper .................................................................................................................................. 3 Proposed Topic: How Concepts about Metacognition, Transformation, and Globalization .................... 3 Influence Education Today ....................................................................................................................... 3 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 3 Abridged Literature Review ..................................................................................................................... 5 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................................. 12 Purpose Statement .................................................................................................................................. 14 Research Questions................................................................................................................................. 14 Quantitative Questions ........................................................................................................................... 15 Q1. .......................................................................................................................................................... 15 H0: p .763 ............................................................................................................................................. 15 H1: p > .752 ............................................................................................................................................ 16 Q2. .......................................................................................................................................................... 16 H0: p.486 ............................................................................................................................................... 16 H1: p<.486 ............................................................................................................................................... 16 Qualitative Questions ............................................................................................................................. 18 Q1. .......................................................................................................................................................... 18 Q2. .......................................................................................................................................................... 19 Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 21 References .............................................................................................................................................. 23 II. Annotated Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 28 III. Reflective Look at EDD vs. Ph.D. .......................................................................................... 47 References .............................................................................................................................................. 48 Gallagher, C. 3
I. Topic Paper Proposed Topic: How Concepts about Metacognition, Transformation, and Globalization Influence Education Today Numerous studies and research indicate the positive results of instruction that is inherent in sociocultural, metacognitive, and transformative practices that instill world-view insight, compassion, and objectivity for the unknown. If these qualities were integrated in curriculum throughout California public schools, the graduation rates of secondary students should improve. This work explores these innovative instructional practices that have resulted in the new- standards based curriculum that is inherent in the Intersegmental Committee of the Academic Senates (ICAS) (Spring, 2002), and that should influence positive changes in secondary-school graduation rates. Introduction Psychologists, educators, and researchers have offered scientifically founded definitions and findings about metacognitive, transformative, and world-view instructional perspectives that should positively influence all students (Lauen & Gaddis, 2012; Bunch, 2011; Jared, Cormier, Levy, & Wade-Wooley, 2011; Nieto & Booth, 2010; Vandergrift & Tafaghodtari, 2010; Dyson, 2010; Grim, 2010; Osterling & Whitney, 2009; Yuill, 2009). They have innovated literature and research that should be correcting the drop-out rate of secondary students in the state of California. Many studies indicate positive results in respect to these related instructional strategies. As these educators continue to develop solutions and programs that apply these perspectives to new-standards based curriculum that is based in Vygotskys original socio- cultural theory, such as the formative assessment portfolio (Bunch, 2011), they also strive to solve the literacy and intelligence gaps that are the cause for which almost 25 percent of fourth- Gallagher, C. 4
year secondary-school are not graduating. A critical problem exists about the total number of unreported cases that have disappeared into independent special education and remedial programs that are no longer associated with the public school. The challenge about cognition and intelligence caused Vygotsky, his associates, and students to continue to develop theories and studies about higher mental functions and the associated socio-cultural process. They realize through these studies that students need to sense appreciation for their unique anthropological and literary background, or that they will sense rejection, and fail to achieve; and, this is what is happening to at least 25% of all fourth-year secondary students in California. The factors that make up cultural history involve generations of socialization--the basis of social learning theory, which also relates to developing cognition, conation, and affectation transformational and metacognitive processes about which the Vygotskian sociocultural approach is based, and that administrators and instructors should be shaping into their understanding of each of their students. As Osterling and Webb (2009) evaluated teaching philosophies, they integrated Vygotskys Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT), metacognition, and transformational learning into their evaluative approach, for example, and their results were beneficial to current educational processes such that some improvement is apparent. Even Freire and Mezirow have based research on the concepts of metacognition and transformational learning as they are important to developing language acquisition, understanding, service-learning, and problem-solving skills across cultures (Hakuta, 2011). Results about the positive effects of these strategies are nonetheless questioned by reporters and researchers who indicate that students are vanishing from academic records (Rice University, 2008; Lauen & Gaddis, 2012, p. 185). Gallagher, C. 5
Public Finance Review indicates that school districts and state education agencies (SEA) are unable to receive enough public funds at national, state, and county levels to achieve their goals, and that this deficiency also deprives them of the financial assistance that they need to provide mandatory basic assistance to impoverished and disadvantaged students who are in need of the food and security that are essential to their achievement of academic proficiency (Duncombe, Lukemeyer, & Yinger, 2008). Administrators are not even able to maintain an adequate battery of counselors who may remain updated in educational psychology and current innovative teaching strategies due to insufficient financing and poor political representation. Students who are so impoverished or disadvantaged that they are in need of food and clothing pose a real example about the economic and social problems that are compelling low achievement and the consequences of poor achievement (Lauen & Gaddis, 2012) and the causes for political and educational reform (DeBray-Pelot & McGuinn, 2009). Such reform requires alternate methods for the assessment of instructional efficiency (Bunch, 2011). Abridged Literature Review Numerous issues that involve socioeconomic prejudices and social justice have compelled educational policy to base further theory and practice through the work of Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), because his ideas about transitional and metacognitive learning, scaffolding, CHAT, the zone of proximal development, and sociocultural-educational theory have continued to benefit instructional methods today, including the new standards-based curriculum. Educators and researchers are striving to prevent the disadvantages that contribute to the graduation rates that recognize only about 75 percent of fourth-year secondary students. Even the ICAS includes language-arts and literary standards that extend globally and classically through axiology and qualities that the old melting-pot tradition did not support (ICAS, 2002; Gallagher, C. 6
Crawford, 2004). Since the 1954 Supreme Court Decision about Brown versus the Board of Education and the vacillating implementation of the prominent English Language Empowerment Act, American education has tended toward ethnic studies as never before. Sociocultural education has resulted in the Journal of Transformative Education, for example, in which psychologists such as Dyson (2010) have instilled within all areas of education the transformism model of teacher education about the development of consciousness, transformation, and the concomitant growth of a worldview perspective (p. 18). Dyson has extended sociocultural educational theory to Gardners choice theory and Five Minds for the Future, which continue to emphasize the transformative model of reflective environments that each student needs to replace learning obstacles with insight and understanding. Educators have instilled western appreciation for cultural qualities that no longer are based in primitive eugenic theories (Lum, 2009). Bilingual education and ethnic studies include qualities that are part of the new-standards curriculum (Ajayi, 2011; ICAS, 2002). Latin and Greek terminology, etymological development, and concepts are no longer banned by western politicians and educatorprimary and secondary curriculum is inherent in standards about the sciences and social studies that are European-based, but that advocates of the melting-pot tradition banned until colleges began to include courses in ethnic studies (Hakuta, 2011). Ethnic studies have been important to classical and historic literary models and developing theory, and to the civic standards that support multicultural attitudes (Nadelson et al., 2012). Prominent testing services such as the Educational Testing Service (ETS) support also support standard-based education that is inherent in ethnic studies and the formative assessment, which is an innovation that aligns with Benjamin Blooms Taxonomy of Learning Domains. The project of the Formative Language Assessment Records for English-language learners (ELLs) (FLARE) is aligned with the demands of No Child Left Gallagher, C. 7
