type to meet the widely different demands of gardeners. This wide choice is not always helpful to the beginner, who is often thor- oughly confused by the variety of shapes and materials. The basic factors which must be considered are what the greenhouse is to be used for, the amount of money available, and where the greenhouse is to be erected. When buying a greenhouse, carefully assess the amount of growing space required. There are two ways of measuring growing space. The first is a simple calculation of the soil or bench area available, which tells how many plants may be accommodated. Simply multiply the length of the greenhouse by the breadth, taking account of t he space taken up by paths, doors and equipment such as heaters and water tanks. The second way of calculating space is to consider the growing area in conjunction with the height at the eaves and t he height at the ridge. These two dimensions affect first the amount of grow- ing space for tall plants, such as tomatoes, shrubs and climbers, and second ease of access and comfort in use. In general, the larger the greenhouse the cheaper each unit of growing space becomes, though this is less apparent in those models where the walls slope inwards. All too often the beginner chooses a greenhouse which in time proves to be too small. If cost dictates a small green- house to start with, make sure it is a model to which extra sections can be added. Shapes and styles Greenhouses are either free-standing or lean- to, that is, supported on one side by a house or other wall. Free-standing houses may have straight or inward sloping walls. Roof shapes may be a simple span, hipped or double- hipped curvilinear. The "mini" lean-to is a structure much narrower than the usual lean- to greenhouse. They are useful for the small garden or where wall space is at a premium. The smallest ones are too narrow to enter and maintenance of the plants is done from the outside. On sunny walls overheating can be a problem in summer. During recent years greenhouse manufac- turers have been seeking more original de- signs, and as a result circular and domed styles have come on to t he market. These usually have flat oblong wall panels but some also are geodesic in structure, miniature versions of t he vast space-dome-like Clima- tron greenhouse at t he Missouri Botanic Garden. Some of the more recent designs have curved glass panels and an overall shape that suggests the great Palm House at Kew Gardens in London. Certain circular styles have decided aesthetic appeal and can be- come a feature or focal point in t he garden. In addition they contain a surprising amount of space, as the central path of a traditional oblong structure is done away with. At present however, they are more expensive in terms of growing space than structures of traditional shape. Types of greenhouses and frames 2 Another departure from the tradi ti onal greenhouse is the use of a framework of tubul ar alloy or steel supporti ng a cover made of plastic sheeting. Early models, still much used commerci al l y, are called tunnel houses. Smaller versions of this simple pattern are available for t he amateur, and wel ded frame- works in a vari ety of shapes are made. Generally these have a tradi ti onal outl i ne but some are dome-shaped. Plastic houses are cheaper than glass-clad ones but have draw- backs in use (see pages 10 and 11). Design Greenhouses can be fully glazed, or they can have one or more sides boarded or bri cked up to staging height. Both styles have advan- tages, and t he choi ce must depend upon t he use to whi ch t he greenhouse is to be put. If crops are to be grown in t he border, glass to ground is needed for light. If most plants will be grown in pots, a staging is essential and t he wall area beneath it can be made solid. Brick, wood or asbestos-cement half walls provi de useful insulation, cut t i ng the heating require- ments of t he greenhouse. A compromi se is to board the nort h wall only, gaining some insulation wi t h little effect on light values. Removable wooden insulation panels are made for some designs of greenhouse. These can be fi tted i n wi nter and removed when crops are to be grown in t he bed. Kick boards should be fi tted at t he base of glass-to-ground walls to protect against accidental damage. The crucial factors in the choi ce of shape are accessibility, light transmission, and sta- bility and durability. Commercially-available greenhouses can be expected to be stable, t hough t he site must be taken i nto account in choosing a design. Plastic-covered houses, for instance, are less durable in very wi ndy places. Accessibility covers factors such as door design, whi ch is dealt wi t h on page 9, and heights at eaves and ridge pole. Low- built houses can be raised on a home-made pl i nth of brick, wood or concrete to give extra headroom. Light transmission is critical only in wi nter and early spring, for duri ng t he summer months more light is available than is needed by the plants. Thus light is only of concern when planning very early crops. Mobile greenhouses Commerci al growers use mobi l e greenhouses of t he Dut ch light type, whi ch can be pulled on a system of rails over crops. These al l ow a crop rotati on program to be f ol l owed. For example, salad crops can be started on one site in spring, t hen left to mat ure in t he open while t he house is moved ont o a new site where t omat oes are grown. Frames It is less easy to vary t he overall desi gn of a garden frame and t he basic t radi t i onal shape is still frequentl y met wi t h. This is a shallow obl ong box wi t h one end higher t han t he other and sloping sides shaped to hol d a lid or light of glass or plastic. A useful size is Types of greenhouses and frames 3 4 x 6 ft. Doubl e and mul ti pl e frames of this design can be obtai ned. Variations i ncl ude doubl e span tops and glass walls wi t h a number of different patented methods of opening. Light-weight metal or plastic frames can be moved around t he garden and placed on ordinary beds in different positions as re- quired. Traditional forms have permanent bases of brick or wood. Frames can be built along the sides of half- , boarded greenhouses in order to benefit f rom surplus warmt h from the greenhouse. The simplest form of frame is just a light, a glass or plastic panel, placed over a shallow pit. This allows pot or contai ner plants to be hardened off. Cloches Until comparati vel y recently, cloches were made as units or sections, each one like an open-ended greenhouse in mi ni ature, fi tti ng together to cover rows of crop plants. Made of sheets of glass and a variety of patented metal clips, t hey were cumbersome and breakable but very efficient. Rigid plastic sheeting has largely taken over f rom glass for this t ype of sectional cl oche. The most recent devel opment is t he tunnel cl oche made of strips of flexible plastic sheeting stretched over a series of wire hoops al ong a row and held in place wi t h further hoops over the t op. The ends are anchored firmly by buryi ng t hem in the soil. Venti l ati on is by pushing up t he plastic on the side away from the wi nd. The traditional cloche (a) was made of solid glass in a bell f orm. Class sheets j oi ned wi t h clips can be tent-shaped (b) or barn- shaped (c). Corrugated plastic sheeting (d) can be bent over rows of crops and anchored wi t h wi re hoops. Plastic tunnel cloches (e) consist of l ong plastic sheets bent over hoops and hel d wi t h more hoops. Plastic sheet at t ached to wire frames forms a t ent cl oche (f). ebooksdownloadrace.blogspot.in Structure materials 1 The superstructure of a greenhouse may be made of wood, al umi num alloy or steel. Pre- stressed concrete, used for larger houses, is too thi ck and heavy for smaller structures. Metal Most custom-bui l t greenhouses are made of wood or al umi num alloy. The latter is now by far t he most popular material, being light and strong and easily extruded i nto t he necessary shapes ready for bol ti ng together on t he site. At one ti me, corrosi on was a probl em, especially in areas of industrial air pol l uti on and near t he sea. Modern alloy is much more resistant so t hat corrosion is only likely to occur in areas of very high industrial pol l uti on, whi ch are not widespread. Unlike t he wood-frame greenhouses once widely sold, al umi num structures do not need painting. This lack of regular mai ntenance is a big factor in their popul ari ty. Steel is also used in greenhouse construc- t i on, either total l y, as in some large commer- cial houses, or in conj unct i on wi t h an alloy in smaller ones. The steel must of course be gal- vanized or treated in other ways to prevent rusting. Al t hough generally adequate, after ti me t he galvanizing treatment breaks down and rusting becomes a probl em. Galvanizing can also be broken down by an electrolytic reaction when alloy and steel members t ouch. This factor is now well known however and seldom occurs in well-designed smaller amateur greenhouses. Metal is a good conduct or of heat and col d and for this reason, condensati on drip can be a nuisance in metal-framed houses. This heat conduct i on factor also means t hat metal houses are colder, or cool more rapidly than ti mber-framed ones, t hough t he differences in temperatures between t he t wo are small. Unless the regular mai ntenance of pai nti ng and put t y renewal is considered a pleasure, al umi num or steel and al umi num houses are much to be preferred to t he various wood houses, even those made of decay-resistant redwood, red cedar or cypress, or other woods t hat have been treated wi t h wood preservative. A metal greenhouse will allow the gardener to spend more ti me in t he greenhouse than worki ng on it. Wood However wood greenhouses are still popular for aesthetic reasons. The at t ract i ve colors of redwood, cedar and cypress fit much better i nto t he garden than t he col or of bright al umi num or steel. Providing a wood house is properl y con- structed and secured to a bri ck or concret e base and is initially treated wi t h a wood pre- servative (if t he wood is not natural l y decay- resistant), there is every chance it will out- live its owner. Further pai nti ng wi t h a wood preservative, or better still, linseed oil about every five years or so is a wise precaut i on. Apart f rom the aesthetic consi derati ons, wood has some advantages when i t comes to installing extra shelving, securing wires for Aluminum frame greenhouses are maintenance-free and have narrow glazing bars, allowing t he maxi mum amount of light to penetrate. The model shown has diagonal braci ng struts for stability, a sliding door and cement pl i nth foundati ons. Cedar requires little mai ntenance and blends well i nto t he garden surroundings. The glazing bars are thi cker t han in al umi num houses, but t hey have t he advantage of bei ng easily dri l l ed for fixings and pl ant supports. Structure materials 2 i climbers ,andl hooks for hanging baskets. Metal houses arcesometimes drilled for these purposes but so often these holes seem to lx> where they are not needed and drilling extra ones is not easy wi t hout the right equi p- ment. Extra holes also often penetrate the protecti ve coatings on alloy and steel, leading to corrosion. Frames The same considerations and comments re- garding al umi num or steel and ti mber in t he constructi on of greenhouses applies also to frames. Since a frame is generally used in conj unct i on wi t h a greenhouse it should be of the same materials. If wood is selected do not sit it directly on the soil. Mount the frame on a low wall of brick or concrete. If this is not possible then redwood or metal alloy should be chosen. Cloches Class and pl ast i cf orm the bulk of a cl oche and are discussed on pages 10-11. Glass cloches are secured by various patented methods using stout galvanized wi re or steel alloy brackets i n conj unct i on wi t h wood or plastic buffers. The latter met hod makes assembly and di smantl i ng easy but it must be used wi t h care when t he cl oche is constructed of larger sheets of glass. Rigid plastic cloches are secured either by galvanized wi re or are mol ded to shape and free-standing. Tunnel cloches require U-shaped wires or canes. PAINTING AND PRESERVING WOOD The surface must first be prepared before it is treated. Brush down to remove dirt and grit then wash the surface and allow to dry. Rub the wood down wi t h a medi um glasspaper or wet-abrasive, whi ch is easier and prevents dust from flying about. When repainting it may be necessary to strip back and reprime if t he paint is blistered or cracked as moisture is rapidly absorbed once the skin of the paint is broken. Softwood greenhouses will need paint- ing every other year. Use an al umi num primer if any bare wood is to be seen after whi ch an undercoat should be applied f ol l owed by t wo gloss coats for maxi mum prot ect i on. Softwood greenhouses are wi t hout questi on more difficult and costly to mai ntai n than t he more expensive hardwood greenhouses. The life of t he greenhouse may be doubl ed if t he wood is treated wi t h