OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING BEFORE AND AFTER EARTHQUAKE
2
STRENGTHENING OF LOAD BEARING FRAME WORK OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING BEFORE AND AFTER EARTHQUAKE
A PROJECT REPORT Submitted by YAGNIK PATEL (100220106014) HITESH PANCHAL (100220106040) MEHUL SOLANKI (100220106053) In fulfillment for the award of the degree Of BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING In Civil Department
Government Engineering College, Patan 3
GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
4 We hereby certify that we are the sole authors of this project report and that neither any part of this UDP project report nor the whole of the Project report has been submitted for a degree by other student(s) to any other University or Institution. We certify that, to the best of our knowledge, the current Project report does not infringe upon anyones copyright nor violate any proprietary rights and that any ideas, techniques, quotations or any other material from the work of other people included in our Project report, published or otherwise, are fully acknowledged in accordance with the standard referencing practices. Furthermore, to the extent that we have included copyrighted material that surpasses the boundary of fair dealing within the meaning of the Indian Copyright (Amendment) Act 2012, we certify that we have obtained a written permission from the copyright owner(s) to include such material(s) in the current Project report and have included copies of such copyright clearances to our appendix. We have checked the write up of the present Project report using anti-plagiarism database and it is in the allowable limit. In case of any complaints pertaining to plagiarism, we certify that we shall be solely responsible for the same and we understand that as per norms, University can even revoke BE degree conferred upon the student(s) submitting this Project report, in case it is found to be plagiarised. Team:- Enrolment number
Name
Signature
100220106014 Patel Yagnik
100220106040 Panchal Hitesh
100220106053 Solanki Mehul
Place:- Guide:- M.D. Vakil Date:- Sign: 4
CERTIFICATE
Date:
This is to certify that the dissertation entitled STRENGTHENING OF LOAD BEARING FRAME WORK OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING BEFORE AND AFTER EARTHQUAKE has been carried out by YAGNIK PATEL, HITESH PANCHAL and MEHUL SOLANKI under my guidance in fulfilment of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in CIVIL (8th Semester) of Government Engineering College, Patan during the academic year 2013-14.
Guided by:- Head of the Department Prof.,M.D.Vakil Prof., V.R.Patel
5
SELF-DECLARATION
We,
YAGNIK PATEL , HITESH PANCHAL and MEHUL SOLANKI the students of CIVIL ENGINEERING Branch 100220106014, 100220106040, 100220106053 respectively enrolled at Government Engineering College, Patan hereby certify and declare the following:
We have not purchased the solutions developed by any 3 rd party directly and the efforts are made by me/us under the guidance of guides.
The project work is not copied from any previously done projects directly.
The project work submitted by us is prepared by us and we fully understand the contents. We will make best efforts to solve the problems given by the user/ industry. If the project is in relay model we will share credits with the initial contributors.
Chapter Page 1. Introduction.7 2. Strengthening Methods....9 Base Isolation....9 Jacketing...16 FRP Reinforcements......................24 3. Design Procedure for Strengthening of using ACI 440.2R-0831 4. Excel Program..39 5. Comparative study...53 6. Conclusion....54 7. References55
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Chapter-1 INTORDUCTION
The casualties from the earthquakes suffered during the last decade have made it necessary to control and access buildings that have been constructed without any regard to appropriate seismic design characteristics. Earthquake poses an important challenge for the art and science of structural engineering to construct safe structures by proper design procedures. The lack of adequate knowledge of structural behaviour under seismic loads has claimed many lives and caused extensive property loss for many decades.
Recent earthquakes in Bhuj and Jammu Kashmir demonstrated the power of nature and the catastrophic impact of such power upon urban cities. Casualties and damage associated with older buildings, which were designed and constructed using codes that are now known to provide inadequate safety, are far worse than that for newer buildings which have been designed and built in accordance with more stringent code requirements. Earthquake occurrence is uncertain and can be possible partially for faults. The earthquake predictions cannot be eliminated by the earthquake events. Therefore the earthquake resistant structure is the only solution for the damaging effect of earthquake on structures.
With the improvements in the earthquake engineering for new construction, more recent effort focused on the seismic behaviour of older reinforced concrete frames. The effort of evaluating and improving seismic performance of building requires a detailed investigation of their deficiencies with regard to strength, stiffness, deformation capacity. For such detail study of the structure Performance based earthquake engineering is most essential.
Design for seismic resistance has been undergoing a critical reappraisal in recent years, with the emphasis changing from strength to performance. However, over the past 25 years there has been a gradual shift from this position with the realization that increasing strength may not enhance safety, nor necessarily reduce damage. The development of capacity design principles 8
was an expression of the realization that the distribution of strength through a building was more important than the absolute value of the design base shear. It was recognized that a frame building would perform better under seismic attack if it could be assured that plastic hinges would occur in beams rather than in columns (weak beam/strong column mechanism), and if the shear strength of members exceeded the shear corresponding to flexural strength. This can be identified as the true start to performance based seismic design, where the overall performance of the building is controlled as a function of the design process. Before going for the strengthening of structures it is essential to have an idea about the reasons of failure of the structures and need of retrofitting. In case of reinforced concrete buildings it is necessary to know about the failure pattern of structures. Generally R.C.C. buildings are designed from a detailed analysis for dead, live and seismic loads. The reinforced buildings often get damaged in earthquakes because of lack of good design and faulty reinforcement detailing practice.