Behind (NCLB) to achieve grants (Bunch, 2011). Yet, unknown unreported numbers of students continue to complicate records of the Department of Education (Rice University, 2008; Lauen & Gaddis, 2012). The association of special- and remedial-education students with their original public school causes a loss of information in respect to the graduation, drop-out, and retention rates of public-school student bodies; consequently, Educational Policy emphasizes the incentives for political and social reform (DeBray-Pelot, 2008). Ideas about the means of a higher level of consciousness and evolutionary social learning theories, which impact psychology with the motivating conations of metacognition, have resulted recently in the Metacognition Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) in which Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari (2010) achieved an important educational hypothesis. Students who were recipients of extra instruction as an experimental-treatment group did perform better in the final listening-comprehension test than the control group (Vandergrift & Tafaghodtari, 2010, p. 474). Their research verified the hypothesis that concepts about metacognition relate not only with instruction itself, but with symbol-sound relationships. The Hierarchal Linear Modeling Analysis has improved understanding by appealing to learners through the concatenations and ambiguities of humorous riddles as they are impressed by phonological knowledge (Yuill, 2009). Other researchers have proven that community service positively influences higher-level cognition; for example, French-language learners who participated in community-service learning at Colorado State University in 2001 developed intuitive reasoning and discussion skills as positive developmental influences (Grim, 2010). Higher levels of mental functioning have been achieved through numerous methods, and all seem to require intuitive discretion and appropriate attention. Dyson (2010) refers to Mezirows metacognitive learning style as he also indicates that technology has caused a massive breakdown in relationships. Gallagher, C. 8
Madsen (2010) has extended sociocultural and metacognitive theory to the Middle East through his adaptation of Mezirows perspective on metacognitive and transformational learning to Emirati women, who were students needing to improve their ability to adjust to unknowns. The Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies features information about Mezirows perspective on the transformation that was essential to the synergy of the Emiratis and ability to adapt themselves to new environments. Counselors from numerous regions have developed successful reflective environments where nurses, students, and other learners are able to adapt their thinking toward patient care (Kozub, 2013) as they identify principals of transformational learning theory that are beneficial to successful interaction and learning. Osterling and Webb (2009) have also confirmed the benefits of metacognitive or in-depth interviews as qualitative methods to achieve understanding about the goals and solutions that are inherent in NCLB. The metacognitive techniques in instruction, discussion, and interaction represent the challenges that Educational Researcher recognizes to reduce drop-out and unreported rates so as to result in savings for the criminal justice system (Levin, 2009, p. 16). Other issues that pertain to the development of higher levels of thinking among secondary-school populations include the benefits of psychology learning communities, interdisciplinary relationships, legal ethics, and further sociocultural support in respect to investigative applications and solutions (Buch & Spaulding, 2011). Further civic capacity (Mitra & Frick, 2011, p. 873) and the resistance of conscientious teachers through various methods of protest (Grossman, 2010) also relate to the development of higher levels of thinking through means that are different but that form a synergy that unites civil and educational communities. The Journal of Educational Psychology includes essential instructional strategies that involve the foundation of ICAS, sociocultural concepts, Gallagher, C. 9
meta-linguistics, and metacognition, for example (Jared, Cormier, Levy, & Wade-Wooley, 2011). Literature about metacognition and sociocultural theory that originated through Vygotsky also relates to an examination of non-Western attitudes about heterogeneous linguistic groups that have formed for many reasons in pro-Western culture to explain why attitudes must be modified as necessary into standards, curriculum, and instruction of ELLs who naturally speak a foreign language. This issue continues to concern those who support the English Language Empowerment Act, for example, and to result in political tension toward reform--a zeitgeist of multicultural and bilingual education programs and political leaders who have maintained anti- immigrant, eugenic rhetoric that altruistic non-Western researchers cannot support (Hakuta, 2011). This innovative literature about metacognition and transformative thinking has resulted in intercultural programs to cultivate the dialogue and dynamics essential to professional ethics in order to subdue socioeconomic and ancestral inequalities (Szkudlarek, 2009). The negative coefficients that researchers of Eastern European Economics recognize, who originally translate Vygotskys Russian work, involves the ethnic divide between Russian and Surzhyk (Constant, Kahanec, & Zimmerman, 2012), an ethnic divide typical of the subpopulations that disappear from public schools into private special education and ELL programs. The ethnic divide also occurs between diverse dialogues of every other bilingual and multilingual systemtypical trends of competition that principals in metacognition and related transcendental thinking are intended to ameliorate. Some conscientious researchers and diplomats work together to analyze and to manage regional divides and distributions that are dissimilar (Hakuta, 2011; sdiken, 2010; Holden, 2008). Those who have developed meta-linguistics and universal language systems toward effective translation systems are deciphering between code-switchings, Gallagher, C. 10
declension paradigms, morphological assignment rules, colloquialisms, and language modes to create benign learning environments and excelled language transfer (Chirsheva, 2009, p. 68; Grosjean, 2011). The literature has linked pro-Western and non-Western research through management systems and research methodologies, which clearly share the hypothesis that perceptual imagery and impressive motor functions may link to non-stagnant processes of metacognition, perception, and motor functioning (Spivey, Knoblich, Dale, & Grosjean, 2009). Although sdiken (2010), Szkudlarek (2009), Hakuta (2011), and Holden (2008) have challenged pro-Western methodologies, they have been unable to ignore the implications of Grosjean (2011) and Chirsheva (2009), for example, whose applied research contradicts non-Western assumptions as they relate to those who have translated Vygotskys work. The comparative and mixed-method methodologies will achieve the goal through the validation and the contrasting of pro-Western and non-Western research in multicultural- and bilingual-education through higher levels of cognition that involve education. As researchers have reckoned with the Item Response Theory and quantitative methodology of Language Testing and the environments that are conducive to excellent performance (Filipi, 2012), they also have looked to the Assessment of Language Competence (ALC) by the Australian Council for Educational Research. The ALC contradicts the validity and reliability of those who question pro-Western technologies that assist French, German, Italian, Japanese, and Chinese communities to develop rudimentary English competencies. The literature about metacognition and related practices translated from Russian, for example, has been quite diverse. Have administrators and instructors of California secondary schools incorporated into their curriculum methods that have been sensitive to the culture of misfortunate pupils who need Gallagher, C. 11
to develop higher functions as addressed in the Journal of Studies in International Education (Nieto & Booth, 2010) and in Language Learning (Vandergrift & Tafaghodtari, 2010)? Have they shaped into their strategies authentic service-learning opportunities (Grim, 2010), and innovative formative assessments such as the new FLARE that result in Title III funding through NCLB (Bunch, 2011)? The literature includes empirical studies and conclusions of non-Western researchers, which reinforces the problem about pro-Western political and educational leaders who maintain the assumptions of Hakuta (2011) and sdiken (2010), for example. When researchers have used assessment data to focus on uniform standards-based instruction, the inverse survival probability for the achievement of proficient levels has been evident of performance that Hakuta (2011) concluded to result in significant achievement of 80% of his students at Sanger Unified School District in central California. Hakuta (2011) has presented evidence that this research included as accepted assumptions assessment data and formative assessments, which have been the strongest predictors of improved student achievement over time. Hakuta (2011) also established the fact that student access to essential learning materials has been critical to their overall insight and developing proficiency. For many reasons, teachers teach to the test and forget students who they placed into special education and bilingual and/or remedial learning programs outside of the public school system where they began their education near their homes. Such students must be bused far from their homes, and they result in unreported subpopulations that are not even recognized in the unreported category as this study has indicated. The literature both validates and argues premises about two interrelated objectives that involve Europe, which sdiken (2010) has concluded through comparative analysesthat Europe has not followed the literature-based path of pro-Western United-States researchers, causing non-Western theory Gallagher, C. 12
