W

hether they are greeting the dawn with song or color-

ing the air with brilliant feathers, birds are among
the most obvious and welcome of all animals. From com-
mon robins to the spectacular and rare quetzal of Central
America, the nearly 10,000 modern bird species seem to
live everywhere.
What Is a Bird?
In a group this diverse, it is difficult to nd many charac-
teristics that are shared by all members. But we can
identify the features that most birds have in common.
Birds are reptilelike animals that maintain a
constant internal body temperature. They have an
outer covering of feathers; two legs that are covered
with scales and are used for walking or perching;
and front limbs modied into wings. Most of these
features are adaptations for ight.
The single most important characteristic that separates
birds from living reptiles, and from all other living animals,
is feathers. are made mostly of protein and
develop from pits in the birds skin. Feathers help birds y
and also keep them warm. Figure 3111 shows the two main
types of feathers: contour feathers and down. Herons and
some other birds that live on or in water also have powder
down, which releases a ne powder that repels water.
Feathers
312 Birds
Key Concepts
What characteristics do birds
have in common?
How are birds adapted for
ight?
Vocabulary
feather
endotherm
crop
gizzard
air sac
Reading Strategy:
Monitoring Your
Understanding
As you read, make sure that you
understand what you read. If you
have difficulty, think of a strategy
that might make the text clearer.
For example, you might read the
paragraph again, slowly; see
whether an illustration helps you
understand the printed text; or
ask another student or your
teacher for help.
Contour feather
Contour feathers provide the lifting
force and balance needed for flight.
Barb
Down feather
Down feathers trap air close to
the body and keep the bird warm.
Barbule
The hooks on each barbule fit
together, holding them flat.
Figure 3111 Birds have
different types of feathers that vary
in structure and function. An
outer covering of feathers is the
main characteristic that sets birds
apart from other animals.
806 Chapter 31
1 FOCUS
Objectives
31.2.1 Describe the characteristics
that all birds have in com-
mon.
31.2.2 Summarize the evolution of
birds.
31.2.3 Explain how birds are
adapted for flight.
31.2.4 Describe the diversity of
birds.
31.2.5 Identify ways in which birds
interact with the environ-
ment and with humans.
Vocabulary Preview
Have students compare endotherm to
ectotherm. Ask: If endo- means
within, how does an endotherm
control its body temperature?
(Endotherms generate their own body
heat; they control body temperature
from within.)
Reading Strategy
Before students read this section,
have them preview Figure 3114.
Instruct them to list characteristics
common to all birds. As students
read, encourage them to add or
subtract characteristics to complete
their list.
2 INSTRUCT
What Is a Bird?
Use Visuals
Figure 3111 Have students com-
pare and contrast the structure and
function of contour and down feath-
ers. Ask: Which feathers insulate a
birds body? (Down) Which feathers
help the bird to fly? (Contour)
Discuss how the structure of down
feathers makes them good for insula-
tion. Ask: Would you expect a bird
with only down feathers to fly?
(No; down feathers do not give the sta-
bility needed for flight.)
SECTION RESOURCES
Print:
Laboratory Manual B, Chapter 31 Lab
Teaching Resources, Section Review 312,
Enrichment, Chapter 31 Exploration
Reading and Study Workbook A, Section 312
Adapted Reading and Study Workbook B,
Section 312
Issues and Decision Making,
Issues and Decisions 13
Lesson Plans, Section 312
Technology:
iText, Section 312
Transparencies Plus, Section 312
Section 312
Evolution of Birds
Use Visuals
Figure 3112 Have students exam-
ine Figure 3112. Ask: In what ways
was Archaeopteryx similar to mod-
ern birds? (It had feathers.) How was
it similar to dinosaurs? (It had teeth
in its beak, a bony tail, and toes and
claws on its wings.) Why do you
think many scientists infer that
birds evolved from dinosaurs?
(Discoveries of many birdlike dinosaur
fossils, showing characteristics of both
dinosaurs and birds)
Build Science Skills
Inferring Remind students that
many researchers believe birds
evolved directly from dinosaurs,
based on the evidence found in fos-
silized species. Challenge students to
infer what kind of fossilized evidence
researchers would expect to find if
birds and dinosaurs had instead
evolved from a common ancestor. (If
birds and dinosaurs each evolved from
a common ancestor, you would not
expect to find any fossilized species
that are intermediate between birds
and dinosaurs.) Students can write a
short report that describes their infer-
ence and the evidence or
background information on which
they based their inference.
Reptiles and Birds 807
Evolution of Birds
Paleontologists agree that birds evolved from extinct reptiles.