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Chapter-2 STRENGTHNING METHODS
1) BASE ISOLATION:-
10
INTRODUCTION
In recent years base isolation has become an increasingly applied structural design technique for buildings and bridges in highly seismic areas. Many types of structures have been built using this approach, and many others are in the design phase or under construction. Most of the completed buildings and those under construction use rubber isolation bearings in some way in the isolation system. The ideas behind the concept of base isolation are quite simple. There are two basic types of isolation systems. The system that has been adopted most widely in recent years is typified by the use of elastomeric bearings, the elastomer made of either natural rubber or neoprene. In this approach, the building or structure is decoupled from the horizontal components of the earthquake ground motion by interposing a layer with low horizontal stiffness between the structure and the foundation. This layer gives the structure a fundamental frequency that is much lower than its fixed-base frequency and also much lower than the predominant frequencies of the ground motion. The first dynamic mode of the isolated structure involves deformation only in the isolation system, the structure above being to all intents and purposes rigid. The higher modes that will produce deformation in the structure are orthogonal to the first mode and consequently also to the ground motion. These higher modes do not participate in the motion, so that if there is high energy in the ground motion at these higher frequencies, this energy cannot be transmitted into the structure. The isolation system does not absorb the earthquake energy, but rather deflects it through the dynamics of the system. This type of isolation works when the system is linear and even when undamped; however, some damping is beneficial to suppress any possible resonance at the isolation frequency. The second basic type of isolation system is typified by the sliding system. This works by limiting the transfer of shear across the isolation interface. Many sliding systems have been proposed and some have been used. In China there are at least three buildings on sliding systems that use a specially selected sand at the sliding interface. A type of isolation containing a lead- bronze plate sliding on stainless steel with an elastomeric bearing has been used for a nuclear power plant in South Africa. The friction-pendulum system is a sliding system using a special 11
interfacial material sliding on stainless steel and has been used for several projects in the United States, both new and retrofit construction.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Many researchers have considered various aspects of ground-borne vibration and its effects on buildings and their occupants, and several detailed studies have already been undertaken. Some of the papers giving thought to Base Isolation of Buildings, Retrofitting of building by Seismic Base Isolation and the study of structural response due to actual earthquake are studied and abstract of the same are presented below.
Yeong-Bin Yang, Kuo-Chun Chang, Jong-Dar Yau [2] presented the philosophy behind Seismic Isolation systems, basic requirements of Seismic Isolation systems and the design criteria for Isolation devices like HDR, LRB & FPS. Example is provided to illustrate the practical application of the design concept and a comparison is carried out for the three types of bearings for the same project. It was concluded by the author that the procedures presented2. Literature Review here serve merely as a key concept involved in initial sizing of the base isolation systems. Extra care must be given in applying isolators to the rehabilitation of existing buildings. Rihui Zhang [3] presented basic concepts, modeling and analysis for an isolated structure. Seismic Isolation and Energy Dissipation devices like elastomeric isolators, sliding isolators and few dampers are presented. This is followed up by performance and testing requirements for isolation devices. Design guidelines and design examples are presented, where the design guidelines follow AASHTO guidelines for bridges and UBC guidelines for buildings. This guideline contains general requirements for isolation, selecting proper isolation device, methods of analysis, design displacement & design force. Recent development in this field and application are presented. The author has made an attempt to introduce the basic concepts of seismic isolation and supplemental energy dissipation devices and their history, current developments, applications, and design related issues. 12
James M. Kelly [11] presented the ideas behind the concept of base isolation. In this approach the building or structure is decoupled from the horizontal components of earthquake ground motion by interposing a layer with low horizontal stiffness between the structure and the foundation. Research and development on the use of natural rubber bearings for Isolating buildings from earthquakes is presented. U.S. applications of base isolation are presented followed by application of base isolation in Japan and finally the application of base isolation for nuclear power plants is presented. From the research work carried out it was proved that research has improved the effectiveness of isolators in decreasing problems of stability, roll-out, failure of isolators, or unexpected response. The difficulties of manufacturing large isolators have diminished. It was now possible to make bearings of large diameters, because of the research work carried out.
Principle of Base Isolation The principle of Seismic Isolation is to introduce flexibility at the base of a structure in the horizontal plane. The system operates by decoupling the structure from the horizontal components of earthquake ground motion by interposing a layer of low horizontal stiffness between structure and foundation. By using Isolators the building is "decoupled" from the ground motion of any earthquake and the transmission of seismic energy to the building is dampened. This is done by lowering the vibration frequency, allowing the building to move or displace, and lowering the shock acceleration of the seismic event thus reducing the tendency for the upper floors to move faster than the lower floors.
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Objective of Base Isolation
The objective of seismic isolation systems is to decouple the building structure from the damaging components of the earthquake input motion, i.e. to prevent the superstructure of the building from absorbing the earthquake energy. The entire superstructure must be supported on discrete isolators whose dynamic characteristics are chosen to uncouple the ground motion. Some isolators are also designed to add substantial damping. Displacement and yielding are concentrated at the level of the isolation devices, and the superstructure behaves very much like a rigid body.
Basic Elements of Base Isolation System
There are three basic elements in any practical Seismic Isolation system. They are:- 1. A Flexible mounting so that the period of vibration of the total system is lengthened sufficiently to reduce the force response. 14
2. A damper or energy dissipater so that the relative deflections between the building & ground can be controlled to a practical design level; and 3. A means of providing rigidity under low load levels such as wind and minor EQ.
Base Isolation:- Isolation layer is located on the base of building.
Advantages: a. Minimal added structural costs. b. Separation at the level of base is easy to incorporate. c. Base of Columns may be connected by diaphragm. D. Easy to incorporate back-up systems for vertical loads.
Disadvantage: a. May require cantilever pit.
Basement Isolation:- Isolation layer located on the certain story of the basement.
Advantages: a. No Sub-basement required. b. Minimal added structural costs. c. Base of columns connected by diaphragm at isolation level. d. Back-up system for vertical loads provided by columns.
Disadvantage: a. May require cantilevered elevated shaft below first floor level. b. Special treatment required for internal stairways below first floor level.
Storey Isolation:- Isolation layer is located on the top of the first story or certain storey of super structure.
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Advantages: a. Minimal added structural costs. b. Economic if first level is for parking. c. Back-up system for vertical loads provided by columns.
Disadvantages: a. Special detail required for elevators and stairs. b. Special cladding details required if first level is not open. c. Special details required for vertical services.