a preservati ve whi ch is toxi c to decay organisms. Preservatives should be applied to t he greenhouse by t he manufacturer before t he greenhouse is const ruct ed. They usually consist of copper or mercuri al -zi nc compounds, either in a water-sol ubl e f or m or in a spirit solvent. Tubular steel frame Doors Guttering Steel tube frames are used for film-clad greenhouses. Among t he cheapest frame materials, steel must be galvanized if rust and consequent repeated mai ntenance work is to be avoi ded. Do not allow cont act between steel and alloy components. Sliding and hinged doors are available. If possible, ensure t hat t he base of t he doorway is flat, or provi de a ramp. Some aluminum greenhouses have bui l t-i n gutteri ng, wi t h others it is an extra. It avoids drips and aids water saving. Covering materials 1 Glass is the traditional glazing material for a greenhouse, and for a long ti me was the only material suitable for the j ob. Al t hough plastic sheeting has become more popular, glass is still the most widely used material. Most of t he glass used for greenhouses is single-strength sheet glass. However, doubl e-strength is preferable. From a light transmission poi nt of view, the larger the pane size the better. There are also fewer heat-leaking joints wi t h large panes, al though they are more expen- sive to replace if any get broken. Glazing The techni que of securing the glass to the superstructure is known as glazing. In the past glass was installed in overl appi ng sheets like shingles. The side edges were slipped i nto grooves i n t he mullions or were put t i ed, but there was no sealant along t he t op and bot t om edges, thus allowing a fairly free ex- change of inside and outside air. Today, the glass is used in larger pieces and is fixed i nto the framing members by various methods. In some cases putty or an equi val ent material is used. Class allows about 90 per cent of t he sun's radiation to pass t hrough but filters out t he ultra-violet part of the spectrum. Ultra- violet light is not, however, essential to plant growth and in excess it can be harmful . Where the sun's heat is excessive and can lead to scorching of plants, translucent glass can be used; but this will cut down wi nter light penetration considerably. In temperate climates some form of shading is a preferable alternative in hot weather. Plastics Plastic sheets and panels perform t he same functions as glass in greenhouse coverings and have the advantage of being cheaper and non-breakable. Polyethylene Polyethylene is applied in huge sheets t hat make for faster glazing, but it has a short life span. Normally it needs to be replaced after one growi ng season. Poly- ethylene wi t h ul tra-vi ol et inhibitors lasts about twi ce as long. Al t hough t he material does not break like glass, it is weakened by ultra-violet light and often splits duri ng gales; indeed on wi ndy sites even new sheeting may split. It is i mportant t hat the sheeting be stretched ti ghtl y over the superstructure. Loosely secured material can act like a sail and, because of t he movement, chafe against its supports duri ng strong winds. These factors can spell disaster before t he natural life of t he sheeting is reached. One advantage of pol yethyl ene is that it is so light t hat t he greenhouse can be built wi t hout foundati ons (although it must, of course, be anchored to keep it from being bl own over). Hence it can be moved around the garden if desired. A disadvantage of pol yethyl ene is that it radiates heat rapidly. Because of this it is often applied in a doubl e layer and a small fan used to bl ow air between the sheets in order to reduce heat loss. Vinyl Vi nyl sheet is heavier than poly- ethylene, more durabl e and considerably more costly. If made wi t h an ul tra-vi ol et i n- hibitor, it can last as l ong as five years. But it comes in narrow sheets t hat must be heat- seamed, whi ch greatly adds to t he difficulty of installation. Also, like pol yethyl ene, it has electrostatic properties t hat attract dust, whi ch cl ouds t he sheeting and therefore cuts down t he transmission of light. Polyester The best known of t he polyester films is Mylar. In t he 5-mm thickness used for greenhouses, it has t he advantages of being lightweight, it is strong enough to resist damage by hail, it is unaffected by extreme temperatures and has light-transmission characteristics qui te similar to glass. Myl ar is, however, expensive. Myl ar should last about four years on sturdy framed greenhouse roofs and longer on t he sidewalls. It will not be so effective when used on poorly built frames t hat are rocked by wi nd. Fiberglass .Plastic panels reinforced wi t h fiberglass are considerably heavier than film and much more durable. They retain heat better t han other glazing materials but are also more expensive. The panels are semi-rigid and come in long lengths up to 4 ft in wi dt h. The most common wei ght of fiberglass used by amateurs is 4 or 5 oz, al though heavier weights are available. The panels are either flat or corrugated. The latter are generally used only on greenhouse roofs because of their greater strength. Onl y the type of fiberglass made specifically for greenhouses should be used; the familiar porch-roof material should not be used. Perhaps the greatest advantage of fiber- glass is its exceptionally high resistance to breakagea compel l i ng reason for using it in a nei ghborhood of rowdy children or frequent hailstorms. This factor, coupl ed wi t h its good resistance to ultra-violet, means it should last between 10 and 15 years. Make sure that it is not exposed to flame or ex- tremes of heat, because it burns readily and rapidly. Because fiberglass is translucent, the light admi t t ed to the greenhouse is soft and shadowless. This feature makes the panels especially attracti ve in the West, where light intensity is high. Acrylic Semi-rigid, usually flat acrylic panels are ideal for greenhouses because of their strength, light weight, resistance to sunlight and good light-transmission characteristics. They do scratch easily, but apart f rom this their principal disadvantage is thei r very high cost. However, acrylic is wor t h t he outl ay as it will give good service for many years. Sunlight and the greenhouse Heat builds up rapidly in a greenhouse when the sun is shining and can easily reach limits lethal to plants wi t hout vent i l at i on and/or shading. Light and heat f rom t he sun reach t he earth as short-wave radi ati on, whi ch passes easily t hrough glass and plastics. This radi ati on warms everythi ng it t ouches, such as the floor, benches, soil, pots and even the plants themselves, whi ch t hen re-radiate some of this heat as long waves. It is because glass does not allow these l ong waves to pass t hrough it t hat a bui l d-up of heat inside the greenhouse results. Once shadows reach the greenhouse, or after t he sun sets, heat is lost via air fl ow t hrough cracks and as l ong- wave radiation via solid walls and t he basic framework. Radiation is diffused as it enters a poly- ethyl ene sheeting greenhouse and t he sub- sequent l ong-wave radi ati on is not t rapped. For this reason, pol yethyl ene sheeting-clad structures, i ncl udi ng frames and cloches, cool down more rapidly t han glass ones once t he sun has gone, t hough t he differences are not really significant in most climates. Once Glass should be free of flaws and bubbles, whi ch act as lenses and scorch plants. Traditional put t y glazing (a). Dry met hods (b, c) are used wi t h met al -f ramed houses. Covering materials 2 the greenhouse heats up, convecti on cur- rents arise and the warm air moves in a cyclic fashion, varying somewhat wi t h the shape and size of the house and the amount of venti l ati on. In theory, convecti on currents warm the whol e area, in fact there are often small pockets of cooler and warmer air. Light Good glass allows about 90 per cent of total i l l umi nati on to enter the greenhouse. This includes reflected light from all sources. Direct sunlight must strike the glass at a 90 degree angle for the maxi mum amount of light to enter. If t he angle of t he sun varies from this angle some of t he light will be de- flected. Duri ng t he summer months there is more than enough light for most plants, but during wi nter it is in short supply. For this reason a fair amount of research has gone i nto finding the best greenhouse shapes for good all-year-round light transmission. As a result round greenhouses have proved to be the best shape for this purpose. The angle at whi ch the glass is set is obviously i mport ant and among traditional greenhouse designs, large, steeply inclined panes are the most effective. Duri ng the winter, sunlight in northern regions reaches the earth at a low angle. Therefore greenhouses wi t h walls set at a slight angle present a surface at right angles, or almost so, to the sun's rays, allowing maxi mum penetrati on. In summer the angle is not so crucial as the intensity of the sun- light is far greater. The position of the sun varies duri ng t he day, movi ng t hrough an arc that varies f rom about 60 degrees duri ng t he winter months to 120 degrees or more in the height of the summer. Thus a flat surface receives light at the opt i mum angle for onl y a short ti me. The round greenhouse solves this probl em by presenting glass surfaces at different angles so t hat t he plants receive light of sufficient intensity t hroughout t he year. Some green- houses have been designed to rotate so t hat surfaces are exposed to t he sun as required. Round greenhouses, however, are still not as yet readily available. Most greenhouses, whet her bought ready-made or bui l t, are of the lean-to vari ety or tent-shaped. The position of the sun varies widely from wi nter to summer and this vari ati on must be considered when pl anni ng the l ocati on and choosi ng t he type of greenhouse. In wi nter, t he arc between t he points of rising and setting of t he sun is 60, in summer 120. In wi nt er onl y t he south- faci ng side of this greenhouse receives di rect sun, i n summer t he ends t oo face t he sun at morni ng and eveni ng. Noon, Summer. The short rays f rom the sun pass t hrough t he glass (a) and heat soil, benches and walls. Heat is reflected as long rays, whi ch cannot pass out t hrough t he glass. Thus t he temperature rises. A plastic-clad house (b) does not get so hot because reflected long waves can pass t hrough plastic, whi ch also diffuses light. Noon, Winter. In winter, t he angle of t he glass surfaces to t he sun becomes i mport ant as t he sun angle is lower and t he light intensity less. Verti cal sides (a) tend to reflect some light, whi ch is lost. Sloped sides (b) allow light to pass t hr ough at right angles and light transmission t hr ough t he glass is i mproved. Sun angles and the "greenhouse effect" Site and situation 1 All t oo often, the greenhouse is relegated to a distant corner of the garden or to a site whi ch is far from ideal for the plants to be grown. If a greenhouse is being purchased and particularly if the expense of heating it is contempl ated, then the best situation pos- sible must be f ound. Failure to choose the best position coul d mean the di sappoi ntment of poor quality flowers, fruits and vegetables. In many cases, space in the garden will be restricted and there will be only one possible site. Even so, this site can be adapted to give the best possible condi ti ons. Choosing a site Basic considerations are good light and shelter from strong winds. Good light is especially i mportant if plants are to be grown during the winter months, and wi t hout some sort of wi nd shelter heat losses will be con- siderably greater than they need be, especi- ally during cold spells. If t he site is chosen in summer, and there are tall buildings or trees to t he south, the shadows they will cast in winter must be cal cul ated. In the latitude of New York City the sun at noon on the shortest day is poised about 28 above the horizon and all shadows are long. Wi nt er sun angles can be reproduced wi t h the aid of a pair of calipers and a compass. A simple substitute for the calipers is t wo straight flat pieces of board about 1ft long, j oi ned at one end by a single nail or screw. Open the calipers thus formed at the required angle and, keeping t he lower arm horizontal, poi nt the upper arm due south. If the part of the sky where the arm points is widely obscured by trees or buildings, then shade is likely to be a probl em. To take full advantage of t he light f rom t he low winter sun, t he greenhouse should be positioned wi t h its long axis aligned east-west or as near to this ideal as possible. This posi- ti on cuts shading from roof beams and astra- gals (glazing bars) to a mi ni mum. An east-west position also allows the rays of the sun to penetrate at the most efficient angle (see page 11). Access There is no doubt that, to get the most enj oyment out of a greenhouse, especi- ally in winter, easy access from the house is essential. The ideal is to have t he greenhouse physically attached to t he house wi t h a