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1 but first, some definitions... HSC Biology Topic 3 THE SEARCH FOR BETTER HEALTH What is this topic about? To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of: 1. INFECTIOUS DISEASES & PATHOGENS 2. BODY DEFENCES AGAINST DISEASE 3. NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES 4. STRATEGIES TO PREVENT DISEASE IN PLANTS & ANIMALS What is Health ? Health is a very difficult thing to define. A simple definition is that Health is the absence of disease . The Worl d Heal th Organi zati on (WHO) has declared this definition as too simplistic and defines health as ... and NOT merely the absence of disease. Does this mean that if you were physically fit, well-fed and sane, but having a bad hair day, (socially dangerous) that you are not healthy? Despite the WHOs definition, to really understand Health , you need to study Disease , and thats what this topic is really all about! What is Disease ? Disease can be defined as By this definition, a broken toe-nail might be a disease, but in this topic you will study some much more serious conditions... The Different Types of Disease Diseases can be simply classified as follows a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being any condition that disturbs the normal functioning of the body DISEASES Caused by the invasion of the body by a disease- causing organism, a Pathogen Do NOT involve a pathogen, and cannot be contagious. May be due to Pathogens include: Prions Viruses Bacteria Protozoans Fungi Macro-parasites Heredity (inherited) Structural or metabolic malfunction Lifestyle factors Environmental factors Poor nutrition ... and other things Many infectious diseases are Infectious Non-infectious Contagious This means that you can catch the disease from another infected person, from body contact, from the air, from food and water etc. Some diseases can be infectious, but not contagious. Some are transmitted by a Vector A vector is another organism which transmits the pathogen from one person to another. For example, the pathogen which causes Malaria is carried from one infected person to another by mosquitoes. The mosquito is the vector of the disease. Fleas (on rats) were the vector for the Black Death in the Middle Ages. Plague victims 14th century HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au keep it simple science
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2 CONCEPT DIAGRAM ( Mind Map ) OF TOPIC Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts. As you proceed through the topic, come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the whole. At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on. The History of our understanding of infectious disease 1st Line of Defence... the barriers Epidemiology The range of PATHOGENS 2nd Line of Defence... Non-specific Immunity Case Study of an Infectious Disease Inherited Disease Nutritional Deficiency Environmental Disease Use of Pesticides Genetic Engineering Quarantine THE SEARCH FOR BETTER HEALTH Body Defences Against Disease Strategies to Prevent Disease in Plants & Animals Infectious Diseases & Pathogens Non- Infectious Diseases Case Studies 3rd Line of Defence... Specific Immunity HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au keep it simple science
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3 Genes, Differentiation and Health You began life as a single cell, and have since grown to be made up of billions of cells. Growth occurs by mitosis which produces genetically identical daughter cells, so every one of your billions of cells has exactly the same set of genes. However, not all your cells are the same... they have specialised for different functions; muscle cells, nerve cells, blood cells, and so on. If all your cells are genetically identical, how can they also specialise and be so different? The answer is that, in the embryo stage, your body underwent a process called differentiation. Every cel l i n your body contai ns i n i ts chromosomes, ALL the genes needed to specify all your body parts, functions and traits. In each cell though, only some of the genes are switched-on . Muscle cells have switched on the genes for building muscle fibres, but have not switched on the genes for eye-colour, or production of saliva. Each specialised type of cell has switched on just those genes which allow it to carry out its function, and no others. Di fferenti ati on i s essenti al for the correct functioning of your body, and therefore for health. If a muscle cell suddenly switched on the genes appropriate for a blood cell, it would no l onger be functi oni ng properl y. Thi s coul d cause a loss of body function, and therefore, a lack of good health. Cleanliness is Next to Healthiness Good health is not just about correct cell and body functioning. It was recognised in ancient ti mes that cl eanl i ness i n water, food and personal hygiene would help prevent disease. At the time, the concept of germs was not understood. You may have done laboratory work to grow microbes on nutrient agar in petri dishes. You probably discovered an amazing number and variety of microbes in our food and water, and throughout our whole environment. When Good Guys Turn Bad We are constantly surrounded by millions of microbes. Most of them are harmlessly going about their business and cause no problems. However, even harmless microbes can cause disease. If, for example, people are careless with food storage then mi crobes can rapi dl y mul ti pl y within the food. If eaten, the food can cause food poisoning because of the waste products and toxins produced by the growing microbes. Many potenti al l y dangerous mi crobes commonly live on the skin or in peoples throats and generally cause no disease because their population is small. However, if the person is weakened by stress, lack of food or illness, these resi dent mi crobes can suddenl y multiply rapidly and cause a serious disease. So, quite apart from the B.O. and bad breath, it really is a good idea to wash yourself and clean your teeth! Water from a ri ver or l ake may contai n potentially dangerous microbes. This is why our water supplies are so carefully treated. Treatment of Water Supplies A typical Australian town or city obtains its water from the local rivers. Generally, before it reaches the consumer: the water sits for some time in a large reservoir. This allows time for much of the suspended matter (including microbes and the matter they are feeding on) to settle to the bottom. the water is filtered to remove any remaining suspended solids. the water is chlorinated to kill virtually all remaining microbes. When is a Microbe a Pathogen? Some of the germs around us are always bad guys and their only purpose and way of life involves invading a persons body and causing disease. Others are harml ess organi sms whi ch normally go about their life without affecting people. However, many are opportunistic, and if presented with a chance to multiply in or on our body they will do so, and may cause a disease. Any organism is a pathogen if it causes a disease. 1. INFECTIOUS DISEASES & PATHOGENS Fungi colonies PETRI DISH inoculated by touching with fingers Bacteria colonies Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only 4 We have onl y known about the rol e of pathogens (especially microscopic germs ) as the cause of infectious diseases for about 150 years. Diseases were previously thought to be caused by evil spirits or were due to bad air , or similar ideas. The man recognised as the discoverer of the Germ Theory of Disease was: Louise Pasteur (1822-1895) Pasteur came to suspect that infectious diseases were caused by microbes after proving that microscopic yeast was responsible for the fermentation involved in making beer and wine, and also showing that it was the growth of bacteria in wine that caused it to go sour. His famous experiment of 1862 did 3 things: di sproved the general l y-hel d i dea of spontaneous generation of life, and helped establish Cell Theory . proved that decay was caused by air-borne microbes, and not just due to contact with air. sti mul ated sci enti sts to start l ooki ng for microbes that were causing diseases... and, of course, they found them! You may have repeated Pasteurs experiment in your laboratory work. keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health
copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au Each flask contains a broth, boiled until sterilized Closed flask remains sterile... no microbes grow in it. Open flask grows microbes & rots. It was believed the life came spontaneously from contact with air. This flask is open to the air, but the gooseneck prevents airborne spores getting to the broth. It remained sterile, and proved spontaneous generation is wrong. A Brief History of Our Understanding of Infectious Disease Pasteurs Experiment Robert Koch (1843-1910) One of the sci enti sts who fol l owed up on Pasteurs work was the German Robert Koch. He i sol ated the bacteri um responsi bl e for the serious disease anthrax, but more importantly he developed a general system for identifying a pathogen. The problem is that there are always many different microbes present in the body of a person with a disease. It can be very difficult to be certain which one is causing the disease, and which are just innocent by-standers . Koch developed a set of procedures to follow, which will definitely and scientifically identify the pathogen. These procedures are known as Kochs Postulates and are still used today when previously unknown infectious diseases are discovered. Historical Case Study: Understanding Malaria Malaria is a tropical disease caused by a protozoan pathogen which is carried by a vector... the mosquito. The symptoms are attacks of shivering, fever, headaches, nausea and extreme tiredness. Without treatment, about 10% of patients die, but survivors keep having re-occurrence of symptoms, perhaps for many years. The history of human attempts to understand it, and cure or prevent it, is a good example of how difficult this process can be. The name malaria means in Italian bad air and it was believed since ancient times that it was caused by the smelly gases from swamps. In ancient Rome the occurrence of malaria was reduced by drai ni ng swamps. (The real connection to swamps was mosquitoes... but no-one thought of that) After the work of Pasteur and Koch, a scientific search for a microscopic pathogen began. In 1880, Charles Laveran discovered a protozoan Plasmodium in the blood of malaria patients, but the method of transmission could not be found. In 1898-9 Ronald Ross found the pathogen in mosquitoes and, using human volunteers, was able to prove the transmission of the disease via the mosqui to vector. Throughout the 20th century many strategies were tried against the disease: Anti-malarial drugs, such as Chloroquine , seemed effective to cure the disease until the pathogen evolved resistance. Widespread spraying of swamps, forests and villages with insecticides to try to eradicate the mosquito vector may have reduced the incidence at times, but overall this strategy failed. All attempts to develop a vaccine against the pathogen have been unsuccessful, but research is still going on, and recent developments are promising. Malaria remains one of the worlds greatest heal th probl ems. Several hundred mi l l i on people are affected by it, and 2-3 million die each year... mostly children. Anopheles Mosquito Vector for Malaria HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au keep it simple science
