!"#$ & '($)*+ ,)-*(".

/#$0

1)2#"#$#("
!"#$%&'()*+ is an inuiviuual's unique thoughts, feelings anu behavioi that peisist ovei time anu
uiffeient situations

3#4 ,*056(/(7#5./ ,)-*8)5$#9)*
Theie aie six main schools of thought iegaiuing peisonality:
!$+,-%.+&'/),: focuses on unconscious motives anu stiuctuies to explain peisonality
-0/'&)$*),: focuses on the funuamental goouness of people anu theii attempts to stiive foi
highei levels of functioning
,%&$*)*0*)%& (oi *+!"1: pioposes a ielationship between bouy type anu peisonality
chaiacteiistics
*#')*: examines stable chaiacteiistics of the peison that help explain behavioi
$%,)'(2,%3&)*)4" 6oi $%,)%,0(*0#'(1: focuses on enviionmental contingencies anu accompanying
mental piocesses to explain peisonality
7"-'4)%#'(: focuses on the funuamentals of leaining to explain behavioi

,*056(:0".;#5+ 3#7;<": =-)<:
the most well-known psychouynamic theoiist if Sigmunu Fieuu.
Fieuu focuseu on the powei of innei foices as motivatois to shape peisonality

Fieuu's psychouynamic theoiy is baseu on a few key concepts:
1. unueilying symptoms can be ielieveu thiough the expiession of the $*#'&30('*". '88",*,
oi biing these unconscious motives to the suiface--the piocess of puiging these emotions
is calleu ,'*-'#$)$
2. the symptoms someone uisplays have an "/%*)%&'( (%3), anu the key to psychoanalysis is
to unlock the mysteiies of these symptoms
3. a lot of abnoimal behaviois aie a iesult of "/%*)%&'((+ '7#'$)4" "9!"#)"&,"$ in oui
chiluhoou; they unconsciously giow into abnoimal behaviois as the peison gets oluei
Fieuu's theoiies aie baseu on !$+,-), ."*"#/)&)$/-- the assumption that oui eaily life
ueteimines oui behavioi anu unconscious ieactions.

Fieuu believeu we all hau ceitain uiives anu instincts which guiue oui behavioi:
"#%$: the life instinct which seeks to pieseive the species;
()7).%: oui sexual eneigy
*-'&'*%$: oui uesiie to ietuin to the womb; shown in aggiessive anu uestiuctive behavioi

Fieuu believeu that eveiyone piogiesseu thiough five stages of !$+,-%$"90'( ."4"(%!/"&*
these stages aie:
%#'( $*'3" (u-1 yeais): achieves libiuinal satisfaction fiom oial activities such as eating anu
sucking
'&'( $*'3" (1-S yeais): autonomy is uevelopeu thiough blauuei anu bowel contiol
!-'((), $*'3" (S-6 yeais): the chilu comes to uevelop a sexual attachment to the opposite sexeu
paient anu to see the same sexeu paient as a iival foi those affections
:".)!0$ ;%/!("9: boys want to possess the mothei anu see theii fathei as a sexual iival
<(",*#' ;%/!("9: giils want to possess the fathei anu see theii mothei as a sexual iival
('*"&,+ !"#)%. (6-pubeity): a peiiou of sexual iest foi both sexes wheie sex-iole iuentities
uevelop
3"&)*'( $*'3" (pubeity on): a ieawakening of sexual uiges anu a uesiie foi heteiosexual
ielationships



Fieuu believeu that the minu oi oui peisonality was maue up of thiee constiucts:
*-" ).: the chilu within us that seeks expiession of wishes anu emotions (calleu the !("'$0#"
!#)&,)!(")
*-" "3%: uses the #"'()*+ !#)&,)!(" to satisfy the iu anu supeiego safely anu effectively in the
ieal woilu
*-" $0!"#"3%: society's values anu moials; the paient within us which is guiueu by the
)."'()$*), !#)&,)!("

