1

Vitamins
QUESTIONS
What is vitamin? Or the definition of
vitamin?
How to classify the vitamins? And
according to what?
What are the diverse biochemical
functions of different vitamins?
Definition of vitamin
A vitamin is an organic compound required as a
nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism.
A compound is called a vitamin when it cannot
be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an
organism, and must be obtained from the diet.
Thus, the term is conditional both on the circumstances and the
particular organism.
For example, ascorbic acid functions as vitamin C for some
animals but not others, and vitamins D and K are required in the
human diet only in certain circumstances.
And therefore, the term vitamin does not include other
essential nutrients such as:
dietary minerals,
essential fatty acids,
or essential amino acids,
nor does it encompass the large number of other
nutrients that promote health but are otherwise required
less often.
QUESTIONS
What is vitamin? Or the definition of
vitamin?
How to classify the vitamins? And
according to what?
What are the diverse biochemical
functions of different vitamins?
Classification of vitamin
Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical
activity, not their structure.
Thus, each "vitamin" may refer to several vitamer compounds
that all show the biological activity associated with a particular
vitamin.
For example, "vitamin A," which includes the compounds retinal,
retinol, and many carotenoids.
Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat soluble.
In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E and K)
and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C).
Cont-
2
Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with
the help of lipids (fats). Because they are more likely to accumulate
in the body, they are more likely to lead to hyper-vitaminosisthan
water-soluble vitamins.
Cont-
Fat-soluble vitamins
Fat Phyllo-quinone, mena-quinones Vitamin K
Fat Tocopherols, tocotrienols Vitamin E
Fat Ergo-calciferol, cholec-alciferol Vitamin D
Fat
Retinoids(retinol, retinoids and
carotenoids)
Vitamin A
Solubility
Vitamer chemical name(s)
Vitamin generic
descriptor name
Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water, and in general, are
readily excreted fromthe body, to the degree that urinary output is a
strong predictor of vitamin consumption. Because they are not
readily stored, consistent daily intake is very important.
Water-soluble vitamins
Water Ascorbic acid Vitamin C
Water
Cyanocobalamin, hydroxycobalamin,
methylcobalamin
Vitamin B
12
Water Folic acid, folinic acid Vitamin B
9
Water Biotin Vitamin B
7
Water Pyridoxine, pyridoxamine, pyridoxal Vitamin B
6
Water Pantothenic acid Vitamin B
5
Water Niacin, niacinamide Vitamin B
3
Water Riboflavin Vitamin B
2
Water Thiamine Vitamin B
1
Solubility Vitamer chemical name(s)
Vitamin generic
descriptor name
QUESTIONS?
Where are vitamin F,G..?
Protein metabolite S-Methylmethionine Vitamin U
Reclassified as Vitamin B3 Niacin Vitamin PP
No longer classified as avitamin Flavonoids Vitamin P
Protein metabolite Carnitine Vitamin O
Reclassified as Vitamin B9 Folic acid Vitamin M
RNA metabolite Adenylthiomethylpentose Vitamin L
2
Protein metabolite Anthranilicacid Vitamin L
1
Protein metabolite Catechol, Flavin Vitamin J
Reclassified as Vitamin B7 Biotin Vitamin H
Reclassified as Vitamin B2 Riboflavin Vitamin G
Needed in largequantities Essential fatty acids Vitamin F
DNA metabolite Adenylic acid Vitamin B
8
DNA metabolite Adenine Vitamin B
4
Reason for namechange Chemical name Previous name
QUESTIONS
What is vitamin? Or the definition of
vitamin?
How to classify the vitamins? And
according to what?
What are the diverse biochemical
functions of different vitamins?
Functions of vitamins
Hormones (e.g. vitamin D)
Antioxidants (e.g. vitamin E)
Mediators of cell signaling and regulators of cell and tissue growth
and differentiation (e.g. vitamin A)
Precursors for enzyme cofactor bio-molecules (coenzymes), that
help act as catalysts and substrates in metabolism (e.g. B complex
vitamins) .
e.g. biotin is part of enzymes involved in making fatty acids.
Coenzymes to carry chemical groups between enzymes.
e.g. folic acid carries various forms of carbon group methyl,
formyl and methylene - in the cell.