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5 The Variety of Pathogens There are 6 different categories of pathogen known to cause human diseases. Macro-Parasites These are the larger, macroscopic parasites. Ectoparasi tes are those whi ch are parasi tes on the outside of the body, usually sucking blood. Examples are fleas, ticks, leeches, mites, lice, mosquitoes, and so on. Some can inject toxins while feeding, causing inflammation, allergic reactions and sometimes partial paralysis. Generally, ectoparasites only become major threats to health if they are vectors for microscopic pathogens. Endoparasites are those parasites which live inside the body. The most common pathogens are either flatworms (e.g. tapeworms and flukes) or roundworms. Disease Example: Taeniasis (Tapeworm disease) Pathogen: Taeni a sagi nat a (tapeworm) Comment: Tapeworm lives in intestine. Can cause weight loss and abdominal pain. Protozoans Protozoans are single-celled organisms. The cell is animal-like; eucaryotic and lacking a cell wall. Billions of protozoans live in swamps, rivers and oceans where they form part of the plankton and are a vital link in the food chains. Only a few cause disease. Disease Example: Malaria Pathogen: Pl asmodi um species Comment: Mosquito vector. Affects many millions of people. Major health problem. Fungi The Fungi include the various moulds and yeasts. Some are very useful (yeast for bread & beer) or are eaten for food (mushrooms). Most fungi live in soil and are important as decomposer organisms in nature. Only a few cause disease. Disease Example: Tinea (Athletes foot) Pathogen: Tinea pedis (a mould-like fungus) Comment: Highly contagious. Feeds on skin, causing itchy, smelly, flaking of feet. Bacteria Bacteria are an enormously varied group of single-celled, procaryotic organisms. The vast majority are decomposer organisms in soil and water environments, or make their own food by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Some, however, are disease pathogens and caused many of the great plagues of history, such as the black death of the Middle Ages. Tick In the 20th century, most of the serious bacterial diseases were brought under control by the use of antibiotics and programs of mass immunization. Disease Example: Tetanus Pathogen: Cl ost r i di um t et ani (a rod-shaped bacterium) Comment:Detailed case-study in this section. More pathogens next page... VARIETY OF BACTERIA Bacteria have very small cells, in many shapes Rod Shaped Bacteria HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au keep it simple science
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6 The Variety of Pathogens Continued Antibiotics One of the great success stories of disease control in the 20th century was the discovery of the class of drugs called antibiotics. The first and most famous was Penicillin, first extracted from a mould fungus Peni ci l l i um, in 1928. Other antibiotics were discovered in various fungi, and some have been synthesised chemically. Antibiotics are selectively toxic to living cells. They kill or inhibit the cells of microbes such as bacteria, but do not harm human cells. Antibiotics are mainly effective against bacteria. Some will kill fungal pathogens (these are usually called fungicides ) and others work against protozoans. It should be noted that antibiotics DO NOT work on viruses. During the 20th century the use of antibiotics was responsible for helping to bring under control a range of diseases (mostly bacterial) which had been health problems for centuries... tuberculosis, leprosy, syphilis, pneumonia, cholera, to name just a few. For the first time in history, these serious diseases became curable, and some have been virtually eradicated. Also, antibiotics are widely used to treat infection in minor wounds, sore throats, eye and ear infections, and so on. This speeds recovery from minor ailments and improves everyones quality of life. Antibiotics are frequently prescribed for those suffering viral infections also. This prevents secondary infections of bacterial disease that might strike a person weakened by the virus. The Bugs Fight Back... Antibiotic Resistance Unfortunately, there is a down-side to the use of antibiotics; Natural Selection. Among the billions of individual pathogen cells there may be a few which have some natural resistance to an antibiotic. When the antibiotic kills all the others, the resistant cells survive and reproduce and evolution takes place. Many pathogens have evolved resistance to the ol der anti bi oti cs and new ones need to be developed or discovered, in order to keep winning the war against the germs. The danger is that, by using antibiotics, we have caused the evolution of resistant strains. This could lead to future epidemics of diseases that we cannot control. Prions Prions are a mysterious type of pathogen only discovered about 20 years ago and still not fully understood. They are NOT living things, and are not cellular. Prions are proteins molecules which reproduce themselves and cause infectious disease, especially of nerve tissue such as the brain. They seem to be proteins that are folded and twisted into the wrong shape, and are able to cause more proteins to re-arrange to the wrong shape, thus spreading from cell to cell and causing malfunctions to the brain. Disease Example: CJD (Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease) Pathogen: BSE prion (causes Mad Cow Disease in cattle.) Comment: Incurable, 100% fatal, brain degeneration. Transmitted by eating nerve tissue from infected animals. Viruses Viruses are all bad guys . Every virus is a pathogen which causes disease in some organism or other... plants, animals, even bacteria all suffer virus diseases. The lifestyle of every virus is to invade a living cell and hijack its genetic machinery. The cell is taken over and forced to make more virus particles to infect more cells. Viruses are NOT cellular. Each is a very small capsule of protein containing either DNA or RNA. Many serious and common human diseases are caused by viruses, including AIDS, influenza (flu), measles, polio, rabies and the common cold. Some, such as polio, have been brought under control by immunization programs. FLU VIRUS RABIES VIRUS Nucleic acids Protein capsule and attachments for entering host cell HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au keep it simple science
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7 Case Study of an Infectious Disease: Tetanus Tetanus, also known as Lock-jaw , has been known since ancient times, but only understood since about 1890 when the cause and method of infection was discovered. Since early in the 20th century it has become curable and preventable by the use of immunization. Host Response The infected persons defence mechanisms react in all the usual ways: Inflammation of the wound, serves to partly seal off the infected area and raise the temperature to try to speed healing and inhibit heat-sensitive pathogens. Phagocytes (white blood cells which eat bacteria) are attracted to the wound area and destroy bacteria and clean up dead tissue. However, they can only operate at the edges of the wound where conditions are aerobic. Further in, the C. tetani can be thriving in the anaerobic areas. The immune system reacts to the exotoxin by beginning the process of producing an antibody to destroy the toxin molecules. However, this process may take weeks, and the disease is likely to kill the person well inside this time, if untreated. Cause Pathogen: Cl ost r i di um t et ani , a rod-shaped bacterium. This bacterium is common in soil, especially if there is a lot of animal manure, such as around farmyards. The bacterium is anaerobic (lives where there is no oxygen) and normally feeds on dead organic matter in the soil. C. tetani produces heat-resistant spores which can survive in soil for many years. Major Symptoms The tetanus exotoxin affects nerve cells causing them to keep firing when they shouldnt. This stimulates muscles to go into spasms and seizures. Jaw and throat muscles are usually the first affected... hence Lock-jaw . High temperature, elevated blood pressure and heart rate. Sudden, powerful and painful muscular seizures may be so strong as to break bones and tear muscles in the abdomen and chest. Seizures can interrupt breathing, causing brain damage and suffocation. Untreated, between 30-60% of patients will die, and survivors may take months to recover. Prevention and Control Tetanus is completely preventable by immunization. The vaccine contains tetanus toxoid ; tetanus toxin which has been treated chemically to render it harmless, but it still sets off the immune system to actively produce antibodies. Immunity lasts about 12 years, so booster shots are recommended every 10 years. The world-wide death toll from tetanus is approximately 200,000 per year, but only a few hundred of these are in developed countries like Australia because of the immunization programs. Virtually all Australian cases occur in older people who have forgotten to get a booster shot, or from self-tattooing, or drug-users using dirty needles. Treatment Antibiotics to kill bacteria in the wound. Surgical exploration and cleaning of the wound. Treat spasms with muscle-relaxant drugs. The maj or treatment i s the use of tetanus anti toxi n. The Anti toxi n i s Tetanus Immune Globulin (TIG). Basically this is a concentrate of antibodies from a person (or other animal) who has developed immunity to tetanus. TIG binds to the tetanus toxin in the bloodstream so it becomes harmless and is destroyed by phagocyte cells. Transmission The disease is not contagious. You cannot catch it from someone else. The normal manner of infection is from a deep wound, such as when someone steps on a nail, but even being pricked by a plant thorn could be enough. The essential requirement is that the wound is deep enough to provide anaerobic conditions in dead tissue. If spores of C. tetani enter the wound, they may germinate and the bacteria grow, feeding on the dead cells within the wound. If thats all that happened, it would not be a serious problem, but C. tetani produces an exotoxin which happens to be one of the most potent nerve poisons ever discovered. In the human body it is life-threatening! Heal th i s a state of a)............................. ........................................ Di sease i s any condi ti on b).................................................... Infecti ous di sease i s caused by a c)............................... If the disease can be caught from another infected person then it is said to be d)............................. Some infectious diseases are transmitted by another organism, called a e)........................... Differentiation is the process by which body cells become f)............................. Every cell in a mul ti cel l ul ar organi sm i s geneti cal l y g)..............................., but di fferenti ated cel l s have switched on different h)........................ in order to function correctly. Microscopic organisms are found in every part of our environment. This is why it is essential to follow i)............................. procedures for storage of j).................... and personal k)........................... Water supplies are routinely l)............................... and m)........................ to remove or kill microbes. Any organism can become a n)............................ if it causes o)........................... The man most responsi bl e for hel pi ng us understand the Germ Theory of Disease was p)..................... ............................. Tetanus Case Study. The pathogen is called v)................................... Tetanus w)....................... (is or is not) contagious. Transmission usually occurs by x)......................... ........................ The pathogen grows in y)....................... conditions in a wound, feeding on z).................... It produces a powerful aa).................. which affects ab)........................ cells. The host reponses include inflammation, which attempts to ac)............................... Also, white cells called ad)............................... gather at the wound site. The immune system begins making ae).................................. but the disease progresses faster than this. The major symptom is sudden, violent af)........................ which can break bones, and even interrupt ag).......................... leading to brain damage and suffocation. Patients are treated with an antitoxin containing ah)....................... from an immune person or animal. Prevention of tetanus is achieved by ai)............................ This involves a toxoid which is aj)............................................................ Booster injections are needed every ak)............. years. Antibiotics are especially effective against al)........................... but have no effect on am)........................ A modern problem is pathogens that have an)...................................................... 8 Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health
copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au COMPLETED WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES Worksheet 1 Basic Definitions & History Fill in the blank spaces Name.................................... Worksheet 2 Pathogens & Disease Name.................................... His famous experiment of 1862 proved that decay was caused by q)........................... and not just due to r).................................... His work sti mul ated others to begi n searchi ng for mi croscopi c pathogens. The great German scientist s)................................. discovered the bacteria which caused t).............................., but more i mportantl y he devel oped a set of procedures whi ch al l ow u).......................... ..................... ..................................... Malaria is caused by a v)....................... pathogen, transmitted by a vector, the w).......................... The pathogen, called x).................................., was discovered in patients blood in 1880. The link to mosquitoes was proven by y)................................ in 1898. Many strategies have been used against Mal ari a, i ncl udi ng drugs such as z)................................ These were successful, but the pathogen has evolved aa)............................... to drugs in many places. Attempts to kill the mosquito vector have failed, and attempts to develop a ab).............................. have not yet succeeded. Mal ari a remai ns a maj or worl d health problem, killing ac)..................................... people each year. There are 6 different categories of pathogen: Macro-parasites include the a).................-parasites which feed on the outside of the body, such as b)..................... These rarely cause any serious problems themselves, but can be c)...................... for other pathogens. Endoparasites live d)................... the body. An example is e)....................... (tapeworm disease) caused by the flatworm f)....................................... Fungi are responsible for some diseases of the skin, such as the highly contagious g)...................... caused by the fungus h)........................................... (scientific name) i)............................ are single-celled, eucaryotic organisms. Not many cause disease, but Malaria, caused by various species of j)............................... is one of the worlds greatest health problems. Bacteria are a varied group of k)......................... organisms with very l)................ (size) cells of various shapes. They are responsible for many diseases including m).................... caused by n)................................ Viruses are non-cellular. Each is a capsule of o)................... containing p)....................... A virus invades living cells and forces the cell to q)............................................ Examples of virus diseases include r)....................and .......................... s)...................... are non-cellular protein molecules which cause diseases of the t)................................. system. A human example is u)................................ Multiple Choice 1. A disease could NOT ever be: A. infectious and contagious B. hereditary and carried by a vector C. non-infectious and hereditary D. pathogenic and contagious 2. Di fferenti ati on occurs when cel l s become specialized because: A. they contain different genetic information. B. they contain the same genes, but mutations occur. C. new combinations of genes have been produced by meiosis. D. they follow different parts of the same total set of genes. 3. The sci enti st responsi bl e for devel opi ng a system for positively identifying the pathogen responsible for a disease was: A. Pasteur B. Laveran C. Koch D. Ross 4. A pathogen was described as: Non-cellular and microscopic. Composed of a protein capsule containing nucleic acid This pathogen is a: A. Fungus B. Bacteria C. Virus D. Prion 5. The pathogen responsi bl e for the di sease Mal ari a, and i ts vector woul d be cl assi fi ed (respectively) as: A. protozoan and insect. B. bacterium and macro-parasite. C. insect and virus. D. macro-parasite and bacterium. 6. Antibiotics are not an effective treatment for a disease caused by a: A. fungus B. bacterium C. protozoan D. virus Longer Response Questions Mark values given are suggestions only, and are to give you an idea of how detailed an answer is appropriate. Answer on reverse if insufficient space. 7. (5 marks) Write a brief definition for each of the following. a) Infectious disease b) Non-infectious disease c) Pathogen d) Contagious e) Vector 8. (3 marks) It i s essenti al for publ i c heal th that water supplies are made as safe as possible. Outline the processes that are typically used to treat our water supplies. 9. (3 marks) Give a brief account of the main strategies that have been made to control the disease malaria, commenting on the effectiveness of each. 10. (6 marks) List the 6 categories of pathogen responsible for infectious disease. For each, name a disease caused by a pathogen of that type. 11. (8 marks) For a named, i nfecti ous di sease you have studied: a) give the name of the pathogen b) describe the major symptoms c) describe how the disease is transmitted d) describe the host response to the infection e) outline the treatment given to a patient with the disease f) outline any measures to control & prevent the disease 9 Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health
copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au Worksheet 3 Test Questions section 1 Name.................................... HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au keep it simple science
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10 2. BODY DEFENCES AGAINST DISEASE Flushing Mechanisms Regular emptying of the bladder flushes microbes from the bladder and urethra. Production of tears, and regular blinking wash and wipe microbes from the eyes. Reflex Actions Coughi ng and sneezi ng refl exes move dust, mucus and trapped pathogens, etc out of the breathing passageways. Vomi ti ng removes stomach contents that are making you nauseous, removing pathogens which have been swallowed. Skin The outside surface of skin is layers of dead, dry cells, virtually impossible for microbes to penetrate. It is a difficult environment for a pathogen to grow on (no water). Skin constantly flakes off, carrying microbes away. Your body is not defenceless against invading pathogens. You are equipped with 3 lines of defence: The 1st Line of Defence: Barriers to Invasion There are a number of physical and chemical barri ers whi ch prevent most potenti al pathogens from entering your body. The most important ones are: Skin Mucous Membranes Chemical Barriers & Secretions Flushing Mechanisms & Reflexes Secretions such as the tears from the eyes, contain an anti-bacterial enzyme Lysozyme . Chemical Barriers Stomach is highly acidic. This kills most pathogens that are swallowed with food, or in mucus. Urinary and reproductive openings are mildly acidic... enough to inhibit the growth of many microbes. MICROFLORA Living in, and on, the human body are many friendly microbes which share a symbiotic relationship with us. Some live in the intestines and manufacture vitamins for us. Others live on skin and mucous membranes where they normally act as competitors to potential pathogens. They keep the population in check by out- competing the pathogens, or by creating chemical conditions that pathogens cannot tolerate. MICROFLORA IMBALANCE CAN LEAD TO DISEASE The female reproductive system is largely protected by its normal microflora. Taking medications, such as antibiotics, can upset the normal balance. The yeast Candida albicans, which is always present in low numbers, can take advantage and multiply rapidly. This results in a disease called Thrush , with symptoms of itching, a white discharge and general discomfort. Mucous Membranes These membranes line the natural body openings of mouth and throat, and the urinary and reproductive tracts. The mucous membranes secrete mucus, a sticky fluid which traps pathogens. In some places the membranes are lined with cilia. These are microscopic hairs which beat in a rhythmic way to move mucus (and trapped pathogens) along for disposal. For example, mucus in the breathing tubes is moved upwards, until it can be swallowed into the acid of the stomach. HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au keep it simple science