Top Isolation:- Isolation layer is located on the top of the building. It is always used to add 1- 2 stories on the top of existing building for seismic retrofit.
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2) JACKETING:-
17
INTRODUCTION
Jacketing is the most popularly used method for strengthening of building columns. The most common types of jackets are steel jacket, reinforced concrete jacket, fibre reinforced polymer composite jacket, jacket with high tension materials like carbon fibre, glass fibre etc. The main purposes of jacketing are:- 1. To increase concrete confinement by transverse fibre reinforcement, especially for circular cross-sectional columuns. 2. To increase shear strength by transverse fibre reinforcement. 3. To increase flexural strength by longitudinal fibre reinforcement provide.
Such types of multi-shaped jackets provide a high degree of confinement by virtue of their shape to the splice region proving to be more effective. Rectangular jackets typically lack the flexural stiffness needed to fully confine the concrete. However, circular and oval jackets may be less desirable due to: (i) Need of large space in the building potential difficulties of fitting in the jackets with existing partition walls, exterior cladding, and non-structural elements and (ii) Where an oval or elliptical jacket has sufficient stiffness to confine the concrete along the long dimension of the crosssection is open to question. The longitudinal fibers similar to longitudinal reinforcement can be effective in increasing the flexural strength of member although they cannot effectively increase the flexural capacity of building frames because the critical moments are located at beam-column ends where most of the longitudinal fibers are difficult to pierce through to get sufficient anchorage.
Strengthening of RC beam
Several methods are used for strengthening of beam like concrete jacketing, steel jacketing, precast concrete jacketing, external prestressing and FRP wrapping. These methods are explained as follows:
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Concrete Jacketing
Concrete jacketing involves addition of a thick layer of RC in the form of a jacket, using longitudinal reinforcement and transverse ties. Additional concrete and reinforcement contribute to strength increase of section. General thickness of jacket is up to 100 mm. The stiffness of the system is highly increased due to jacketing. For beam section stirrups are required to be anchored in slab. For column longitudinal bars need to be anchored to the foundation and should be continuous through the slab. Jacketing requires drilling of holes in existing column, slab, beams and footings. After jacketing size, weight and stiffness of the column increase.
Concrete Jacketing
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Methods of Concrete Jacketing
Method-A
In the illustration, Method A will accomplish efficient load transfer if the new portion is cast with a bond breaker between the new and old concrete.
After most of the drying shrinkage has occurred, the ties that link the old and new concrete can be installed. 20
The gap between the new portion of the column and the existing member (to be partially supported by this column) can be filled with dry packing material.
This will allow the new material to share its portion of the load.
Method-B&C
When Methods B and C are used, extreme care should be exercised to select concrete mix designs with very low shrinkage rates.
Pre placed aggregate concrete generally offers the lowest drying shrinkage; it is, therefore, an excellent material for column enlargements.
Disadvatages
1. Increasing the size of the element, which make its usage very limited. 2. Difficult to construct in some active buildings such as hospitals, schools because of the noise of equipments. 3. Needs shuttering, formworks, reinforced steel, concrete, concrete pumps, vibrators, etc.
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Steel jacketing
In steel jacketing encasing the column with steel plates and filling the gap with a non- shrink grout is carried out. Steel jacketing provides confinement to core concrete. Its high youngs modulus causes the steel to take a large axial load. General thickness of grout is 25 mm. Steel jacket is affected by corrosion and impact with coating materials, so it is not used for columns in river, lake and seas. New longitudinal reinforcement is set around the existing column, and precast concrete segments are set around the new reinforcement. All segments are tied together by strands. After injecting non-shrinkage mortar between the existing concrete and precast concrete segment, prestressed force is introduced in the strands to assure the contact of the segments.
Steel Jacketing
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Research Significance
The need to strengthen beams for any structure may arise at any time from the beginning of the construction phase until the end of the service life or when the structure is distressed. During the construction phase, the strengthening of beam may be required because of,
Design errors Deficient concrete production Bad execution processes Situations involving changes in the structure functionality The development of more demanding code requirements
During the service life, the strengthening of beam in any structure may arise on account of,
An earthquake or other such natural calamity An accident, such as collisions, fire, explosions, etc. Distress in structure due to various physical and chemical factors
To overcome above related to functionality of beam for any structure, jacketing using additional reinforcement may be carried out for its strengthening. Further, for the damaged beams during their service life, the repairing of beams may be carried out by grouting and the beams strengthening by jacketing. Less amount of research has been performed on techniques for jacketing using dowel connectors alone, bonding agent alone, combined use of dowel connectors and bonding agent and without using dowel connectors and bonding agent on smooth and chipped surfaces of the beams. Also less amount of work has been done for comparing performance of strengthened and repaired and strengthened beams by jacketing. For above reasons the present work is aimed towards Study of Repaired and Strengthened RC beams using different jacketing Techniques for smooth and chipped surfaces.
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Objectives of Study
To study various parameters, following objectives are decided for the major project.
1) To evaluate the response of RC beam subjected to loading by measuring structural parameters such as ultimate load, failure load, maximum displacement, strain variation, failure shape, crack patterns, etc.
2) To study e activeness of jacketing on the beam using additional reinforcement.
3) To study e activeness of dowel connectors and micro-concrete, bonding agent and micro- concrete, combination of dowel connectors and bonding agent and micro-concrete and without dowel connectors and bonding agent and using only micro-concrete for jacketing of the beam.
4) To study the e activeness of above method jacketing when the beam surface is smooth as well as chipped.
5) To evaluate e activeness of grouting for damaged beams before jacketing. 6) To determine bond strength between old and new concrete for smooth surface and chipped surface of the beams.
7) To compare behavior of strengthened beams and repaired and strengthened beams for evaluating efficiency of the jacketing method in case of beams.