3
Other topics with vitamins
A primary deficiency occurs when an organismdoes not get enough of thevitamin
in its food.
A secondary deficiency may bedueto an underlying disorder that prevents or
limits theabsorption or useof thevitamin, dueto alifestylefactor, such as smoking,
excessivealcohol consumption, or theuseof medications that interferewith the
absorption or useof thevitamin.
Vitamin poisoning, hyper-vitaminosis or vitamin overdose refers to a
condition of high storagelevels of vitamins, which can lead to toxic symptoms.
At high enough dosages, somevitamins causesideeffects such asnausea,
diarrhea, and vomiting.
Deficiencies
Side effects and overdose
Vitamin A
Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin which is important as a component of the protein
rhodopsin(, a light absorbing pigment found in the retina of the eyes.
There are two forms of vitamin A. vitamin A1 is common in marine fishes, whilst
vitamin A2 is common in freshwater fishes. Difference?
Vitamin A is also important in cells other than the retina since deficiency causes
damage in epithelial, bony and connective tissues.
-Carotene is often used as a dietary source of vitamin A. Why?
Vitamin D
The vitamin D group of compounds consists of several molecules, although the most
important are vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3.
Of these, it appears that fish are only able to use vitamin D3.
Vitamin D is a precursor to 1,25-dihydroycholecalciferol), a hormone
important in regulating calciumand phosphate levels in the serum.
Vitamin D synthesis occurs in most animals by ultraviolet radiation of 7-
dehydrocholesterol. Whilst this reaction is likely to occur in many fishes, the shallow
penetration of UV irradiation through water is likely to lead to a requirement for vitamin
D in the diet of fish.
Vitamin E
Vitamin E, also known as tocopherol, acts as an antioxidant, particularly
protecting polyunsaturated fatty acids.
High dietary levels of poly-unsaturated fatty acids increase the
requirement for dietary vitamin E.
An interaction exists between vitamin E and selenium, a metallic anti-
oxidant; vitamin E requirement are greater in selenium-depleted fish.
Vitamin K
Vitamin K is important in the synthesis of prothrombin(, a protein which is
important in blood clotting.
Vitamin K is a group of one of several compounds called phyllo-quinone or mena-
quinone, which are isolated from plant or animal tissue respectively.
A third compound, menadione, is a synthetic compound that has greater vitamin K
activity than either of the naturally occurring substances.
Vitamin K is required by all animals, including fish, for normal blood clotting.
In 1943, Edward Adelbert Doisy and Henrik Dam were awarded the Nobel Prize for
their discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure.
Vitamin C
The first recognized function of ascorbic acid is its role in hydroxylating()
the proline to hydroxyproline for use in cartilage synthesis.
It is involved in carnitine synthesis and in the detoxification of pesticides and
other toxicants in processes involving cytochrome P450.
It is a highly labile vitamin easil y destroyed by cooking or lengthy or
improper storage of food.
It is usually added to fine to 10-fold excess to allow for degradation during
storage and to provide some shelf-life to the feed.
In 1937, Szent-Gyorgyi was awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery of
vitamin C.
4
Vitamin B
1
The active form of thiamineis thiamine pyrophosphate.
Thiamine pyrophosphate is a coenzyme for reactions which are involved in
carbohydrate metabolism.
Of Particular importance is the role of thiamine in the conversion of pyruvate
to acetyl CoA.
Hopkins was awarded the 1929 Nobel prize for Physiology or Medicine with
Christiaan Eijkman for their discovery of several vitamins.
Vitamin B
2
Riboflavin (is a yellow pigmented molecule which in the body
forms a component of the molecule flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD).
FAD is a cofactor in a number of oxidation-reduction reactions and acts as
an energy currency similar to ATP.
It is particularly important in the degradation of pyruvate, fatty acids and
amino acids, and in the process of electron transport.
Vitamin B
3
Nicotinic acid, or niacin as it has been commonly named, is a component of two high-
energy molecules-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
NAD and NADP are, like FAD, important in a number of oxidation and reduction
reactions that occur within cells.
Nicotinic acid can be synthesized by most animals from the amino acid tryptophan,
and nicacin deficiencies can be avoided by feeeding a diet high in tryptophan.