Evidence for this hypothesis is provided by many embryological,
anatomical, and physiological characteristics shared by modern
birds and living reptiles. For example, the embryos of birds and
reptiles develop within amniotic eggs. Birds, like most reptiles,
excrete nitrogenous wastes in the form of uric acid. The bones
that support the front and hind limbs, and several other parts
of the skeleton, are similar in both groups.
Most paleontologists think that birds evolved directly from
dinosaurs. Part of the evidence consists of Archaeopteryx (ahr-
kee-AHP-tur-iks), the rst birdlike fossil discovered. This fossil
dates from the late Jurassic Period, about 150 million years ago.
Archaeopteryx looked so much like a small, running dinosaur
that it would be classied as a dinosaur except for one impor-
tant feature: It had well-developed feathers covering most of its
body. Those feathers led to the classication of Archaeopteryx as
an early bird. Unlike modern birds, however, this creature had
teeth in its beak, a bony tail, and toes and claws on its wings.
Thus, Archaeopteryx can be seen as a transitional species with
characteristics of both dinosaurs and birds.
However, other fossil evidence leads some researchers to
hypothesize that birds and dinosaurs both evolved from an
earlier common ancestor. The origin of birds is still not com-
pletely resolved, as shown in Figure 3112. New fossils of
ancient birds are being found all the time. So watch for new
discoveries and discussions on the subject!
What is Archaeopteryx?
Modern reptiles
Ornithischia
(bird-hipped dinosaurs)
Saurischia
(lizard-hipped dinosaurs) Archaeopteryx
Modern birds
Reptilian ancestor
Dinosaurs
Ancestor
of dinosaurs
?
Figure 3112 The diagram at
the top shows the evolutionary tree
of modern birds. None of the ani-
mals shown are direct ancestors of
modern birds. But fossils such as
Archaeopteryx (above) do show a
mixture of characteristics of birds
and dinosaurs. Interpreting
Graphics Based on the diagram,
what are the two alternative expla-
nations for the evolution of modern
birds?
Answers to . . .
Birdlike species with
characteristics of both dinosaurs and
birds
Figure 3112 Either evolved from
dinosaurs or from a reptilian ancestor
common to dinosaurs and birds
Inclusion/Special Needs
Pair visually impaired students with other stu-
dents and have them work together to make
observations about the characteristics of birds.
Make available different types of feathers, vari-
ous avian bones and skulls, or any three-
dimensional bird model. The sighted student
can identify structures as the visually impaired
student tactilely examines their textures and
shapes.
Less Proficient Readers
Students can review the process of digestion in
birds by making a flowchart. Students should
include every part of the digestive system in
which something happens to food. They should
start with the mouth and end with the cloaca.
Form, Function, and Flight
One reason for the evolutionary success of birds is found in the
adaptations that allow them to y. Birds have a number
of adaptations that enable them to y. These adaptations
include highly efficient digestive, respiratory, and circu-
latory systems; aerodynamic feathers and wings; strong,
lightweight bones; and strong chest muscles. Most birds
have these characteristics, even though some birds cannot y.
The ways in which birds carry out their life functions, such
as obtaining food and oxygen, contribute to their ability to y.
For example, ight requires an enormous amount of energy,
which birds obtain from the food they eat. Birds also require
energy to maintain their body temperature.
Body Temperature Control Unlike reptiles, which must
draw body warmth from their environment, birds can generate
their own body heat. Animals that can generate their own body
heat are called Endotherms, which include birds,
mammals, and some other animals, have a high rate of metabo-
lism compared to ectotherms such as reptiles. Recall that metabo-
lism is the sum of chemical and physical processes that go on
inside the body. Metabolism produces heat. A birds feathers
insulate its body enough to conserve most of its metabolic energy,
allowing the bird to warm its body more efficiently. The body
temperature of most birds is about 41C even on cold winter days.
What is an endotherm?
Feeding Any body heat that a bird loses must be regained by
eating food. The more food a bird eats, the more heat energy its
metabolism can generate. Because small birds lose heat rela-
tively faster than large ones, small birds must eat more, relative
to their body size. In fact, the phrase eats like a bird is quite
misleading, because most birds are voracious eaters!
As you can see in Figure 3113, birds beaks, or bills, are
adapted to the type of food they eat. Insect-eating birds have
short, ne bills that can pick ants and other insects off leaves
and branches, or can catch ying insects. Seed-eaters have
short, thick bills. Carnivorous birds, such as eagles, shred their
prey with strong hooked bills. Long, thin bills can be used for
gathering nectar from owers or probing soft mud for worms
and shellsh. Large, long bills help birds to pick fruit from
branches, while long, at bills are used to grasp sh.
endotherms.