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3) FRP REINFORCEMENT:-
25
INTRODUCTION
The use of fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) as a construction material has increased in recent years, primarily because of the non-corrosive nature and high tensile strength of the material. Though the principle application of FRPs has been in the form of glass and carbon sheets for retrofit and rehabilitation projects, FRP reinforcing bars are being considered as an alternative to steel reinforcements for use in new reinforced concrete structures. A major challenge for using FRP re-bars in seismically active regions remains to be their brittle failure characteristics.
Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforcements have been used extensively as an alternative reinforcement material to steel for new construction as well as for strengthening and repair of existing structures. Strengthening of Reinforced concrete (RC) elements mostly use two methods EBR (Externally Bonded Reinforcements) method and NSM (Near Surface Mounted) method. Steel bars have resulted in several disadvantages including difficulty in handling at site and possibility of corrosion at the adhesive-steel interface. Therefore, the strengthening of concrete structure by bonding FRP bars to concrete surfaces using polymer adhesives is becoming an effective way of improving performance of structures. FRP materials are lightweight, noncorrosive, and exhibit high tensile strength. These materials are readily available in several forms. FRPs are organized in a laminate structure. Each lamina (flat layer) contains an arrangement of unidirectional fibers fabrics embedded within a thin layer of light polymer matrix material.
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Historical Background
In Europe, FRP systems were developed as alternates to steel plate bonding. Bonding steel plates to the tension zones of concrete members with adhesive resins were shown to be viable techniques for increasing their flexural strengths (Fleming and King 1967). This technique has been used to strengthen many bridges and buildings around the world. Because steel plates can corrode, leading to a deterioration of the bond between the steel and concrete, and because they are difficult to install, requiring the use of heavy equipment, researchers have looked to FRP materials as an alternative to steel. Experimental work using FRP materials for retrofitting concrete structures was reported as early as 1978 in Germany (Wolf and Miessler 1989). Research in Switzerland led to the first applications of externally bonded FRP systems to reinforced concrete bridges for flexural strengthening (Meier 1987; Rostasy 1987).
FRP systems were first applied to reinforced concrete columns for providing additional confinement in Japan in the 1980s (Fardis and Khalili 1981; Katsumata et al. 1987). A sudden increase in the use of FRPs in Japan was observed after the 1995 Hyogoken Nanbu earthquake (Nanni 1995).
Researchers in the United States have had a long and continuous interest in fiber-based reinforcement for concrete structures since the 1930s. Development and research into the use of these materials for retrofitting concrete structures, however, started in the 1980s through the initiatives of the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). The research activities led to the construction of many field projects that encompassed a wide variety of environmental conditions. Previous research and field applications for FRP rehabilitation and strengthening are described in ACI 440R and conference proceedings (Neale 2000; Dolan et al. 1999; Sheheta et al. 1999; Saadatmanesh and Ehsani 1998; Benmokrane and Rahman 1998; Neale and Labossire 1997; Hassan and Rizkalla 2002; Shield et al. 2005).
The development of codes and standards for externally bonded FRP systems is ongoing in Europe, Japan, Canada, and the United States. Within the last 10 years, the Japan Society of 27
Civil Engineers (JSCE), the Japan Concrete Institute (JCI), and the Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI) published several documents related to the use of FRP materials in concrete structures.
The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) and ISIS have been active in developing guidelines for FRP systems. Section 16, Fiber Reinforced Structures, of the Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code was completed in 2006 (CAN/CSA-S6-06), and CSA approved CSA S806-00.
In the United States, criteria for evaluating FRP systems are available to the construction industry (ICBO AC125; CALTRANS Division of Structures 1996; Hawkins et al. 1998).
FRP consists of two main components: 1. Fibers. 2. Resin or Matrix.
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Types of FRP Reinforcements
There are main three types of FRP Reinforcements available, 1. Carbon 2. Glass 3. Aramid
Installation of FRP bar
Materials used for installation of FRP bar are epoxy as binder material, white sand and FRP bar. Pro-portion used for mixing is 1:6 for epoxy sand. Process of installation of the NSM FRP rods started by cutting the grooves with specified dimensions into the concrete cover in the longitudinal direction at the tension side and shear side of the beam depending upon the strengthening conditions. A special concrete saw with a diamond blade is used to cut the grooves. The remaining concrete lugs formed by sawing the concrete surface is then removed using a hammer and a hand chisel in such a way that the lower surface became rough. The grooves are cleaned using air brushing pressure to remove debris and fine particles so as to ensure proper bonding between the filling material and the concrete. The groove dimensions. The groove is half filled and the FRP rod is then placed inside and pressed lightly. This forces the filling material around the FRP rod. More filling material is applied to fill the groove and the surface is leveled. The beam is left for one week to ensure the filling material gains the adequate strength.Epoxy is used as filling material.
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FRP Bars
Preparation of Bond Test Specimens
The structural behavior of RC elements strengthened with NSM FRP rods needs to be fully characterized, and bond is the first issue to be addressed. Bond is of primary importance since it is the means for the transfer of stress between the concrete and the FRP reinforcement to develop the composite action. The objective of this test is to investigate the bond strength between NSM FRP rods and concrete by changing the bond length of FRP bar. For formation of groove, at the time of casting of block, wooden plate is installed having size of 5d,10d and 15d on the surface of block. concrete blocks and cubes. Purpose of casting of cubes is to compare bond strength of concrete with HYSD bars and GFRP bars. Four cubes and six concrete blocks are cast for the bond test. GFRP bar and HYSD bar are installed in center of cube at time of casting. Wooden 30
plate is installed in the concrete block. The view of the block after removing the woo den plate The procedure of installation of the FRP bar is presented.
Details of Instruments
Load, displacement and strain for beam specimens are measured using hydraulic jack, LVDT and electrical strain gauge respectively. Different instruments used in experimental work are as follows:-
LVDT is used to measure displacement of the RC column when the load is being applied on it. LVDT is attached at the position where de action is to be measured in beam. Strength of the LVDT sensors principle is that there is no electrical contact across the transducer position sensing element for which the user of the sensor means clean data, infinite resolution and a very long life. Figure4.21 shows LVDT. 31
De action dial gauge Dial gauge is used to measure displacement of a beam during the load application. It is fitted in such a way that it touches point at which the measurement of de action is required for the beam. Dial gauge is used for above application.