involving education to differ significantly. Evidence about the high retention and unreported rates of secondary students continues to cause support for the research of sdiken (2010), for example, which indicates little change in respect to institutional concepts and adapted scientific theory. sdiken (2012) has based much of his work on another work that functions as an accepted assumption for this research, Hofstede and Kassems European Contributions to Organization Theory (p. 715). The conclusion of Szkudlarek (2009) has been that Europeans and Westerners have ignored the ultimate consequences of politics, ethics, and culture, which have compelled diminished cultural traits that continue to evolve or change over time, and which continues to cause new generations to maintain cultural and ideological systems that distinctly differ from their predecessors. Hence, the derivation of higher consciousness and Russian thinking has resulted in diverse political attitudes about the Marxist conflict, for example, that may be influencing the problematic trends in California graduation rates of secondary students. Unreported transfers of special-education, remedial-education, and bilingual education students to private learning programs are not even recognized in the public school records where the student began to attend school within walking distance of the students home. Problem Statement Educators and social service workers must adapt new instructional practices (Nieto & Booth, 2010; Vandergrift & Tafaghodtari, 2010; Jared, Cormier, Levy, & Wade-Wooley, 2011; Grim, 2010; Bunch, 2011) to prevent unknown and substantial numbers of students from dropping out of school and falling into the court system (Rice University, 2008; Lauen & Gaddis, 2012). The California Department of Education (2012) indicates that at least 17.5% of its secondary students did not graduate last year, a figure that includes students who are 21.9% Gallagher, C. 13
Hispanic, 22.8% American-Indian, 29.2% African-American, 29% English-language learners (ELLs), 18.3% migrant children, 23.7% special-education learners, and 21.3% socially disadvantaged learners. National Evaluation and Policy Analysis indicates that the pressure is so great on administrators, teachers, and students to increase efficiency, effectiveness, and equity in a system that is in such need of reform that virtually no quantitative research even exists about the truly impoverished and minority students who have transferred or dropped out (Lauen & Gaddis, 2012, p. 185). Listening and social interface involve sociocultural, metacognitive, and transformative processes that educational psychologists believe are important to improved instructional methods. Researchers maintain that the verbal and reasoning skills of all students, especially of those who are socioeconomically distressed, may improve through metacognitive and transformative approaches. They believe that the administration of the Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ), for example, is among the new instructional-learning tools that will challenge students to use their metacognitive and meta-linguistic capabilities (Yuill, 2009). Learning that involves transformational learning should be important to educators and social service workers who seek effective strategies to direct the attention of each student and to thereby prevent the problem that involves drop-out and retention rates. Critical consciousness reflects Frieres development of Vygotskys CHAT, which resulted in definitions about the higher mental functions that are the basis of the foundation of metacognitive and transformational learning (Osterling & Webb, 2009, p. 270-271). Gallagher, C. 14
Purpose Statement The purpose of this mixed-method multiple-case study is to investigate innovative instructional techniques and programs that coordinate cultural, transformational, and metacognitive processes, which educational psychologists believe to be important to the attention of every secondary student, including the ones who are socioeconomically distressed and who otherwise may drop-out of school in the state of California. A content analysis will involve an examination of literature that educational psychologists and researchers believe is beneficial to teaching that will challenge students to meet their goals about graduation (Lauen & Gaddis, 2012; Bunch, 2011; Jared, Cormier, Levy, & Wade-Wooley, 2011; Nieto & Booth, 2010; Vandergrift & Tafaghodtari, 2010; Dyson, 2010; Grim, 2010; Osterling & Whitney, 2009; Yuill, 2009). The research will conclude with a meta-analysis of synthesized information about the approximate 25% of secondary-school students who did not graduate in 2011 (California Department of Education, 2012), and information about how the innovative instructional techniques and programs are influencing the graduation rate of secondary-school students whom the California Department of Education should be considering in its 2013 report. Research Questions The research questions that identify this study evaluate the associations between the independent variables and dependent variables. The implementation of instructional techniques and programs that align with the sociocultural components of the revised Intersegmental Committee of the Academic Senates (ICAS) and standards-based curriculum that relies on formative assessment is the dependent variable. The influence of standards-based curriculum and its formative assessment on students who graduated between 2010 and 2011 represents the independent variable. Numerous subpopulations make up the graduation and cohort dropout Gallagher, C. 15
rates, but those subpopulations must be investigated for their validity. Standards-based curriculum is intended to focus on and correct such sociocultural deficiencies, and prominent educators have initiated reform through formative-assessment portfolios (Bunch, 2011). Yet, the paths of disadvantaged students are severed from constructive goals, such that research is necessary through emerging case studies. These case studies are important to a solution to the problem. The qualitative questions involve the success of metacognitive, transformational, and sociocultural instruction. How are strategies, which are shaped into ICAS, and standards-based curriculum, improving graduation rates of the main student population and the aggregation of subpopulations? The dependent variables about the efficacy of the curriculum in respect to graduation and retention rates in the California state school structure. Of the following research questions, two are qualitative in nature, and two are quantitative in nature, and all four align with the Problem and Purpose Statements about two major populations and numerous different subpopulations of students. Quantitative Questions Q1. If California public school curriculum continues to integrate the sociocultural perspectives of ICAS and the new standardized curriculum, will the percentages of students who are able to graduate exceed the graduation rate of 76.3% between 2010 and 2011 and to the graduation rate of 75.2% between 2009 and 2010? (California Department of Education, 2012)? H0: p .763: If California public school curriculum continues to integrate the sociocultural perspectives of ICAS and the new standardized curriculum, the percentages of students who are permitted to graduate will not exceed the graduation rate of 76.3% between 2010 and 2011; nor will they exceed the graduation rate of 75.2% between 2009 and 2010. Gallagher, C. 16
H1: p > .752 : If California public school curriculum continues to integrate the sociocultural perspectives of ICAS and the new standardized curriculum, the percentages of students who are able to graduate will exceed the graduation rate of 76.3% between 2010 and 2011, and they will they exceed the graduation rate of 75.2% between 2009 and 2010. Because the percentages of populations that did not graduate included 26.3% between 2009 and 2010, and 30% between 2010 and 2011, one must reject the null hypotheses and continue to question the alternative hypotheses also. In fact, the research continues as a mixed methods design of a multiple case study with content analysis and meta-analysis. Q2. If California public school curriculum continues to integrate the sociocultural perspectives of ICAS and the new standardized curriculum, will the percentages of students of the Unreported Subpopulation decrease in 2013 from the percentage of 48.6 between 2010 and 2011 and the percentage of 68.2 between 2009 and 2010 (California Department of Education, 2012)? Why does the total of that 48.6 percent of the subpopulation that graduated, when added to the total of 30 percent of that subpopulation of Cohort Dropout Rates not equal 100 percent? Only 78.6 is recognized in the entire record of that subpopulation. Other subpopulation information also does not correlate. H0: p.486: If California public school curriculum continues to integrate the sociocultural perspectives of ICAS and the new standardized curriculum, the percentages of the subpopulation of students who are unreported will not decrease from the percentage of 48.6 between 2010 and 2011; nor will the percentage decrease from the 68.2 of 2009 to 2010. H1: p<.486: If California public school curriculum continues to integrate the sociocultural perspectives of ICAS and the new standardized curriculum, the percentages of the subpopulation Gallagher, C. 17
of students who are unreported will decrease from the percentage of 48.6 between 2010 and 2011, and the percentage will continue to decrease from the 68.2 of 2009 to 2010. The subpopulations of ELLs and Special Education students compel unusual effects on the hypotheses. No hypotheses is consistent across subpopulationstotal subpopulation data does not equal 100 percent, and the socioeconomically disadvantaged comprises .507 percent of the entire population. The unique embedded units of analysis of qualitative data that identifies the graduation, retention, and unreported rates in the secondary schools within California will be represented through sample populations of Santa Clara, Sacramento, and Alameda Counties. These rates actually must influence to some degree the figures of the California Longitudinal Pupil Achievement Data System (CALPADS) and the CDE DataQuest Web at DataQuest, which are both available through the California Department of Education (2012). This quantitative data is not accurate when it does not represent students who have transferred and who have disappeared from their original school. The null hypotheses (H0) is further rejected when the ratio of the number of students who do graduate and who are not retained in secondary school between 2012 and 2013 and the number of students who transferred or disappeared from the same school records continues to be 382,558:72,320, as it was between 2010 and 2011the average number of graduating students will be at least the same, or it will improve by at least .01p as it evidently did from 2009 to 2012. Although these percentages are very small, they typically are similar. Evidence persists about them in respect to their existence that CALPADS and DataQuest does ignore, and the effects of socioeconomic disadvantage and educational reform (Rice University, 2008; Shelly, 2012; Lauen & Gaddis, 2012; DeBray-Pelot & McGuinn, 2009). The alternative hypothesis (H1) is evident only when the ratio of the number students who graduate and who are Gallagher, C. 18