direct entrance, as is usual for sun-rooms or t he larger type of lean-to or conservatory. This arrangement makes it possible to use the same heati ng system to heat both house and greenhouse, wi t h a saving on installation and subsequent runni ng costs. If the lean-to is built against a south, south-east or south- west-facing wall, wi nter light will be good and shelter assured. A greenhouse will get much more use, and t he plants in it will get more care, if it is easy of access. Ot her considerations such as aspect and shade may take precedence, but other things being equal it is best to site t he greenhouse as close to t he home as possible. Wherever it is placed, make sure t hat there are hard-surfaced paths leading to it. This will allow the use of a barrow to transport heavy items such as compost and plants. If possible t he greenhouse should be close to frames, if they are used, and the seedbed. Often greenhouse plants will be moved to or f rom t he frame, and many seedlings will be pl anted out i nto a frame or seedbed for growi ng on. Frames can be placed against t he walls of a half-boarded greenhouse. Measuring shade areas with a sighting angle 1 To check if a site is likely to be shaded, find out t he lowest angle of t he wi nter sun. Join t wo pieces of wood wi t h a screw. Using a protractor, carefully set t he pieces at t he required angle. Tighten t he screw. Shelter For the free-standing greenhouse it is impor- tant to choose a protected site or at least one wi t h some shelter from the coldest prevailing wi nd. The stronger and colder the wi nd blow- ing across the glass, the greater the heat loss. Some estimates make the loss caused by wi nd as high as 50 per cent when a cold wi nter gale is blowing. Some gardens, of course, are well sheltered by buildings and vegetati on. Wi nd problems in such gardens will be restricted to eddies and occasional severe storms. Trees, even if they do not cast shadows over the greenhouse, can cause problems by rain drip onto glass, and can shed branches whi ch can badly damage the greenhouse. The roots of nearby trees can also damage foundati ons and intrude into planting beds. Creating shelter If it is not possible to find a sheltered site, a hedge can be planted, or a fence erected to provide a wi ndbreak. If this is positioned at a distance of at least three times the height of the greenhouse on t he north, north-east or north-west side, shading will be vi rtual l y nil. 2 Place the lower arm of t he sighting angle on a spirit level at the planned position of t he greenhouse. Point t he sighting angle south, maki ng sure t hat it is exactly level. Al t hough a solid wall or a cl ose-boarded fence may seem the ideal, t he t urbul ence factor must be taken i nto consi derat i on, par- ticularly in areas frequentl y subj ect ed to gales. When wi nd strikes a solid obj ect such as a wall, it swirls over t he t op and causes turbul ence on the other side, t he di stance away f rom the wall that the t urbul ence ex- tends dependi ng on wi nd speed. A hedge or open-weave fence diffuses the wi nd and breaks its mai n force and in this respect is to be preferred. Such a barrier is effective over a downwi nd distance equal to five to ten times its height, so even if a barrier has to be placed to the west or south-west of t he green- house to counter prevailing wi nds, it can be sited far enough away to avoi d shade probl ems. Foundation and erection Once t he posi ti on of t he greenhouse has been decided upon, t he terrai n must be examined carefully. Ideally t he ground should be level and well drai ned. If t he site slopes or is very uneven it must be at least roughly leveled. When leveling t he site, take care to 3 The upper arm will now poi nt to t he lowest mi dday sun posi ti on. By si ghti ng al ong this arm it is possible to esti mate whi ch trees and buildings wi l l cast shadows over t he pl anned site of t he greenhouse. Site and situation 2 remove and conserve the top-soil especially if a glass-to-ground greenhouse wi t h soil beds is planned. Do not compact the soil when leveling the site and erecting the greenhouse. Undue pressure can destroy the soil struc- ture, leading to drainage problems and loss of fertility. If t he site is wet, some sort of drainage system should be installed. A row of tile drains down the centre of the site wi t h a sump or drywell at one end is usually enough, or a concrete platform can be made wi t h its sur- face just above the surroundi ng soil. If t he greenhouse is to be erected on a sloping site, ensure that there is drainage to cope wi t h water running down the slope f rom above. Construct a gutter to channel water around t he greenhouse if necessary. Bases and foundations All custom-bui l t green- houses are sold wi t h detailed erection instruc- tions. Many models have an integral or optional base, made of shaped sections of concrete whi ch are laid on t he soil. No other foundati on is needed for t he smaller green- houses provi di ng the site is firm and accurately leveled. Ideally t he soil should have been uncul ti vated or under grass for several years. For greenhouses of 10 x 8 ft or larger however a proper concrete foundati on is necessary. Marking out the site Whet her of compacted soil or concrete, it is most i mport ant that t he finished surface is level. The site should be accuratel y marked out using t he plans sup- plied wi t h the greenhouse. Carefully check t hat t he base or foundati ons are on the cor- rect al i gnment, using part of a building or a boundary line as a fixed poi nt. Having estab- lished a straight line along one wall of the greenhouse, carefully measure a right angle for t he end wall (see below right). A spirit level is an essential tool duri ng preparati on. If t he base or f oundat i on is not level, erection of t he superstructure may be difficult, or it will sustain stresses and strains t hat later coul d lead to troubl e. Most small greenhouses are erected level, t hough some are provi ded wi t h a slight fall to allow gutters to f unct i on. Particular attenti on should be paid to t he anchori ng met hod, especially in wi ndy sites. If sill bolts have to be cemented in place, make sure enough t i me elapses for the cement to harden before the superstructure is built or glazed. The period required varies wi th the weather and the proporti ons of t he concrete mixture used. Al l ow at least 48 hours, more in cool weather. If glazing takes place after the structure goes up this should be carried out during dry, calm weather. The same applies to t he erection of sections pur- chased already glazed. If glazing is carried out over a period of days there is much to be said for doi ng the roof first. This allows the wi nd, should it arise, to pass t hrough the structure. A half-glazed house wi t h a strong wi nd blow- ing on to the inside can be badly damaged. Class can be very slippery when wet and ideally should be handled only in dry weather. In addi ti on, the putty and mastic seals used in tradi ti onal glazing do not stick satisfactorily in wet condi ti ons. If gutteri ng is to be fitted to the greenhouse some t hought should be given to rain water disposal at this stage. Rain water butts provide a useful water reserve if certain precautions are taken (see page 25). Alternatively, a drywell must be dug nearby and piping laid to it or to a nearby drainage di tch or watercourse. Water supply Even if it is deci ded to use rain wat er butts as a water source, these can run dry in dry spells and there is much to be said for a per- manent water supply in t he greenhouse. If an aut omat i c or semi -automati c wat eri ng system or a mist propagati on uni t is pl anned, run- ning water is essential. Wi t h moder n plastic pi pi ng and fittings t he i nstal l ati on of a supply is not difficult, t hough a professional pl umber must be called i n to make t he connect i on to t he mai n supply. The suppl y pipe is best laid at t he same t i me as t he f oundat i ons. If it has to be added later, take care not to damage t he foundati ons. Electricity Even if a greenhouse is not heated by it, a supply of el ectri ci ty gives many advantages. It is necessary for heated propagators, mist units, soi l -warmi ng cables and artificial illumi- nati on. Lighting is a very wor t hwhi l e extra, for its installation allows t he greenhouse to be used on wi nter evenings, addi ng a novel di mensi on to gardeni ng under glass. For details of electricity, see page 17. Walls, hedges and fences must be sited to block, or preferably filter, wi nd, yet not cast shadows over t he greenhouse. The 6 ft hedge above is south and west of t he greenhouse, cut t i ng t he force of prevailing wi nds yet casting no shadow. The fence to t he nort h can be sited closer to t he greenhouse, as it will not cast a shadow. Use hedges or openwork fences as shelter belts where possible as they filter the wi nd. Mark the position of one side of t he green- house, using t wo pegs and a taut line. Check that the pegs are level. Then care- fully measure a right angle, using a T square, to establish t he posi ti on of one end wall. Repeat to fix t he remai ni ng corners. Check t hat all ei ght pegs are level. A spirit level is an essential t ool . Ventilation and shading 1 Owi ng to the "greenhouse effect" (see p. 11), whi ch causes a rapid bui l d-up of heat inside t he greenhouse when t he sun shines on it, an efficient ventilation system is essential to control temperature. Venti l ati on is also necessary in order to provi de a supply of fresh air and to control humi di ty. Stale air provides ideal condi ti ons for t he spread of diseases and pests. Venti l ati on must be con- sidered a factor in the mai ntenance of a balanced greenhouse envi ronment. It must be matched to heating, shading and the control of humi di ty. Despite the advances made in small green- house design few models, if any, are provi ded wi t h enough ventilators to cope wi t h warm summer day temperatures wi t hout openi ng the door. Whi l e using the door as an emer- gency ventilator is acceptable for some crops and on quiet days, it should never be con- sidered standard practice. For manufacturers, more ventilators means design modi fi cati on and extra material wi t h t he inevitable i n- creased costs. However, most greenhouse manufacturers can supply more ventilators Air flow Ventilators in bot h roof and sides allow compl ete air ci rcul ati on wi t hi n t he greenhouse. Roof vents can also act as wi nd scoops in hot weather. as opti onal extras so it is possible to rectify t he deficiency. When warmed, it is the nature of air to become less dense and to rise. For this reason ridge vents are al l -i mportant for releasing over-heated air. As the hot air rises up and passes out of t he ventilators, fresh cool air is sucked in t hrough t he glass overlaps, glazing cracks, and around t he doors. For full and adequate venti l ati on the overall area of the ridge ventilators should be equal to at least one-sixth of t he floor area, more if feasible. For t he smaller greenhouse alternate ventila- tors either side of the ridge or at least t wo per 6 ft length are usually adequate. For larger structures or those used as alpine houses t he provision of conti nuous ventilators along bot h sides is ideal. Air exchange and subsequent cooling is faster if side venti l ators are also fitted. These can be just above ground or at bench level. Venti l ators should be installed in both posi- tions if possible. Ventilators should be posi- ti oned on bot h sides of t he greenhouse so t hat those on t he lee side can be opened Ideally, roof venti l ators shoul d open to about 55, thus cont i nui ng t he line of t he roof when ful l y open. Venti l ators should be posi ti oned on bot h sides of t he roof. when cold winds are blowing. This practice cuts down damaging cold drafts. All venti - lators must be easily adjustable from closed to wi de open. This is particularly i mportant for the ridge ventilators whi ch, when fully open, should ideally cont i nue the line of the opposi te side of the roof. This is equivalent to bei ng openabl e to about 55 degrees. Less than this will mean that maxi mum venti l ati on is not possible. However, there are practical difficulties to such an installation and many small houses have ventilators whi ch open less wi de. A fully open venti l ator at this angle is also an efficient wi nd trap, di recti ng a cool - ing current downwards into the greenhouse. This air-flow warms and rises up to exit via the lee side ventilators, thus ensuring a rapid air exchange on sunny days. Air movement through side and ridge ventilators can be strong on wi ndy days and create drafts unwel come to many tropi cal foliage plants and orchids. To cut down the force of this ai rfl ow louvered ventilators have been designed. However, while they can cut down t he full force of a draft they cannot Side ventilators Side or wall ventilators speed air exchange and cool i ng. They can be conventi onal (above) or louver (above right). Check t hat louver installations are draft-free when eliminate it. Before installing l