Figure 3113 Bird bills come in a variety of
shapes and sizes. You can tell a good deal
about a birds feeding habits from its bill.
Drawing Conclusions Based on the size and
shape of its bill, what does a roseate spoonbill
feed on?
Northern Cardinal
Pileated Woodpecker
Harriss Hawk
Emerald Toucan
Roseate
Spoonbill
Hawaiian
Honeycreeper
808 Chapter 31
Form, Function,
and Flight
Build Science Skills
Predicting Give student groups 10
to 15 pictures of various birds.
Instruct groups to predict which
birds fly and which do not. Next,
have students predict which of the
flying birds are the best fliers. After
making their predictions, groups
should list the characteristics they
used for making their predictions.
Then, tell students the answers.
Encourage them to review their pre-
dictions and the criteria they used to
make them. Ask groups if they would
change any of the criteria they used
to make their predictions and why.
Make Connections
Physics Let students experiment to
discover how insulation helps con-
serve heat. Allow student groups to
brainstorm a list of materials that
would be good insulators. Then,
have students test these materials by
observing how well they can keep a
warm object warm. Students might
devise a plan as simple as wrapping a
jar of hot water with the material and
measuring the water temperature
over time to determine how much
heat is lost. The better the insulator,
the less heat is lost. Ask: What qual-
ity determines the best insulators?
(Often the best insulators trap the
most air around an object.)
Use Community Resources
Arrange a field trip to an aviary or a
display of stuffed birds at a natural
history museum. Challenge students
to identify the type of food each bird
eats based on the shape of its bill.
TEACHER TO TEACHER
Teachers can use skeletal features to demonstrate
the similarities between reptiles and birds.
Display skeletons of a typical lizard, a pigeon,
and a plaster model of Archaeopteryx lithograph-
ica. Lead students through a discussion of typical
reptilian skeletal characteristicstoothed jaws,
lizardlike tail, and so forthand indicate where
they are found in Archaeopteryx. Finally, show
where the various characteristics persist in such
modern birds as the pigeon and indicate charac-
teristics that have been lost, such as teeth.
William C. Alexander, Chairman
Division of Science and Mathematics
SC Governors School for Science
and Mathematics
Hartsville, SC
TEACHER TO TEACHER
312 (continued)
Address Misconceptions
Students might think birds do not eat
large amounts of food. Many have
heard the phrase eats like a bird in
reference to someone who doesnt
eat much food. Emphasize that
because birds require energy to sup-
port their active, flying lifestyle and
to maintain a constant, high body
temperature, they have a very high
metabolic rate. To fill their energy
needs, birds eat almost constantly.
Use Visuals
Figure 3114 Have students trace
the path of food through the birds
digestive system. Ask: What happens
to food in the crop? (Its stored and
moistened.) What is the function of
the gizzard? (It grinds and crushes
food.) Remind students that not all
birds have gizzards. Ask: Which
would be most likely to have a giz-
zard: insect-eating birds or
fish-eating birds? (Insect-eating
birds) Why do birds need the giz-
zard and the crop? (They dont have
teeth. These organs help prepare food
for digestion.)
Reptiles and Birds 809
Brain
Esophagus
Crop
Liver
First
chamber
of stomach
Gizzard
Small
intestine
Lung
Heart
Kidney
Pancreas
Large intestine
Cloaca
When a bird eats,
food moves down
the esophagus and
is stored in the crop.
Moistened food passes to
the stomach, a two-part
chamber. The first chamber
secretes acid and enzymes.
The partially digested food
moves to the second chamber,
the gizzard.
The muscular walls
of the gizzard squeeze
the contents, while small
stones grind the food.
As digestion continues,
the food moves through
the intestines.
Undigested food is
expelled through the
cloaca.
1
2
3
4
5
Air sac
The digestive system of a bird is shown in Figure 3114.
Birds lack teeth, and therefore they cannot break down food by
chewing it. However, many birds have specialized structures to
help digest food. One such structure is the which is located
at the lower end of the esophagus. Food is stored and moistened
in the crop before it moves further in the digestive tract.
In some birds, such as pigeons, the crop has a second func-
tion. During nesting season, the breakdown of cells in the crop
produces a substance that is rich in protein and fat. Parent
birds regurgitate this substance and feed their newly hatched
young with it. This substance provides the young birds with
materials they need to grow.
