COLLINS 77

FRACTURE ZONES BETWEEN OVERLAPPING EN ECHELON

FAULT STRANDS: OUTCROP ANALOGS WITHIN THE
BALCONES FAULT ZONE, CENTRAL TEXAS
Edward W. Collins
Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas at Austin
Box X, University Station, Austin, Texas 78713-7508
ABSTRACT
This study describes two types of fault overlap within the Balcones Fault Zone: a relay ramp
between overlapping master faults dipping in the same direction and a structural bridge between
overlapping faults dipping in opposite directions. Cretaceous limestone outcrops within these
structural zones have been described for this study, and the outcrops reveal a variety of fracture
characteristics, including fracture type, geometry, spacing, and connectivity, that are important in
understanding the framework of fractured strata. Areas between overlapping normal faults con-
tain abundant fractures and therefore are potential targets for hydrocarbons in fractured reservoirs,
as well as potential areas for preferential ground-water recharge and flow in fractured aquifers.
The fault overlap areas are up to 0.6 mi (1 km) wide, and the en echelon master faults may over-
lap by as muchas 1.2 mi (2 km). Strata within these fault overlap zones are cut by joints and by
abundant small-displacement normal faults, commonly having throws of less than 1.6 ft (0.5 m).
These deformed areas consist of a mosaic of intermingled fracture sets that have multiple strikes;
thus, fracture connectivity is locally high.
Fracture spacing is variable within fault overlap areas. Sorne individual beds and multiple-bed
packages are more fractured than other beds of similar thickness and composition. Also, fractures
do not have uniform spacing within any given unit. Spacing of single small faults and fracture
swarms is commonly between 6.5 and 150 ft (2 and 46 m) along traverses perpendicular and
oblique to the master overlapping faults. Swarms of small faults, commonly as muchas 20ft (6 m)
wide, may contain as many as 15 faults. Joint swarms that are as much as 40 ft (12 m) wide have
fracture spacings of 2 to 5 ft (0.6 to 1.5 m).
INTRODUCTION
Location and characterization of high-density frac-
ture zones are important to petroleum geologists
exploring for fractured hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Hydrologists, environmental geologists, and n g i n r ~
ing geologists also study these high-density fracture
zones in evaluating ground-water recharge and flow in
fractured aquifers or in evaluating the effects of urban
development and construction within ground-water
recharge areas. Exploration for and characterization of
hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs containing high-den-
sity fractures have increased in Texas (Finley and oth-
ers, 1990) and elsewhere in the United States
(Schmoker and others, 1992) since the mid-1980's,
when horizontal drilling technology created new
exploration opportunities. With the development of
horizontal drilling technology, a better understanding
of fracture systems has been sought by petroleum geol-
ogists (Corbett and others 1987, 1991a, b; Reaser and
Collins, 1988; Wiltschko and others, 1991; Collins and
others, 1992; Friedman and Wiltschko, 1992).
Hydrologists and geologists are concerned with
ground-water recharge and flow in fractured recharge
zones and aquifers in areas of steadily increasing urban
development and construction such as the Edwards
aquifer recharge zone in Central Texas (Woodruff and
Slade, 1984; Woodruff and others, 1985; Maclay and
Small, 1986; Collins, 1987; Yelderman, 1987; Senger and
others, 1990; Johns, 1991). Sorne sites for critica! facili-
ties such as the Superconducting Super Collider in
North-Central Texas also require fracture characteriza-
tion (Reaser and Collins, 1988; Collins and others,
1992). Because of this need for more knowledge of frac-
ture systems, several fracture investigations have been
conducted since the early 1980's on limestones within
the Balcones Fault Zone (Fig. 1) and the Cretaceous
outcrop belt of Central Texas (Corbett, 1982; Collins,
1987; Corbett and others, 1987, 1991a, b; Reaser and
Collins, 1988; Collins and Laubach, 1990; Wiltschko and
others, 1991; Collins and others, 1992; Friedman and
Wiltschko, 1992). These previous researchers studied
fractured Austin Chalk, an important hydrocarbon
reservoir in Texas, and fractured Lower Cretaceous
limestones that compase the Edwards aquifer, an
important source of water for Central Texas. Local
structural settings that have been found to contain
abundant fractures include anticlines, monoclines,
listric normal faults, graben, downward-steepening
faults, and synclines on the hanging-wall blocks of nor-
mal faults.