Tryptophan, however, is only present in very small amounts in most animals meals,
and supplementation of the diet with nicotinic acid is therefore advisable.
Vitamin B
5
Pantothenic acid (or coenzyme A is the coenzyme of acetyl,
acyl or propionic CoA.
This molecule serves as a carrier of various carbohydrate groups
and is involved in reactions in fatty acid oxidation, fatty acid
synthesis, pyruvate oxidation and acetylations.
The presence of coenzyme A within a cell is fundamental to the
transfer of energy throughout the various reactions.
Vitamin B
6
Pyridoxine acts as an important coenzyme in
transamination reactions.
The full imoportance of this coenzyme in fish nutrition
will be realized when it is recalled that one of the major
sources of energy in fish metabolism occurs from the
degradation of amino acids.
Vitamin B
7
Biotin acts to facilitate carbon dioxide transfer in reactions which require the addition
of CO2 to another molecule.
Biotin is made by intestinal bacteria, and a deficiency in this vitamin is not readily
produced b with holding the vitamin from the diet.
A glycoprotein component of egg white called avidin binds biotin in the gut such that it
cannot be absorbed by the intestinal mucosa and thus can be used to induce biotin
deficiency.
Heat denatures avidin, allowing it to be digested and so any biotin complexedcan be
absorbed. Clearly care must be taken if including raw eggs into fish feeds.
5
Vitamin B
9
Folic acid is a cofactor in the transfer of single carbon entities to
other molecules in the same way that biotin is a carrier for CO2.
The folic acid molecule is composed of three separate parts called
pterodine, p-aminobenzoic acid and glutamic acid.
In some organisms, folic acid can be synthesized if p-aminobenzoic
acid is provided in the diet.
Vitamin B
12
Vitamin B12 is essential for normal maturation and development.
It is required for the synthesis of choline and the metabolism of single
carbon fragments.
The requirement for vitamin B12 in the diet is only as a trace, and it is
difficult to induce a dietary deficiency because vitamin B12 is synthesized
by microorganisms in the gut.
The usual problem with vitamin B12 deficiency occurs because a carrier
mucoglycoprotein called intrinsic factor is lacking in the gut.
The absence of intrinsic factor means that the vitamin B12 present in the
intestinal contents will not be absorbed by the animal and deficiency results.
Nyctalopia
Rickets
Pre-oxidation
Hemolytic disease of newborn
6
Determining vitamin requirements in fish is
difficult
Many vitamins are produced by microorganisms in the gut.
It is likely that all vitamins are required by all fish, but whether it is
necessary to include them a formulated diet is a different matter.
(Carp and other carnivorous species)
Natural sources of vitamins (pond and tanks?)
Black sea bass
Largemouth bass
Atlantic salmon
Ayu
Channel catfish
Common carp
Eel
Turbot
Rainbow trout
Sturgeon
Tilapia
Red drum
Summary of the vitamin requirements of
various various species of fish
P.japonicus
P.monodon
L.vannamei
Macrobrachium rosenbergii
Macrobrachium nipponense
Fenneropenaeus chinensis
7
Chinese mitten Crab
Mangrove crab
Swimming crab
Vitamin levels (mg/kg diet) needed for maximum growth of
various shrimp species
Minerals in Fish Nutrition:
Challenges and Opportunities
From Santosh P. Lall
Institute for Marine Biosciences
National Research Council
Halifax, Canada
Mineral Metabolism
(Nyogi and Wood, 2004)
Water Blood
Biotic Ligand
Unknown Site
of Action
Na
+
Transport Site
Na
+
Ca
2+
Transport
Site
Ca
2+
H
+
Mg
2+
Cd
2+
Co
2+
Zn
2+
Pb
2+
Ag
+
Na
+
Mg
2+
Ca
2+
H
+
H
+
Cu
+
Ni
2+
Ca
2+
4.0
4.0
3.0
7.5
7.4-8.0
7.3-10.0
4.3-5.9
2.3-3.6
3.6
2.3-3.2
2.4-3.5
3.1-4.0
6.7-4.0
5.0-3.3
5.3-5.5
5.1
8.6 6.0
Hypothetical representation of cellular IRON uptake
pathways in fish (data from gill and intestine)
Water/lumen
Li
Fe
Fe
3+
, Fe(OH)
3
-
Diffusion layer
Mucus layer
H
+
Fe
2+
Fe
2+
TF
Fe
3+
Fe
2+
Fe
3+
ZTL
Iron (Fe)
DMT1
FR
Fe
2+
IREG
Blood
HP
Fe
3+
8
Hypothetical representation of cellular COPPER uptake
pathways in fish (data from gill and intestine)
Water/lumen
Li
Cu
Cu
2+
Diffusion layer
Cu
+
Mucus layer
ZTL
Copper (Cu)
ATP
Cu
MT
ENaC
Blood
Cu
+
Cu
+
H
+ Cu
2+
CTR1
CR
H
+
Cl
-
Cu Cu
+
/Ag
+
ATP
?