From the crop, moistened food moves into the stomach. The
form that a birds stomach takes depends on the birds feeding
habits. Birds that eat meat or sh have an expandable area in
which large amounts of soft food can be stored. Birds that eat
insects or seeds, however, have a muscular organ called the
that helps in the mechanical breakdown of food by
grinding it. The gizzard forms part of the stomach. In many
species of bird, the gizzard contains small pieces of stone and
gravel that the bird has swallowed. The thick, muscular walls of
the gizzard grind the gravel and food together, crushing food
particles and making them easier to digest.
Food moves from the stomach to the small intestine, where
the breakdown of food is completed and food is absorbed into the
body. Digestive wastes leave the body through the cloaca.
gizzard
crop,
Figure 3114 Birds have a number of
adaptations that enable them to y, including an
efficient digestive system. Trace the path of food
through the digestive system.
NSTA
For: Links on birds
Visit: www.SciLinks.org
Web Code: cbn-9312
Specialized digestive systems
As in other vertebrates, a birds digestive system
is slightly different depending on its diet. Birds
do not have teeth and cannot chew their food
into smaller pieces. Birds that eat small animals
either tear off small pieces with their bills or
swallow their food whole. These birds usually
do not have a crop at the end of the esophagus,
because the food does not have to be softened.
Their stomachs usually have only one compart-
ment. They do not have a gizzard. Birds that
primarily eat seeds usually have a crop. The
crop is required to soften the hard seeds, mak-
ing them susceptible to digestive enzymes.
These birds often have a two-part stomach that
includes a gizzard.
FACTS AND FIGURES
NSTA
Download a worksheet
on birds for students to complete,
and find additional teacher support
from NSTA SciLinks.
Answers to . . .
Animal that generates its
own body heat
Figure 3113 Fish
Respiration Birds have a unique and highly efficient way of
taking in oxygen and eliminating carbon dioxide. When a bird
inhales, most air rst enters large posterior in the
body cavity and bones. Observe the air sacs in Figure 3115. The
inhaled air then ows through the lungs. Air travels through
the lungs in a series of small tubes. These tubes are lined with
specialized tissue, where gas exchange takes place.
The complex system of air sacs and breathing tubes ensures
that air ows into the air sacs and out through the lungs in a
single direction. The one-way ow constantly exposes the lungs
to oxygen-rich air. Contrast this to the system found in most
land vertebrates, in which oxygen-rich air is inhaled, and
oxygen-poor air is exhaled. The air travels in two directions, in
and out. In an in-out system, the lungs are exposed to oxygen-
rich air only during inhalation.
What advantage does the efficient respiratory system of
birds provide? The constant, one-way ow of oxygen-rich air
helps birds maintain their high metabolic rate. Birds need a
high metabolism to maintain body temperature and provide the
large amounts of energy required for ight. In addition, the
efficient extraction of oxygen enables birds to y at high alti-
tudes where the air is thin.
How is their respiratory system advantageous to birds?
Circulation Birds have four-chambered hearts and two sepa-
rate circulatory loops. Notice in Figure 3116 that a birds heart,
unlike that of amphibians and most reptiles, has two separate
ventricles, the right ventricle and the left ventricle. There is
complete separation of oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood. One
half of the heart receives oxygen-poor blood from the body and
pumps this blood to the lungs. Oxygen-rich blood returns to the
other side of the heart to be pumped to the rest of the body. This
double-loop system ensures that oxygen collected by the lungs is
distributed to the body tissue with maximum efficiency.
air sacs
Lung
Trachea
Air sacs
Air sacs
Figure 3115 Birds have a
unique respiratory system. Air sacs
direct air through the lungs in an
efficient, one-way ow.
Comparing and Contrasting
How does this system differ from that
of most land vertebrates?
Domestic pigeon
Right
atrium
Left
atrium
Left
ventricle
Right
ventricle
Complete
division
From
body
To lungs
To
body
From
lungs
Heart
Figure 3116 To keep blood
moving rapidly, a birds heart beats
quicklyfrom 150 to more than
1000 beats per minute! Applying
Concepts Why is it important for a
birds heart to move blood so rapidly?
810 Chapter 31
Build Science Skills
Using Models To help all students
visualize the flow of air through bird
lungs, have the students act as air
molecules moving through the respi-
ratory system. Use masking tape to
delineate the anterior air sacs, lungs,
posterior air sacs, and trachea.
Students carrying red paper circles
(O
2
) enter the trachea upon inhala-
tion 1 and move into posterior air
sac. During exhalation 1, students
move into lungs and exchange red
circles for blue circles (CO
2
). During
inhalation 2, new red students
enter posterior air sac. The blue
students move to anterior air sac.