not retained exceeds the ratio of the number who have transferred or who have disappeared from the system. Again, the high percentage rates that equal and exceed 48.6 percent of unreported and special education students compel significant unstable findings. The Department of Education perseveres for improvements in the coming years. Qualitative Questions Q1. How does research about socio-culture, metacognition, and transformation influence standards-based curriculum in California? Through the qualitative approach of a multiple case study, embedded analyses prevail about sub-populations and sub-studies that are quantitative means and variances are derivable about central tendencies, variability, population parameters, and null/alternative hypotheses. However, the research must continue as a multiple case study, because information continues to emerge, for example, from Science Daily about the causes for which low-achieving students are transferring and disappearing from records such that their information is unavailable (Rice University, 2008; Shelly, 2012). Counselors offer first-hand reports about such issues through correspondence and discussion to further the case studies, independent of reports of the California Department of Education. Of the seven sub-populations that comprise the approximate one-quarter that did not graduate between 2009 and 2010, 26.3 percent of that figure was not reported, and 30 percent of that population was unreported between 2010 and 2011 (California Department of Education, 2012). Only 75.2% graduated between 2009 and 2010; 76.3% graduated between 2010 and 2011; therefore, the actual percentages of retained students are 24.8% for 2009 to 2010 and 23.7% for 2010 to 2011. Although quantitative phases are evident in this study, research questions their validity, thereby continuing the multiple case study that applies to the research problem and purpose statements about the efficiency of current instructional attitudes, competencies, and Gallagher, C. 19
behaviors in respect to the actual practice of the new standards curriculum, which should integrate formative evaluations (Bunch, 2011). This question requires a qualitative approach by which research will reveal descriptions, interpretations, verifications, and evaluations of real-world circumstances that involve the knowledge of educators, students, and parents about literature and documents that expound upon the archives and progress of the new standards-based curriculum. News reports, broadcasts, and educators associated with the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing offer qualitative- oriented reports, criticism, and other relevant information. Furthermore, invaluable life-long peers will continue to provide further information about students who have lived and who are living in socioeconomically distressed areas. Relevant characteristics of the responses will be presented in the form of tables and graphs. Of further concern, the information about the knowledge of educators, parents, and students about the open-mindedness of the sociocultural theory that is inherent in the new movement includes some consistent findings (Levin, 2009). Numerous sources of sub-category information and data converge into consistent conclusions; thus, the research will address the process of triangulation that is evident among sub-categories and subpopulations. Information about this knowledge includes qualitative data that will answer this single research question in respect to the explanation of Leedy and Ormrod (2010, p. 99). Q2. What evidence exists that associates metacognition, epistemic cognition, and sociocultural theory with ICAS and the new standards curriculum? Evidence about the relationship of work by psychologists, researchers, and educators will be explored that influenced standards-based curriculum and current related trends and issues. This qualitative research question has caused numerous surveys to develop as research methods about benefits of cultural and metacognitive processes that psychologists believe are important to instructional methods and that sociocultural Gallagher, C. 20
components should be included through instructional techniques. Therefore, this question introduces the Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) as an innovative instructional tool that challenges students to develop long-term memory for metacognitive and meta-linguistic capacities (Yuill, 2009). The predominant amount of research in respect to reform, according to National Evaluation Policy, is predominantly qualitative, because little quantitative research exists about the economically deprived students who have transferred, dropped out, or disappeared from the educational system (Lauen & Gaddis, 2012, p. 185). Educators are attempting to manage more surveys, literature, and open-ended discussion to gather trust from parents whose dilemmas prevent them from the wise management of their children as they must travel aboard public transportation, for example. This question provides the initiative to gather and evaluate all artifacts and documents that relate to these problem and purpose statements. Typical reactions will be considered of educators, students, and parents in respect to the new standards-based curriculum that is inherent in ICAS (ICAS, 2002), the work of Paul Friere, the Journal of Transformative Education, transformational learning, the work of Darling- Hammond about Teach-for-America (TFA) (Tllez, 2011), and the work of Hakuta (2011) to instill justice and educational opportunity for disadvantaged students through original standardized and ad hoc relations. Emerging issues that are associated with the purpose and problem statements involve the teaching strategies, programs, and classroom behaviors that pertain to the examination of literature and current reports, and the way that these issues are causing so many unreported cases that are no longer associated with public school records. Educational psychologists and researchers have developed literature and instructional techniques that they believe are beneficial to instruction that will challenge students to meet their goals Gallagher, C. 21
about graduation (Lauen & Gaddis, 2012; Bunch, 2011; Jared, Cormier, Levy, & Wade-Wooley, 2011; Nieto & Booth, 2010; Vandergrift & Tafaghodtari, 2010; Dyson, 2010; Grim, 2010; Osterling & Whitney, 2009; Yuill, 2009). The qualitative data analysis of the case study will include a logical order of analytical details about each case, a categorization of information, an interpretation of significant topics, an identification of patterns and inherent themes, and a synthesis about each conclusion or finding. Summary The data that has been collected and interpreted reverts back to the examination of work by Holden (2008), Hakuta (2011), sdiken (2010), Szkudlarek (2009), Chirsheva (2009), Grosjean (2011, 2009), and Filipi (2012), about a Marxist conflict and indifference of a few political influences for those of poor socioeconomic status. Educators such as Hakuta sought to prevent such problems, and a problem resolution and accurate interpretation of a pro-Western research course is essential to the problems that are created by unreported populations of secondary students that do not graduate, an entire group that represents approximately 25 percent of the entire population of fourth-year secondary students in California. Although instructors are implementing formative assessments, evidence indicates that they continue to teach to the test and ignore students who have been placed in other programs such as special education and remedial programs (Rice University, 2008; Lauen & Gaddis, 2012; Shelly, 2012). Political and educational reform is mandatory (DeBray-Pelot & McGuinn, 2009). The research takes a cyclic or helical route as many unreported categories are included by the California Department of Education (2012). The research presents findings that do refute and support some of the non- Western evaluations of pro-Western research in respect to the political, ethical, and Gallagher, C. 22
epistemological divide that continues to cause disrespect about multicultural and bilingual education over socioeconomic differences.
Gallagher, C. 23
References Ajayi, L. (2011). Exploring how ESL teachers relate their ethnic and social backgrounds to practice. Race, Ethnicity, & Education, 14(2), 253-275. doi: 10.1080/13613324.2010.488900 Bunch, M. B. (2011, July). Testing English language learners under No Child Left Behind. Language Testing, 28(3) 323-341. doi: 10.1177/0265532211404186 California Department of Education. (2012, June). State Schools Chief Tom Torlakson reports climb in graduation rates for California students. California Department of Education News Release. Retrieved from http://www.cde.ca.gov/nr/ne/yr12/yr12rel65.asp Chirsheva, G. (2009). Gender in RussianEnglish code-switching. International Journal of Bilingualism, 13(1), 63-90. doi: 10.1177/1367006909103529 Constant, A., Kahanec, M., & Zimmermann, K. (2012). The Russian-Ukrainian political divide. Eastern European Economics, 49(6), 97-109. doi: 10.2753/EEE0012-8775490606 Crawford, J. (2004). Educating English learners: Language diversity in the classroom (5 th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Bilingual Education Services. DeBray-Pelot, E. (2009, January). The new politics of education: Analyzing the federal education policy landscape in the post-NCLB era. Educational Policy, 23(1), 15-42. doi: 10.1177/0895904808328524 Duncombe, W., Lukemeyer, A., & Yinger, J. (2008, June). The-no-child-left-behind act: Have federal funds been left behind? Public Finance Review, 36(4), 381-407. doi: 10.1177/1091142107305220 Gallagher, C. 24