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11 Antigens and the Immune Response Sooner or later, pathogens manage to get past the 1st line of defence and invade the body. Once the barriers are penetrated there are 2 more lines of defence to combat the pathogens, but first the body has to recognise that foreign cells or toxins are present. It is the special cells of your immune system which do this. Each of your own body cells has on the outside of i ts cel l membrane, speci al protei ns and glycoproteins (combinations of carbohydrate wi th protei n) whi ch act as i denti fi cati on markers, proclaiming SELF . Your immune system constantl y checks everywhere, but ignores anything labelled as self . Any foreign cell, cell fragment, or even just a protein molecule or toxin will act as an Antigen . It will not be recognised as self , and therefore must be foreign. This will set off a range of defence responses by the immune system. Organ Transplants and Tissue Rejection When a person receives an organ transplant such as a kidney transplant, the new organ is, of course, from another person. The cells will have di fferent marker protei ns on thei r cel l membranes. Therefore, the cells of the new organ will act as antigens and set off the immune responses. The immune system reacts to the new organ as if it were a foreign invader and attempts to kill it. The result is called Tissue Rejection and can quickly lead to the failure of the transplant. To try to prevent this happening, the transplant doctors: use only organs from donors who closely match the patient in their tissue type . This means their cell markers will be similar and will not act as antigens quite as strongly. treat the patient with immuno-suppressant drugs to reduce their immune response. Their immune system is partially shut-down and does not attack the transplant. However, this also makes the patient more vulnerable to pathogens and they must be protected from infection. ANTIGENS are chemicals recognised as NOT-SELF (such as proteins on foreign cells) which trigger the immune response BEFORE STUDYING THE IMMUNE SYSTEM YOU NEED TO KNOW MORE ABOUT BLOOD CELLS BLOOD CELLS ERYTHROCYTES Red Blood Cells Carry oxygen LEUCOCYTES White Blood Cells Immune System BASOPHILS involved in inflammation B-CELLS (2 types) produce Antibodies T-CELLS (4 types) Kill infected body cells LYMPHOCYTES form the 3rd Line of Defence EOSINOPHILS NEUTROPHILS MACROPHAGES These 3 types carry out Phagocytosis All these types are part of the 2nd Line of Defence Notice that there are many different kinds of white cells Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only 12 When pathogens penetrate the 1st-Line barrier defences thei r anti gens wi l l rapi dl y set off counter-attack responses of the 2nd-Line of Defence. This is non-specific , meaning that the exact identity of the foreign invader does not matter... the response is the same. Phagocytosis Phagocytosis means literally to eat cells and thats exactly what some of the white blood cells are desi gned to do. The Eosi nophi l s, Neutrophi l s and Macrophages are al l phagocytes and abl e to eat and destroy foreign cells such as invading bacteria. The phagocyte cells detect the antigens of a foreign cell, recognise it as not-self and attack it. Phagocyte cells are shape-changers and not only can they wrap around a pathogen to engulf it, they can also squeeze their way out of the bloodstream and move among the tissue cells. Whenever they encounter antigens that signal NOT-SELF they will carry out phagocytosis to destroy it. When large numbers of phagocytes gather at a site of infection, they form pus . Pus is rather nasty stuff (its full of infectious pathogens) but is a healthy sign... it means your phagoctes are on the job! Inflammation Inflammation is the way the body reacts to any cell damage, such as a cut, abrasion, crushing or burn. When cells are damaged they release chemi cal s whi ch the i mmune system recognises as a distress signal. In response, the whi te bood cel l s cal l ed Basophils release the chemical histamine. Effects of Histamine dilation (widening) of the blood capillaries around the injury site. This allows more blood to flow in, bringing more clotting factors and more phagocyte cells to destroy pathogens. This also brings more body heat to the site. Heat can inhibit some pathogens, and speeds up all chemical reactions for faster repairs. capillaries to become more permeable, allowing fluids to escape from blood into the tissues. This causes swelling. The extra fluid in the tissues brings more phagocytes to fight i nfecti ons, and the extra pressure causes drainage of fluid into the Lymph System. This washes dead cell debris towards the lymph nodes for disposal, thus clearing the area for repairs to begin. Features of an inflammed wound Hot and red, from extra blood & body heat Swollen, from extra tissue fluid Pus formation, from millions of phagocytes Cell Death... Apoptosis Sometimes at an infection site, the tissue cells may become so thoroughly infected by viruses, or infiltrated by so many bacteria, that the best defence is to seal off the area and sacrifice all the body cells within. Immune system cells can start the process of Apoptosis, in which cells are given a chemical instruction to commit suicide . The suicidal cell produces enzymes which chop the cells DNA to pi eces, the energy-produci ng mitochondria swell and burst, and the cell self- destructs. More importantly, special antigens appear on the cell membrane which attract phagocytes to destroy the cell, and its load of pathogens. In some cases, an infected site will be walled- off by a layer of cells forming a capsule or cyst, inside which all the cells have been ordered to suicide. This isolates an infection and stops it spreading. Later, the dead debris inside the cyst will be destroyed by phagocytes, and the tissue repaired. keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health
copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au PHAGOCYTOSIS Phagocyte Cell Lysosomes (contain digestive enzymes) Bacterial Cell Phagocyte engulfs foreign cell. Pathogen wrapped in a membrane inside Phagocyte. Lysosomes fuse with the package. Pathogen destroyed by lysosomes chemicals The 2nd Line of Defence: Non-Specific Immune Responses HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au keep it simple science
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13 The Lymphatic System As the blood circulates through the tissues, some of the blood plasma always seeps out of the capillaries and bathes the cells in tissue fluid . The body is equipped with a system of drains to collect this fluid and return it to the blood. This drainage system is the Lymphatic System. Lymph tubes form a one-way drainage system from all body extremities, back to a point near the heart where tissue fluid is dumped back into a vein to re-join the blood. Tissue fluid is squeezed through lymph vessels by the surrounding muscles, and the tubes have valves to prevent back-flow. At various points along the lymph vessels there are special chambers called lymph nodes . These are important sites for the immune system to defend against disease. If there is an infection in any body tissues, it is likely that pathogens will be carried along by the flow of lymph fluid. The 3rd Line of Defence: Specific Immunity The 3rd line of defence said to be specific because the lymphocyte cells are able to identify particular pathogens by their antigens and set up defences which will accurately target each one. The pathogen will be destroyed not only in the current infection, but in future infections as well... you become immune to the disease. The cells responsible are the white blood cells known as T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes . B-Lymphocytes produce protein molecules called antibodies which can lock-on to a foreign antigen rather like an enzyme fitting its substrate... i.e. it is a key-in-lock situation, with each antigen needing a specific antibody to fit it. T-LYMPHOCYTES are produced in bone marrow, but mature and multiply in the Thymus Gland (hence T cells). Cell-Mediated Immune response. T-cells attack body cells that are infected by pathogens, or growing abnormally as cancers. B-LYMPHOCYTES are produced and mature in bone marrow (hence B cells). Produce ANTIBODIES. Antibody-Mediated Immune response. Antibodies attack pathogens (and their toxins) which are NOT inside body cells, but in the blood, lymph or tissue fluid. The 3rd Line of Defence To help you remember which is which, think of B for Bomber... B-cells are like bomber aircraft which drop bombs (antibodies) on the enemy without ever getting close to them. This could spread pathogens throughout the body, but the lymph nodes generally prevent that. Lymph nodes contain many phagocytes to eat foreign cells, and also contain lymphocyte cells (below) which are able to target specific pathogens and destroy them. When fighting a serious infection the lymph nodes become swollen and painful. This is often a sign of infection and an indication of where it is. For example, swollen lymph nodes in one armpit indicate that an infection is travelling up the arm, possibly from an infection site in the hand. There are also several glands of the body which are associated with the lymphatic system, and have a role in body defences. These include the adenoids and tonsils, the thymus gland in the upper chest, and the spleen. All act as reservoirs for immune sytem cells. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM showing some of the drainage Lymph Nodes neck armpit groin Lymph fluid returned to bloodstream near heart Drainage pattern from arm and legs You also need to know about how T-cells and B-cells interact with each other, and how they destroy pathogens. This is also described on the next page. There are 2 categories of B-cells, and 4 categories of T-cell. Some details about these are shown on the next page. HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au keep it simple science
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14 The 3rd Line of Defence LYMPHOCYTES B-Cells T-Cells Plasma Cells Produce Antibodies to fight the current infection Memory B-Cells Remain in the system to respond to future infections by the same pathogen Helper T-Cells Interact with Phagocytes to set off the specific immune responses Cytotoxic (Killer) T-Cells Attack body cells which are infected by pathogens Suppressor T-Cells Suppress the immune response (turn it off) after an infection is defeated Memory T-Cells Remain in the system to respond to future infections by the same pathogen How White Blood Cells Interact with Each Other Step 1 Phagocyte Displays an Antigen A Phagocyte eats a pathogen. Part of the pathogen (an antigen) is displayed on MHC molecule. WHAT IS MHC? MHC stands for Major Histocompatibility Complex. This is a glycoprotein molecule which acts like an egg-cup to hold an antigen out for inspection by a lymphocyte cell. Phagocyte Cell MHC molecule Antigen being displayed Pathogen has been destroyed Step 2 Antigen is Inspected by a Helper T-Cell Helper T-Cells will dock with a phagocyte and inspect the antigen. The T-Cell then releases chemical messages which stimulate the production of huge numbers of specific Plasma (B) Cells and Cytotoxic (T) Cells, each keyed to that specific antigen shape. Phagocyte Cell Helper T-Cell Antigen MHC T-Cell receptor Step 3 Killer T-Cells Antigen receptor Infected body cells. Antigens appear on cell membranes T-Cells dock with antigens on infected body cells. Cells are killed by being burst open by enzymes from T-Cell Chemical Signals stimulate production of millions of specific Lymphocytes Produce Antibodies Antibodies lock onto pathogens so they are neutralized and immobilized. Phagocytes then destroy them. Antibodies are proteins with a shape to fit antigens on each pathogen exactly Plasma B-Cells Killer T-Cells Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only 15 Immunity Once a