One type of structural setting that has not been
described in much detail is the overlap area of en eche-
Ion normal fault strands. This paper discusses the frac-
ture characteristics of a relay ramp between overlap-
ping normal faults dipping in the same directon and a
horst bridge between overlapping faults dipping in
opposite directions (Fig. 2a and 2b). The high density of
78 GULF COAST ASSOCIATION OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES
TEXAS
Study area
N

o
1
o
200 mi
1 1
300 km
GULF OF MEXICO
QAa2130c
Figure 1. Regional setting and location of study areas along
the Balcones Fault Zone.
(a)
fractures in these areas is probably due to strains
caused by interacting faults and bending of rock
(Larsen, 1988; Peacock and Sanderson, 1991). Fracture
characteristics, including fracture types, geometries,
density, and connectivity within overlap areas of en
echelon normal fault strands, are presented in this
paper.
METHODS
Interpretations reported in this paper are based on
field observations of faults and joints in road-cut,
stream-bed, and stream-bank outcrops. Two sites were
studied in detail: a site in western Comal County,
which consists of fractured Glen Rose Limestone, and a
site in northern Ellis County, which consists of frac-
tured Austin Chalk. Four road-cut outcrops studied in
western Comal County are located along U.S. 281
about 26 mi (42 km) north of San Antonio (Fig. 1).
Stream-bed and stream-bank outcrops studied along
Brushy Creek in northem Ellis County are west of Sta te
Highway 983, which crosses the creek about 8 mi (13
km) northwest of Waxahachie. Photomosaics were used
to measure and map fracture characteristics. Fracture
spacing was measured along traverses up to 1,640 ft
(500 m) long, and fracture occurrences were plotted
along horizontal sean lines.
STRUCTURAL SETTING
Normal faults described in this study are part of the
(b)
/
/
Figure 2. Plan view and block diagram of (a) relay ramp between overlapping master faults dipping in the same direction
and (b) horst bridge between overlapping faults dipping in opposite directions.
COLLINS
Balcones Fault Zone (Fig. 1). From Dallas this fault
zone extends southward to San Antonio, where it
bends west-southwestward toward Del Rio. This exten-
sional fault zone partly coincides with the Cretaceous
outcrop belt of Central Texas. Cretaceous rocks dip
gently east-southeastward into the Gulf Coast Basin.
The Balcones Fault Zone also closely follows the trend
of the buried Paleozoic Ouachita fold and thrust belt
(Flawn and others, 1961). The Comal County study site
is within the central part of the Balcones Fault Zone,
and the Ellis County study site is at the northem exten-
sion of the fault zone.
Most of the movement on the Balcones Fault Zone is
thought to have occurred during the late Oligocene or
early Miocene (Weeks, 1945). Weeks (1945) interpreted
the existence of Cretaceous fossils and limestone and
chert pebbles in the lower Tertiary Catahoula and
Oakville Formations of the Gulf coastal plain to be evi-
dence of fault uplift that exposed Cretaceous source
rocks. Fault movement could have resulted from flex-
ure along the perimeter of the Gulf of Mexico (Murray,
1961).
RELAY RAMP BETWEEN OVERLAPPING
FAULTS DIPPING IN THE SAME
DIRECTION
A relay ramp (Larsen, 1988; Peacock and Sanderson,
1991) is a structure that may form between the tips of
two en echelon normal faults dipping in the same
Study
O 20mi
r------r
O 30 km
EXPLANATION
_..1J.- Fault (U=upthrown
D D=downthrown)
/c Outcrop
O 1 mi
O 1 km
0Aa2132c
Figure 3. Location of outcrops within overlapping en eche-
Ion faults in western Comal County. Outcrops a-d corre-
spond to cross sections a-d in Figure 4.
79
direction. The ramp connects the hanging-wall and
footwall blocks of the faults. Displacement from one
fault is transferred across the relay ramp to the other
fault. Because relay ramps are strained zones produced
by shearing and block rotation during slip along the
overlapping faults (Larsen, 1988), they may be cut by
additional smaller faults.
Within the Balcones Fault Zone, Grimshaw (1976)
and Grimshaw and Woodruff (1986) recognized large
(approximately 6-mi-wide [10-km-wide]) ramp struc-
tures, which form steps in the throw of the fault zone.