Dyson, M. (2010, January). What might a person-centered model of teacher education look like in the 21 st century? The transformism model of teacher education. Journal of Transformative Education, 8(1), 3-21. doi: 10.1177/1541344611406949 Filipi, A. (2012, October) Do questions written in the target language make foreign language listening comprehension tests more difficult? Language Testing October 29(4), 511-532. doi: 10.1177/0265532212441329 Grim, F. (2010). Giving Authentic Opportunities to Second Language Learners: A Look at a French Service-Learning Project. Foreign Language Annals, 43(4), 605-623. doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.2010.01104.x Grosjean, F. (2012). An attempt to isolate, and then differentiate, transfer and interference. International Journal Of Bilingualism, 16(1), 11-21. doi:10.1177/1367006911403210 Grossman, F. D. (2010, July). Dissent from within: How educational insiders use protest to create policy change. Educational Policy, 24(4), 655-686. doi: 10.1177/0895904809335110 Hakuta, K. (2011, May). Educating language minority students and affirming their equal rights: Research and practical perspectives. Educational Researcher, 40(4), 163-174. doi: 10.3102/0013189X11404943 Holden, N. (2008). Reflections of a cross cultural scholar: Context and language in management thought. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 8(2), 239-251. doi: 10.1177/1470595808091791 Intersegmental Committee of the Academic Senates (ICAS) (2002, Spring). Academic literacy: A statement of competencies expected of students entering California public colleges and Gallagher, C. 25
universities. Sacramento, CA: ICAS. Retrieved from http://senate.universityofcalifornia.edu/reports/acadlit.pdf Jared, D., Cormier, P., Levy, B., & Wade-Woolley, L. (2011). Early predictors of bi-literacy development in children in French immersion: A 4-year longitudinal study. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 103(1), 119-139. doi:10.1037/a0021284 Kozub, M. L. (2013, April). Through the eyes of the other: Using event analysis to build cultural competence. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, XX(X), 1-6. doi: 10.1177/1043659613481809 Lauen, D. L. & Gaddis, S. M. (2012, June). Shining a light or fumbling in the dark? The effects of NCLBs subgroup-specific accountability on student achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 34(2), 185-208. doi: 10.3102/0162373711429989 Levin, H. M. (2009, January). The economic payoff to investing in educational justice. Educational Researcher, 38(1), 5-20. doi: 10.3102/0013189X08331192 Lum, C. H. (2009, May). An historical perspective on the Chinese Americans in American music education. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 27(2), 27-32. doi: 10.1177/8755123308330047 Madsen, S. R. (2010, February). Leadership development in the United Arab Emirates: The transformational learning experiences of women. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 17(1), 100-110. doi: 10.1177/1548051809345254 Mitra, D. L. & Frick, W. C. (2010, December 31). Civic capacity in educational reform efforts: Emerging and established regimes in rust belt cities. Educational Policy, 25(5), 810-843. doi: 10.1177/0895904810386597 Gallagher, C. 26
Nadelson, L. S., Boham, M. D., Conlon-Khan, L., Fuentealba, M. J., Hall, C. J., Hoetker, G. A., Hooley, D. S., Jang, B. S., Luckey, K. L., Moneymaker, K. J., Shapiro, M. A., & Zenkert, A. J. (2012, June). A shifting paradigm: Preservice teachers multicultural attitudes and efficacy. Urban Education, 47(6), 1183-1208. doi: 10.1177/0042085912449750 Nieto, C. & Booth, M. Z. (2010, September). Cultural competence: Its influence on the teaching and learning of international students. Journal of Studies in International Education, 14(4), 406-425. doi: 10.1177/1028315309337929 Osterling, J. P. & Whitney, W. (2009). On becoming a bilingual teacher: A transformative process for preservice and novice teachers. Journal of Transformative Education 7(4), 267-293. doi: 10.1177/1541344610386470 Rice University (2008, February 16). Negative implications of No-Child-Left Behind: As graduation rates go down, school ratings go up. ScienceDaily. Retrieved May 16, 2013 from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/0802/080214080530.htm Shelly, B. (2012, February). Executive federalism and the No-Child-Left-Behind Act of 2001. Educational Policy, 26(1), 117-135. doi: 10.1177/0895904811425912 Spivey, M. J., Dale, R., Knoblich, G., & Grosjean, M. (2010). Do curved reaching movements emerge from competing perceptions? A reply to van der Wel et al. (2009). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 36(1), 251-254. doi: 10.1037/a0017170 Szkudlarek, B. (2009, September). Through western eyes: Insights into the intercultural training field. Organization Studies, 30(9), 975-986. doi: 10.1177/0170840609338987 Tllez, K. (2011). A case study of a career in education that began with Teach for America. Teaching Education, 22(1), 15-38. doi: 10.1080/10476210.2010.541238 Gallagher, C. 27
sdiken, B. (2010, June). Between contending perspectives and logics: Organizational studies in Europe. Organization Studies, 31(6), 715-735. doi: 10.1177/0170840610372581 Vandergrift, L., & Tafaghodtari, M. H. (2010). Teaching L2 Learners How to Listen Does Make a Difference: An Empirical Study. Language Learning, 60(2), 470-497.
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II. Annotated Bibliography
Bunch, M. B. (2011, July). Testing English language learners under No Child Left Behind. Language Testing, 28(3) 323-341. doi: 10.1177/0265532211404186
The requirements for an NCLB grant compelled educators since 2001 to develop effective assessment and curriculum strategies, which have resulted in numerous consortium to acquire continual financial opportunities toward the development of enhanced assessment strategies, efforts that require cooperation among state collaborators to acquire Title VI (Section 6112). The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA) is the precursor of NCLB. Both consist of an examination of assessment themes that align with state content standards, and are high in standards of technical quality and historic artifacts. The effect of NCLB on the assessment of English language learners (ELLs), assessments, and evaluations represents numerous challenges to professionals in respect to ongoing language assessment. The study is qualitative and is associated with Measurement Incorporated, U.S.A. The research is also a product of the Office of English Language Acquisition (OA), and the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). The population that was studied included elementary and secondary students of all stagesfour consortium, which included the Comprehensive English Language Learner Assessment (CELLA), English Language Development Assessment (ELDA), Mountain West Assessment (MWA), and Assessing for Comprehension and Communication in English State to State for English Language Learners (ACCESS for ELLs).
Gallagher, C. 29
As per multiple case analyses, researchers have continued to collect and to evaluate data toward effective reform of content standards that support those of the Intersegmental Committee of the Academic Senates (ICAS). A scientifically organized process has included the purpose of testing to develop an effective overall method of evaluation that resulted in the formative assessment. Findings resulted in the ongoing implementation of formative assessment of ELLs through support by NCLB grants. The work relates to similar studies and developing language assessments by J. Abedi of the University of California at Davis in 2007 and the work in 2008 by Wolf, Kao, Griffin, Herman, Bachman, Chang, and Farnsworth.
DeBray-Pelot, E. (2009, January). The new politics of education: Analyzing the federal education policy landscape in the post-NCLB era. Educational Policy, 23(1), 15-42. doi: 10.1177/0895904808328524
The scope of the case study was to present to advocates of political and scientific challenges the influences of academic accountability policy and the accountability pressure of NCLB on math and reading achievements. The goal of the researchers was to convey information about the tensions of subgroup-specific accountability inherent in NCLB that may improve assessment scores among Hispanic, Afro-American, and disadvantaged populations, and that may influence school position in the achievement of test-score improvement in respect to overall score distribution across schools. The sample population for the major research included 1.7 million students from all of the 1800 schools in North Carolina who were in the third to eighth grades. Researchers developed a multiple case study of schools and students that were failing to achieve NCLB goals, and that the researchers were striving to improve through their studies of fixed Gallagher, C. 30
effects, trends, and controls, especially for overall success of Afro-American, Hispanic, and socioeconomically deprived subgroups. Conclusions indicate that goals about improved high- and low-stake test scores in respect to NCLB tensions must be within reach and realizable. Schools with a marginal passing annual yearly progress (AYP) as mandated by NCLB were required to achieve score levels rather than gains, and that resulted in the risks involving the control of endogenous factors. Carnoy and Loeb also explored external accountability for influences on the outcomes of student achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis published the related work in 2002.
Dyson, M. (2010, January). What might a person-centered model of teacher education look like in the 21 st century? The transformism model of teacher education. Journal of Transformative Education, 8(1), 3-21. doi: 10.1177/1541344611406949
The scope of the study is to introduce the transformative model of teacher education as a step beyond self-consciousness to empathy and compassion for students. The study embraces Gardners choice theory, which is inherent in his Five Minds for the Future, learning theories, and choice theory, Vygotskys Social Constructivism, Piagets Stages of Development, Blooms Taxonomy, Garners Multiple Intelligences, and Deweys ideas about social environment as incipient but fragmented attempts to attain transformative thinking that is intuitive and beyond logical and rational thinking. The qualitative study analyzes literature and experiences that involve pre-service teaching and globalization, and historic and recent archives that include 150 years of recurrent systemic issues. Invariably reoccurring issues prevail about binaries such as the synergy between theory and practice to improve student learning. One problem involves Pre- Gallagher, C. 31
Service Teacher Education (PSTE) and research and development that pertains to metacognitive experience, which relates to the role of mentors in student learning, Mezirows theories and research in metacognitive thinking, Knowles organismic worldview of thinking, and Baumans concept about tertiary learning to develop open-mindedness and insightful thinking midst expanding global education. Conclusions support the current Transformative Model of Teacher Education in the Post Modern Digital World of Gardner, which nurtures exclusive positive attitudes toward a super consciousness and the expansive academic community. The scope supports the works relationship to Glassers choice theory for supporting learning practices that nurture mind-sets that transcend the self.