MBP
Cu
Cu
MC
MBP
Cu
MBP
Cu
+ ATP GN
MNK
Interrelationships Between Macro and Trace
Minerals in Metabolism
Hg
Co
Cu
K
W
Se
As
Pb
F
Mg
Cd
Ca
Al
I
Zn
S
Na
Mn
Mo
Fe
P
Te
Mineral Tolerance in
Fish
Essential: Copper, Molybdenum,
Selenium, Fluorine, Arsenic,
Cadmium, Lead
Other: Mercury, Aluminum
Toxic Elements
Aquatic environment
Partitioning
Solution
Solid
Speciation
(different forms)
Partitioning
(substrates)
Uptake
Biochemical
metabolism
Toxicity or
hazardous
bioconcentration
Toxicants from Environment and Feeds
Antagonistic, synergistic,
additive interactions
Water temperature
Feed
Feces
Urine
Discharge
(accumulation by plants,
molluscs and crustaceans)
Recirculation system
Soluble minerals
Fish
Requirement
9
Mineral Requirement of Certain Fish
R R R (0.15-0.3 RT
6
) Selenium (mg/kg)
12 2.4 10 Manganese (mg/kg)
3.5 5 5 Copper (mg/kg)
R 30 30-60 Iron (mg/kg)
20 20 37-67 Zinc (mg/kg)
R R R (0.8 PS
5
) Potassium (%)
NT NT 0.6 E
4
Sodium (%)
0.06 0.04 0.04 Magnesium (%)
0.9 0.45 0.6 Phosphorus (%)
R
2
NT NT
3
Calcium (%)
Tilapia Channel catfish Atlantic salmon Mineral
1
(Lall, 2002)
1
% or mg/kg diet (as-fed basis)
2
R, required in diet but quantity not determined
3
NT, not tested
4
Estimated
5
Pacific salmon
6
Rainbow trout
0 10 20 30 40 50
Ca
P
K
Na
Mg
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Fe
Zn
Mn
Cu
Pb
Co
Ni
Cr
Cd
g/kg of feed mg/kg of feed
Variability Variability in in Mineral Mineral Content of Content of
Commercial Commercial Salmonid Feeds Salmonid Feeds
( ( Indicates dietary requirement estimates Indicates dietary requirement estimates for for small fish small fish ) )
Concentration high
Bioavailability low
Adapted from Kaushik (2002)
Deficiencies
Adult Fish
Eggs
Metamorphosis
Hatching
Yolk-sac larva
Embryo
Fertilization
J
u
v
e
n
i
l
e
J
u
v
e
n
i
l
e
First-feeding
larva
Larva Larva
Yolk-sac larva
Mineral Deficiencies Affect all Stages of Development
Certain Skeletal Deformities in Fish
Nutrient Deficiencies or Toxicities
Trace elements (Mn, Zn, Cu, F, Se, I)
Phosphorus
Vitamin C & K
Retinoic acid toxicity
Phospholipid, DHA
Diffused
Vertebra
P deficient
Phosphorus Deficiency in Haddock
1500 mm
500m
10
Mineralized tissues: Bone, Cartilage, Dentine
Unlimited growth
Constant remodelling
mechanical changes
metabolic changes
Fish Skeleton: A complex metabolically acti ve tissue
that serves multiple physiological functions
Organic (~35%)
*
Non-collagenous proteins: glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans,
glycoproteins etc.