ouvered venti - lators, check that they are reasonably draft- free when closed. Ventilator mechanisms In the small greenhouse venti l ators are oper- ated by hand, being opened and secured by t he same perforated bar and pi n met hod used for some factory wi ndows. In larger greenhouses, parti cul arl y those wi t h venti - lators t oo high to reach, a vari ety of open- ing methods are used, i ncl udi ng cranks and gearwheels, pulleys and cords, and rack and pi ni on. Automatic ventilators All t he manual met h- ods, however efficient in themsel ves, rely entirely on an efficient operator. Forget- fulness can result in loss of or damage to valuable plants. This factor, added to t he frequent absence of t he gardener duri ng t he day, has given t he i mpetus for t he i nventi on of aut omat i c mechanisms. Initially, and still widely used in t he bet t er-equi pped nurseries of commerce and public gardens, came the electric mot or coupl ed wi t h lifting gears and closed. Louver venti l ators are useful when orchi ds or other tropi cal pl ants are bei ng grown as they cut down, but do not eliminate, drafts. Ventilation and shading 2 control l ed by a thermostat-acti vated switch, more recently and now popular for the smaller greenhouse, a system has been per- fected whi ch is triggered by a heat-sensitive compound. The compound is contai ned in a strong metal cylinder, one end of whi ch is closed by a plunger, the other end being blanked off. On heating, the compound ex- pands, pushing the plunger forwards. This comparati vel y small amount of pressure is magnified by a system of levers whi ch open the ventilator. Closing is gradual once t he compound starts to cool . Most types can be adjusted to open at various temperatures. The more sophisticated systems control ven- tilators accordi ng to a full range of weather conditions. Wi nd gauges actuate motors to shut ventilators to avoid drafts. A rain gauge can be linked to venti l ator control s to shut down the house in t he case of rain, though simple temperature controls, whi ch will respond to increased cl oud cover and the resulting temperature drop, produce t he same effect. Sunlight-operated controls are another refinement. Ventilators can be opened by hand (top), automati cal l y (above) or by remote control (right). Aut omat i c systems consist of a cylinder of a compound whi ch expands Ventilator fans Whi l e the methods of control l i ng venti l ati on described above work adequately, particu- larly in t he small greenhouse, the natural air currents upon whi ch they rely are not totally efficient in mai ntai ni ng a perfectly uni form cl i mate. In larger structures in particular, there may be unsuspected pockets of warm or cool air whi ch can locally affect plant growt h. To eliminate this factor and to cut down drafts and conserve heat, ventilator fans are used. The usual high speed fans used in ki tchens and bathrooms are unsuitable, as they can create artificial drafts, and low speed fans, whi ch can move large volumes of air, have been designed. Venti l ator fans are also useful in plastic-clad greenhouses, where water vapor condensing on t he plastic may raise humi di t y unduly. A fan will prevent this by ci rcul ati ng fresh air. Installing fans Venti l ator fans should be i n- stalled at one end of smaller houses or at intervals along one side of larger structures, wi t h venti l ators at the opposite end or side. Each fan is set wi t h the blades parallel to and when heated. This expansion operates a plunger, whi ch pushes t he venti l ator open via a system of levers. Remote systems are used in large houses. almost flush wi t h the wall of the greenhouse. In place of glass are a series of louvers or flaps whi ch hang down and cover the gap when the fan is not worki ng. Under air pressure from t he worki ng fan, the louvers assume a horizontal position. The same system, but in reverse, can be used for t he inlets at t he other end or the side opposite the fans, thus pre- venti ng unwanted venti l ati on when the fans are not worki ng. The fans are usually operated automati cal l y, being coupl ed to a pre-set thermostat. In general, the smaller t he fan t he higher it should be set in the greenhouse wall. In the small amateur greenhouse, one fan installed above t he door is a usual recommendat i on, while t he big 4f t fans used in commerci al houses are set at various heights, dependi ng upon the crop. The use of fans wi t hi n the greenhouse, to circulate air rather than to venti l ate, is usually coupl ed wi t h heating, but when t he artificial heat is not in use it is beneficial to leave the fan on to maintain a buoyant atmosphere whi ch is vital for the healthy growt h of many greenhouse plants. Fans Position a venti l ator fan above t he door of a small greenhouse. Use onl y slow-running fans designed for greenhouses. Plan fan installations carefully, taking account of the capaci ty of t he installation to make t he necessary air changes. The placing of inlet openings is i mport ant wi t h fan venti - l ati on. Site t he inlets to al l ow cross-drafts to occur, thus sti mul ati ng air movement . Damp- ing pads can be placed over i nl et openings to moi sten i ncomi ng air in hot, dry condi ti ons. About 40 air changes an hour is t he right rate t o ai m for. Humidity Humidistats, whi ch wor k on t he same pri n- ciples as thermostats but respond to humi di ty rather t han temperature, are used in com- mercial greenhouses. They have t he effect of avoi di ng any excess bui l d-ups of humi di t y by t urni ng on fans for short peri ods and thus ci rcul ati ng the air. One effect of fans, especi- ally in smaller greenhouses, is to dry the air. If a fan is used as t he mai n means of ventila- t i on, some f orm of dampi ng down or other humi di t y cont rol should be practi sed in warm weather. Aut omat i c spray systems can be obtai ned for this purpose. A l ouvered venti l ator must be posi ti oned at t he opposi te end of t he greenhouse to a fan to provi de a fl ow of air. Ventilation and shading 3 Shading is a greenhouse necessity that is easily overl ooked. Whi l e in wi nter every effort is made to maximize the amount of sun re- ceived, in spring and summer too much sun- light can qui ckl y overheat the greenhouse, killing plants. Some form of shading system is therefore essential. It must, however, be used in conj unct i on wi t h venti l ati on and wateri ng wi t h the aim of mai ntai ni ng a balanced greenhouse envi ronment. All too often shading is used simply to reduce heat and the mai ntenance chore of wateri ng. In greenhouses where venti l ati on is efficient there is much to be said for not shading unless absolutely necessary. Sun-loving plants in particular, such as succulents, will grow more sturdily in full light. Where a very varied col - lection of plants is grown it is not difficult to position t hem so that the shade lovers are behind those that need or tol erate full light. Methods of shading Shading can be carried out in t wo basic ways, by pai nti ng or spraying liquid ont o the glass, or by blinds. Lime wash was once a standard liquid shading and wel l -di l uted emulsion paint has also been used. If applied too thi ckl y, both of these substances tend to stick on ti ght and need hard rubbi ng to remove at the end of the season. Proprietary com- pounds are now available whi ch rub off easily, yet are not affected by rain. All the tradi ti onal shading substances are likely to be thi nned or washed off duri ng heavy rain and will need replacing if hot weather conti nues. All liquid shading should be whi te. Green pai nt and green blindsabsorb heat, while whi te reflects it. The pri mary disadvantage of liquid shading is that, duri ng summer's inevitable dull, cool spells, plants suffer from lack of light and warmt h just when they need it most. For this reason the use of blinds is more efficient and to be preferred. Roller blinds can be fitted either to the outside or inside of the green- house, and Venetian blinds fitted to the interior. Exterior blinds are the most effective as they prevent heat bui l d-up. Blinds on the inside of the glass stop light reaching the plants but the heat penetrates the glass and warms t he greenhouse in the normal way. Al t hough they can be neat and easily used, internal blinds can also be a nuisance where lots of tall plants wi t h leaves or flowers near the glass are grown. In general, blinds fitted to the outside of the house are to be pre- ferred, t hough weather hazards must be taken i nto consideration, particularly that of strong wi nd. Exterior blinds can be rolled down in winter to provide a certain amount of prot ect i on against frost. Blinds Slatted blinds of wood or plastic laths are best, being l ong lasting and rolling and unrol l i ng easily. A certai n amount of light penetrates the blinds, but i ndi vi dual plants are not harmed as the angle of the sun changes slowly duri ng the day. Also good arc- blinds made from whi t e suffused plastic sheeting, and Venetian blinds. Ideally, and especially for the greenhouse owner away each day, the roller blinds shoul d be auto- mat ed, t he unrol l i ng mechani sm coupl ed t o an el ectroni c eye or t hermost at . This of course adds greatly to t he cost. Wher e auto- mat i on is not cont empl at ed, t he owner of the smaller greenhouse can easily devise make- shift shading for a few hot spells. Wi ndow- like frames of strong laths or canes can be covered wi t h opaque plastic sheeti ng or light burlap and hung or cl i pped to t he green- house sides and roof, inside or out . Methods of shading Automatic shading Improvised shading 1 Shading paint is applied to t he outside of t he glass in spring. Do not apply t oo thickly. 2 Exterior blinds prevent heat bui l d-up and cut down light. They can also be useful as frost protecti on. 3 Interior blinds are less effective than exterior ones, but are neat and easily used. Exterior blinds can be unrolled and retracted by motors triggered by light- sensitive devices. This is expensive, but useful on greenhouses often left unattended. Improvised screens can be made f r om burl ap or cl ot h, and cl ot h or plastic sheet can be pi nned or stuck to t he outsi de of greenhouses. Electricity 1 Al though it is possible to run ,1 greenhouse wi thout an electricity supply, lack ol power |)uts many of the techniques of modern horti cul ture out of the gardener's reach. A whol e range of appliances from heaters to pest control equi pment depends upon a power source. Electric light also makes it possible to use the greenhouse for more hours per day in winter. Installing electricity House electricity out of doors is a matter for a professional. Amateur gardeners are not recommended to attempt installation, for the risks are great. Cables will have to be laid outdoors unless the greenhouse is a lean-to adj oi ni ng the home, and the envi ronment of the greenhouse itself raises dangers due to high humi di ty and damp. If cables have to be installed, plan t he route they are to take wi t h the aid of an elec- trician. Cables can be buried or suspended from posts. Buried cables should be sunk in trenches at least 2\1/2 deep. Route t he trenches where they will cause least disturb- ance to garden plants, lawns and trees. When buryi ng the cables, the electrician will pro- tect them from accidental damage by cover- ing t hem wi th a board or a row of tiles. Such a protecti ve layer will prevent damage when digging or carrying out other cul ti va- tions in the garden. Make sure that trenches do not interfere wi t h drainage systems. Cables buried beneath paths or lawns need not be so deep, but wherever they run, a record should be kept of their position so that if the layout of the garden is changed the gardener is aware of the exact position of the cables. Cables taken overhead must be fixed to a stout wire supported on poles well above t he ground. Keep the cable clear of trees whi ch may chafe it. The gardener may be able to save on the electrician's bill by doi ng un- skilled preparatory work such as digging trenches or erecting poles. Consult the elec- trician and agree on exactly what is to be done by whom before starting work. Power points Inside the greenhouse, t he power cable should termi nate at a purpose-designed greenhouse control panel. Choose only those installations designed for greenhouse con- ditions. A control panel allows several pieces of equi pment to be run from one point. Fused, swi tched sockets are provi ded wi th an i ndependent main swi tch. The main power cable has only to be connect ed, the sockets being ready wi red. The equi pment is then plugged in in t he normal way. Always use fused plugs, if possible made of rubber rather t han plastic. Lighting Strip or bulb lighting, using heavy-duty damp- proof fittings, is relatively easy and cheap to install once a power supply is available. Light- ing will increase the use a greenhouse gets duri ng winter, maki ng it possible for t he gardener who is away duri ng the day to attend to the plants in comf ort . Lighting installations can also be used to speed plant growt h and to