Grim, F. (2010). Giving Authentic Opportunities to Second Language Learners: A Look at a French Service-Learning Project. Foreign Language Annals, 43(4), 605-623. doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.2010.01104.x
Foreign language students are inspired to learn more of their native language when they have the opportunity to engage in community service or SL and to introduce their language and culture through interaction with aspiring community members. The scope of the case study involves the impact of such SL to the professional inclinations of foreign language students, who in this study are learning French as their second language, and the hypothesis is confirmed about the impact of SL. The population of the study involves students of French language who participated in an SL French course at Colorado State University. The methodology of the case study included service-training; specifically SL. The findings, which involve service-training and SL, also are associated with pre-service training, orientation, and staff development in respect to the Gallagher, C. 32
philosophy, which aligns with consistent program quality. The study supports the findings of Rosengrants research in 1997 and Gascoigne Lallys research in 2001, who had concluded also that service training significantly may influence the professional future of a learner.
Grossman, F. D. (2010, July). Dissent from within: How educational insiders use protest to create policy change. Educational Policy, 24(4), 655-686. doi: 10.1177/0895904809335110
The qualitative research is a case study about the strategies of teachers and administrators of 28 small public schools that effectively exempt them from their state assessment policy. The New York State Commissioner of Education had granted a waiver to the Teachers and Administrators of New York (TANY). Grossman examined two questions: The conditions that support protesters who represent organizations of insiders, and the strategies and tactics of those organizations to achieve policy change. He collected data through interviews of 50 respondents of TANY and other facilitators of academic activists, including state legislators and their assistants, members of the Board of Regents, and workers for the state and city Departments of Education. Researchers rely on social movement theory to explore the way that members of TANY effectively protest to retain their waiver, which exempts its students from passing state exit exams before they may graduate from secondary school. Grossmans qualitative interviews revealed emotions and tone that he included in a summary and timeline of events that he related with their protest-event behaviors. His final methodology includes the archival data of 220 documents, including newspapers, public hearings, affidavits, and briefs, emails, internal-TANY documents, and TANY press releases. Through his triangulation of all data, Grossman gathered Gallagher, C. 33
insight for the methods of protest that educator activists utilized to achieve policy change. He had divided his field notes, interviews, and archive sources into three categories: Strategy, Emergence, and Development. Through an inductive process, he concluded with 42 subcategories.
The ability of social movements to achieve policy change within the policy-making contexts of New York State through political, institutional, and social environments requires what Grossman describes as mobilization, an effective voice and an opportunity to direct that voice to policy- makers. Other works with relationships in standards-based reform include those of Malen and Cochran, whose work entitled, Beyond Pluralistic Patterns of Power Research on the Micro- politics of Schools was published in the Handbook of Educational Politics and Policy by Routledge in New York during 2008.
Hakuta, K. (2011, May). Educating language minority students and affirming their equal rights: Research and practical perspectives. Educational Researcher, 40(4), 163-174. doi: 10.3102/0013189X11404943
As an experimental psycholinguist, Hakuta maintains the hypothesis that educational policy and politics should change in respect to the benefits of minority American students. Examining the socioeconomic barriers of bilingual students, Hakuta has sought educational reform as he has analyzed in-progress achievement data for certain characteristics, such as a reliable timeframe, that indicate an effective bilingual-education program. His research is based predominantly on the precedential French-Canadian immersion model, and he has sought to challenge anti- Gallagher, C. 34
immigrant and eugenic perspectives, which were common in the pro-Western nation of the United States. For his national research, Hakuta studied the performance of the population of 11,000 students at the Sanger Unified School Districta rural area in central California where most of the students are impoverished. Hakuta conducted a case study of students who were socioeconomically deprived. Through his study, he compared past English-language learners (ELLs) with current ELLs and English-only learners (EOs) for six years, through the California Standards Test (CST) and the California English Language Development Test (CELDT), in which the ELLs and Eos attained intermediate proficiency; within seven years, 80% of those ELLs and EOs attained most significant proficiency. Findings include the inverse survival probability for the achievement of proficient performancewithin two years, 80% of the students did achieve proficiency. Furthermore, Hakutas conclusion included that assessment data that focused on uniform standards-based instruction were the strongest predictors of improved student achievement over time. Furthermore, conclusions included evidence about access to materials and to opportunities for professional development for teachers as well as for ELLs. Of further importance, Hakuta believes that language presents a challenge that requires insighta proficiency that exists between the lines associated with the probability of CELDT Level 4-5, and a reassignmenta level of functional perception for which this empirical evidence indicates that national appreciation for the bilingual-community culture will improve the academic proficiency and equity of the overall community. Hakutas work supports other works and reports about effective bilingual education practices for ELLs, including a 209 case study from the Council of Great City Schools, which also had acted as a challenge of an unfavorable review by conservative melting-pot traditionalists who represented at that time the Gallagher, C. 35
Office of Civil Rights. This study also supports the Common Core State Standards Initiative of 2010.
Jared, D., Cormier, P., Levy, B., & Wade-Woolley, L. (2011). Early predictors of biliteracy development in children in French immersion: A 4-year longitudinal study. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 103(1), 119-139. doi:10.1037/a0021284
The scope involves the variables that predict reading progress as a predictor of competency from one language to another of second-language students. The hypothesis includes evidence about general cognitive and linguistic abilities that are associated with the ability to identify new wordsabilities that predict reading skills from one language to another, unlike reading comprehension, which the researchers confirm to be a language-specific ability. The population included 140 Canadian children, who were enrolled in French-immersion programs, and who first were tested in kindergarten, and then annually in both English and in French through Grade 3, with measurements about their word-level and passage-level understanding to evaluate their fluency. Researchers used a hierarchal linear model in the case study to determine which English variables predicted Grade-3 outcomes and growth rates in English and in French, and to determine the set of predictors that were associated with the most variance in development and rates and outcomes in French and English reading. The researchers concluded with evidence that language-learner adapt some skills that are important to general reading are across languages: Phonological recognition, rapid automatized naming, and grammatical ability, for example. Receptive vocabulary of English, however, was language-specific, that students did not transfer from one language to another. Of greatest interest, J. Cummins has provided in the 1970s and Gallagher, C. 36
1980s an associated perspective that includes the developmental interdependence hypothesis, which associates second-language competency with the developmental level of the young learners native language when rigorous exposure begins to a second language early in life. Even R. Guglielm during 2008 has provided evidence of a model by which learners of limited-English proficiency achieve bilingual capabilities that produce long-term academic and occupational results. The researchers also refer to the sociopolitical variable, which they indicate does not associate American and Canadian studies, because American research includes immigrant Spanish-speaking learners whose parents represent poor socioeconomic status. The researchers findings about this variable are associated with the 2006 research of D. August and D. Shanahan.
Kozub, M. L. (2013, April). Through the eyes of the other: Using event analysis to build cultural competence. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, XX(X), 1-6. doi: 10.1177/1043659613481809
Participants of a nursing program at Xavier University in Ohio undergo transformative learning focus groups and surveys to reform their attitudes about their culture as being superior, and to develop compassion and empathy for others who do not represent similar cultural and socioeconomic characteristics. Transformational learning is part of event analysisthe exploration of a circumstance or event from numerous perspectives so as to describe the true and to reflect on its associated and ultimate consequences. The unique event analysis of each participant was achieved through the methods of a focus group and a survey that researchers relied on to evaluate transformational learning in respect to reflective discourse through the inner consciousness that did empathize and relate to othersthe unique event analysis of each Gallagher, C. 37
participant in respect to understanding, describing, and investigating interpretive occurrences from numerous possible perspectives. Conclusions involve the value of focus groups and surveys to influence empathy for other individualsa part of perceptive understanding that transformational learning does instill. Findings pertain to cultural competence that extends beyond the self to the extension of cultural competency in caring for and communicating with others, especially those who represent different cultural and SES backgrounds. The reflective tool of discourse is important to reflective dialogue within groups and populations. Individuals must develop problem-solving discourse, interpreting, confirming, and supporting other participants of their group so as to transform frames of reference beyond the home base rather than merely to memorize frames of reference. One must be able to reflect on ones own ideas, values, perspectives and ideologies, and to be able to reflect upon the perspective of others to provide culturally competent care, instruction, and communication. One must approach through diversity to transform from an ethnocentric base.