This study focuses on smaller sized (up to 0.6-mi-wide
[1-km-wide]) ramps, which connect individual fault
strands that are commonly between 3.7 and 12.4 mi (6
and 20 km) long. A unique series of road-cut outcrops
in westem Comal County provides an oblique, cross-
sectional view of the fractures within a ramp that con-
nects two en echelon faults (Fig. 3). The large master
faults strike N60-65E and dip 60 to 70 southeastward
(Figs. 3 and 4). Precise fault throw within the outcrop-
ping Glen Rose Limestone is unknown because of the
absence of subsurface data; however, throw is esti-
mated to be between 20 and 98 ft (6 and 30 m). The
faults overlap about 1.2 mi [2 km] along strike, and the
fault tips are separated by a ramp that is up to 0.6 mi (1
km) wide.
Strata adjacent to the master faults are intensely frac-
tured, and distinct fracture zones, or halos, have
formed. These fracture zones are up to 10 ft (3 m) wide
and consist of anastomosing fractures. The fracture
zones are better developed on the ramp side of the
master faults. The fracture zone adjacent to the north-
westem master fault is better developed on the hang-
ing-wall block, whereas the zone adjacent to the south-
ern master fault is preferentially developed on the
footwall block. Striations on the master faults indicate
that slip was parallel to the fault plane dip, at S25-30E
(Fig. 5). Strata adjacent to the master faults are gently
folded and dip as muchas 10. At both master faults,
faulted beds dip gently into the ramp area. Beds adja-
cent to the northwestern master fault dip southeast-
ward, and faulted beds at the southeastem master fault
dip northwestward. Fracturing is very intense locally
within the folded beds.
Within the ramp, small normal faults with throws
commonly less than 0.6 ft (0.2 m) are very abundant.
Striations are well developed on most fault surfaces,
and they aid in the recognition of slip on small faults
that only have centimeter- to millimeter-scale displace-
ment. Calcite coats most of the fault surfaces. On the
downthrown, southeast side of the ramp, a 0.2- to 0.25-
mi-wide (0.3- to 0.4-km-wide) graben has formed. This
graben probably is a ramp-related structure, and
although graben are not associated with all ramps,
detailed mapping in other parts of the Balcones Fault
Zone (Garner and others, 1976) indicates ramps with
graben are present elsewhere.
Small faults within and adjacent to the ramp have
strikes that span the compass (0-180). Of the two best
developed fault sets, one strikes northeastward at N25-
700E, similar to the two master faults, and the other
strikes northwestward at N30-60W (Fig. 5). Another
fault set striking eastward at N80-l10E is well devel-
80 GULF COAST ASSOCIATION OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES
(a)
South
1) \
(b)
Small faults
North
Abundant joints and joints
100
m to
; /.,,, 11\ff@! ljr}.;'-'-'f'l/: t:\ ,Y./ ,_ "---+ section b
'\- Figure 5a
Abundant v/ Abundant
South small faults /"' small faults North
G> m to
- - - / C.. 1 ---+ section e
Figure 5b Figure 5c
(e)
South

Abundant small faults
1 2;-; <:,,y\ ?\
North
\:J 21 X k , ?:z;::,-
300m to
tt m section d
Figure 5d Fault
surfac:e
80J20
o
o 80ft
(d)
South Abundant small taults North
[$''?,,":"

,. Smallfaults
- - - :..:..:::...._ - ,_ ,, '''>1'5i3 ,
Figure 5e Fault / Figure 51
surface
QAa2133c
Figure 4. Cross sections of fractured Cretaceous Glen Rose Limestone showing fracture intensity within overlapping en ech-
elon faults. Cross sections a-d correspond to outcrop locations a-d in Figure 3. Locations for collection of fracture data that
are presented in equal-area net plots of Figure 5 are indicated as 5a-5f.
oped within the graben adjacent to the ramp. Sorne
small east-striking faults also occur within the ramp.
The small faults dip mostly between 50 and 70.
Striations on the surfaces of the small faults in all three
sets indicate that slip has been parallel to and slightly
oblique to the fault dip direction. Rakes on oblique-slip
faults are usually greater than 70.