Hydraulic Jack
Hydraulic jack of 1000 kN capacity is used. It works based on Pascals principle. Basically, the principle states that the pressure in a closed container is the same at all points. The pressure is described mathematically by a Force divided by Area. Therefore, if there are two cylinders connected together, a small one and a large one, and a Force is applied to the small cylinder, it would result in a given pressure.
Mechanical Strain Gauges (DEMEC)
Mechanical strain gauges are known as DEMEC (Demountable Mechanical) strain gauges. The DEMEC gauges consist of a digital dial gauge attached to an Invar bar. A fixed conical point is mounted at one end of the bar, and a moving conical point is mounted on a knife edge pivot at the opposite end. The pivoting movement of this second conical point is measured by the dial gauge. A setting out bar is used to position pre-drilled stainless steel discs which are attached to the structure using a suitable adhesive. In this way, the strain changes in the structure are converted into a change in the reading on the dial gauge. Figure 4.24 shows mechanical strain gauge.
The Model P3 Strain Indicator and a strain Recorder is a portable, battery-operated instrument capable of simultaneously accepting four inputs from quarter- half- and full- bridge strain-gage circuits, including strain-gage-based transducers. Designed for use in a wide variety of physical test and measurement applications, the P3 functions 32
as a bridge amplifier, a static strain indicator, and a digital data logger. An extensive, easy-to-use menu-driven user interface operates through a front-panel keypad to readily configure the P3 to meet particular measurement requirements. Selections include active input and output channels, bridge configuration, measurement units, bridge balance, calibration method, and recording options, among others. Data, recorded at a user-selectable rate of up to 1 reading per channel per second, is stored on a removable multimedia card and is transferred by USB to a computer. Figure 4.25 shows P-3 strain indicator. A highly stable measurement circuit, regulated bridge excitation supply, and precisely settable gage factor enable measurements of 0.1% accuracy and 1 micro-strain resolution. Bridge completion resistors of 120, 350 and 1000 ohms are built in for quarter-bridge operation.
Properties of FRP Bars
FRP STEEL ALUMINIUM TIMBER Corrosion Resistance High Low Medium Low Strength High High High Low Weigth Low High Low Medium Electrical Conductivity Low High High Moderate Thermal Conductivity Very Low High High Low EMI/RFI Tranparency Yes No No Yes Fabrication Easy Easy Moderate Easy Life Cycle Cost Low Moderate Moderate High Environmental Impact Low High High Low
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Objectives
To study utility of NSM FRP reinforcement for strengthening of RC beams To evaluate effectiveness of variation in number and diameter of GFRP reinforcement on comparative flexural performance of RC beams To study shear behavior of RC beams by incorporating GFRP reinforcement with variation in diameter and spacing To check suitability of incorporating GFRP reinforcement for improving performance of damaged and undamaged beams compared to control beams To evaluate maximum moment, load carrying capacity, displacement and strain experimentally and compare with analytical calculations
Advantages of FRP
Corrosion Resistance. Lightweight. Ease of installation. Less Finishing. Less maintenance. Ductility of FRP wrapped members improves dramatically. They are ideal for external application. They are extremely durable. They are available in various forms: sheets, plates, fabric, etc. They are available in long lengths that eliminates joints and splices. They cure within 24 hours. Anti-seismic behavior. 34
Literature Survey
Various techniques are available for strengthening of RC elements. Use of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites is the most latest alternative for strengthening of RC elements. FRP reinforcements have higher tensile strength compared to the steel rods. Use of FRP composites is not limited to new construction, but they are also used to enhance the structures deficient in shear information available in literature have been studied related to structural elements strengthened using NSM FRP reinforcement.
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Chapter- 3 Design Procedure for Strengthening of using ACI 440.2R-08
Example:-
A simply supported concrete beam reinforced with three No. 9 bars (See below fig.,) is located in an unoccupied warehouse and is subjected to a 50% increase in its live-load carrying requirements. An analysis of the existing beam indicates that the beam still has sufficient shear strength to resist the new required shear strength and meets the deflection and crack-control serviceability requirements. Its flexural strength, however, is inadequate to carry the increased live load.
7.32 m FRP 546 mm 609.6 mm Elevation Plan 36
Table:-1
Length of the beam, l 7.32 mm Width of the beam, w 305 mm d 546 mm h 609.6 mm fc 34.5 N/mm2 fy 414 N/mm2 Mn without FRP 361 kN-m Bars = 28.6 mm
Table:-2
Loading/Moment Existing Loads Anticipated Loads Dead loads wDL 14.6 N/mm 14.6 N/mm Live load wLL 17.5 N/mm 26.3 N/mm Unfactored loads (wDL + wLL) 32.1 N/mm 40.9 N/mm Unstrengthened load limit (1.1wDL + 0.75wLL ) N/A 35.8 N/mm Factored loads (1.2wDL + 1.6wLL) 45.5 N/mm 59.6 N/mm Dead-load moment MDL 98 kN-m 98 kN-m Live-load moment MLL 117 kN-m 176 kN-m Service-load moment Ms 214 kN-m 274 kN-m Unstrengthened moment limit (1.1MDL + 0.75MLL) N/A 240 kN-m Factored moment Mu 304 kN-m 399 kN-m
The existing reinforced concrete beam should be strengthened with the FRP system described in Table 15.4, specifically, two 12 in. (305 mm) wide x 23.0 ft (7 m) long plies bonded to the soffit of the beam using the wet layup technique.