The work about Mezirows transformational learning is important to the efficacy of Mezirows learning theory and related practice, which are founded in Vygotskys ideas about socio-culture. Kozub refers to Ruth-Sahd, Beck, and McCall, who in 2010 had relied on surveys and focus- group methodologies to research similar outcomes. Kozub also refers to Sanddin and Bay, archaeologists who in 2006 had used transformative thinking in 2006 to instill environmentally logical and socially conscious methods into their work. According to Kozub, Ntseane applied transformational theory in cultural contexts that required a culturally sensitive approach, such as Botswana in 2011, where transformational thinking and learning are not bound by Western ideologies. Gallagher, C. 38
Madsen, S. R. (2010, February). Leadership development in the United Arab Emirates: The transformational learning experiences of women. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 17(1), 100-110. doi: 10.1177/
The scope of the research study involves the development of effective leadership programs for women in the United Arab Emirates (UAE); researchers explored the efficacy of transformational learning theory through the responses of the UAE population that they studied. The methodology included the qualitative, phenomenological research approach of in-depth one- hour interviews in the Middle Eastern UAE at the Abu Dhabi Womens College (ADWC). Saturation of the research is of concern, since all of the interviews were conducted individually in a private office, and the interviewed Emirate women were third and fourth-year university students. Findings support the success of transformational learning, even in unusual cases. These are precedential findings, because they are the first about transformational learning and leadership capacities. The findings indicate that Emirati women respond to leadership development programs with extraordinary reflection, and that they sincerely value the feedback, advice, and motivational support that they receive. They also respond well to new environments. The findings or implications of the study also revealed the new ability of the Emirate women to voice opinions openlythey developed a sense of security in response to their opportunity to contemplate and to provide feedback during extensive interviews.
According to the authors, other research about the backgrounds and experiences of UAE women in learning environments is sparse. Jack Mezirow has conducted research in respect to this Gallagher, C. 39
transformational learning theory, but with other populations that included other professional women, for example. The works relationship to other work pertains to the beneficial influence of transformational learning to individual development, and how transformational learning is important to the insights and competency characteristics of leadership development. In 2004, Bellas conducted research about transformational learning experiences and leadership capacity that yielded findings about a positive association between the two. Associated research about the importance of transformational learning to leadership competencies is extensive and includes the work of Elkins in 2003, Brown and Posner in 2001, Scribner and Donaldson in 2001, and King in 2003.
Nieto, C. & Booth, M. Z. (2010, September). Cultural competence: Its influence on the teaching and learning of international students. Journal of Studies in International Education, 14(4), 406-425. doi: 10.1177/1028315309337929
The scope of the mixed-methods approach was to investigate the influence of cultural- competency levels on the instructional and learning processes of instructors and learners. The assumed hypothesis was confirmed by the researchers in respect to the levels of cultural competency. It indicated that (1) instructors demonstrated in contrast to their students, (2) ESL instructors demonstrated in contrast to non-ESL students, (3) gender was an insignificant variable, and (4) challenges about cultural competency were most significant in respect to instructors and international students. The researchers utilized a mixed-methods approach to yield findings about the high level of intercultural sensitivity that college instructors experience in contrast to the low level that students experience, and that the indication of females as being Gallagher, C. 40
more intercultural sensitivity than males was consistent such that as a variable the findings were insignificant. Findings also included significantly different levels between ESL and non-ESL instructors, and significant challenges of instructors only in respect to culture and language. The research supports the Bronfenbrenner Ecology System Theory that confirms how all levels of human ecology are influenced directly and indirectly by the culture that they also influence.
Osterling, J. P. & Whitney, W. (2009). On becoming a bilingual teacher: A transformative process for preservice and novice teachers. Journal of Transformative Education 7(4), 267-293. doi: 10.1177/1541344610386470
The scope revolves about Jack Mezirows seminal work in transformational learning (1975, 1978) has developed into a powerful and influential theory in education; nonetheless, some researchers criticize it for its shortcomings as they nonetheless find it important and interesting, especially in respect to Paul Freires work on humanization and his concept of conscientization. Among those who were inspired by Vygotskys cultural-historical methods, Freiri and Mezirow developed transformative theoretical models that reflect Vygotskys socio- cultural approach. Unfortunately, limitations of the study include the close academic relationship that the projects participants had maintained for two years with the researchers. The participants were aware of the interests of the researchers. The methodology follows the structure of an ex post facto qualitative study designed as a criteria group (Babbie, 2007, Wiersma & Jurs, 2009). Ex post facto translates as from what is done afterwards and refers to studies that investigate possible cause-and-effect relationships by observing an existing condition or states of affairs while searching back in time for plausible factors (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007, p. 205). Gallagher, C. 41
Although ex post facto qualitative studies cannot prove causation, they may provide insight into the understanding of phenomena of teachers who are preservice (PST) and novice (NT) through their in-class field notes and post interviews that are open-ended and that permit extensive thinking. In addition, open-ended interviews of the qualitative methodology are interpretive and longitudinalresearchers interviewed nontraditional studentsa purposeful sample to motivate them to analyze and revise their visions of reform and innovative teaching techniques.
Researchers concluded that the PST and NT experienced professional and personal transformation and epiphanies. After two-year tenure in the graduate school of education, they prepared a teaching philosophy during their first year that preceded the philosophy that they wrote after much reflection at the conclusion of their second year. The first, which they wrote during their first semester, was for their course, Bilingualism and Language Acquisition Research; the second, Research to Practice, as a part of their capstone course. PSTs and NTs all realized in respect to their developed ideas about bilingual and second language acquisition that contradicted their course material such that they experienced a phase of denial / rationalization / resistance, doubt / contesting, awareness / conscientizationscaffolding trust; reformulate, reprocess, and reconstruct, and reinforcement with field experience. Vygotsky had begun intellectual transformation coding scheme; Freire, Mezirow, Taylor, and Kozulin also contributed to the importance of analysis in intellectual transitions of bilingual PSTs and NTs who were enrolled in a multilingual / multi-cultural graduate teacher education program.
Szkudlarek, B. (2009, September). Through western eyes: Insights into the intercultural training field. Organization Studies, 30(9), 975-986. doi: 10.1177/0170840609338987 Gallagher, C. 42
Seeking to fulfill the goal about multicultural education, Szkudlarek has conducted a case study in which he analyzes the most sophisticated cross-cultural management toolkits for augmented moral standards in decisions that involve cultural encounters to improve relations between what he distinguishes as over-trained sophisticated Westerners and the other group of primitives. He has sought a solution of liberating intercultural training to solve all of the problems about the inequalities imposed by hegemonic discourses and unbalanced power. Szkudlarek has conducted a qualitative analysis to research the intercultural training industry through his participant observations of five training-for-trainers sessions, and 31 in-depth interviews with intercultural trainers, and numerous informal conversational interviews. His hypothesis corresponded to his case study, which was a response to evidence about essential and effective intercultural training for global leaders and expatriates. He hypothesized about such training that he believed should be more than an algorithm of a model for important decisions and for matrices of embedded cultural software. Through his case study, he identified a grounded theory that emerges about the necessary decoding of values and dispositions that are inherent, and that he asserts should either be corrected or eliminated. Szykudlarek has recruited leaders who represent the unfortunate pro-Western bias of intercultural meta-narratives that construct identities that evoke hostility among non-Westerners. Among the subject that he qualitatively analyzed, Hofstede and Kassems work, European Contributions to Organizational Theory reinforced Szkudlareks hypotheses that identified the Western bias of American leaders, who were projecting socioeconomic barriers that impeded multicultural education and cross-cultural encounters at every level. Szkudlarek concludes that Europeans and Westerners have ignored the consequences of politics, ethics, and culture, compelling diminished cultural traits that continue Gallagher, C. 43
to deteriorate over time. The work is related to Geert Hofstedes cultural software model that assumes the primary center of European socialization to be the family, school, and place of occupation. Szkudlarek also bases his work on the GLOBE group, which he indicates did share the objective to determine cultural clusters essential to effective collective regional software. Szkudlareks case study and qualitative analyses also relate to Culture Matters by Harrison and Huntingtonan inclination about a correlation of progressive values of those who prejudicially condemn others for backwardness and socioeconomically related characteristics. Continuing to uphold and to manifest an altruistic perspective, Szkudlarek has listed all of the works that he considered in his comparative case study.