Inuiviuuals constantly stiive to piesent theii best self anu ieuuce anxiety
Fieuu calleu this pieseiving "3% )&*"3#)*+
To uo this, inuiviuuals employ a vaiiety of ."8"&$" /",-'&)$/$:
#"!#"$$)%&: involuntaiy memoiy loss about something anxiety-piouucing
$0!!#"$$)%&: voluntaiily not thinking about something anxiety-piouucing
."&)'(: not facing up to the ieality of a situation
#'*)%&'()='*)%&: making up excuses foi oui actions
.)$!(',"/"&*: iechanneling aggiession in a negative way; taking oui fiustiations out on a
substitute peison oi object
$07()/'*)%& (also calleu ,%/!"&$'*)%&): iechanneling aggiession in a neutial oi positive way
!#%>",*)%&: putting onto otheis oui own tenuencies, motives oi tiaits
#"',*)%& foimation: behaving outwaiuly that opposite of how we inwaiuly feel
!#%,#'$*)&'*)%&: putting off something anxiety-piouucing until a latei time
8)9'*)%&: becoming stuck at a specific stage of psychosexual uevelopment because it is safei foi
ego integiity
#"3#"$$)%&: ietuining to an eailiei stage of psychosexual uevelopment

&"%2?#"0.)'&$ iefineu anu uevelopeu Fieuu's theoiies
they uiu not agiee that oui libiuo guiueu the majoiity of oui actions but founu othei souices foi
oui motives

,*056(:0".;#5+ >.-/ ?<"7
Cail }ung was Fieuu's hanupickeu successoi
}ung believeu that oui peisonality oi minu was maue up of thiee constiucts.
,%&$,)%0$ "3%: oui consciousness awaieness of ouiselves anu how we piesent oui self to the
outsiue woilu
!"#$%&'( 0&,%&$,)%0$: motives anu behaviois that aie unique to the inuiviuual hiuuen away in
the unconscious
,%((",*)4" 0&,%&$,)%0$: iacial memoiy; oui unueistanuing of mankinu's past; oui intuitive
tenuencies towaiu univeisal, ieoccuiiing symbols calleu '#,-"*+!"$

some of the moie notable aichetypal chaiacteis founu in liteiatuie aie:
-"#%: saves the uay; uefeats evil; piotects the weak
/%*-"#: suiiounus, encompasses anu piotects the inuiviuual; can be both a peison oi an
institution
$-'.%@: the uaik siue of oui natuie; oui hiuuen, bau tenuencies we uo not like to acknowleuge
*#),A$*"#B/'3),)'&C plays sly pianks anu malicious tiicks; usually iepiesenteu as half man, half
animal
,-)(.23%.: an inuiviuual who has poweis oi knowleuge beyonu theii yeais
'&)/': the piojection of femininity fiom a man's collective unconscious; seeing in otheis oui
own opposite sexeu chaiacteiistics
'&)/0$: the piojection of masculinity fiom a woman's collective unconscious; seeing in otheis
oui own opposite sexeu chaiacteiistics
!"#$%&': the uieek woiu foi "mask;" the uiffeient faces we put on in uiffeient enviionments



}ung believeu in /'&.'(' $+/7%()$/, oui stiiving foi completeness oi wholeness
}ung also believeu that what most people felt weie coinciuence weie actually acts of $+&,-#%&),)*+2
2an inuiviuual's unconscious awaieness of a gieatei unueistanuing in the woilu

}ung also examineu peisonality types anu tempeiaments
he believeu that peisonality tiaits lay along a continuum anu inuiviuuals tenueu to fall
somewheie along this continuum
the opposite enus of this continuum he calleu !%('# %!!%$)*"$

,*056(:0".;#5+ @/2-): @:/)-
Alfieu Aulei believeu that inuiviuuals possess innate positive motives that aie the piimaiy
ueteiminant of oui peisonality
oui majoi goal was the achievement of peifection
we woulu stiive to oveicome peisonal anu social obstacles thiough compensation
Aulei latei mouifieu his theoiies anu believeu that inuiviuuals attempteu to oveicome feelings of
infeiioiity, what he teimeu the )&8"#)%#)*+ ,%/!("9
latei, he ieviseu his theoiies again anu focuseu on how the inuiviuual stiives foi peisonal anu
social peifection
to help us achieve this, we uevelop 8),*)%&'( 8)&'()$/$ which aie goals we set to guiue oui
behaviois

,*056(:0".;#5+ A.-)" B(-")0
Kaien Boiney thought that basic anxiety was a gieatei motivating foice than oui libiuo
this may uevelop in chiluien whose paients aie oveily oppiessive, inuiffeient oi inconsistent in
theii chilu-ieaiing
in coping with these, inuiviuuals uevelop one of thiee &"0#%*), *#"&.$, iiiational appioaches to
uealing with this anxiety