The extensional slip on the small northeast-striking
faults appears to have varied slightly from S30-35E at
the northwest part of the ramp to S10-20E at the
southeast side of the ramp. These small faults dip both
northwestward and southeastward. Small northwest-
striking faults, which have formed as cross faults
within the ramp area, dip northeastward and south-
westward. Striations on these faults show that exten-
sion was N55-65E, parallel and slightly oblique to the
dip of the fault surfaces. The small east-striking faults
are most abundant in the graben, and they dip north-
northwest and south-southeast. Striations that are par-
allel to and slightly oblique to the dip of these east-
striking fault surfaces indicate that extension was
southward at Sl0E to S20W. The shift in small fault
orientations from northeast to east-northeast across the
Figure 5. Lower hemisphere equal-area net plots of fracture
geometry data collected at western Comal County study
area. (a) Stereographic projection of joint surfaces and potes
(dots) to joint planes. (b)-(f) Stereographic projection of
fault surfaces, potes (dots) to fault planes, and striations/
lineations (arrows) on fault surfaces. Locations for collec-
tion of fracture data are shown in Figure 4.
COLLINS
ramp appears to be gradual. The master antithetic fault
of the graben also strikes eastward and dips about 55
toward the north. Fracture style changes abruptly
across the ramp and associated graben. Small faults are
most abundant in the ramp and at the northern part of
the graben, whereas joints are the main type of fracture
within the southern part of the graben. These joints
strike N65-100E, similar to many of the small faults.
Most joints dip greater than 70 south-southeastward.
Many of these joints cut through the entire height of the
outcrop, about 16 ft (5 m). Dissolution has widened
sorne of the joints, indicating that they have been con-
duits for ground-water flow.
HORST BRIDGE BETWEEN EN
ECHELON FAULTS DIPPING IN
OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS
Within the Balcones Fault Zone, horst bridges
between en echelon faults dipping in opposite direc-
tions (Figs. 2b and 6) are not as common as relay
ramps between overlapping faults dipping in the
same direction. However, outcrops of upper Austin
Chalk along the bed and banks of a creek that tran-
sects a fault-overlap zone in northern Ellis County
enabled the study of a horst type of structural bridge
between overlapping faults dipping in opposite direc-
tions. Both types of structural settings contain frac-
tures with similar characteristics.
At the Ellis County study site, the two en echelon
master normal faults strike northeastward at N30-
400E. One fault dips about 63 northwestward (Reaser,
1961), and the other fault dips southeastward at an
unknown angle. Throw across the faults is as much as
90 ft (27 m), although fault throws near the fault ter-
minations at the overlap area are probably less than 90
ft (27 m). Vegetation and stream alluvium cover most
Northwest
Northwest
_;e
,,' Study

,.
Southeas\
o
1----T--"
e lkm
Southeast
- . __ =:r
---===e:== "1"'
600m
0
:;: lOOOft O MArkP.r bed
Ven real x 1 O
Figure 6. Location of study outcrop within overlapping en
echelon faults in northern Ellis County and cross section
through area. Kau = Austin Chalk, Qal = alluvium.
(a)
(b)
Contour
interval
114-7%
>7%
(e)
5
"'
m-
-e:
C:Q)
e E
-a
-
o u
'-== Q)o
.O o


ZQJ
a.
o
N
N
N
1
Joints
n = 34
81
0Aa2136c
Figure 7. Lower hemisphere, equal-area net plots of fault
geometry data and rose diagram of joint data collected at
northem Ellis County study area. (a) Stereographic projec-
tion of fault surfaces and potes (dots) to fault surfaces. (b)
Contoured stereographic projection of poles to fault sur-
faces. (e) Rose diagram of nearly vertical joint azimuths.
82 GULF COAST ASSOCIATION OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES
of the bridge area between the faults. Core and electri-
cal logs of borings drilled for studies of the
Superconducting Super Collider aided in recognizing
the northeastern trace of the southeast-dipping master
fault. The horst bridge between the faults is about 0.8
mi (1.3 km) wide. Poor exposures at the master faults
prevent precise identification of the master fault tips
and the amount of fault overlap. lt is possible that
these faults could be underlapped (Larsen, 1988, p. 7)
rather than overlapped. In either case the bridge area
is a strained zone because of shearing during slip
along the bounding offset faults (Larsen, 1988, p. 7).