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Table:-3
Thickness per ply tf 1.02 mm Ultimate tensile strength ffu* 621 N/mm2 Rupture strain fu* 0.015 mm/mm Modulus of elasticity of FRP laminates Ef 37,000 N/mm2
Solution:-
Procedure Calculation Step 1Calculate the FRP system design material properties
The beam is located in an interior space and a CFRP material will be used. Therefore, per Table 9.1, an environmental reduction factor of 0.95 is suggested.
ffu = (CE)*(ffu*)
fu = (CE)*(fu*)
ffu = (0.95)*(621 N/mm2) = 590 N/mm2
fu = (0.95)*(0.015 mm/mm) = 0.0142 mm/mm Step 2Preliminary calculations
Properties of the concrete: 1 from ACI 318-05, Section 10.2.7.3
Ec = 57,000fc
Properties of the existing reinforcing steel:
Properties of the externally bonded FRP reinforcement:
= 619 mm2 Step 3Determine the existing state of strain on the soffit
The existing state of strain is calculated assuming the beam is cracked and the only loads acting on the beam at the time of the FRP installation are dead loads. A cracked section analysis of the existing beam gives k = 0.334 and Icr = 2471 106 mm4
bi= {MDL(df kd)}/IcrEc
ebi = {(97.6)*[609.6 (0.334)*(546.1)]}/(2471 10^6)*(27.6) = 0.00061 Step 4Determine the design strain of the FRP system
The design strain of FRP accounting for debonding failure mode fd is calculated using
Because the design strain is smaller than the rupture strain, debonding controls the design of the FRP system.
efd = 0.41*[34.5/2*37000*1.02]^1/2 = 0.009 0.9(0.0142) = 0.0128 Step 5Estimate c, the depth to the neutral axis
A reasonable initial estimate of c is 0.20d. The value of the c is adjusted after checking equilibrium.
c = 0.20d
C = (0.20)*(546.1) = 109 mm Step 6Determine the effective level of strain in the FRP reinforcement
The effective strain level in the FRP may be found from Eq. (10-3).
fe = 0.003[(df-c)/c] bi fd Note that for the neutral axis depth
selected, FRP debonding would be in the failure mode because the second expression in this equation controls. If the first expression governed, then concrete crushing would be in the failure mode.
Because FRP controls the failure of the section, the concrete strain at failure c may be less than 0.003 and can be calculated using similar triangles:
c = (fe + bi)[c/(df-c)]
fe = fd = 0.009
c = (0.009 + 0.00061)*[109.2/(609.6-109.2)] = 0.0021 Step 7Calculate the strain in the existing reinforcing steel
The strain in the reinforcing steel can be calculated using similar triangles according to Eq. (10-10).
s = (fe + bi)[(d c)/(df c)]
s = (0.009 + 0.00061)*[(546.1-109.2)/(609.6- 109.2)] =0.0081 Step 8Calculate the stress level in the reinforcing steel and FRP
The stresses are calculated using Eq. (10- 11) and Eq. (10-9).
fs = Es*s fy
ffe = Ef*fe
fs = (200 kN/mm2)(0.0084) 0.414 kN/mm2
fs = 1.68 kN/mm2 0.414 kN/mm2
Hence, fs = 0.414 kN/mm2
ffe = (37 kN/mm2)(0.009) = 0.33 kN/mm2
Step 9Calculate the internal force resultants and check equilibrium
Concrete stress block factors may be calculated using ACI 318-05. Approximate stress block factors may also be calculated based on the parabolic stress-strain relationship for concrete as
c =1.7*(34.5)/27,600 = 0.0021 1= [4(0.0021) 0.0021}/{6(0.0021) 2(0.0021)} 40
follows:
1= (4c c)/(6c 2 c)
1= (3c c c^2)/31c2
where c is strain corresponding to fc calculated as
c=(1.7fc)/Ec
Force equilibrium is verified by checking the initial estimate of c with Eq. (10-12).
c =(1935.48*414+619*330)/(0.886*34.5*0.749*304.8) = 149 mm 109 in. n.g.
So, Revise estimate of c and repeat Steps 6 through 9 until equilibrium is achieved. Step 10Adjust c until force equilibrium is satisfied
Steps 6 through 9 were repeated several times with different values of c until equilibrium was achieved. The results of the final iteration are
1 = 0.786; 1 = 0.928;
C =(1935.5*414+619*330)/(0.928*34.5*0.786*304.8) = 131 ___OK
So, the value of c selected for the final iteration is correct. Step 11Calculate flexural strength Components
The design flexural strength is calculated using Eq. (10-13). An additional reduction factor, f = 0.85, is applied to the contribution of the FRP system.
Steel contribution to bending: Mns= As fs ( d-1c/2)
= 114 kN-m Step 12Calculate design flexural strength of the section
The design flexural strength is calculated using Eq. (10-1) and Eq. (10-13). Because s = 0.0083 > 0.005, a strength reduction factor of = 0.90 is appropriate per Eq. (10-5).
So, the strengthened section is capable of sustaining the new required moment strength. Step 13Check service stresses in the reinforcing steel and the FRP
Calculate the elastic depth to the cracked neutral axis. This can be simplified for a rectangular beam without compression reinforcement as follows:
In detailing the FRP reinforcement, the FRP should be terminated a minimum of ldf, calculated per Eq. (13-2), past the point on the moment diagram that represents cracking. The factored shear force at the termination should also be checked against the shear force that causes FRP end peeling, estimated as 2/3 of the concrete shear strength. If the shear force is greater than 2/3 of the concrete shear strength, the FRP strips should be extended further toward the supports. U- wraps may also be used to reinforce against cover delamination.