Inorganic (~65%)
*
Hydroxyapatite [Ca
10
(PO
4
)
6
(OH)
2
]
Magnesium, sodium, potassium, carbonate containing salts,
fluorine, zinc, iron, copper, manganese and other trace elements,
heavy metals (accumulated)
* (fat-free dry weight)
Cells in Bone Remodeling Process
Osteoblasts (bone forming cells)
Osteocytes (mineralizing cells; entrapped
inside the bone matrix)
Osteoclasts (bone resorbing cells)
Bone formation Resorption Mineralization
Vitamin C High Vitamin A Vitamin A (?), K
Vitamin E ? High Phosphorus Ca, P, Zn, Mn, Va, Si,
Cu, Se (cartilage)
Osteocytes Osteocytes
Acellular Bone Acellular Bone
Osteoclasts Osteoclasts
Cellular Bone Cellular Bone
Osteoclasts Osteoclasts
Osteoblasts Osteoblasts Osteoblasts Osteoblasts
No
Osteocytes !
No
Osteocytes !
Systematic and Local Factors
Hormones, cytokines, growth factors, prostagl andins, leucotrienes and nitric oxide
Nutrients and Bone Metabolism
Vitamin D
3
, Calcium, Phosphorus, Vitamin A and K and Bone Metabolism
25-OH-lase
(liver)
25 (OH) D
3
- carboxylase
(vitamin K dep.)
Osteocalcin
Egg Ca & P
Stanniocalcin, Calcitonin,
Growth hormone, Somatolactin,
Ca & P (circulation),
1, 25 (OH)
2
D
3
feedback
Ca & P
Excretion
Pro-osteocalcin
(osteoblasts)
1-OH-lase
(kidney, liver, gut,
gills & scales)
24-OH-lase
(kidney)
Blood Ca & P
Intestine Ca & P
Duodenal CaBP
24, 25 (OH)
2
D
3
1,25 (OH)
2
D
3
Bone Ca & P
Vitamin D
3
Retinoic acid
Challenges
Define role of key nutrients in pathogenesis of skeletal deformities
(embryo, larvae, juveniles and adult)
Vitamin A and K
Calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D interactions
Trace elements
Lipid peroxidation and pathogenesis biochemical mechanisms
Development of sensitive method for visualizing skeletal development
Molecular basis to distinguish skeletal development
Head, jaw, branchial arch, vertebrae and fin
Characterization of bone cells activity of osteoclasts and
osteoblasts.
Role of hormones, cytokines, growth factors, prostaglandins and
leucotrienes
Species differences and genetic differences among species
11
Cataract
Zinc deficiency and other dietary factors
Selenium requirement (mg/kg) : Selenium requirement (mg/kg) : 0.3 0.3
Selenium toxicity (mg/kg) Selenium toxicity (mg/kg) 13 13- -15 15
Nephrocalcinosis
10 mg/kg causes 10 mg/kg causes nephrocalcinosis nephrocalcinosis
(Lall, 2002)
Other Mineral Deficiency Signs
Tetany(potassium)
Convulsions (potassium, magnesium)
Hypochromic microcytic anemia (iron)
Muscular dystrophy & exudative diathesis
(selenium)
Thyroid hyperplasia (iodine)
Other metabolic diseases
Immune Response and
Disease Resistance
INTERACTIONS AMONG INFECTION,
NUTRITIONAL STATUS AND
HOST DEFENCE MECHANISMS
INFECTION NUTRITION
HOST DEFENCE MECHANISMS
+
+
ANTIGENICALLY
SPECIFIC
NON-
SPECIFIC
INSECT
LOBSTER
TROUT
HUMANS
Nonspecific
(innate)
Defense
Mechanisms
Importance of the Nonspecific (innate) Defense
Mechanisms in the Protection of Animals Against
Diseases
Specific (acquired)
Immune Response
LAMPREY
Iron
Fatty acids
Amino acids
12
Role of iron in nutrition and immune response
of fish
Two possibilities:
Iron deficiency predisposes animals to infection
Fe supplementation might be expected to increase
disease resistance
Iron deficiency protects against infection by
limiting the amount available to bacteria for
growth
Fe supplementation would increase susceptibility to
infection
A delicate balance between the iron requirements of the host and
the invading microorganisms may be involved in mounting an
effective immune response of the host
Iron and Bacterial Pathogens
Iron is essential for bacterial growth Iron chelators (siderophore) are
produced by bacteria to obtain iron
from environment or fish
If the supply of iron in the host is high, there is a higher potential for
certain bacterial pathogens to obtain iron from host The excess
iron excreted by the fish in aquaculture effluents
provides iron for growth of pathogens
Bioavailability
- phosphorus
-iron
Mineral Bioavailability
Factors Affecting Bioavailability
Nutritional status of fish (body,skeletal and
other tissues etc.) growth, reproduction, disease
Total mineral content of the diet and water
Mineral interactions
Availability of soluble minerals from diet
Chemical form, particle size, diet digestibility
Solubility in the intestinal lumen
Specific inhibitors
Enhancers (chelates)
Interrelationships Between Macro and Trace
Minerals in Metabolism
Hg
Co
Cu
K
W
Se
As
Pb
F
Mg
Cd
Ca
Al
I
Zn
S
Na
Mn
Mo
Fe
P
Te
Alternate Protein Sources to Fish Meal
13
Plant Protein vs. Fish meal
Low mineral concentration Ca, P, Fe
Phytates limited or low bioavailability
Trace element bioavailability
Mineral supplementation necessary
Low fecal mineral output
Heavy metal contaminants?