Small normal faults with throws commonly less
than 1.6 ft (0.5 m) and joints are very common within
the horst bridge. The bridge area is a mosaic of inter-
mingled fault and joint sets having multiple strikes
(Fig. 7). Most small faults strike in one of three direc-
tions, N40-65E, N75-100E, and N5-45W. A less com-
mon set of small faults strikes N10-25E. Dips are
mostly between 50 and 70. Northeast-striking faults
dip southeastward and northwestward, northwest-
striking faults dip northeastward and southwestward,
and the east-northeast-striking faults dip north-north-
westward and south-southeastward. Striations along
fault surfaces of each set are nearly parallel to dip,
similar to faults in other areas along the Balcones
Fault Zone (Collins, 1987; Reaser and Collins, 1988;
Collins and others, 1992). Nearly vertical joints also
occur, mostly within three sets that strike N30-50E,
N75-100E, and N1-30W. Most fracture heights and
lengths exceed the outcrop dimensions, although the
length of one swarm of severa} faults with a cumula-
(a) .-L 1 1
tive throw of about 3 ft (1 m) was traced for over 130
ft (40 m).
FRACTURE SPACING AND
CONNECTIVITY IN OVERLAP AREAS
Areas between overlapping traces of en echelon
faults locally contain numerous fractures with variable
spacing. Sorne individual beds and multiple-bed pack-
ages may be more fractured than other beds, and the
fractures do not have uniform spacing within any
given unit. Fault overlap areas are a mosaic of individ-
ual fractures (small faults and joints) and swarms of
dosel y spaced faults and/ or joints. Variations in the
spacing and strikes of individual fractures and fracture
swarms cause fracture connectivity to be high locally.
A traverse across 1,800 ft (550 m) of Glen Rose
Limestone in western Comal County within the ramp
between overlapping master faults dipping in the same
direction intersected over 130 small faults and many
joints (Fig. 8a). Spacing of single small faults and frac-
ture swarms is commonly between 8 and 50 ft (2.5 and
15m). Swarms of small faults are as muchas 20ft (6 m)
wide and contain as many as 12 faults. Joints domnate
the graben associated with the ramp, and spacing
between the joints is between 2 and 15 ft (0.6 and 4.5
m).
A sean line along a 1,640-ft (500-m) traverse within
the northern Ellis County horst bridge between over-
lapping master. faults dipping in opposite directions
intersected more than 70 small faults and numerous
swarms of closely spaced joints in upper Austin Chalk
! 1 1 1 11
-tiiiHIIIIIIHI1-ti-HI !f-t-1 -HIIH-!IIt+-11+-1+ill+tiiiHI-HIIHtllll-11-it-11-t-1-HIIr---t-1 tHIIIiltt-11+1111-+tiiii-H---t--1 ---------------------- 1! h!: 111111111 1111111*
1 11 L 1 1 1 J._, l UID
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-----------------------------*
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*- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --1f-----t-+-+ ' *
1
*
. -----------------------------------*
*----------------------------------------------------*
t ), L t t , t , t l ! ! J-..
* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i lil 1 .!1 1 1 11 1 11 1 IMI!!I *
J., ,1, 1 1 1 0/U
* lltlllillll l:lll!i il 1
1 1
'f

1 1 f --"-.

U/0 Large fault
(U=upthrown; O::downthrown)
i JOLilt Small tault * Continuat;on of scanline
o
o
tOO ft
30 tt
0A<l2137c
Figure 8. Sean lines showing fractures encountered along outcrop traverses. Line a is within Cretaceous Glen Rose
Limestone in an overlap area between two en echelon master faults dipping in the same direction. Outcrop locations are
shown in Figure 3. Line b is within Cretaceous Austin Chalk in an overlap area between two en echelon faults dipping in
opposite directions. Outcrop location is shown in Figure 6.
COLLINS 83
(a)
0/U
(b)
(C)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~ - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
~ - - - - - - ~ ~ - + r r - - - - - - - - ~ ~ ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
U/0 Large fault
(U=upthrown: O=downthrown)
Jornt Small fault * Contrnuation of scanline
o
o
100 f1
30 f1
0Aa2'3Bc
Figure 9. Sean lines showing fractures encountered along outcrop traverses in Austin Chalk of Ellis County. Line a is adja-
cent to a fault having about 60 ft (18 m) of throw. Lines b and e do not cross large faults or folds and represent fracture inten-
sity away from large faults. Modified from Collins and others (1992).