During exhalation 2, the blue stu-
dents move out into the air and the
red students move into the lungs
and exchange gases. Continue in
this manner until all students have
moved through the respiratory
system.
Build Science Skills
Drawing Conclusions Divide the
class into small groups that represent
a mixture of academic abilities.
Groups should discuss what they
know about the form and function of
birds. Have one group member take
notes during the discussion. Then,
instruct groups to summarize how
specific body structures and systems
make birds adapted for flight.
Suggest that groups also discuss
what makes some birds able to fly
while others cannot. Groups should
summarize their conclusions and
present them to the class. Compile
the groups conclusions into a table
that you can update as you complete
the section.
Bird sighted flying above the clouds
Some of the highest-flying birds are bar-headed
geese. These geese have been observed flying
over the Himalayas, which reach altitudes of over
7600 meters. Birds are able to fly at such high alti-
tudes because of the efficiency of their lungs. In
contrast, humans have difficulty climbing Mount
Everest because they inhale less oxygen due to
the lower air pressure.
Not only do bird lungs function efficiently at
gas exchange, but the air sacs in lungs also help
birds to lose heat. The air sacs are located among
the birds internal organs, and they are connected
to the bones. Bird bones have hollow spaces to
reduce mass but also function to hold air. As air
moves across the organs and through the bones
during the process of respiration, it works to cool
the birds body.
FACTS AND FIGURES
312 (continued)
Reptiles and Birds 811
Excretion The excretory systems of many birds are similar
to those of most living reptiles. Nitrogenous wastes are
removed from the blood by the kidneys, converted to uric acid,
and deposited in the cloaca. There, most of the water is reab-
sorbed, leaving uric acid crystals in a white, pasty form that
you may recognize as bird droppings.
Response Birds have well-developed sense organs, which
are adaptations that enable them to coordinate the movements
required for ight. Birds also have a brain that can quickly
interpret and respond to a lot of incoming signals. A birds
brain, shown in Figure 3117, is relatively large for its body
size. The cerebrum, which controls such behaviors as ying,
nest building, care of young, courtship, and mating, is quite
large. The cerebellum is also well developed, as you might
expect in an animal that uses precise, coordinated movements.
The medulla oblongata coordinates basic body processes, such
as the heartbeat.
Birds have extraordinarily well developed eyes and sizable
optic lobes in the brain. Birds see color very wellin many
cases, better than humans. Most bird species can also hear
quite well. The senses of taste and smell, however, are not well
developed in most birds, and the olfactory bulbs in a birds
brain are small.
How do birds breathe?
Materials 6 round balloons, hand-powered balloon
pump, measuring tape, clock with second hand
Procedure
1. Work in groups of three. Make a copy of the data
table at right on a blank sheet of paper. One
person will inate a balloon by mouth, while a
second person inates a balloon with a hand-
powered pump. The third person is the timekeeper.
2. Begin inating both balloons at the same time.
After 10 seconds, the timer will say stop. Stop
inating the balloons and pinch the necks of the
balloons to keep the air inside. CAUTION: Do not
try to inate balloons by mouth if you have a condi-
tion that would make this dangerous for you.
3. Measure and record the circumference of each
balloon in your data table. CAUTION: Discard all
balloons that have been inated.
4. Repeat Steps 13 until each member of your
group has inated two balloons. In your data table,
record the difference in balloon diameter for each
person and the average difference for the group.
Analyze and Conclude
1. Analyzing Data Which method was faster?
Which method required more effort?
2. Using Models Which method worked like reptile
lungs? Which method worked like bird lungs?
Explain your answers.
3. Formulating Hypotheses How is efficient
respiration especially valuable to birds?
Figure 3117 Compared to
reptiles, birds have an enlarged
cerebellum that coordinates the
movements of wings and legs.
Formulating Hypotheses Why
would the cerebrum also be larger in
birds than in reptiles?
Cerebellum
Optic lobe
Cerebrum
Olfactory
bulb
Medulla
oblongata
Spinal cord
Name
Data Table
Balloon
Circumference (cm)
Difference
Mouth Pump
Average Difference
Birds sing to communicate
Birds use sound to communicate with one
another. Ornithologists differentiate between two
kinds of bird sounds. Calls are short sounds used
to warn others of danger and to communicate
between members of the same species. Most calls
are innate. Songs are longer vocalizations that
involve many different notes. Many bird songs
involve learning. Some songbirds even learn new
songs each year. Birds raised in soundproof
environments do not learn songs. In most cases,
only males learn songs to establish and defend
territories and to attract mates.