modify growt h rates to produce special effects. Many plants are very sensitive to "day l engt h", the period duri ng whi ch light is strong enough for growth to occur. Duri ng wi nter in northern areas, and in areas wi t h high atmospheric pol l uti on, this level is often not reached. Banks of strip lights are used commerci al l y to modify t he day length and bring plants into flower out- side their normal season. Install lights about 3 ft above the greenhouse bench, in banks sufficiently large to provi de t he light intensity requi red. Consult specialist suppliers of green- house equi pment for details of light levels and periods. Too much light, or t oo long a "day", is often worse t han t oo little, as many plants have very specific requirements. Use mercury vapor lamps, as the type of light they produce is best for plant growt h. Banks of fluorescent tubes can also be used, mount ed 2 ft above t he bench. Other electric equipment Propagating equi pment, wateri ng devices and venti l ati on equi pment are described on the appropri ate pages. Equipment used in t he greenhouse must be made for the purpose. Do not, for instance, use domestic cool i ng fans and fan heaters as they may be affected by t he damp atmosphere in the greenhouse and become dangerous. Thermostats should be set to t he temperature required in t he propagating case or soil cable unit. Check t he manufacturer' s literature for t he temperature range the appliance controls. Fan heaters can be used to back up other heati ng systems or as a system on thei r own. Use onl y those desi gned for greenhouses, whi ch can wi t hst and damp. Cables laid underground should be protected against accidental damage while digging. Cover t he cable wi t h a treated plank or place tiles over it. A control panel simplifies t he i nstal l ati on of el ectri ci ty i n t he greenhouse. Al l equi pment can be control l ed f rom t he panel , whi ch has fused, swi tched sockets. Heating 1 In the cooler temperate regions where frost occurs regularly in winter, sun heat alone is too weak and unreliable for the successful growth of tender plants under glass. There- fore to get the best out of a greenhouse an artificial heat source must be installed if only to keep the mi ni mum temperature above the frost limit. An alternative is to use a heated propagating case as a "greenhouse wi t hi n a greenhouse" to allow seeds and cuttings to be started earlier than in t he greenhouse itself. It is possible to run a greenhouse wi t hout any heatsee the Cold Greenhouse section (page 64)but a heat source whi ch, com- bined wi t h insulation, maintains the temper- ature above freezing, is almost essential. The first question to ask when planning a heating system is what level of heat is needed. Two factors must be taken i nto account. They are the prevailing weather conditions in the locality and the needs of t he plants to be grown. There are certain levels of tempera- ture whi ch must be mai ntai ned if various types of plants are to be grown (see Intro- ducti on, page 2). Refer to the map, right, for the lowest likely temperature. Consider the modi fyi ng effects of height, exposure and proxi mi ty to the coast, whi ch can raise or lower mi ni mum temperatures. Once the mi ni mum temperature needed in the greenhouse has been decided, t he temperature increase required can be cal cu- lated. This is the number of degrees t hat the temperature must be raised above the likely mi ni mum to be encountered in the locality. Thus if t he likely mi ni mum temperature of the area is 2C, and a cool greenhouse is plan- ned the temperature must be raised by 6C and t he heating system must be adequate. Greenhouses have higher heat losses than other, more solid, structures and are more prone to drafts. Also, heat is lost quickly through glass so col d spots can easily develop if the heati ng system is not carefully designed. A single stove or radiator placed in the center of t he greenhouse will not necessarily warm the whol e air space, whi ch is t he reason why pipe systems are popular. To check for col d areas, place several maxi mum- mi ni mum thermometers at intervals around the green- house and leave t hem overni ght. Alter- natively, use a single thermometer, placing it at different points on nights wi t h the same or very similar air temperature. Before cal cul ati ng heat needs, check what can be done to i mprove the insulation of the greenhouse. Doubl e glazing is t he most effective means of cut t i ng heat loss. Per- manent doubl e glazing is heavy, costly and can interfere wi t h light transmission, but is becomi ng a more attracti ve opt i on as better systems are designed and fuel costs conti nue to cl i mb. Alternatives to permanent doubl e glazing are temporary plastic sheet doubl e glazing or t he use of insulating panels on the lower parts of the greenhouse sides. Drafts should be stopped wherever pos- sible, not onl y because they increase heat loss but because drafts can interfere wi t h t he worki ng of heati ng systems. CALCULATING HEAT LOSS Use the map right to establish the t em- perature rise required. Then calculate the rate of heat loss. First measure the glass area of the greenhouse in square feet. Each square foot of glass will lose 1.13 British Thermal Units (BTU's) of heat per hour for each degree F of temperature difference between inside and out. Thus if there is 360 sq ft of glass and the temperature difference between inside and out is 10F, the heat loss is 4,068 BTU/hour (360 x 10 x 1.13). Thus in order to maintain a t em- perature 10F above the likely mi ni mum, a heating system capable of raising the temperature by 4,000 BTU's- is needed. Heaters and fuels have their heat outputs quoted in BTU's/hour so the size of heating installation needed can be calculated. Bear in mi nd addi ti onal heat loss from wi nd, t hrough gaps in the structure and t hrough necessary venti l ati on. Measures taken to reduce heat loss such as doubl e glazing reduce t he amount of heat needed. Heat loss varies wi t h materi al : the all-glass figure quot ed gives a slight over-estimate for a part wood or brick house. The map above divides North Ameri ca into ten zones of hardiness. This zone system was devised by the Arnol d Arbor- et um at Harvard, and is widely used by scientists and gardeners. The zones are defined in terms of consistent average annual mi ni mum temperature and length of growi ng season. When cal cul ati ng greenhouse heati ng needs, use t he map to assess t he local mi ni mum t emperat ure. The difference bet ween t he expected mi ni - mum and t he t emperat ure desired i n t he greenhouse is the necessary t emperat ure increase t he heati ng system must provi de. Heating 2 Air ci rcul at i on Suppl yi ng oxygen to heaters Wind can lower the temperature of t he exposed side of the greenhouse. Adequate air ci rcul ati on helps to avoi d col d spots. Allow a gap between benches and stagings and t he sides of t he greenhouse to permi t air to ci rcul ate. Leave a ventilator open whi l e combust i on heaters are in use. Avoi d drafts over plants. Alternatively, install a door or wal l vent whi ch will provi de enough oxygen for combust i on wi t hout creati ng drafts. Insulation Checki ng for cold spots Check for cold spots in the greenhouse by using one or more maxi mum- mi ni mum thermometers. Place t hem around t he greenhouse or, if only one is available, vary its posi ti on noti ng mi ni mum temperatures on nights of similar outside temperature. Insulation can be applied in t he form of special panels (left) or plastic sheeting, right, whi ch should be fixed in doubl e layers using tacks or a staple gun. Remove insulation as soon as t he weat her moderates for it wi l l i mpede light transmi ssi on. Heating 3 Solid fuel piped hot water systems Heating water by burni ng solid fuel is a cheap method of heating a greenhouse. Modern furnaces burni ng coal, anthraci te, and other special fuels are designed to reduce stoking and the clearing of ash to a mi ni mum. Many have qui te good thermostati c control but are not so accurate as t he more easily con- trolled fuels such as electricity and gas. Wat er heated in a boiler wi t hi n the furnace ci rcu- lates t hrough a system of pipes. The pipes, whi ch must rise gently f rom the boiler, should be of narrow-di ameter al umi num rather than the large-diameter cast iron type. Furnaces are rated in terms of heat out put as BTU's/ hour. Choose a furnace large enough to heat the greenhouse to the desired temperature (see page 18). Onl y t he fuels recommended by the maker must be used. The pipes are best filled wi t h soft water such as rainwater, and will have to be t opped up from ti me to ti me. Large installations may have a main constant-level system of the water tank and ball-valve t ype. Oil-fired piped hot water systems Solid fuel furnaces may be adapted to burn oil or a purpose-bui l t system can be installed. Oil-fired systems can be thermostati cal l y cont rol l ed: an efficient thermostati c control system reduces t he amount of attenti on required to mai ntai n a constant temperature. Large, specially manufactured oil-fired i n- stallations are highly efficient and automati c. Gas-fired piped hot water systems Gas furnaces are easy to operate and may be fully automati c, being control l ed t hermo- statically. Care should be taken to site t he furnace where its fumes will not be carried i nto t he greenhouse. Gas fumes can be dangerous to plants. If the furnace is not burni ng correctly, dangerous carbon mon- oxide fumes will be given off instead of carbon dioxide and water vapor whi ch is beneficial to plants. Ensure that the flue fitted to the fur- nace is tall enough to carry fumes away from the greenhouse. Regular mai ntenance should be carried out on all furnace systems to avoid problems wi t h fumes and fuel wastage. Linking greenhouse and domestic systems Wher e a lean-to greenhouse or sun room is to be heated and a hot water radiator system is used in the home, it is sometimes possible to link the t wo. However, it is advisable to consult a heating engineer first, and best if possible to i ncorporate the green- house heater in the home system when it is installed rather than to add later. Problems can arise wi t h a linked system because greenhouses need heating at night, whereas homes are heated during the day and evening. Natural gas heating Natural gas burnt directly in special heaters is very efficient. Its by-product s carbon dioxide and water vapor which enhance the greenhouse atmosphere make t he com- mercial greenhouse practi ce of at mosphere enri chment, whi ch encourages t he plants to grow, available to the amateur gardener. As t he burner is sited inside t he greenhouse, regular mai ntenance is necessary in order to avoi d possible emission of poi sonous gases such as carbon monoxi de. The natural gas systems on t he market are thermostati cal l y control l ed and fully automati c, with a safety valve whi ch prevents t he mai n suppl y from being turned on unless t he pilot flame is alight. It is more conveni ent to use a piped natural gas supply in conj unct i on wi t h a special greenhouse heater whi ch is portabl e to some extent. Bottled natural gas such as propane or butane tends to be expensive Piped systems circulate hot water f rom a furnace through pipes laid around t he greenhouse. The hot water rises f rom t he boiler, slowly cools, and returns via t he lower pipe to t he furnace. This kind of system, using large-diameter cast iron pipes, is less efficient than t he small-bore system, right, whi ch has mostly superseded it. The small-bore piped system uses narrow al umi num piping. Because of t he extra fri cti on in smaller pipes, t he water does not rise by convect i on as freely as in large pipes and a ci rcul ati ng pump may be needed. A header tank (illustrated) tops up t he water i n t he system. Such furnaces can be fuelled by solid fuel , gas or oi l . Heating 4 al though it is convenient where piped supply is not available. Propane is advisable when the storage bottl e is kept outside as butane does not readily volatilize in cold weather. The larger the bottles or cylinders, the more economi cal is this type of heating. Kerosene heaters Kerosene is the simplest form of heating to install. Choose a heater that is designed for the greenhouse, as some household kerosene heaters give off fumes deadly to plants. Greenhouse heaters are specially designed to reduce the risk of fumes and are often equipped wi t h tubes or other devices to distribute the heat evenly around t he green- house. They are, however, difficult to control thermostatically. A flue is a desirable feature, since some models may tend to produce harmful fumes. Some have hot water pipes as well as hot air ducts. Kerosene heaters produce water vapor as they burn whi ch keeps the greenhouse atmosphere moist, al though venti l ati on is necessary at times as the atmosphere may become excessively humi d. When combusti on is taki ng place the greenhouse must be venti l ated to provi de an oxygen supply. Keep the heaters clean and t he wi ck t ri mmed accordi