(Fig. 8b ). Spacing of single small fractures and fracture
swarms is between 6.5 and 150 ft (2 and 46 m). Swarms
of small faults are as muchas 20ft (6 m) wide and con-
tainas many as 15 faults. Joint swarms that are as
much as 39 ft (12 m) wide have fracture spacing of 2 to
5 ft (0.6 to 1.5 m).
Areas bctween en echelon faults have about twice
as many fractures per unit traverse length as do areas
having only regional fracture abundance patterns
(Figs. 8 and 9), but fault overlap areas may have
fewer fractures than are found in local areas directly
adjacent to large faults. Howcver, fractured areas in
the overlap between en echelon faults may be larger
than in the fracture zones adjacent to large faults. The
multiple strikes of intermingled fracture sets within
fault overlap areas may cause high fracture connec-
tivity locally. Vertical and cross-strike fracture con-
nections result mainly from intersections among
small faults. The best fracture connectivity occurs
within swarms of small faults. Although joints within
joint swarms are often poorly connected, local cross
joints cause sorne cross-strike connectivity. Joints are
poorly interconnected vertically. In shallow near-sur-
face beds, separation of the limestone beds along bed-
ding planes may also cause joints and faults to be
connected.
SUMMARY
1. Two types of fault overlap exist within master en
echelon faults of the Balcones Fault Zone: (a) relay
ramps between overlapping master faults dipping in
the same direction and (b) horst bridges between
overlapping faults dipping in opposite directions.
Overlap areas are about 0.6 mi (1 km) wide, and en
echelon master faults may overlap by as much as 1.2
mi (2 km).
2. Fault overlap areas are a mosaic of individual
fractures and swarms of dosel y spaced faults and 1 or
joints. Spacing of single small faults and fracture
swarms is commonly between 6.5 and 150 ft (2 and 46
m). Fault swarms are as much as 20ft (6 m) wide and
may contain as many as 15 faults. Joint swarms are up
to 40 ft (12 m) wide and have fracture spacings of 2 to
5 ft (0.6 to 1.5 m). Fractured overlap areas consist of a
mosaic of intermingled fracture sets having multiple
strikes, and fracture connectivity is locally high.
Heights of fractures commonly exceed the limits of
the outcrop, approximately 16 ft (5 m) locally. Most
fracture lengths are unknown because they exceed the
outcrop dimensions; however, one swarm of several
small faults was mapped for more than 130ft (40 m).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was conducted during mapping inves-
tigations of the 30- by 60-minute New Braunfels
Quadrangle for the ongoing U.S. Geological Survey
COGEOMAP project, funded under contract no. 1434-
92-A-1085, and during geologic investigations of the
Superconducting Super Collider, funded by the Texas
National Research Laboratory Commission (TNRLC)
under interag.ency contract IAC(90-91)1650. C. D.
Henry helped collect sorne of the fault data in western
Comal County. This paper benefited from useful com-
ments by J. A. Raney and T. F. Hentz. Helpful editorial
comments were made by B. S. Duncan.
REFERENCES CITED
Collins, E. W., 1987, Characterization of fractures in
limestones, northern segment of the Edwards
aquifer and Balcones Fault Zone, Central Texas:
GCAGS Trans., v. 37, p. 43-53.
Collins, E. W., S. D. Hovorka, and S. E. Laubach, 1992,
Fracture systems of the Austin Chalk, North-Central
Texas, in J. W. Schmoker, E. B. Coalson, and C. A.
Brown, eds., Geological studies relevant to horizon-
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84 GULF COAST ASSOCIATTON OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES
Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, p.
129-142.
Collins, E. W., and S. E. Laubach, 1990, Faults and frac-
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Central Texas: Austin Geological Society Guidebook
13,34 p.
Corbett, K. P., 1982, Structural stratigraphy of the
Austin Chalk: College Station, Texas A&M
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Corbett, K. P., M. Friedman, and J. Spang, 1987,
Fracture development and mechanical stratigraphy
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Corbett, K. P., M. Friedman, D. V. Wiltschko, and J.-H.
Hung, 1991a, Controls on fracture development,
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Corbett, K. P., M. Friedman, D. V. Wiltschko, and J.-H.,
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Weaver, 1961, The Ouachita System: Austin,
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