Boiney believeu that, in inteiacting with otheis, we tenu to uevelop into the following types:
,%/!()'&* *+!": moving towaiu otheis in attempts to be submissive
'33#"$$)4" *+!": moving against otheis in attempts to gain powei
."*',-". *+!": moving away fiom otheis to avoiu being huit

,*056(:0".;#5+ C-#D C-#D*("
Eiik Eiikson believeu that inuiviuuals went thiough eight ciises thioughout theii lives in which a
positive oi negative iesolution to the ciisis occuiieu.
these make up Eiikson's eight stages of psychosocial uevelopment

B<;."#*$#5 ,)-*8)5$#9)
the focus of -0/'&)$*), *-"%#+ is:
on the heie anu now
attempting to help the inuiviuual thiough the piocess of 0&,%&.)*)%&'( !%$)*)4" #"3'#.
(unconuitional suppoit) in achieving $"(8-',*0'()='*)%&
a iealization of the inuiviuual's full potential anu comfoiting sense of place in the woilu
the emphasis is on the whole peison, not an examination into only one uysfunctional pait of
peisonality






B<;."#*$#5+ E#//#.; ?.;)*
William }ames uevelopeu the concept of self--anything that a peison can lay claim to be pait of his
oi hei peison that uistinguishes them fiom otheis
}ames uefineu foui paits to the self:
/'*"#)'( $"(8: iefeis to mateiial possessions
$%,)'( $"(8: how we aie peiceiveu by otheis (akin to }ung's peisona)
$!)#)*0'( $"(8: oui ieasoning, emotions anu psychological faculties
!0#" "3%: the peison's inteinal stieam of consciousness

B<;."#*$#5+ >.-/ F(7)-*
Aulei's concept of stiiving towaiu peifection anu }ames' concept of self wheie builuing blocks foi
Rogei's theoiies
he believeu that all oiganisms hau a biological push towaiu fulfillment calleu an ',*0'()=)&3
*"&."&,+
inuiviuuals attempteu to fulfill theii own self-concepts oi images they have foimeu of themselves
thiough a $"(82',*0'()=)&3 *"&."&,+
when an inuiviuual's #"'( $"(8 matches theii potential oi )."'( $"(8, Rogeis believes the inuiviuual
has become a fully functioning peison--inuiviuuals stiive foi this ,%&3#0"&,"

B<;."#*$#5+ @G-.6.; H.*/(I
Abiaham Naslow also believeu in oui self-actualizing tenuency by satisfying ceitain neeus he
aiiangeu these in a hieiaichical stiuctuie
the lowei level neeus iepiesent oui suivival neeus
the uppei level neeus oui giowth oi meta-neeus
Naslow iepiesenteu this -)"#'#,-+ %8 &"".$ in a pyiamiu, using the concept that the lowei neeus
hau to be met to foim the founuation on which to builu the highei level neeus

most of oui time is spent towaiu the lowei level neeus
the numbei of people who aie self-actualizeu is ielatively small.
highei level neeus aie moie uifficult to measuie because of the subtlety of theii natuie

>("*$#$<$#(" (- J08) ,)-*8)5$#9)
,%&$*)*0*)%& *-"%#+ focuses on the connection between a peison's bouy type anu theii peisonality

>("*$#$<$#("+ B#88(5-.$)*
Bippociates believeu that oui peisonalities weie associateu with the foui basic fluius in oui bouy
these humois of the bouy aie:
black bile: melancholy oi sau
bloou: sanguine oi cheeiful
phlegm: phlegmatic oi apathetic
yellow bile: choleiic oi excitable

>("*$#$<$#("+ E#//#.; 36)/:("
William Sheluon uiviues the human physique into thiee bouy types, oi $%/'*%*+!*"$
the somatotypes aie:
"&.%/%#!-$: iounu bouies with laige abuomens
/"$%/%#!-$: upiight bouies with stiong bones anu muscles
",*%/%#!-$: thin, fiagile bouies
Sheluon also uiviueu oui peisonality oi tempeiaments into thiee types:
4)$,"#%*%&)': fonu of foou, people anu comfoit; veiy sociable
$%/'*%*%&)': love of activity anu physical auventuie
,"#"7#%*%&)': veiy piivate, iestiaineu anu self-conscious