As in humans, vibrating membranes in birds
produce sound. These membranes are located in
the syrinx at the posterior end of the trachea.
Muscles in the syrinx cause the different pitches in
the calls and songs.
FACTS AND FIGURES
Objective Students will be able to
use models to explain how birds
breathe.
Skills Focus Using Models,
Measuring
Materials 6 round balloons, hand-
powered balloon pump, measuring
tape, clock with second hand
Time 15 minutes
Advance Prep Inexpensive bal-
loon pumps are available at party
supply stores.
Strategies
Discuss why birds need a more
efficient way to get oxygen than
reptiles. (Muscles require oxygen to
extract energy from stored glucose;
there is little oxygen at high alti-
tudes.) Have students compare the
movements of reptiles and birds.
Ask: What do muscles need to
keep working efficiently?
(Oxygen)
Expected Outcome Balloons are
more quickly inflated with a hand
pump than by mouth.
Analyze and Conclude
1. Using the pump is faster. Mouth
inflation requires more effort.
2. Mouth inflation simulates the
flow of air in and out of the same
opening, as in reptile lungs. Air
flows in one end of the pump and
out the other, as in bird lungs.
3. Flight requires a high level of cel-
lular respiration in the muscles. Also,
high-altitude flight requires extra
oxygen. Therefore, birds need a
large oxygen supply.
Answers to . . .
It maintains a high
metabolic rate and supplies the extra
oxygen required for high-altitude flight.
Figure 3115 Air travels in one
direction only, rather than in and out.
Figure 3116 To maintain high lev-
els of oxygen in muscles
Figure 3117 To control precise
movements and complex behaviors
Movement Some birds cannot y. Instead,
they get around mainly by walking or running,
like ostriches, or by swimming, like penguins.
However, the vast majority of birds can y. The
skeletal and muscular systems of ying birds
exhibit adaptations that enable ight.
Observe a birds skeletal system in Figure
3118. Although the bones in a birds wings are
homologous to the bones in the front limbs of other
vertebrates, they have very different shapes and
structures. In ying birds, many large bones, such
as the collarbone, are fused together, making a
birds skeleton more rigid than a reptiles. These
bones form a sturdy frame that anchors the
muscles used for ight. The bones are strength-
ened by internal struts similar to those used in the
framework of tall buildings and bridges. Air spaces
make many bones lightweight. Birds also have
large chest muscles that power the upward and
downward wing strokes necessary for ight. The
muscles attach to a long keel that runs down the
front of an enlarged breastbone, or sternum.
Reproduction In birds, both male and female
reproductive tracts open into the cloaca. The sex
organs often shrink in size when the birds are not
breeding. As birds prepare to mate, the ovaries
and testes grow larger until they reach function-
ing size. Mating birds press their cloacas together
to transfer sperm from the male to the female.
Some male birds have a penis that transfers
sperm to the females cloaca.
Bird eggs are amniotic eggs. They are similar to the eggs of
reptiles but have hard outer shells. Most birds incubate their
eggs until the eggs hatch. When a chick is ready to hatch, it uses
a small tooth on its bill to make a hole in the shell. After much
pushing, poking, and prodding by the chick, the eggshell breaks
open. Once the exhausted bird has hatched, it collapses for a
while and allows its feathers to dry. Both parents may be kept
busy providing food for their hungry offspring.
Do birds have external or internal fertilization?
Groups of Birds
Birds ll the woods and elds with song. Imagine how dull the
world would be without the color, song, and variety of birds.
With nearly 30 different orders, it is impossible to present each
type of bird here. Instead, Figure 3119 provides an overview of
some better-known groups and their adaptations. By far, the
largest order of birds is the passerines (pas-uh-REENZ), or perch-
ing birds. This group includes songbirds such as larks, sparrows,
and nches. There are over 5000 species of perching birds.
Figure 3118 Like most of its
anatomy, a birds skeleton is well
adapted for ight, providing a
sturdy attachment point for
muscles. The long bones are
exceptionally strong and light
because of cross-bracing and air
spaces. In strong ying birds, such
as pigeons, the chest muscles may
account for as much as 30 percent
of the animals mass. Calculating
If this pigeon has a mass of 200
grams, and 30 percent of its mass is
chest muscles, what is the mass of its
chest muscles?