Phosphorus availability from some common
plant feedstuffs
a
0-5 0-19
c
Phytate
81 - Brewers dried yeast
32 55
d
Wheat middlings
- 47
d
Soybean meal, phytase treated
36 22-28
d
Soybean meal, dehulled
22 - Canola meal
41 9-31
d,e
Corn gluten meal
Atlantic salmon
b
(%)
Rainbow trout
(%)
Source
a
Values mainlyrepresent P digestibility coefficients;
b
Lall, unpublished results;
c
Ogino et al., 1979;
d
Riche and Brown, 1996;
e
Sugiura et al., 1998
O
OH
O
O
H
P
O
H
O
O
OH
O
O
P
H
P
O
H
P
H
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
Phytic acid
P O O
H
O
O
P
H
Mg
++
Ca
++
Zn
++
Fe
++
Phosphorus availability from some inorganic
phosphorus supplements
a
95 98
c
Sodium or potassium phosphate
56 37
c
Tricalcium phosphate
72 73
c
Dicalcium phosphate
91 93
c
Monocalcium phosphate
Atlantic salmon
b
(%)
Rainbow trout
(%)
Source
a
Values mainlyrepresent P digestibility coefficients;
b
Lall, unpublished results;
c
Rodehutscord et al., 2000
Phosphorus availability from some common
fish and animal by-products
a
- 67
f
Bone meal
58 60
f
Meat meal
72 - Blood meal
61 64
e
Poultry by-product meal
67 62
e
Feather meal hydrolyzed
72 - Whitefish meal
67 20-36
d,e
Menhaden meal
53 44-50
d,e
Herring meal
53 - Capelin meal
- 70-81
c
Brown fish meal, J apanese
55 33-50
d,e
Anchovy meal
Atlantic salmon
b
(%)
Rainbow trout
(%)
Source
a
Values mainlyrepresent P digestibility coefficients;
b
Lall, unpublished results;
c
Ogino et al.,
1979;
d
Riche and Brown, 1996;
e
Sugiura et al., 1998;
f
Rodehutscord et al., 2000
Phytate Phosphorus Content and Phytase Activity
of Some Common Feed Ingredients
Ingredient Phytate P Phytate P Phytase activity
(%) (% of total P) (units/kg)
Corn 0.24 72 15
Barley 0.27 64 582
Wheat 0.27 69 1193
Wheat bran 0.92 71 2957
Soybean meal 0.39 60 8
Canola meal 0.70 59 16
Cottonseed meal 0.84 70 NA
Peanut meal 0.48 80 3
Sunflower meal 0.89 77 60
14
Iron in Common Feed Ingredients
Feed Ingredient Iron (mg/kg)
Fish meal 150 - 400
Blood meal 2650 - 3100
Poultry by-product meal 350 - 500
Soybean meal 120 - 150
Meat meal 400 - 500
Biological Availability of Iron
Feed Ingredient Total iron Bioavailability
(mg / kg) (%)
Fish meal 150 800 47.1
Blood meal 2560 3100 52.3
Poultry by-product meal 350 500 46.9
Soybean meal 120 150 -
Meat meal 400 500 49.4
Ferrous sulfate 99.5
Ferric chloride 98.8
Ferric oxide 17.8
Selenium Bioavailability Selenium Bioavailability
Selenium present in fish meal has low digestibility (~ 30 Selenium present in fish meal has low digestibility (~ 30- -
40%) 40%)
Heavy metals complex selenium causing poor bioavailability. Heavy metals complex selenium causing poor bioavailability.