ng to t he maker's instructions. Features to look for when buyi ng a kerosene heater are stainless steel lamp chi mneys, fuel level indicators and large, separate fuel tanks to make filling easier and less frequent. Electric heating systems Electric heati ng is the most efficient and effective. It is easy to control , clean and is the safest for use wi t h plants as there are no fumes. It must be fitted by an electrician as the combi nat i on of electricity and damp can be lethal (see page 17). Siting a boiler Fumes from a furnace can harm plants. Site i t therefore outsi de t he greenhouse and downwi nd, so t hat t he prevai l i ng wi nd carries smoke and fumes away. Where pipes run across a doorway, lay metal grilles above t hem to allow heat to rise yet protect the pipes from damage. Electric tubular heaters distribute warmt h evenly in t he same way as pi ped hot water systems. They can be mount ed in banks or installed singly in greenhouse col d spots. Natural gas heaters heat t he air by t he burni ng of a gas whi ch is harmless to plants if t he burners are correctl y adj usted. Piped or bot t l ed gas can be used. Kerosene heaters must be careful l y mai ntai ned to avoi d harmful fumes. Choose a model wi t h a large, easily-filled fuel tank and a fuel level i ndi cator. Heating 5 There are many different types of electrical heating apparatus especially developed for greenhouses. Tubular heaters have a similar capacity for even di stri buti on as hot water piping systems. Position along a side wall of the greenhouse in a single line or group together at points around the greenhouse to give more heat to colder areas. There are compact fan-assisted heaters whi ch are easily moved and will spread the heat over the whol e area of the greenhouse. They may also be used to circulate cool air when heat is not needed. Thermostatically control l ed fan heaters will accurately control temperatures to wi thi n one or t wo degrees wi t h no waste of fuel or heat and need little maintenance. Fan heaters circulate air, keep- ing t he atmosphere buoyant and reduci ng the chance of fungal disease. The best type of fan heater has separate thermostats con- trol l i ng the fan and the heat, supplying heat when it is needed. When the fan is switched off the air will remain relatively motionless except for convecti on currents. The advant- age of this system is that there will be inter- mi t t ent air circulation wi t h little heat loss. The fan-heated greenhouse can be safely left closed during cold weather as there is no contami nati on of the air and no need for extra venti l ati on. Convecti on heaters are another type of efficient electric heater. They consist of a cabinet wi t h holes at t he t op and bot t om wi t h heating wires inside whi ch warm the air. The warm air rises and flows out at the t op causing cold air to be drawn in at the bot t om. In this way convecti on currents cycle t he air around the greenhouse. Storage heaters can be economi cal using the off-peak rate for greenhouse heating. This type of heating is, however, difficult to control thermostatically. There will some- times be too little and sometimes t oo much heat. They are best used for background warmt h in conj unct i on wi t h a main heat source keeping the maxi mum temperature thermostatically. An accuratel y control l ed electric heater can be used to mai ntai n the maxi mum temperature level wi t h a kerosene heater for background warmt h. The advan- tage of using a combi nati on of heaters is t hat the more expensive fuels are conserved. Soil heating cables There are many advantages to the gardener in warmi ng the soil from below. Crops may be raised earlier than normal and cuttings and seed germi nati on should be more successful. There are t wo good methods of warmi ng t he soil using cables. The first utilizes bare cables buried 6- 9 in below t he surface of the soil wi t h low voltage current passed through t hem by means of a transformer to step down the pri mary voltage. Alternatively, insulated soil-heating cables are used in conj unct i on wi t h t he full house current buri ed 6- 9 i n below t he surface. The soil is excavated to t he required depth and a layer of sand spread over the bot t om of the trench and raked level. The required length of cable, as recommended by the manufacturer, is laid over the surface in parallel lines as evenly spaced as possible. The cable is then pegged in position using galvanized wi re pegs. There is no need for special precautions to protect the wire when using a low voltage. However, 115 and 230-volt cables can be dangerous if accidentally severed. It is there- HEATING COSTS At a ti me when the relative prices of the various fuels are fl uctuati ng, it is impossible to give a realistic i ndi cati on of what it costs to heat a greenhouse. Two key points emerge from any study of heating costs. First, waste of heat, through inade- quate insulation, drafts and poor ad- j ustment of heating systems, is a major factor in most fuel bills. Second, the effect of raising the greenhouse temperature f rom cool to warm level is to doubl e bills. Therefore t he decision to grow warm greenhouse plants is one t hat must be taken wi t h an eye on t he cost. Also, careful management and heat conserva- t i on can make all the difference to the economi cs of greenhouse heating. The flexibility of the various fuels must be considered as well as cost. Electricity, especially when used to power fan heaters, is very flexible and little energy is wasted provi di ng unwant ed heat. 1 Remove the border soil to a depth of 9 in. Pile the border soil to one side and rake over the base of the trench produced. 2 Lay soil heati ng cables on t he soil surface. Space t he cable in a series of loops 46 in apart. Do not let t he loops t ouch. Peg t he cable down wi t h staples. 3 Replace t he border soil and rake it level. Wat er t he bed lightly. Damp soil conducts heat better than dry. 4 Connect t he soil heati ng cabl e to a thermostat, if one is suppl i ed wi t h t he cabl e kit, or di rect to an outl et. Carefully f ol l ow the maker's i nstructi ons on i nstal l ati on. Heating 6 lore a good plan to lay ,1 length ot galvanized mesh over the cable. Spread sand over the mesh and then replace the soil. Plug the cable into a waterproof outl et whi ch is placed well above the level of the soil where there is no danger of it getti ng wet. Soil-heating cable kits are available com- plete wi t h thermostats, al though the ther- mostat is not essential. Soil-heating installa- tions vary in power. They usually provi de a temperature of 16C/60F. Thermostats The various heating systems described may all be control l ed by special greenhouse thermostats. A thermostat is a device t hat controls the temperature of the atmosphere in the greenhouse by regulating the fuel supply to the heater. Two strips made of different metals, j oi ned together wi t hi n t he thermostat, expand and cont ract in response to changes in temperature. The movement of this bi-metallic strip switches electrical contacts whi ch control the flow of fuel, or the flow of air to solid fuel, thus regulating the speed at whi ch the fuel is burnt. Very accurate thermostati c control is possible wi t h electric heaters, and for this reason other types of heater use electricity to operate motors or electro-magnets whi ch regulate the flow of fuel. A thermostat usually has a graduated dial whi ch is set to the required temperature whi ch the thermostat will t hen mai ntai n, if the heating system is powerful enough. Conserving heat in the greenhouse Heat will be lost through broken and cracked glass, ill-fitting doors and vents, whi ch must be repaired or i mproved. Lining t he greenhouse in wi nter wi t h pol yethyl ene sheet to give a "doubl e glazing" effect will help enormousl y (see page 22). Use the thi nnest and clearest pol yethyl ene sheet available. It is the static air trapped between t he plastic and t he glass that forms the insula- t i onso do not leave gaps. So t hat vents can be opened, line t hem separately. Burlap or old blankets placed over the roof at night in extremely cold weather will conserve heat. They must, however, be removed in t he morni ng. Warm-air duct heating Polyethylene ducts, whi ch may be perforated, distribute heat given out by an electric fan heater or a gas heater fi tted wi t h a fan. Such pipes can be installed either below benches or al ong the greenhouse eves. First used in commerci al greenhouses, they are an efficient means of di stri buti ng heat in larger greenhouses. SOLAR HEATING All sources of heat are solar in t he sense that their fuels are derived, however distantly, from the power of the sun. Oi l , coal, and gas, and el ectri ci ty generated from t hem, are fossil fuels produced by nature from sun power. Because these fuels are expensive, increasingly scarce and liable to interruptions in supply, many attempts have been made to har- ness the sun directly. Two linked problems i mmedi atel y arise: ti mi ng and heat stor- age. The sun tends to shine when heating is least required, so some means of heat storage is essential. None of the systems available can be said to overcome these problems so compl etel y t hat they can be recommended as a sole system of heating. Solar heating has t wo uses at the present stage of devel opment: as a back-up heat source and as an area for experiment by techni cal l y-mi nded gardeners. The illus- trations on this page show the principles behi nd some of the solar heat methods in use. Heat storage War m air is sucked by a fan down a duct f rom t he roof space, where sun heat is greatest duri ng t he day. Rocks bel ow the fl oor store heat. At night, t he f an reverses. Solar furnace Water panels and heat storage Water is pumped up and flows over roof panels. The sun heats t he panels and t he water, whi ch is stored in an insulated tank. At night, flaps are opened to let heat out. The sun heats air behi nd t he glass wall, causing it to rise. War m air fl ows i nto the heat storage of rocks, whi ch are heated. At night warm air is pumped f r om t he storage. Water supply and watering 1 Every greenhouse should have a piped supply of water, unless it is very small or is close to the house or an outside faucet. Despite t he contrary preferences of some gardeners, city water is perfectly acceptable for plants, and, unlike rainwater, the piped supply is unlikely to fail. However, gutteri ng is useful in itself in preventing drips from the green- house and it is sensible to store the water the gutters channel. Rainwater storage requires careful planning and attenti on to hygiene if water butts are not to become havens for waterborne pests and diseases. If stored rainwater is to be the only source of supply, at least t wo 60 gal butts will be needed for a fully-stocked 8 x 8f t green- house, and even then t he reserves will be used up during a dry spell. Butts should have ti ght-fi tti ng lids to keep out leaves and other debris whi ch can foul t he water. Two or more butts can be connected by overflow pipes to store surplus water. An alternative to butts is a tank wi t hi n t he greenhouse or even under the floor, wi t h pipes leading f rom the guttering. Wi t h this arrangement, a faucet can be installed over the tank to replenish it when rain fails. If water reserves of these kinds are cont empl at ed, it must be borne in mi nd t hat mosquitoes and other pests will breed in static water. Wat er from tanks can also act as a distributor of fungal and bacterial plant diseases. If runni ng water is installed in the green- house, make sure the water piping is well buri ed to prevent freezing. Install t he pipes, whi ch can be of modern plastics wi t h com- pression fittings, when the greenhouse is being built. Fit a faucet chosen to suit the wateri ng equi pment likely to be used. A range of modern hose couplings and connec- tions for automati c wateri ng devices is available, allowing several wateri ng systems to be used at t he same ti me. Watering systems Once a supply of water is assured, wateri ng systems can be chosen. These range f rom simple cans to automati c devices. Cans Even if automati c wateri ng devices are favored, a wateri ng can will still be necessary for wateri ng plants on shelves and lor measuring out liquid fertilizer, fungicides and insecticides. A gallon can is the most useful. It should feel balanced and comfortabl e to the grasp. It should have a tapered extension spout for plants at the back of benches and on shelves, and a fine rose for wateri ng newly- sown seeds or pricked-off seedlings, or for dampi ng down floors. If high-level shelving or hanging baskets are fi tted, obtai n a smaller 1/2 or 3/4 gal can wi t h a long, curved spout. Cans are made of galvanized or enameled metal or plastic, t he latter being now t he most readily available. Plastic is cheaper than metal and lighter to handle. Automatic watering: Capillary benches Wat eri ng plants properly by hand can be a ti me-consumi ng j ob, requiring knowl edge and experience. There are several methods of wateri ng plants automati cal l y, whether in pots or