Strut
Air space
Vertebra
Skull
Pelvic
girdle
Tailbone
Pectoral
girdle
Rib cage
Collarbone
(wishbone)
Sternum
812 Chapter 31
Make Connections
Physics Challenge student groups
to experiment with different wing
shapes to produce flight. Give groups
toy gliders made from foam or balsa,
or have them construct gliders from
paper. Encourage students to change
the shape of the wings and nose to
improve lift. You might need to
explain how air moving over the
wings and the nose of the plane pro-
vides lift, the upward force. Have
groups race their planes to see which
fly fastest and which fly farthest.
Address Misconceptions
Some students might think that birds
simply move their wings up and
down during flight. Explain that birds
move their wings in a circular
motion, similar to the movement of
oars when rowing. On the down-
stroke, feathers are held together,
and the wings move down and
rotate forward. This motion pushes
air down and back, providing lift and
propelling the bird through the air.
On the upstroke, feathers are opened
up to allow air to move through
them, making it easier to move the
wings upward. The wings bend up,
moving closer to the body, and
rotate backward.
Groups of Birds
Build Science Skills
Classifying Have students devise
their own criteria for grouping the
bird orders pictured in Figure 3119.
You might also give students pictures
of birds from other orders that are
not pictured in the figure. For their
classification systems, students
should describe what features they
are using to define the characteristics
of each order.
Air pressure lifts birds
Birds are able to fly because of lift. Lift is the differ-
ence in air pressure above the wing and below
the wing. As birds fly, air moves across both sides
of the wings. Air pressure below the wing is
greater than air pressure above the wing. In
effect, the air is lifting the wing. Moving air
exerts less pressure than air that is not moving.
The faster air moves, the less pressure it exerts.
Bird wings are shaped so that air moving across
the top of the wings is moving faster. The top of a
birds wing is rounded, forcing the air to travel a
greater distance in the same amount of time as
the air moving under the wing. Because the air
moving across the top of the wing has to go a
greater distance in the same time span, it must
move faster.
FACTS AND FIGURES
312 (continued)
Use Visuals
Figure 3119 Encourage students
to compare and contrast the features
of birds from different orders. Ask:
How are parrots different from
perching birds? (Parrots use their feet
to hold up food.) What features are
common to birds of prey? (Hooked
bills, large wingspans, and sharp
talons) How are pelicans and
herons similar? (Both live in aquatic
habitats.)
Reptiles and Birds 813
Birds show remarkable diversity and inhabit many different
environments. Some representative groups are shown below.
Applying Concepts Which group of birds is the largest?
BIRDS OF PREY
These birds, also known as raptors,
are erce predators with hooked bills,
large wingspans, and sharp talons.
Examples: condors, hawks, owls,
eagles (shown above),
falcons.
CAVITY-NESTING BIRDS
These multicolored birds live in holes that
they make in trees, mounds, or under-
ground tunnels. Examples: barbet (shown
here), toucans, woodpeckers.
OSTRICHES AND
THEIR RELATIVES
These ightless birds must move by running or
swimming. Examples: ostriches (shown here),
rheas, emus, cassowaries, kiwis.
PARROTS
Colorful and noisy, these
birds use their feet to hold
food. Examples: macaws,
lovebirds, cockatoos.
PELICANS AND THEIR
RELATIVES
These birds are found in all types
of aquatic ecosystems, from open
ocean to lakes and rivers. All have
four toes that are connected by a
web. Examples: pelicans, cor-
morants, boobies, frigatebirds
(shown here).
PERCHING BIRDS
Also called passerines, this is by far the
largest order of birds. Many are songbirds.
Examples: sparrows, crows, mockingbirds,
cardinals (shown here).
HERONS AND
THEIR RELATIVES
These birds are
adapted to wading in
a variety of aquatic
habitats. Examples:
storks, ibises,
spoonbills, herons
(shown here), cranes.
FIGURE 3119 DIVERSITY IN BIRDS
Classifying birds
Scientists group birds into more than 20 orders.
To classify birds, scientists use characteristics such
as bills, wings, tails, and feet. These specialized
characteristics enable birds to inhabit different
types of environments, move in different man-
ners, or get different types of food. Birds with
similar specialized characteristics often inhabit
similar environments or have similar niches.
Peacocks, for example, belong to the order
Galliformes. These ground-dwelling birds have
short, stout bills. Their heavy feet have short,
strong claws adapted for running and scratching
the ground. They have short wings and are poor
fliers. Herons, as well as flamingoes and storks
belong to the order Ciconiiformes. These wading
birds have long legs and necks and broad feet
that are not usually webbed.
FACTS AND FIGURES
Answers to . . .
Birds have internal fertil-
ization.