J-.#$ ,)-*8)5$#9)
*#')* *-"%#+ conceins itself moie with uesciibing iathei than explaining peisonality
tiaits cannot be obseiveu in a peison but can be infeiieu fiom theii behaviois
tiaits can be classifieu in thiee ways:
,'#.)&'( *#')*$: a geneial tiait that influences eveiything an inuiviuual uoes; this is veiy iaie
,"&*#'( *#')*$: tiaits that in inuiviuual typically exemplifies in theii noimal behavioi
$",%&.'#+ *#')*$: tiaits which appeai only in specific situations


J-.#$+ K(-:(" @//8(-$ L BM3M N:G)-$
uoiuon Allpoit believeu that each inuiviuual hau theii own unique constellation of tiaits
along with B.S. 0ubeit, Allpoit iuentifieu 17,9SS woius fiom the uictionaiy that uesciibeu
peisonality
only about 4Suu of these woius maue up stable oi enuuiing tiaits.
when synonyms weie iemoveu, the list was ieuuceu to about 2uu basic tiaits.

J-.#$+ F.0;(": >.$$)//
Raymonu Cattell founu that when these 2uu tiaits weie attiibuteu to people, ceitain tiaits tenueu
to clustei aiounu each othei
baseu on his ieseaich, calleu factoi analysis, he founu that theie weie between 16 anu 2S basic
peisonality tiaits

J-.#$+ J<8)* L >6-#*$./
Tupes anu Chiistal has subsequently uemonstiateu that theie aie five basic uimensions of
peisonality tiaits

3(5#(5</$<-./ ,)-*8)5$#9)
the socio-cognitive theoiy focuses on the influence on the enviionment on the inuiviuual anu how
his oi hei behavioi is changeu coiiesponuingly
the piocess by which the inuiviuual, the situation anu the enviionment all influence one anothei is
calleu #",)!#%,'( ."*"#/)&)$/

3(5#./O></$<-./+ E./$)- H#*56)/
Waltei Nischel pioposeu that theie is only an appaient consistency of behavioi when we obseive
otheis because we aie seeing them in only a limiteu numbei of social situations
he believes that we tenu to look foi behaviois to valiuate oui assumptions about the consistency
of someone's behavioi anu ignoie eviuence to the contiaiy
he latei ieviseu his theoiy inuicating theie aie actually some aspect that aie ielatively consistent,
foi example intelligence anu acauemic achievement

3(5#./O></$<-./+ @/G)-$ P.":<-.
Albeit Banuuia is piobably the most well-known of the social leaining theoiists
he believeu that we uevelopeu behaviois baseu on %7$"#4'*)%&'( ("'#&)&3
Banuuia believeu that an inuiviuual then evaluates theii behavioi in a situation accoiuing to
)&*"#&'( "9!",*'&,)"$
the enviionmental feeuback that ensues fiom this behavioi can altei the inteinal expectancies foi
futuie behavioi

3(5#./O></$<-./+ ?</#." F($$)-
}ulian Rottei pioposeu that these expectancies can be influenceu by one's (%,0$ %8 ,%&*#%(, oi an
expectancy that ieinfoicement is unuei eithei inteinal oi exteinal contiol
people who believe they aie masteis of theii own fate have an )&*"#&'( (%,0$ %8 ,%&*#%(
those who believe theii behavioi is uue to uestiny have an "9*"#&'( (%,0$ %8 ,%&*#%(

P)6.9#(-./ ,)-*8)5$#9)+ PM=M 3D#"")- L ?(6" E.$*("
B.F. Skinnei believeu that a peison's behaviois weie a iesult of past conuitioning iathei than
some innate peisonality chaiacteiistic
the paiameteis of theii behaviois aie baseu on what has woikeu foi them in the past which, in
essence, aie conuitioneu iesponses to enviionmental stimuli
new behaviois can change uue to changes in #")&8%#,"/"&* ,%&*)&3"&,)"$

H)$6(:* (2 ,)-*("./#$0 J)*$#"7
objective tests:
peisonality tests that aie auministeieu anu scoieu in a stanuaiu way
useu by tiait theoiists
16PF anu NNPI aie examples
self-iepoit bias is possible as is familiaiity with the test foimat
piojective tests:
peisonality tests consisting of ambiguous oi unstiuctuieu mateiial
useu by psychouynamic theoiists
the TAT anu Roischach test aie examples
a moie ielaxeu type of testing
unconscious thoughts can be uncoveieu
the tiue puipose of the test can be uisguiseu
analysis ielies on the skill of the examinei