43
Chapter-4
EXCEL PROGRAM (SPREAD SHEET) (Case I, II, III)
44
Length of the beam l (m) 7.32 Width of the beam w (mm) 305 d (mm) 546 h (mm) 609.6 fc' (N/mm^2) 34.5 fy (N/mm^2) 414 Mn (kN-m) 361 (mm) 28.6 Loading/moment Existing loads Anticipated loads Dead loads wDL (N/mm) 14.6 14.6 Live load wLL (N/mm) 17.5 26.3 Unfactored loads (wDL + wLL) (N/mm) 32.1 40.9 Unstrengthened load limit (1.1wDL+ 0.75wLL) (N/mm) N/A 35.8 Factored loads (1.2wDL+ 1.6wLL) (N/mm) 45.5 59.6 Dead-load moment MDL (kN-m) 98 98 Live-load moment MLL (kN-m) 117 176 Service-load moment Ms (kN-m) 214 274 Unstrengthened moment limit (1.1MDL+ 0.75MLL) (kN-m) N/A 240 Factored moment Mu (kN-m) 304 399 Thickness per ply tf (mm) 1.02 Ultimate tensile strength ffu* (N/mm^2) 621 Rupture strain fu* (mm/mm) 0.015 Modulus of elasticity of FRP laminates Ef (N/mm^2) 37000 envirommental reduction factor CE 0.95 no. of plies n 2 k 0.334 Icr (mm^4) 2471000000 Es (kN/mm^2) 200 (Strength reduction factor) 0.9 f 0.85 s 0.0116 f 0.00372 Ec (kN/mm^2) 27.6 SPREADSHEET (Case I) Loadings and corresponding moments Manufacturers reported FRP system properties Constants 45
f 0.85 s 0.0116 f 0.00372 Ec (kN/mm^2) 27.6 ffu (N/mm^2) 589.95 fu (mm/mm) 0.01425 Step 2Preliminary calculations 1 0.8 Ec (kN/mm^2) 27.60624929 As (mm^2) 1935 Af (mm^2) 622.2 bi 0.00073278 fd' 0.008765515 fd 0.008765515 c (mm) (change this to B81 for equilibrium, for iteration) 131.7547482 c (mm) initial value 109.2 fe' 0.010147555 fe 0.008765515 c 0.002618935 s 0.008234096 fs'(kN/mm^2) 1.646819228 fs (kN/mm^2) 0.414 Step 5Estimate c, the depth to the neutral axis Step 6Determine the effective level of strain in the FRP reinforcement Step 7Calculate the strain in the existing reinforcing steel Step 8Calculate the stress level in the reinforcing steel and FRP Step-1 : Calculate the FRP system design material properties Step 3Determine the existing state of strain on the soffit Step 4Determine the design strain of the FRP system 46
fs (kN/mm^2) 0.414 ffe (kN/mm^2) 0.324324071 Step 9Calculate the internal force resultants and check equilibrium c' 0.002124519 1 0.782920472 1 0.927536022 c (mm) 131.2452285 Step-10 Iteration Step 11Calculate flexural strength components Mns (kN-m) 396.2373082 Mnf (kN-m) 112.6462378 Step 12Calculate design flexural strength of the section Mn (kN-m) 442.7879493 OK Step 13Check service stresses in the reinforcing steel and the FRP k 0.313266218 f(s,s) (N/mm^2) 246.0336987 OK Step 14Check creep rupture limit at service of the FRP f(f,s) (N/mm^2) 26.36417511 OK
47
Spread sheet-2 (l=5m, load capacity=100%) Enter the Length of the beam l (m) 5 Enter the Width of the beam w (mm) 305 d (mm) 546 Enter the height of the beam h (mm) 609.6 fc' (N/mm^2) 34.5 fy (N/mm^2) 414 Mn (kN-m) 361 (mm) 28.6
Loadings and corresponding moments Loading/moment Existing loads Anticipated loads Dead loads wDL (N/mm) 14.6 14.6 Live load wLL (N/mm) 17.5 17.5 Unfactored loads (wDL + wLL) (N/mm) 32.1 32.1 Unstrengthened load limit (1.1wDL+ 0.75wLL) (N/mm) N/A 29.185 Factored loads (1.2wDL+ 1.6wLL) (N/mm) 45.52 45.52 Dead-load moment MDL (kN-m) 45.625 45.625 Live-load moment MLL (kN-m) 54.6875 54.6875 Service-load moment Ms (kN-m) 100.3125 100.3125 Unstrengthened moment limit (1.1MDL+ 0.75MLL) (kN-m) N/A 91.203125 Factored moment Mu (kN-m) 142.25 142.25 Manufacturers reported FRP system properties Thickness per ply tf (mm) 1.02 Ultimate tensile strength ffu* (N/mm^2) 621 Rupture strain fu* (mm/mm) 0.015 Modulus of elasticity of FRP laminates Ef (N/mm^2) 37000
Constants envirommental reduction factor CE 0.95 no. of plies n 2 k 0.334 Icr (mm^4) 2471000000 Es (kN/mm^2) 200 (Strength reduction factor) 0.9 f 0.85 s 0.0116 f 0.00372 Ec (kN/mm^2) 27.6
48
Step-1 : Calculate the FRP system design material properties ffu (N/mm^2) 589.95 fu (mm/mm) 0.01425
Step 2Preliminary calculations 1 0.8 Ec (kN/mm^2) 27.60624929 As (mm^2) 1935 Af (mm^2) 622.2
Step 3Determine the existing state of strain on the soffit bi 0.000285753
Step 4Determine the design strain of the FRP system fd' 0.008765515 fd 0.008765515
Step 5Estimate c, the depth to the neutral axis c (mm) (change this to B81 for equilibrium, for iteration) 132.8539477
Step 6Determine the effective level of strain in the FRP reinforcement c (mm) initial value 109.2 fe' 0.010479739 fe 0.008765515 c 0.0025223
Step 7Calculate the strain in the existing reinforcing steel s 0.00784379
Step 8Calculate the stress level in the reinforcing steel and FRP fs'(kN/mm^2) 1.568757932 fs (kN/mm^2) 0.414 ffe (kN/mm^2) 0.324324071
Step 9Calculate the internal force resultants and check equilibrium c' 0.002124519 1 0.775821531 1 0.924687402
Step 12Calculate design flexural strength of the section Mn (kN-m) 442.6494033 OK Step 13Check service stresses in the reinforcing steel and the FRP k 0.313266218 f(s,s) (N/mm^2) 102.5784151 OK Step 14Check creep rupture limit at service of the FRP f(f,s) (N/mm^2) 11.72323325 OK
50