Figure 3118 60 grams
Figure 3119 Perching birds
(passerines)
312 Section Assessment
1. Reptilelike animal, endothermic, hollow
bones, feathers, two legs, wings
2. Highly efficient respiratory, digestive, and cir-
culatory systems; aerodynamic feathers and
wings; strong chest muscles; strong, light-
weight skeleton
3. Birds descended either directly from dinosaurs
or from a common ancestor of modern birds
and dinosaurs.
4. The chick uses a small tooth on its bill to
poke a hole in the shell.
5. Seeds, with their tough outer coverings, are
much more difficult to digest than meat.
Crops and gizzards are not advantageous to
carnivorous birds, because animal tissue does
not require extra softening and grinding to
digest.
Ecology of Birds
Because birds are so numerous and diverse, they interact with
natural ecosystems and human society in many different ways.
For example, hummingbirds, like the one in Figure 3120,
pollinate owers in both tropical and temperate zones. Fruit-
eating birds swallow seeds but may not digest them, so their
droppings disperse seeds over great distances. Insect-eating
birds, such as swallows and chimney swifts, catch great num-
bers of mosquitoes and other insects, and therefore help control
insect populations.
Many birds migrate long distancesoften over hundreds of
kilometers of open sea. Such migrations are usually seasonal. It
can be startling during a winter visit to a tropical country to see
Northern orioles or bright red cardinals itting around banana
trees with parrots and toucans! How do migrating birds nd
their way? Some species use stars and other celestial bodies as
guides. Other species may use a combination of landmarks and
cues from Earths magnetic eld.
Because birds are highly visible and are an important part
of the biosphere, they can serve as indicators of environmental
health. It is no accident that conservationist Rachel Carson
chose songbirds for the focus of her pioneering campaign in the
1960s against the careless use of DDT and other pesticides. In
her book Silent Spring, Carson described to the public for the
rst time how pesticides that stay in the environment can
accumulate in food chains and cause harm to animals they
were never intended to affect. Thanks to the efforts of Carson
and other conservationists, many birdsespecially predators
such as eagles and ospreyshave returned from the brink of
extinction.
Figure 3120 This humming-
bird uses its long, thin beak to
draw nectar from a ower. While
feeding, the bird may pick up
pollen on its beak and carry it to
the next ower it visits, thereby
helping the ower to pollinate.
Applying Concepts Which type
of ecological relationship is repre-
sented by the hummingbird and the
ower: parasitism, mutualism, or
commensalism?
1. Key Concept Describe the
characteristics of a bird.
2. Key Concept List three
ways in which birds are well
adapted for ight.
3. What is the possible evolutionary
relationship between birds and
dinosaurs?
4. How does a chick get out of its
eggshell?
5. Critical Thinking Applying
Concepts Crops and gizzards
are especially common and well
developed in seed-eating birds
but less common in carnivorous
birds. Explain why crops and
gizzards are more advantageous
to seed-eating birds than to birds
that eat meat.
Comparing and
Contrasting
Write a paragraph in which
you compare and contrast the
structure and function of the
hearts of reptiles and birds.
Hint: When you compare and
contrast two items, it is not
enough to describe each one
separately. You need to
explain how they are similar
and how they are different. To
help with this task, you might
construct a Venn diagram or a
compare-and-contrast table.
312 Section Assessment
814 Chapter 31
Ecology of Birds
Make Connections
Environmental Science Have
interested students read Rachel
Carsons book Silent Spring. Then,
invite the students to lead a class dis-
cussion about the book in which they
explain why they think Ms. Carson
wrote the book and how effective her
message was. Point out that at the
time, the Department of Agriculture
was advocating the use of many dif-
ferent types of dangerous chemicals
to combat insect pests. Discuss
whether or not students think that
Ms. Carsons book is relevant today.
3 ASSESS
Evaluate Understanding
Call on students at random to
describe the characteristics of birds.
Then, call on other students to
describe ways in which birds are
adapted for flight.
Reteach
Have students use Figures 3111,
3114, and 3119 to review the
characteristics of birds and the adap-
tations for flight.
Answer to . . .
Figure 3120 Mutualism
312 (continued)
If your class subscribes to the iText,
use it to review the Key Concepts in
Section 312.
The hearts of both reptiles and
birds have two atria. However,
most reptiles have a three-
chambered heart in which the
single ventricle is partially divided.
Birds have a four-chambered heart
in which complete division of the
ventricle prevents oxygen-rich
blood from mixing with oxygen-
poor blood. Some students might
also mention that crocodiles and
alligators have a four-chambered
heart similar to that of birds.