sdiken, B. (2010, June). Between contending perspectives and logics: Organizational studies in Europe. Organization Studies, 31(6), 715-735. doi: 10.1177/0170840610372581
Examining the changes and distinctions within organizational studies throughout Europe over the past three decades, sdiken draws his hypotheses from empirical studies of the population of authors who have been published in Organizational Studies over the past 30 years. The scope of the case study indicates that the populace has shifted distinctly towards practices that are founded in subjectivist logic. Those studies indicate homogenous conclusions, and researchers of the United Kingdom continue to maintain alternative perspectives that do not align with those of the pro-Western American mainstream. In his comparative case study that empirically examines organizational studies in Europe, sdiken distinguishes between European organization theory and its American counterpart. He indicates that the European perspective identifies organization as structural and abstract, a whole, and part of society, while the American Gallagher, C. 44
perspective is concerned about what goes on inside, what is functional and practical, and about the individual in society. In respect to methodology, sdikens case study has revealed that European researchers tend toward comparative case studies, while American researchers tend toward surveys, experiments, and single-case, literary studies. Findings validate and argue the premise about two interrelated objectives: Europe has not followed the American literature-based path, the unique comparative approach of European researchers has culminated in developing theory that differs significantly from American theory, and European researchers practice and contextualize differently than their American counterparts. European researchers believe that through their openness, they consider diverse paradigms in a manner that does not stagnate and that does not exclude development and unforeseen change. sdiken observed little change throughout his three-decade case study that was based on institutional concepts and adapted scientific theory. At the same time, he observed that the pro-Western nation continues to be so realistic and objective that it cannot adapt to organizational change, qualities about which European researchers are quite critical as they nonetheless are adopting some pro-Western theories. The works relationship to other works in the area of study begins with Hofstede and Kassens European Contributions to Organization Theory of 1976. sdiken reveals that the European practice of organization often structuralized Marxist ideologies, while American practice regarded itself as harmony-based in contrast to the conflict-base of Marxism, which sought to prevent ethno-centricity in education. sdiken does emphasize that the pro-Western and non-Western divide is becoming more pronounced throughout time.
Vandergrift, L., & Tafaghodtari, M. H. (2010). Teaching L2 Learners How to Listen Does Make a Difference: An Empirical Study. Language Learning, 60(2), 470-497. Gallagher, C. 45
The influences of metacognition were the scope of an empirical case study that involved the process-approach to the instruction of a second language (L2). The hypothesis of the case study involved the fact that the experimental group, which included less accomplished listeners, would improve more significantly than the group of more skilled listeners. The study confirmed the hypothesis. The population included 106 participants from six associated sections of courses of French as a second language (FSL). The experimental group included 59 participants; the control group included 47 participants. Recruited as students of French-as-a-second-language program, the learners who participated in the experimental group employed a methodology to listen to texts that directed them through the metacognitive processthe Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) that listeners completed enabled researchers to measure the developing listening skills of the L2 learners. Under investigation, the metacognitive process includes the ability to develop skills at planning and/or predicting, monitoring, problem-solving, and evaluating. The findings verified the hypothesis that the experimental group, which consisted of participants whose listening skills were originally inferior to the listening skills of the control group, would improve more than the control group, which did not undergo the MALQ except during three different points during the case study to emphasize the potential influence of stimulating the consciousness during competitive tasks. As a supportive pedagogy to improve L2 listening abilities, the metacognition under investigation for this case study could benefit through more diverse methods as indicated by Goh (2008), who also addressed the theory, performance, and research implications of metacognition. Further works that relate to this case study include those of Richards (2005) and Mareschal (2007) in respect to the instructional benefits of a transcript copy, which would enable learners to decipher meaning from incomprehensible, Gallagher, C. 46
poorly articulated, or concatenated words and phrases. The ability is beneficial to learners as they are able to focus on the visual text that represents the sound associated therewith. These studies also replicate through the incorporation of transcripts those of Field (2003), Robin (2007), Hustijn (2003), and Wilson (2003).
Yuill, N. (2009). The relation between ambiguity understanding and metalinguistic discussion of joking riddles in good and poor comprehenders: Potential for intervention and possible processes of change. First Language, 29(1). doi: 10.1177/0142723708097561
The scope involved ambiguous words and contexts that caused variances in the reading comprehension of children who were seven to ten years of age. In pairs, the twenty-four children contemplated, discussed, and resolved the ambiguities that humorous riddles evoked. Frequencies of metalinguistic comments, which were influenced by the humorous riddles, tended to improve the reading comprehension skills of that group. Another twenty-four children comprised the no-treatment control group such that 24 participants from four classes of two primary schools48 students altogether in south-east England formed the sample population. If they did not acquire parental permission or if their teacher declared them to exhibit low literacy rates or verbal problems, the students were excluded as participants. Six coding schemes identified levels of metacognition, meta-linguistics, guesses, control talk, and evaluative responses that children expressed to researchers in a cast study that revealed the metalinguistic and metacognitive qualities of humorous jokes and riddles. Conclusions reinforced the ideas of Vygotsky about the function of peer discussion to learning that developing cognition requires, social interaction, and exchange of discussion and inquiry, and that internalized individual Gallagher, C. 47
speech is important to higher cognitive processes. Previous related work includes Manion and Alexanders work on the advantages of peer communication on the utilization of strategies, casual metacognitive qualities, and recollection, which was published in 1997 by the staff of the Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. III. Reflective Look at EDD vs. Ph.D. The research process is critical to the development of improved instruction and knowledge that prevents and corrects misunderstandings, inaccuracies, and malfunctions across professions and cultures. Political science and psychology maintain a synergy that began to influence my professional life since I first studied chemical engineering with the Chief Engineer of General Electric while I was quite young and a resident of Los Angeles communities. My research that revolved around political science and psychology also began during that time, first studied each subject at upper-division and graduate levels through university peers. At that time, I was recipient of numerous national and county awards, and my peers were publishing my work through scholarly associations until they did decease. Upon revising works of major publishers and newspapers, I began the dissertation process through the concept-mapping method that Kandiko and Kinchin (2012) describe as a radically unique approach to analysis (p. 6). Instilling appreciation for organization, natural laws and order, and control, I have continued to provide through my published work support for educational themes at state, national, and international levels through my associations with Alumni associations, collegial groups, journalism societies, music societies, and peers who are counselors, for example. In fact, I maintain distinguished peers who worked with me during important stages of their career, and who relied on my equipment to complete their dissertations and to publish their peer-reviewed works in journals that are archived at the Lane Medical Library at Stanford University. My peers Gallagher, C. 48
moved to the east coast and to Europe, and I correspond as I am ablethey have asked me to report back about my reaction to their work and in respect to my observations of California public school policy, activities and concepts that evoke McGowan and Pederson (2012). Having studied several years of German and French as I also maintain Russian-speaking peers, I have integrated and analyzed very much classical literature about dynamic systems, philosophy, and ethics into my work, which is uniquely original. The research process relates to my development of further instruction that influences tolerance among cultures and among language groups, and that follows the descriptions of Jazvak (2011). Through the opportunity to develop my dissertation through the structure of Northcentral University, I have access to current scholarly and peer journals that relate to developing literary and educational themes. Therefore, I am able to continue case studies, revision, and translation projects that correspond to the dissertation process at the doctorate level as per the definition of Barratt (2011); furthermore, I have experience developing not only the quadratic formula but the derivation of statistical analysis, which I learned to evaluate in respect to populations, samples, phenomenon, and static / non-static systems.
References Barratt, B. B. (2011, May). The differences between a professional doctorate and the Ph.D. Prescott Valley, AZ: Northcentral University. Jazvac M. M. (2011). Emerging academic identities: How education Phd students experience the doctorate. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A, 71, (12-A), 2011. pp. 4303. Gallagher, C. 49
Kandiko, C. B., & Kinchin, I. M. (2012). What is a doctorate? A concept-mapped analysis of process versus product in the supervision of lab-based PhDs. Educational Research, 54(1), 3-16. doi:10.1080/00131881.2012.658196 McGowan, T. M., & Pedersen, J. E. (2012). No longer 'PhD-lite': Establishing a professional practice doctorate of substance. In M. Macintyre Latta, S. Wunder (Eds.), Placing practitioner knowledge at the center of teacher education: Rethinking the policies and practices of the education doctorate (pp. 233-248). Charlotte, NC US: IAP.