Selenomethionine Selenomethionine is highly digestible. is highly digestible.
Selenite Selenite > > Selenate Selenate > > Selenomethiionine Selenomethiionine > Elemental > Elemental
Selenium Selenium
Mineral Supplementation
Inorganic
Organic
Urinary & Fecal
Excretion
Mineral dissol ved
in water
Mineral intake
Retention in fish
Solid Wastes (feed, feces)
Phosphorus, Zinc, Manganese, Copper etc.
What is a chelated mineral?
A chelated mineral is a mineral such as copper, zinc,
manganese, selenium or iron (and others) that is bonded to
" small proteins" , peptides or amino acids.
15
Organic Trace Element Sources
Metal amino acid complex : Product from the complexing of a
soluble metal salt with an amino acid (s)
zinc, iron, selenium and copper methionine
zinc lysine, copper lysine
Metal amino acid chelate : Product from the reaction of a soluble metal ion
with an amino acids (mole ratio of metal : amino acids=1 : 3 (preferably
2 amino acids) to form covalent bonds (the average weight <800)
Metal proteinate : Product from the chelation of a soluble metal salt with an
amino acids and / or partially hydrolyzed protein
Copper, cobalt iron, manganese and zinc
Metal polysaccharide complex : Product from complexing of a soluble
metal salt with a polysaccharide solution
Inorganic vs. Organic Trace Element Supplements
Limited data on Fish. More information on the positive effects on
animals & humans
Copper, zinc and manganese amino acid organic sources
(amino acid chelate) are biologically effective
Apinas-Amar (2001. 2003, 2004)
Need for additional well controlled studies
Supply
Experimentally determined requirement values
Correction for bioavailability, energy intake,
Environmental & physiological conditions etc.
Margin of safety supplement
Additional effects e.g.
Product quality, increase
In immunity
Optional Recommended supply
General Scheme for Determining the
Required Mineral Supply in Fish Feeds
Minerals added in a Typical Salmonid Feeds (%or
mg/kg diet)
Vitamin Vitamin NRC 1993 NRC 1993 Typical levels added Typical levels added
Macrominerals Macrominerals
Calcium (%) Calcium (%) 1 ( 1 (estimated) estimated) None None
Phosphorus Phosphorus (%) (%) 0.6 0.6 0 0 - -0.4 0.4
Magnesium (%) Magnesium (%) 0.05 0.05 0.02 (Freshwater only) 0.02 (Freshwater only)
Sodium (%) Sodium (%) 0.6 ( 0.6 (estimated) estimated) None ( None (Smoltification Smoltification +) +)
Potassium (%) Potassium (%) 0.7 0.7 None None
Chlorine (%) Chlorine (%) 0.9 ( 0.9 (estimated) estimated) None None
Microminerals Microminerals
Iron (mg/kg) Iron (mg/kg) 60 60 None None
Zinc (mg/kg) Zinc (mg/kg) 30 30 40 40 - -125 125
Manganese (mg/kg) Manganese (mg/kg) 13 13 20 20- -60 60
Copper (mg/kg) Copper (mg/kg) 3 3 5 5- -10 10
Selenium (mg/kg) Selenium (mg/kg) 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 - - 1 1
Iodine (mg/kg) Iodine (mg/kg) 1.1 1.1 5 5- -10 (freshwater) 10 (freshwater)
Requirements &
Toxicities
Mineral
Interactions
Mineral & Mineral
Mineral & Protein/AA
Mineral & Lipid
Other
Bioavailability
& Excretion
Mineral bioavailability from
ingredients, organic &
inorganic supplements,
enzymes
Better Fish Performance and Product Quality,
Disease Prevention & Low Mineral Excretion
Minerals in Fish Nutrition