person has been infected by a particular pathogen and then recovers from the disease, the immune system stops producing T-Cells and B-Cells for that pathogen. (This is done by Suppressor T-Cells ) However, Memory T-Cells and Memory B-Cel l s remai n i n the system for years afterwards, possi bl y for l i fe. If that same pathogen invades the body again, the 3rd Line of Defence is already primed and ready. It reacts rapidly with a flood of T-Cells and antibodies so that the pathogen is usually destroyed before any disease symptoms are produced. The person cannot be affected by that pathogen ever again... he or she is immune to that disease. This is why many diseases, such as childhood measles, are only ever caught once. At the first infection it takes time for the immune system to begin producing specific lymphocytes, so the disease takes hold and symptoms appear. Later in life many re-infections with measle virus may occur, but the primed immune system destroys the pathogen so symptoms do not occur again. The Success of Vaccination It was mentioned in a previous section how the use of antibiotics was a tremendous step forward in our ability to cure certain infectious diseases. Even more important has been the prevention (always better than cure) of disease by programs of mass immunization by vaccination. Smallpox is a viral disease which, if untreated, has a hi gh death rate and survi vors are l eft di sfi gured and scarred for l i fe. In the 1950s smal l pox was targetted by the Worl d Heal th Organization as public enemy No.1 . A world-wide effort of vaccination resulted in the disease being totally eliminated by 1977... the most outstanding success against any disease in history. Poliomyelitis ( Polio ) is a viral disease which results in paralysis of limbs, causing the victim to be disabled for life. It used to kill or cripple hundreds of Australian children every year. Si nce the 1950s, the use of pol i o vacci nes (ori gi nal l y i nj ected, now taken oral l y) has eliminated the disease from Australia, and almost from the world. The disease still occurs in a few African nations only. Diphtheria is a disease caused by a highly contagious bacterium. It can lead to permanent nerve and heart problems, even when patients are cured of the infection. Therefore, prevention is definitely far better than cure. In the 1920s, several thousand Australian children di ed from Di phtheri a, or were permanentl y weakened by it. Vaccination programs had virtually eliminated it by the 1970s. It is now compulsory in Australia for all children to be vaccinated against Diphtheria, Tetanus, Polio, and another one-ti me chi l d-ki l l er, Whoopi ng Cough . Other diseases for which successful vacci nati on programs exi st i ncl ude Rubel l a, Hepatitis, Measles and Influenza. keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health
copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au However, some pathogens keep altering the antigens on their cell membranes or viral capsules. This means the memory lymphocytes from the previous infection are useless, and the immune system must re-learn to recognise the pathogen. This is why diseases such as the common cold can be caught over and over again. Vaccination comes from the Latin word vacca which means cow. Edward Jenner (English, 18th century) had noticed that milkmaids always caught a mild disease cowpox from the cows, but never suffered the deadly smallpox. Jenner used pus from a cowpox sore to deliberately infect people with cowpox. This caused later immunity to smallpox. (We now know that the viruses are so similar that antibodies for one, work against the other). So, vaccination literally means cow-ation. Vaccination The problem with becoming immune to a disease the natural way is that a person has to actually suffer the disease in order to gain immunity. Vaccination is the process of deliberately putting antigens into a persons body so that the immune system reacts, and the person becomes immune, but without danger from the actual disease. The vaccine might be injected, or taken orally, to introduce one of the following into the body:- Live pathogens that are attenuated ... harmless strains of the pathogen which have been bred. Pathogens that have been ki l l ed by heat or chemicals. Fragments of pathogens, such as part of the cell wall of a bacterium, or the capsule of a virus. A toxoid , which is a toxin molecule from the pathogen, but rendered harml ess by some treatment. The antigens in the vaccine set off the immune response, eventually giving the person immunity to that disease. Antigens are chemicals which trigger the o)............................ .............................. Antigens are proteins which the body recognizes as p)......................... After an organ transplant, the patients immune system must be q).................................... by drugs, otherwi se thei r i mmune system will r)..................................... the transplanted organ. The immune system is made up of a variety of types of white blood cells, or s)................................. The 2nd Li ne of Defence i s t)...................... (specific or non-specific). Three types of l eucocyte (cal l ed u).............................., .......................... and .........................) carry out phagocytosis. Thi s i s when the phagocyte cel l envelopes a foreign cell and digests it with enzymes from the v)......................... (organelle) Another type of l eucocyte cal l ed w)........................ set off the x)............................ response whenever the body has suffered damage. Basophi l s rel ease the chemi cal y)...................... which z).......................... blood capillaries, resulting in swelling, hotness and redness around the injured site. Sometimes body cells can be given instructions to commit suicide . This process is called aa)........................... The Lymphatic System is a system of ab).......................... which return tissue fluid to the blood. If an infection is present, pathogens could rapidly spread via the lymph tubes. To prevent this there are Lymph ac).............................. at various points such as the neck, ad).......................and ............................ Each lymph node has many phagocytes and l ymphocytes to destroy any pathogens. 16 Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health
copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au Worksheet 4 Non-Specific Body Defences Fill in the blank spaces Name.................................... The 1st Li ne of Defence are the a)...................... to infection. The skin is made of layers of b)............................. cel l s whi ch are very di ffi cul t for a pathogen to c)............................... d)............................... membranes l i ne the body openi ngs. They secete e).................. which traps pathogens. Some mucous membranes are lined wi th f).......................... whi ch beat rhythmi cal l y to remove mucus and trapped pathogens. The g)............ conditions of the stomach are a h)........................... barrier which kills microbes that are swallowed. Emptying the i)................................ and bl i nki ng the eyel i ds both serve to fl ush mi crobes away. Tears al so contai n an enzyme cal l ed j ).................................. whi ch can ki l l bacterial cells. Reflex actions, such as k)....................... or vomiting helps to remove microbes that have been breathed i n or swallowed. It is normal for the body to have many friendly microbes living in and on it. These are cal l ed the bodys l ).................................... These organi sms hel p control potenti al pathogens by competing with them. If there is an imbalance of microflora, a m).......................................... may result. An example is the fungal disease called n)............................................ WHEN COMPLETED, WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES WORKSHEET 6 COVERS THE IMMUNE SYSTEM & VACCINATION Multiple Choice 1. An exampl e of a chemi cal barri er to infection is: A. mucus in your breathing tubes B. acid in your stomach C. dead, dry skin cells D. cilia in a mucous membrane 2. An antigen is: A. a protein that can lock-on to a pathogen and neutralise it. B. a chemical which can kill pathogen cells. C. a foreign protein which sets off an immune response. D. a blood cell which releases antibodies. 3. The white blood cells Eosinophils, Neutrophils and Macrophages are all: A. phagocytes B. lymphocytes C. antibody producers D. part of the 1st line of defence 4. Apoptosis is the process of: A. programed cell suicide . B. enveloping and eating a foreign cell. C. pus formation at a site of infection. D. red swelling of infected tissue. 5. The diagram shows part of the A. Circulatory system. B. Immune system C. Nervous system D. Lymphatic system 6. Antibodies are produced by: A. killer T-cells B. basophils C. plasma cells D. phagocytes 7. Before the specific immune response can be mounted by lymphocytes for the first time: A. killer T-cells need to lock-on to infected body cells. B. helper T-cells need to inspect an antigen presented by phagocytes. C. memory B-cells need to activate antibody production. D. antibodies need to combine with an antigen. 8. Which of the following would NOT be suitable to use as a vaccine? A. live, attenuated pathogens B. fragments of pathogen cells C. active toxin from a pathogen D. killed pathogen cells Longer Response Questions Answer on reverse if insufficient space. 9. (3 marks) Describe the location and features of the bodys mucous membranes i n hel pi ng to protect against disease. 10. (4 marks) Explain how the natural microflora of the body help protect against disease and, using a named example, how an imbalance in the microflora can result in disease. 11. (4 marks) One of the responses to infection or tissue damage is inflammation . a) Name the type of leucocyte responsible for initiating inflammation. b) Expl ai n how the typi cal features of i nfl ammati on (namel y hot, red and swol l en tissue) are brought about. 12. (4 marks) Compare and constrast B-cells and T-cells and their methods of attack against invading pathogens. 13. (4 marks) There are 4 vari eti es of T-l ymphocytes ... helper , killer , suppressor and memory cells. Briefly outline the function of each. 14. (5 marks) a) Explain how vaccination can make a person immune to a disease, possibly for life, without them ever getting sick from that disease. b) Name a previously serious disease which has been brought under control by vaccination. 17 Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health
copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au Worksheet 5 Test Questions section 2 Name.................................... Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only 18 Epidemiology Epidemiology is the study of the occurrence of diseases. It is very much about collecting data and analysing it statistically to look for patterns and correlations between the incidence of disease and the many factors that may be involved in the cause(s) and the spread of disease. The data collected by epidemiologists includes information from: The results of an epidemiological study might include: Such fi ndi ngs al l ow heal th authori ti es and governments to plan and allocate resources to better meet the health needs of a community. For example, epidemiology results might point out the need for a new hospital to be built in a certain place, or for a law to be made to ban the advertising of products that endanger health, such as tobacco products. A classic example which shows the value of epidemiology is the case of the drug thalidomide. In the 1960s this drug was commonly prescribed to pregnant women to prevent morning sickness . Throughout history there have always been some children born with deformities, and no-one noticed that there had been a slight increase in these cases. However, an epidemiology study revealed a correlation between the use of thalidomide and an increased risk of babies being born without arms or legs. The drug was quickly banned, saving many more people from its terrible effects. Case Study Epidemiology of Lung Cancer Now that many infectious diseases are more or less under control, the major causes of death in our society are heart disease and cancer. In the USA in 1996, of all the many deaths by cancer, those due to lung cancer amounted to 25% in men and 14% i n women. Epi demi ol ogy has now established beyond doubt that there is a very strong link between lung cancer and smoking. The correlation between smoking and a number of heal th probl ems, i ncl udi ng l ung cancer, was suggested by epidemiology data as early as the 1950s. The powerful and i nfl uenci al tobacco companies were able to argue that... Throughout the 1970s and 1980s the epidemiology studies kept collecting data and compiling evidence showing that smoking was linked to lung cancer. Experiments to try to prove the causati on were done too. For exampl e, thousands of l aboratory rats were forced to breathe tobacco smoke for long periods of time and the incidence of lung cancer compared with non-smoki ng rats. Eventual l y the evi dence became overwhelming: Annual deaths from lung cancer are about 5 times higheramong smokers than non-smokers. Quitting smoking immediately begins reducing the chance of developing lung cancer Since the banning of tobacco advertising and public awareness programs, the percentage of smokers i n the popul ati on has decl i ned. The incidence of lung cancer (and other smoking- related problems) has declined exactly in parallel. keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health
copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au 3. NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES Hospitals and health-care workers who report on their patients and the treatments given. Government studies such as the national census, which measures the size and age distribution of the population, where people live, what they do for a living and so on. Case studies of particular diseases, in which detailed information is gathered about those people suffering the disease, and compared to a control group of similar people without the disease. Identifying that a new disease has appeared. Discovering that an existing disease has changed in its occurrence. Identifying the possible causes or risk factors of a disease. Assessment of the effectiveness of public health systems and vaccination programs. ...correlation doesnt prove causation This is quite true. Just because 2 things occur together doesnt prove that one causes the other. As the ancient Romans knew, malaria is more common around swamps. They thought it was the bad air. Now we know its because of the mosquito vector breeding in the swamps. HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au keep it simple science
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19 An Inherited Disease Haemophilia Occurrence Haemophilia occurs in males only, at a rate of 1 in every 5,000 male births. Symptoms The persons bl ood l acks certai n bl ood factors involved in blood clotting, so their body is unable to stop the bleeding from minor injuries. Even gentle activity can cause minor bleeds at joints and in muscles. With haemophilia, there is continued internal bleeding, extreme pain in joints, and this leads to joint damage and disability. Untreated, it is usually fatal during childhood. Cause Haemophilia is caused by a recessive, sex- linked gene. The recessive gene is carried on the X chromosome and so is inherited more commonly in males than females. In fact, i t i s vi rtual l y unknown i n femal es because to have haemophilia a female must be the daughter of a haemophiliac father. Until recently no haemophiliac males survived long enough to father children. Treatment/Management Modern treatment allows haemophilia sufferers to lead a fairly normal life. Treatment involves 2- 3 injections per week of blood clotting factors extracted from donated blood. A Nutritional Deficiency Disease Scurvy Occurrence In modern Australian society, scurvy is virtually non-existant because of the generally high quality diet available. (We eat too much... but thats another story.) In history, scurvy was a significant disease, especially on long sea voyages. A British report in 1600 indicated that 10,000 sailors had died of scurvy in the previous 20 years. Symptoms The main protein of skin, bone and hair is collagen . In scurvy, the collagen cannot be made properly by the body, so hair falls out skin erupts, flakes and discolours teeth loosen and fall out blood capillaries leak blood, so bruising spots appear all over the body Cause Lack of Vitamin C in the diet. Vitamin C is found in citrus fruits such as oranges, and in some vegetables such as tomatoes. The enzyme responsible for a critical step in making collagen requires ascorbic acid (vitamin C) for its correct functioning. Treatment/Management A balanced diet including fresh fruits and vegetables, will prevent scurvy. Occurrence Melanoma is the 3rd or 4th most common cancer in Australia, and approximately 2,000 Australians die from it each year. Between 1950 and 1990 its occurrence tripled, and Australia has the highest incidence of melanoma in the world, per capita. Symptoms Dark, irregular-shaped moles appear on the skin. These may become raised, and later bleed and become ulcerated. This primary tumour may shed cells which can spread in the blood and establish secondary tumours in vital organs such as lungs, kidneys, liver or brain. Cause Mel anoma i s cl assed as an envi ronmental disease because its major cause is a factor of the Australian environment... ultra violet (UV) rays from the Sun. Cause (cont) Exposure to UV damages skin cells, causes mutations in the DNA and greatly increases the risk of a melanoma developing. It can also be considered a lifestyle disease si nce i ts occurrence i s rel ated to outdoor lifestyles, and activities such as sunbaking. People with fair skin are more at risk. Treatment/Management The primary tumour can be removed by surgery. Secondary tumours are treated by surgery, radiation therapy and anti-cancer drugs. Early detecti on greatl y i ncreases the chances of survival. Preventi on (al ways the preferred strategy) includes avoiding skin exposure to the Sun by the use of protective clothing, and sunscreen l oti ons, and changi ng l i festyl e by avoi di ng deliberate sunbaking. Case Studies of Non-Infectious Diseases An Environmental Disease: Melanoma HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au keep it simple science
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20 Plant and Animal Diseases Plants and animals suffer from diseases caused by the same range of pathogens as do humans. In addition, plants suffer a lot of damage from herbi vorous ani mal s feedi ng on them, especially from insects. In your practical work you may have examined plant shoots and leaves and gathered evidence of pathogens and insect damage. Leaf Galls A common sign of disease in many plants is the growth of a gall in the plant tissue. A gall is the plants response to an infection or irritation caused by a microscopic pathogen or macro- parasite. The plant grows layers of tough, woody tissue around the infection site in an attempt to wall- off the pathogen and prevent the infection spreading. Disease and Pest Control Austral i as agri cul tural i ndustry not onl y supplies us with most of our food, but is a major part of the nations economy. Disease, or insect pests in crops, could have a devastating effect on this industry. Therefore, our governments and industry organizations use a variety of strategies to control disease and agricultural pests. Quarantine Even in ancient times, people understood the principle of quarantine... for example, people suffering the disease leprosy, were isolated in l eper col oni es to prevent the di sease spreading through a community. In modern Austral i a, quaranti ne i s a maj or strategy used to prevent the entry and spread of a variety of plant and animal diseases and pests which could have devastating effects on our agricultural and pastoral industries. The government agency responsi bl e i s the Austral i an Quaranti ne Inspecti on Servi ce (AQIS). Every airport and other point of entry for people and goods into Australia is under AQIS scrutiny. Tourists may not bring plant seeds, fresh foods, animal skins or soil (even muddy boots) in from another country. People who wish to bring in live animals, such as pets or racehorses, must go through lengthy and expensive procedures to ensure the animal is not carrying a disease. The animal will be quarantined... placed in isolation for possibly several weeks, and regularly examined by a veterinarian for any signs of disease. People entering from certain risky parts of the world must show proof of vaccination against some di seases, or el se they too wi l l be quarantined until it is proven they are not carrying an excluded pathogen. The Success of Quarantine The fact that Australia has remained totally free of certain human, plant and animal diseases is evidence of the effectiveness of our quarantine system. Australia is free of: Foot-and-Mouth disease which could devastate sheep & cattle herds. Malaria and Rabies. (serious human diseases) Sorghum Downy Mildew, a fungal pathogen with potential to destroy many cereal crops and native grasses... and many others. 4. STRATEGIES TO PREVENT DISEASE IN PLANTS & ANIMALS Leaf damage from a leaf miner insect Fungal disease QUARANTINED Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only 21 Use of Pesticides A pest species is any plant or animal that we fi nd troubl esome or destructi ve to our agriculture and animal husbandry. In the 20th century many pesticides were developed in an attempt to control pest species. In general terms, a pesticide is a chemical which can kill a pest species without serious harm to the plant crop or animals we wish to protect. Genetic Engineering for Disease & Pest Resistance Genetic Engineering (GE) is the process of altering the genetic make-up of a species. Many of the modern developments in GE are aimed at modifying our crops and animal herds to make them resistant to various diseases or pests so that usage of pesti ci de chemi cal s can be reduced or eliminated. keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health
copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au Insecticides kill insects. The original was DDT Dips & Drenches are given or applied to animals to kill macro-parasites such as worms & ticks Fungicides kill fungal pathogens Herbicides kill plant weeds The best known is Roundup Originally, the pesticides were thought to be magic bullets which would keep pest species under control. This attitude has changed, as many pesticides either lose their effectiveness, or create environmental problems. It is now realised that, although many pesticides have been effective, it is better in many cases to look for alternative ways to deal with pests... once again the principle is all about prevention and avoidance, rather than cure. Two important strategies are: Biological Controls... using natural predators and pathogens to control a pest, and Genetic Engineering... Pests Develop Resistance In almost every case of a pesticide, the pest species show a tendency to develop resistance. This is Natural Selection in action, resulting in the evolution of resistant pests. Pesticides are Indiscriminant Insecticides, for example, kill any insects, not just the target pest species. This creates even worse pest problems because the natural competitors and predators of the pest are killed too. Human Toxicity Pesticides pose a danger to the humans who use them. Residues of pesticides may be present in foods and pose a threat to consumers Environmental Pollution Pesticides can wash into rivers and enter natural food chains. Fish are killed by insectides. DDT had severe impacts on the reproduction in many bird species. Case Study: Cotton Bollworm (Heliothis caterpillar) This insect pest chews holes in cotton, maize, tomatoes and peanut crops. As well as this damage itself, the crop becomes more prone to fungal disease. Insecticides are not the answer, because Heliothis has evolved resistance, and many natural enemies and predators of Heliothis are killed by sprays. In the fi el d of human di sease control , the emphasis has shifted from treatment and cure, towards prevention. While antibiotics still have thei r val ue as treatment drugs, the great success story of human health has been mass vaccination to prevent millions of people ever getting certain diseases. The same trend, from treatment towards prevention, is occurring with plant and animal diseases, and pest control. Pesticides GE Strategy No.1 Scientists have transferred a gene from a bacterium into cotton plants. The gene is for the production of a toxin, which is lethal to the caterpillar if eaten. Since cotton is not a human food, and the toxin is only produced by the leaf cells in the plant, the presence of the bacterial toxin is not a problem for humans. GE Strategy No.2 Research is being done with a virus which specifically infects Hel i othi s caterpillars only, and will not infect other species. The vi rus al ready causes a disease in the caterpillar, but scientists are developing ways to genetically alter the virus to include a gene for a lethal toxin. The idea is to produce billions of GE viruses and then deliver them in a spray to crops that have a Hel i othi s infestation. No other speci es woul d be affected. The 3rd Line of Defence is a)............................... (specific/non-specific) immunity, meaning that this system targets each antigen specifically. The whi te bl ood cel l s i nvol ved are cal l ed b).................................. and are of 2 main types called c)..........-cells and .........-cells. T-cells have 4 sub-categories as follows: Hel per T-cel l s i nteract wi th phagocytes to learn about a new d)................................... and then send chemi cal si gnal s to cause the production of millions of specifically targetted lymphocytes. e)......................... (killer) T-cells can recognise body cells which are infected with a pathogen and ki l l the cel l by bursti ng i ts cel l f)............................ with enzymes. Suppressor T-cells g).................................... the immune response after an infection has been defeated. h)........................ T-cells remain in the system to respond to future attacks by the same pathogen. 22 Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health
copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au Worksheet 6 Immune System & Vaccination Fill in the blank spaces Name.................................... Worksheet 7 Non-Infectious Diseases Fill in the blank spaces Name.................................... There are 2 sub-categories of B-cell: i)............................ cells produce proteins called j)....................................... These are able to bind to a specific antigen (rather like the lock-and- key system with enzymes and substrates). By surroundi ng the anti gen, anti bodi es neutralize it and attract k).................................... which eat and destroy it. l)............................... B-cells remain in the system to respond to future attacks by the same pathogen. Once a disease pathogen has been defeated, the m).............................. lymphocytes remain on guard, ready to respond to future infection by the same pathogen. This means the person is n)....................... to that disease, because the pathogen wi l l be destroyed before any symptoms occur. o)............................ is an artificial method of maki ng peopl e i mmune to a di sease. The vaccine contains p)........................... to set off the i mmune response, wi thout causi ng the disease. Programs of mass vaccination have been very successful against some diseases. For example, q)........................... has been totally eradicated, diseases such as r).......................... and ............................. are virtually non-existant. It is caused by a recessive gene carried on the p).............. chromosome, so it is said to be q)...............-linked. The disease was invariably fatal in the past, but modern treatments involve the i nj ecti on of r).............................................. from donated blood. Scurvy is an example of a s).................................. defi ci ency di sease. It i s due to a l ack of t)............................ in the diet and used to be a si gni fi cant ri sk duri ng u).......................... ................... wi th no suppl i es of fresh frui t available. Symptoms include hair and teeth v)............................, and ski n erupti ons and brui si ng due to l eaki ng of bl ood from w).......................................... Mel anoma i s a very dangerous form of x)................... cancer. It can be classed as an Envi ronmental Di sease si nce a maj or causative factor is exposure to y)......................... rays from the Sun. Approxi matel y z)...................... (number) of Australians die from mel anoma each year. Thi s i s the aa)............................. rate in the world, on a per capita basis. Epi demi ol ogy i s the study of the a)........................ of diseases. By collecting and b)......................... data, the patterns and c)........................... between various factors can be used to identify disease risks and assess the effectiveness of d)................................ programs. These fi ndi ngs hel p heal th authori ti es and governments make decisions and laws about community health, such as banning advertising for e)...................................... Epidemiology has established the link between f)............................. and smoking. The death rate from lung cancer among smokers is g)................. (number) ti mes hi gher than among non- smokers. Since the ban on tobacco advertising, and h)........................... programs, the percentage of smokers has i)........................ and so has the j)......................... of lung cancer. Haemophi l i a i s an exampl e of an k)............................ disease. Its occurrence is in l)....................... only, at a rate of 1 case every m)............. (number) male births. The disease causes internal n)......................... due to the lack of o)................................... factors in the blood. Fungicides for n)............................., and Dips and Drenches to kill o)............................... in animals. It is now realised that pesticides are not as wonderful as once thought, because: pests develop p).......................................... pesticides are a toxic risk to q)............................ insecticides are indiscriminate, killing not only pests, but r)........................................ as well. pesticides can pollute the s)............................... and affect other life forms such as fish or birds. One al ternati ve to pesti ci des i s t)........................................... For exampl e, the pest caterpi l l ar u)............................... attacks cotton, maize, tomato and peanut crops and is one of Australias worst agricultural pests. Two different G.E. strategies are being researched and tested to control this pest. One involves inserting genes from a v)............................... into cotton pl ants so they produce a w)............................... which kills any insect that eats it. Another strategy involves genetically modifying a x)......................... which attacks only the caterpillar. The virus will be genetically modi fi ed to produce a fast-acti ng y)............................. to kill the caterpillars rapidly. As for human disease control, the emphasis has shi fted from z)................................. di seases/pests towards aa)............................. them occurring. 23 Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health
copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au Worksheet 8 Strategies for Plant & Animal Diseases Fill in the blank spaces Name.................................... Worksheet 9 Test Questions sections 3 & 4 Name.................................... Inspecti on of pl ant fol i age often reveal s a)........................... due to pathogens and insects. A gall is a plants response to b)......................... or irritation. A gall is a capsule of woody tissue that grows around an infection site in an attempt to c)..................................................................... The importance and economic value of our agri cul ture demands strategi es to combat disease and pest species. A major stategy is d)................................. which means to isolate potential sources of infection, to prevent thei r entry and spread. The government agency responsi bl e i s cal l ed e).................... (abbreviation) and it checks all people and goods entering Australia. Prohibited goods i ncl ude f).................................., ................................ and ......................................... Animals, such as pets or livestock, must be placed in g)......................................... for several weeks and examined and tested to ensure they are not harbouring h).................................. Our quarantine system has been successful at keeping Australia free from animal disease such as i )............................., human di seases l i ke j)................................. and .............................. and plant diseases such as k)....................................... Pesticides include l)............................ to kill insects, m)....................... to kill weeds, Multiple Choice 1. The results from an Epidemiology study would probably NOT be useful for: A. experiments to extract an antibiotic from a fungus. B. assessing a vaccination program. C. identifying risks of an environmental disease. D. discovering the appearance of a new disease. 2. The di sease whi ch has ri sk factors of an environmental and lifestyle nature is: A. malaria . B. melanoma C. scurvy D. haemophilia 3. The effectiveness of Australias quarantine system can be seen by the: A. amount of prohibited articles seized at airports. B. difficulty of bringing a pet animal into Australia. C. small number of tourists with diseases. D. absence of certain diseases and pests in Australia. 4. Using pesticides against agricultural pests is similar in principle to the use (in human medicine) of: A. vaccination B. quarantine C. epidemiology D. antibiotics Longer Response Questions 5. (3 marks) Outl i ne some of the epi demi ol ogi cal correl ati ons that poi nt to the l i nk between smoking and lung cancer. 6. (4 marks) You have studied an hereditary disease. Name the disease you studied and describe: a) the occurrence a) the symptoms b) the cause c) the treatment or management ... of the disease. 7. (5 marks) a) Briefly discuss reasons why the widespread use of pesti ci des agai nst agri cul tural pest species and diseases is no longer considered as the best strategy for control. b) Using a named example of a pest species, outline an alternative strategy involving Genetic Engineering. HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au keep it simple science
Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only
24 CONCEPT DIAGRAM ( Mind Map ) OF TOPIC Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts. Practise on this blank version. THE SEARCH FOR BETTER HEALTH Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only 25 Answer Section Worksheet 1 a) complete physical, mental and social well-being. b) which disturbs the normal functioning of the body. c) pathogen d) contagious e) vector f) specialised g) identical h) genes i) correct hygienic j) food k) hygiene/cleanliness l) filtered m) chlorinated n) pathogen o) disease p) Louis Pasteur q) microbes r) contact with air s) Robert Koch t) anthrax u) the pathogen of a disease to be identified v) protozoan w) (Anopheles) mosquito x) Plasmodium y) Ronald Ross z) chloroquine aa) resistance ab) vaccine ac) 2-3 million Worksheet 2 a) macroscopic b) leeches/ticks/lice c) vectors d) inside e) Taeniasis f) Taenia saginata g) Tinea h) Tinea pedis i) Protozoa j) Plasmodium k) procaryotic l) small m) Tetanus n) Clostridium tetani o) protein p) nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) q) make new viruses r) AIDS, flu, measles, etc s) Prions t) nervous u) CJD (Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease) v) Clostridium tetani w) is not x) a deep wound y) anaerobic z) dead tissue aa) toxin ab) nerve ac) seal off/ inhibit pathogens ad) phagocytes ae) antibodies af) muscular seizures ag) breathing ah) antibodies ai) vaccination aj) tetanus toxin, made harmless by chemical treatment ak) 10 al) bacteria am) viruses an) antibiotic resistance Worksheet 3 1. B 2. D 3. C 4. C 5. A 6. D 7. a) Disease caused by a pathogen. b) Disease that does not involve a pathogen. c) An organism which invades the body and disturbs the normal functioning of it. d) A di sease whi ch can be caught by transmission from an infected person. e) An organism (usually animal) which carries a pathogen from one host to another. keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health
copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au 8. Water typically sits in reservoir which allows a lot of suspended matter, and pathogens, to settle out. It i s often fi l tered to remove remai ni ng suspended solids. It is chlorinated to kill any pathogens. 9. Anti-malarial drugs (such as Chloroquine) were successful treatments, but the parasite has now developed resistance. Attempts to eradicate the mosquito vector using insecticides lowered the incidence of malaria at times, but overall this strategy failed. All attempts so far, to develop a vaccine have failed. 10. Macro-parasites eg Taeniasis (Tapeworm disease) Fungi eg Tinea Protozoa eg Malaria Bacteria eg Tetanus Viruses eg AIDS Prions eg CJD (Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease) 11. Disease: Tetanus a) Clostridium tetani (bacterium) b) Violent, painful muscle spasms, which can interrupt breathing. c) Pathogen enters a deep wound, such as stepping on a nail. Disease is NOT contagious. d) Normal responses: i nfl ammati on around wound, immune system begins to respond to tetanus toxin, but progress of the untreated disease is too fast for immune system to cope. e) Muscl e-rel axant drugs to treat spasms. Anti bi oti cs to ki l l bacteri a. Cl ean wound surgically. Admi ni ster Tetanus anti toxi n, whi ch i s antibodies from an immune person or animal. f) Vacci nati on wi th tetanus toxoi d gi ves immunity and is 100% effective at preventing disease. Worksheet 4 a) barriers b) dead, dry c) penetrate. d) Mucous e) mucus f) cilia g) acid h) chemical i) bladder j) lysozyme k) coughing l) microflora m) disease n) Thrush o) immune response p) foreign q) suppressed r) reject / attack s) leucocytes t) non-specific u) eosinophils, neutrophils & macrophages v) lysosome w) basophils x) inflammation y) histamine z)dilates aa) apoptosis ab) tubes/vessels/ drains ac)nodes ad) armpits & groin Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only 26 Workskeet 5 1. B 2. C 3. A 4. A 5. D 6. C 7. B 8. C 9. Mucous membranes line all the body openings at mouth, nose, throat and reproductive and digestive openings. Membranes produce mucus, a thick fluid wich traps dust and microbes. In some places (eg trachea) there are microscopic hairs ( cilia ) which beat rhythmically to move mucus along for removal. 10. The skin, mouth, digestive and reproductive tracts all have a natural population of microbes living there, many in a mutualistic relationship. They control potenti al pathogens by out- competing them, or by creating conditions that the pathogens cannot tolerate. If this natural microflora population becomes unbal anced or damaged, an opportuni sti c pathogen may multiply and cause disease. An example is the yeast Candida albicans which is usually present in the female reproductive tract, but kept under control by the microflora. An outbreak of Candida results in the disease Thrush . 11. a) Basophils b) Basophils release Histamine which causes: dilation of blood capillaries; more blood and body heat flows to area... hence hot and red capillaries become more porous, so more plasma leaks out causing swelling. 12. Comparison (similarities): T-cells and B-cells are both lymphocytes which can defend against specific pathogens. Contrast (di fferences): B-cel l s produce anti bodi es; protei ns whi ch l ock-on to antigens and neutralize pathogens/toxins which are free in bloodstream or tissues. Neutralized pathogens are then destroyed by phagocytes. T-cells are able to recognise body cells that are i nfected by a pathogen (eg has a vi rus mul ti pl yi ng i nsi de i t) and ki l l the cel l by bursting its membrane with enzymes. 13. Helper T-cells interact with phagocytes which present a new antigen to them. Helper cells then send chemical signals which cause the cloning and rapid production of millions of l ymphocytes abl e to target that speci fi c antigen. 13. (cont) Killer T-cells are able to identify and lock-on to body cells which are infected with a specific pathogen, such as a virus. They destroy the cell by bursting its membrane with enzymes. Suppressor T- cells turn off the response after a pathogen has been defeated. Memory cells remain in circulation, possibly for life, ready to quickly re-activate the immune system against future invasions by that specific pathogen. 14. a) Vaccination is the process of introducing into a persons body an antigen which will set off the immune response without making the person ill. For example, a vaccine might contain harmless, killed bacteria. This will set off the immune response so that future infection by the living bacterial pathogen will be destroyed before symptoms appear. The person is immune to that pathogen. Worksheet 6 a) specific b) lymphocytes c) B-cells & T-cells d) antigens e) cytotoxic f) membrane g) suppress h) Memory i) Plasma j) antibodies k) phagocytes l) Memory m) memory n)immune o) Vaccination p) antigens q) Smallpox r) Polio & Diphtheria Worksheet 7 a) occurrence b) analysing c) correlations d) public health e) tobacco products (or other dangerous products) f) lung cancer g) 5 h) public awareness i) declined j) incidence k) inherited l) males m) 5,000 n) bleeding o) clotting p) X q) sex r) clotting factors s) nutritional t) vitamin C u) long sea voyages v) loss w) capillaries x) skin y) ultra-violet z) 2,000 aa) highest keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health
copyright 2005-2009 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only 27 Worksheet 8 a) damage b) infection/ a pathogen c) prevent the infection spreading d) quarantine e) AQIS f) plants, fresh food, soil g) quarantine h) pathogens i) Foot-and-Mouth j) Malaria & Rabies k) Sorghum Downy Mildew l) insecticides m) herbicides n) fungi o) macro-parasites p) resistance q) humans r) their predators t) Genetic Engineering u) Heliothis v) bacterium w) a toxin x) virus y) toxin z) treating/killing aa) preventing Worksheet 9 1. A 2. B 3. D 4. D 5. The data shows that the chances of contracting lung cancer are about 5 times higher among smokers than among non-smokers. The i nci dence of l ung cancer among ex- smokers shows a steady decline against the time since they quit. The incidence of lung cancer in society has shown a decline exactly in parallel with the decline in the number of smokers, brought about by the ban on tobacco advertising, and public awareness programs. 6. Haemophilia a) Occurs in males only, at the rate of 1 per 5,000 male births. b) The blood fails to clot properly, so any activity can resul t i n i nternal bl eedi ng i nto j oi nts, bruising etc. This leads to painful joint damage and disability. If untreated, it is usually fatal in childhood. c) Inheritance of a recessive gene, carried on the X-chromosome. This means it is sex-linked and appears in males much more commonly than females. d) Clotting factors extracted from donated blood are injected 2-3 times per week. This allows the patient to lead a relatively normal life, but gentle exercise and injury avoidance are important. 7. a) many pests have developed resistance to the pesticide. pesticides pose a toxic threat to humans who use them, and to consumers. Some pesti ci des cause envi ronmental problems, such as the widespread effects of insecticide DDT on bird reproduction up until the 1970s. b) The Heliothis caterpillar is a major pest in cotton crops, but i s now resi stant to insecticides. Scientists have genetically engineered cotton plants by inserting into their chromosomes a bacterial gene which causes the production of a toxin. The cotton plant produces toxin which kills any insects which eat the crop, eliminating the need to spray pesticides. keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 3 Search for Better Health
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