beds. Where a large col l ecti on of pot plants is mai ntai ned and especially if t he owner has to be away duri ng the day, a capillary bed system is a wort hwhi l e invest- ment. This met hod works on the capillarity of moist sand. That is, water is sucked up through the tiny spaces between the grains of sand through the drainage holes into the pot. Line a deep bench t op wi t h heavy gauge plastic sheeting, and fill wi t h washed sand to a depth of 2- 3 in. Special trays can also be used. The sand is kept conti nual l y moist on the surface but not waterlogged, either wi t h a wateri ng can or an automati c device. The simplest of these is t he inverted demi - j ohn or header bottl e in a shallow reservoir, whi ch overflows directly ont o the sand or i nto connecti ng guttering. A more fully automati c system uses a header tank con- nected to a piped water supply and fed to the sand bench via a ballcock valve. The pot plants, whi ch should not be crocked, are pushed i nto the t op inch of the sand wi t h a screwing mot i on so that sand is forced i nto the drainage hole or holes and makes cont act wi t h the soil. Water is taken up i nto t he soil by capillary acti on. An alternative to sand is the so-called capillary matti ng whi ch is kept wet in t he same way. It can however, become clogged wi t h algae after a ti me and then needs careful washing or replacing. Automatic watering: Pipe systems these methods of wateri ng i nvol ve pi pi ng and finer t ubi ng or nozzles. Trickle systems are the most popular. In its simplest f orm this is piping perforated at intervals and so arranged t hat a perforati on is over each pot, or by each plant to be watered. Somewhat more sophisticated versions have nozzles or a length of t ubi ng from each perf orat i on. In the so-called spaghetti system a sheaf of very small-bore tubes runs f rom t he end of a hose. Each tube is t hen led to a pot and cl i pped i nto place. These met hods can be set to tri ckl e indefinitely, or t he water supply can be set to a solenoid valve and l i nked to a ti me cl ock to run at set intervals. If a slow non-stop tri ckl e is used t he pots must be inspected regularly. Large, vigorous plants may need more water than t he trickle can deliver, and will suffer as a result. Overhead sprinklers can also be used on an aut omat i c basis and for plants whi ch need a high humi di t y they are ideal. Care must be taken, however, to see t hat all plants are getti ng an adequate water supply. The dense or broad foliage of some pot t ed plants can effectively prevent enough water f r om reach- ing the rootbal l beneath. Whi l e all these self-watering met hods are invaluable to t he greenhouse gardener, they must be used intelligently. As wi t h all forms of aut omat i on, they are non-sel ecti ve and this is a disadvantage where living organisms are concerned. Every pl ant will get t he same amount of water whet her it needs it or not. Some will respond by growi ng lush and out of character, others may become waterl ogged and slowly die. Wher e a wi de vari ety of plants is grown, they must be i nspected regularly. Over-wet plants must be t aken out of the automati c system for a whi l e to dry out, whi l e dry ones must be given extra water by hand. Humidity Al t hough water is primarily used for keeping the roots moist, most plants appreci ate or need humi di t y in t he air, at least when in full growt h. This t oo can be provi ded by aut oma- ti on, using overhead or near-ground nozzles such as those used in mist propagat i on systems (see page 30). WATERING CANS Wateri ng cans should be durable and well-balanced. A long, possibly sectional, spout is useful in a crowded greenhouse and a small can allows plants on high shelves and hanging baskets to be easily reached. A fine rose will be required for wateri ng seeds and delicate seedlings and rooted cutti ngs. Water supply and watering 2 Water butts should have ti ght-fi tti ng lids. Two or more can be connect ed by pipes. Faucets allow cans to be filled. Storage butts Internal tanks Connecting fittings Header tanks Guttering can be led i nto t he greenhouse to fill an internal water tank. Fit a ti ght- fi tti ng cover to keep insect pests out. Special fittings replace faucets and allow several appliances, such as hoses and a header tank, to be used at once. Header tanks and bottles suppl y wat er to capillary and tri ckl e i rri gati on systems by gravity. Capillary bench Capillary matting The capillary bench watering system consists of a pol yethyl ene-l i ned tray filled wi t h sand. The sand is moistened and t he plants take up water f rom t he sand through t he pots' drainage holes. Push t he pots i nto t he sand wi t h a screwing mot i on. An alternative to a sand bench, capillary mat t i ng soaks up water whi ch is t hen taken up by plants by capillary acti on. Wat er can be supplied manual l y or by a header t ank or bottl e. The mat t i ng becomes clogged wi t h algae after a t i me. Water supply and watering 3 Watering All watering under glass requires care, espe- cially that of plants in containers. In the beginner's greenhouse at least, more plants are likely to suffer or die f rom lack of, or t oo much, water than succumb to pests and diseases. Wateri ng is a skilled operati on, not even all professional gardeners fully master it. Like so many other aspects of gardening under glass, it is essential to get to know t he plants well. In time, personal observation will provide the experience t hat is required to judge accurately the needs of each plant at any ti me of the year. Watering containers Water plants in containers by filling the space between the soil surface and the pot rim wi t h water, thus ensuring t hat the whol e of t he root system is moistened. Frequency of wateri ng depends on several factors, notably the vigor of the plant, temperature, type of soil, and the container. A fast growing, well rooted plant will probably need wateri ng each day in summer, perhaps even t wi ce daily during a hot spell. In wi nter the same plant may need wateri ng only once or t wi ce a week, or even less if it has a definite resting peri od. If in doubt as to when a plant needs water, there are several useful observations that can be made and points to check. Wi l t i ng or flagging of the plant is very obvious when in an advanced state but the observant gar- dener will note the slight droopi ng of soft stem and leaf tips whi ch precedes this, denoti ng a need for water. Whatever t he soil mixture used it is always paler in t one when dry. When this state is reached in a clay pot, wateri ng is required. In a plastic pot however, this indication is not so reliable, as containers of this sort are not porous and t he soil stays more moist below the surface layer. If the plant is not growi ng vigorously or the weather is cool, it is advisable to scratch i nto the surface of t he soil wi t h the finger ti p. If the t op 1/4 in of the soil is dry, t hen water- ing should be carried out. An estimate of t he wei ght of a pot full of soil can also be used as a guide. To enable t he wei ght differences to be recognized, a range of pots should be filled and firmed as for potti ng and allowed almost to dry out (or dryish potti ng mi xture can be used at the outset). Each pot is then wei ghed in the hand, watered t ho- roughly and checked again. A met hod formerl y much used involves t he use of a tapper, easily made from a length of cane and a small block of wood about the size of a cot t on reel. Each pot is rapped smartly in t urn and if a ringing tone is given out the root ball is dry and wateri ng is needed. A dull, hol l ow noise denotes t hat the rootball is moist. This onl y works wi t h clay pots. The above methods can be used success- fully on healthy actively growi ng plants. They are less easily applied to dormant or resting plants whi ch require keeping barely moist. Provided a free-draining potti ng medi um is used, ideally a loam-based mixture, applying just half t he usual amount of water at each appl i cati on is usually successful. All-peat pot- ti ng mixes shrink away from t he sides of the pot when kept too dry and much of t he subsequent water applied runs down the sides. To overcome this difficulty the plants should be stood in trays of water so that the bot t om half of each pot is submerged. Unless the soil is dust-dry, a few minutes in water will suffice to moisten it adequately. Watering beds Beds and borders in t he greenhouse are watered in much the same way as those in t he out door garden and it is even more i mport ant to use a rose or sprinkler on the can or hose. This prevents panning of the soil surface and unsightly soil-splash on lower leaves of small plants. As wi t h pots, beds must be attended to regularly and thoroughl y. It is all t oo easy to thi nk the bed has been well watered when in effect it is still dry several inches down. Many a crop of grapes, peaches or tomatoes has been spoilt for this reason. The equivalent of at least one inch of rain should be applied each ti me. To get a rough idea of this amount, stand a straight-sided contai ner on the bed duri ng wateri ng. When an inch is measurable in the bot t om, leave for at least an hour then dig a small hole about 6 in deep and if dryish soil shows at the bot t om of the hole, water again. Fine sprays of water directed by nozzles ont o plants are an efficient way of bot h wateri ng and raising humi di ty. Trickle irrigationspaghetti Trickle systems supply a small amount of water conti nuousl y to each plant. Check plants regularly. The so-called spaghetti system works on t he same principle as the tri ckl e system. Flexible tubes, attached to a central coupl i ng, deliver water to each pl ant. A header tank can be used to give a cont i nuous supply, or a t i meswi t ch fi tted. Spray lines Trickle irrigation Benches and staging 1 Kent lies and staging of some sort arc used in most greenhouses, the only exceptions being those houses used entirely for growi ng crops in the border soil, those devoted to tall con- tainer plants and possibly those lean-tos whi ch are primarily used for growi ng fruit against the rear wall. Benches are less per- manent than stagings, a term used to refer to robust long-term constructi ons often supporti ng raised soil beds. The use of benches and staging has several advantages. They multiply the amount of useful growi ng space available, as the area underneath t hem can often be used. This is especially true in glass-to-ground houses, where enough light will penetrate the area beneath the benches to grow crops such as lettuce and to raise seedlings in boxes and pans. In half-glazed houses the area beneath the staging can be used for forci ng crops such as rhubarb and seakale and for storing dor- mant plants duri ng winter. Plants grown on benches are likely to receive more light than those placed on the floor or grown in soil beds. It is also easier to water and generally mai ntai n plants at bench levelmost benches and stagings are 2 1/2 ft high. The plants are also nearer eye level, allowing t hem to be better appreci ated. Ot her kinds of structure such as shelves, pot holders, orchi d baskets, and hanging baskets for ferns and trailing plants can also be fitted into the greenhouse. Take care not to over-crowd the greenhouse, for too many structures will cut out light, impede air ci rcu- l ati on, and allow high-level plant containers to drip ont o those below. Positioning benches Take account of the aspect of the greenhouse when pl anni ng the position of benches and staging. If the axis of the house is east-west, then one bench on the north side is ideal, as it does not block light. The south soil bed can be used for crops, and adequate light will reach plants on the bench. Place high-level shelves where they will not cast shadows over other plants for an appreciable porti on of t he day. Bear in mi nd that shelves raised near to the roof glass will be subject to extremes of heat, cold and sunlight, and that plants placed on t hem will need extra care. Finally, ensure that there is easy access to all plants. Benches and staging should be no more than 4 ft deep, and shelves, pot holders and hang- ing baskets should be placed where they do not i mpede normal work in the greenhouse. Keep hanging baskets, for instance, above normal head height unless they are sus- pended over a bench or other area away from the central path. Shelves can be placed across the end of the greenhouse, opposite the door, it they do not obstruct side benches. Types of bench and staging The first choice to be made is between solid and perforated tops. Both have their advan- tages, and the choice depends to a large extent upon the crops to be grown and the type of cul ti vati on to be carried out. Air ci rcul ati on around benches is not so critical in summer, when more ventilators will be open. Then, perforated benches may be covered wi t h plastic sheet or metal trays to allow solid-bench techniques to be used. Uses for solid benches A solid t op to the bench or staging allows beds of soil, sand or gravel to be f ormed. These can range from thi n layers