Spread sheet (l=10m, load capacity 75%) Enter the Length of the beam l (m) 10 Enter the Width of the beam w (mm) 305 d (mm) 546 Enter the height of the beam h (mm) 609.6 fc' (N/mm^2) 34.5 fy (N/mm^2) 414 Mn (kN-m) 361 (mm) 28.6
Loadings and corresponding moments Loading/moment Existing loads Anticipated loads Dead loads wDL (N/mm) 14.6 14.6 Live load wLL (N/mm) 17.5 13.125 Unfactored loads (wDL + wLL) (N/mm) 32.1 27.725 Unstrengthened load limit (1.1wDL+ 0.75wLL) (N/mm) N/A 25.90375 Factored loads (1.2wDL+ 1.6wLL) (N/mm) 45.52 38.52 Dead-load moment MDL (kN-m) 182.5 182.5 Live-load moment MLL (kN-m) 218.75 164.0625 Service-load moment Ms (kN-m) 401.25 346.5625 Unstrengthened moment limit (1.1MDL+ 0.75MLL) (kN-m) N/A 323.796875 Factored moment Mu (kN-m) 569 481.5 Manufacturers reported FRP system properties Thickness per ply tf (mm) 1.02 Ultimate tensile strength ffu* (N/mm^2) 621 Rupture strain fu* (mm/mm) 0.015 Modulus of elasticity of FRP laminates Ef (N/mm^2) 37000
Constants envirommental reduction factor CE 0.95 no. of plies n 2 k 0.334 Icr (mm^4) 2471000000 Es (kN/mm^2) 200 (Strength reduction factor) 0.9 f 0.85 s 0.0116 f 0.00372 Ec (kN/mm^2) 27.6
51
Step-1 : Calculate the FRP system design material properties ffu (N/mm^2) 589.95 fu (mm/mm) 0.01425
Step 2Preliminary calculations 1 0.8 Ec (kN/mm^2) 27.60624929 As (mm^2) 1935 Af (mm^2) 622.2
Step 3Determine the existing state of strain on the soffit bi 0.001143011
Step 4Determine the design strain of the FRP system fd' 0.008765515 fd 0.008765515
Step 5Estimate c, the depth to the neutral axis c (mm) (change this to B81 for equilibrium, for iteration) 130.2218987
Step 6Determine the effective level of strain in the FRP reinforcement c (mm) initial value 109.2 fe' 0.00990071 fe 0.008765515 c 0.002691627
Step 7Calculate the strain in the existing reinforcing steel s 0.008593944
Step 8Calculate the stress level in the reinforcing steel and FRP fs'(kN/mm^2) 1.718788762 fs (kN/mm^2) 0.414 ffe (kN/mm^2) 0.324324071
Step 9Calculate the internal force resultants and check equilibrium c' 0.002124519 1 0.78850619 1 0.928202679
Step 12Calculate design flexural strength of the section Mn (kN-m) 442.8202502 Not OK Step 13Check service stresses in the reinforcing steel and the FRP k 0.313266218 f(s,s) (N/mm^2) 356.3336301 Not OK Step 14Check creep rupture limit at service of the FRP f(f,s) (N/mm^2) 35.16002075 OK
53
Chapter-5 COMPARATIVE STUDY
Results and conclusion Case-1 Case-2 case-3
l=7.32m, Load capacity (150%) l=5m, Load capacity (100%) l=10m, Load capacity (75%) design flexural strength of the section Mn (kN-m) 442 442 442 Factored moment Mu (kN-m) 399 142.25 481.5 service stresses in the reinforcing steel and the FRP f(s,s) (N/mm^2) 278 102.58 356.33 Stress level limit (0.80*fy) 331.2 331.2 331.2 creep rupture limit at service of the FRP f(f,s) (N/mm^2) 37.77 11.72 35.16 Sustained plus Cyclic stress limit (0.55*ffu) 324.4065 324.4725 324.4725 Ok/Not ok? OK OK Not OK
Dark cells represents that the current design of beam will not sustain the given loads and moments and would collapse
54
Chapter-6 Conclusion As we can see from the result table that if we keep the length of beam 10m, then even with only 75% load capacity, the beam will most likely collapse, and this is because if we increase the length of simply supported beam, then even with low load there will be very high bending moments present in the beam which if crosses the critical value for a particular material and structure leads the beam to collapse.
So while designing beams (with FRP) before or after earthquake, we have to check whether we are putting supports at the safe distance or not, otherwise the structure may collapse.
Use of FRP sheets indeed provide extra strength to the beam and must be advisable to use in designing new or damaged structure. It is highly recommended in earthquake prone areas.
55
Chapter-7 Reference
[1] A. Nadeem W.C. Tang, R.V. Balendran and H.Y. Leung. Flexural strengthening of reinforced lightweight polystyrene aggregate concrete beams with near-surface mounted gfrp bars. Building and Environment, pages 13811393, 2006. [2] Raafat El-Hacha and Sami H. Rizkalla. Near-surface-mounted fiber-reinforced polymer reinforcements for exural strengthening of concrete structures. ACI Structural Journal, V. 101, No. 5,:717726, September-October 2004. [3] J.A.O. Barros, S.J.E. Dias, and J.L.T. Lima. E cacy of cfrp-based techniques for the exural and shear strengthening of concrete beams. Cement & Concrete Composites,, 29:203217, 2007. [4] Khaldoun N. Rahal. Shear strengthening of damaged reinforced concrete beams using nsm cfrp rods and rebars. pages 19. [5] ACI 440R-96 (Reapproved 2002) State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures. [6] ACI 440.2R-08, Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures. [7] ACI 318-08, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-08) and Commentary, An ACI Standard, Reported by ACI Committee 318, Copyright American [8] www.isiscanada.com, ISIS Educational Module 3, An Introduction to FRP-Reinforced Concrete.