of gravel on whi ch containers are stood, to aid drainage and increase humi di ty, to 4- 6 in deep beds of sand or soil. Such beds are essential if mist propagat i on or t he use of soil heati ng cables are to be practi ced. Gravel trays are watered in summer wi t h t he aim of increasing humi di t y. Sol i d-topped benches are also needed if tri ckl e irrigation systems are cont empl at ed. Hydroponi cs sys- tems, whi ch rely on a f l ow of nutrients in liquid f orm, need solid benches. Shallow metal trays can be used to convert per- forated benches i nto solid ones. Materials The choi ce is bet ween metal frames, wood frames and permanent brick or concrete stagings. Metal and wood frames can be fitted wi t h perforated or solid tops. Some benches are removabl e, giving flexi- bility in t he arrangement of t he greenhouse. Wood will need to be t hor oughl y cleaned at least once a year as it can harbor pest and disease organisms. Types of staging Staging can be timber or metal-framed, or supported on brick or concrete piers. Slatted wood staging (a) is tradi ti onal and attractive. It allows air ci rcul ati on in winter, and in summer can be covered wi t h plastic sheet whi ch can be spread wi t h moisture- retaining vemi cul i te, gravel or peat. Net- t opped stagings (b), wi t h metal frames, give maxi mum air ci rcul ati on al l owi ng heat to ci rcul ate. Metal trays can be laid on t he staging and filled wi t h gravel (c). Solid brick staging (d) acts as a heat reservoir, releasing at ni ght heat absorbed duri ng t he day. Concrete is also strong, and can similarly support raised soil beds and heavy pots, but it retains less heat t han brick. Benches and staging 2 Shelves Displaying plants 1 Metal or wood shelves can be fixed to glazing bars on t he sides and roof of the greenhouse. Use special clips on al umi num frames. Make shelves at least 6 in deep. 2 Tiered staging displays large numbers of pot plants attracti vel y. It is available in wood or metal and can be placed on t he ground or on staging. Pot holders allow plants, especially trailers, to be mount ed on the greenhouse sides. They can be bought or improvised f rom bent wire. Shelves under staging Hanging baskets can be suspended from brackets mount ed on walls or from the greenhouse roof. Use those fi tted wi t h drip trays if t hey are placed above other plants Hardening-off shelves Displaying orchids 1 Many orchids grow best in perforated containers or wooden baskets, whi ch can be suspended f rom t he greenhouse roof. (See pages 84-85) 2 Epiphytic orchids can be grown on thi ck pieces of bark. Wr ap roots in compost and wi re t he pl ant and rootball to t he bark, whi ch is hung f rom t he roof. Shelves can be mounted under staging in glass-to-ground houses, especially on t he south side. Use shelves for pots of bulbs duri ng their dormant periods. Some greenhouses are equi pped wi t h openi ng panes al l owi ng flats of plants on shelves bel ow t he staging to be slid i nto the open by day and returned at ni ght. Benches and staging 3 Solid brick and concrete stagings can he built as part of the structure of half-glazed greenhouses wi t h a brick base, l hey are very strong, and also have the advantage of in- creasing the amount of heat the greenhouse can store and release during the night. Sun shining through the glass strikes the staging and heat is stored in the same manner as in a brick or stone wall. This heat is given off during the night, moderati ng the temperature drop in the greenhouse. Brick is a much more efficient storer of heat than concrete, and therefore brick structures should be chosen if heat storage is an i mportant factor. Choose hard-faced bricks whi ch are less porous t han the normal sort. These are easier to scrub down and less likely to harbor pest and disease organisms. Bench-top beds Soil beds at bench level are described on page 46. They need strong brick or concrete staging and by their nature are permanent. Less permanent beds can be formed by add- ing raised edges to solid-based benches. Such benches can be covered wi t h soil, sand or gravel. The use of soil heating cables re- quires a bed of sand or soil 4 in deep, in whi ch the cables are buried. Power cables of special type are used to raise the sand temperature to 43C/110F, and the sand transmits t he heat to pots and flats of plants and seeds placed upon it. Soil-heating systems are fre- quentl y used wi t h mist propagati on. Alpine houses frequently have stagings topped wi th a tray contai ni ng 4- 6 in of gravel, into whi ch the pots contai ni ng t he plants are plunged. Again, a strong per- manent structure is essential. Alpines can also be grown in bench-top beds. Often t wo beds are const ruct ed: one filled wi t h stony, acid soil, the other wi t h a free-draining alkaline soil. Shelves The use of narrow shelves above the mai n bench or staging maximizes growi ng space and allows pot plants to be placed where they are attractive yet not in the way of propaga- tion and other bench-top activities. Shelves may be fixed to the glazing bars or suspended from t hem. Shelves can also be suspended from the roof beam if there is enough head- room. Proprietary fastening systems have brackets whi ch can be adjusted to the dis- tances between the greenhouse frame bars. Shelves should be wi de enough to take t he pots envisaged, strong, and easy of access. Bear in mi nd t he need to water the plants. Tiered shelves Banks of tiered wood or metal shelves can be installed in place of normal benches, or can be mount ed upon the bench itself. They are of most use where large num- bers of ornamental pot plants are grown, allowing the largest possible number of plants to be displayed. Hanging baskets Hanging containers may be essential if many trailing ornamentals are grown, and in any case such containers are attracti ve. Baskets are made of metal, or preferably plastic- covered metal . They are filled wi t h soil mix and lined wi t h moss (see page 54). Place t hem carefully where drips will not be a probl em, and ensure t hat fastenings are strong enough to support the combi ned weights of con- tainer, plants and wet soil. Pots can be suspended in wire or cord "cradl es", or in t he decorati ve purpose-made holders designed primarily for house plants. Drill plastic pots to take t he wi re; clay pots can be fi tted into a sling. Pot holders Simple metal rings attached to brackets can be used to support pots. Fix t he rings to greenhouse frame uprights. Permanent supports Plant support systems are discussed on page 50. Permanent supports, such as the system of wires illustrated right, must be planned when other fittings such as benches, staging and shelves are being considered. In a lean- to house t he rear wall can be wi red for the growi ng of espalier or cordon frui t trees or climbers. Walls should be scrubbed down, preferably wi t h a fungicide, rendered if necessary and t hen painted or whi tewashed before the wires are fi tted. Trellising can be fitted to battens and hinged at the bot t om to allow t he wall behind to be pai nted. This is onl y necessary for very long-lived plants such as vines. Full details can be f ound in Gardening Techniques in this series. WIRING A WALL Rear walls of lean-to greenhouses can be used to grow fruits and ornamental plants. Careful preparation pays dividends later on, when the plant will cover the wall and make mai nt enance and repair to t he framework difficult. First scrub down t he wall wi t h water and a di l ute horti cul tural di si nfectant to kill pest and disease organisms. If the wall is of brick, repoint and render if possible. Then whitewash or paint the wall to provi de a light-reflecting surface. Fix 2 in square wood battens verti cal l y at either end of t he wal l . Using straining bolts at one end, stretch wires hori zontal l y between t he posts, 15-18 in apart. Propagating aids 1 All gardeners like to propagate their own plants, at least by the t wo basic means of sowing seeds and taki ng cuttings. The pri n- ciples and methods of propagati on are dealt wi th on pages 55-63, the equi pment used, on the next t wo pages. Most tender plant seeds germinate more readily if kept at a temperature a little warmer than is required by the growi ng plant. Seeds of hardy and half-hardy vegetables and flowers are often sown under glass in late winter or early spring before the weather is warm enough outside. The main probl em in propagation is to ensure survival of t he propagated material (be it seed, cut t i ng or graft) until it forms a new young plant. If t he correct material has been used at the start, and properly prepared, then success is directly related to the control of the envi ron- ment by the gardener. Environmental factors In plant propagati on there are t wo envi ronments: the aerial en- vi ronment, whi ch can be broken down i nto humi di ty, temperature, gas cont ent and light transmission; and the envi ronment of t he medi um (soil or compost), whi ch covers t em- perature, moisture, aeration and chemical reaction (acidity/alkalinity). The j ob of propa- gation equi pment is to modi fy these factors t o provi de t he opt i mum condi ti ons. The ideal environment An ideal envi ron- ment is one t hat allows mi ni mum water loss f rom t he plant, cool air temperatures, adequate light penetrati on, a normal at mo- spheric balance between soil and air, good drainage and warm soil temperatures. The aci di ty/al kal i ni ty reaction should be neutral. The degree to whi ch a particular system of envi ronmental control operates will limit the propagati on techniques t hat can be used successfully wi t hi n it. In general, t he "softer" or less hardy t he plant material the greater will be t he degree of envi ronmental control needed to achieve success. The vagaries of t he normal out door cl i mate are too great for all but t he easiest and hardiest plants to be propagated successfully wi thout protecti on For these reasons a properl y-constructed heated propagating frame or case is highly desirable. In addi ti on, the larger propagating cases can be used to house a small col l ecti on of tropical plants in a cold or cool greenhouse. Propagating cases Basically, the propagating frame or case is a smaller version of a garden frame. It provides a closed hi gh-humi di ty envi ronment and can be used either in the greenhouse or indoors if light is adequate. The case can be of wood or al umi num, wi t h a cover of glass or plastic sheeting. Bottom heat can be supplied elec- trically by soil heating cables (see page 22) or custom-made units wi t h built-in heating elements can be purchased. Small units are heated by light-bulbs fitted to the end walls, or by fluorescent lighting tubes. For t he amateur there is now a wi de range of easily- portable propagating cases wi t h a heating uni t as an integral part. Generally of reason- able cost, they are much to be preferred to i nexpertl y-made or put together do-i t-your- self frames. The cheaper cust om-bui l t cases have cable heating whi ch mai ntai ns a t em- perature around 65"F/18"C. If outsi de con- ditions are col d, however, the t emperat ure can drop much lower and for this reason ,a more efficient heating uni t coupl ed wi t h a thermostat is desirable. If tropi cal plants are being propagated, it must be possible to mai ntai n a mi ni mum t emperat ure of about 75F/24C. Sophisticated units have bot h bot t om heat to warm t he soil and cables around t he sides to war m t he air. Unheated propagators If most of t he propa- gation is done f rom late spring to late sum- mer, bot t om heat is not so i mport ant and a wi de vari ety of cust om-made propagators wi t hout heat are available. Like t he heated ones, they are largely of plastic, t he bot t om being like a seed flat, t he t op an angular dome of clear rigid plastic. Home-made frames of wood and glass or plastic sheeting A mist unit provides fine sprays of water in the air above the plants, whi ch are thus constantly covered by a fine film of water. Such a unit is used in conj unct i on wi t h soil-heating cables. A thermostat con- trols the soil heat, and a cut-off switch, responsive to light, moi sture or ti me, t he water supply. Sunlight is uni nterrupted as there is no need for a glass or plastic cover. Mist units can cover entire benches. An ordinary seed flat, pan or pot can be convert ed i nto a propagator if pol yethyl ene sheeting is spread over hoops and sealed. Purpose-made propagators have a domed plastic t op over an ordi nary seed flat. Venti l ators are usually f i t t ed. Propagating aids 2 CAN be just as effective and for small-scale propagation some of the rigid plastic boxes sold for food storage are useful. Simplest of all is a plastic bag wi t h either the pot of cuttings or seeds placed inside, or wi t h the bag inverted over the pot. If the latter met hod is used, t wo U-shaped loops of galvanized wire can be pushed into the rooti ng medi um to prevent the bag from collapsing ont o the cuttings or seedlings. Mist units For the gardener who is particularly keen to propagate plants of all kinds, a mist uni t will ensure a higher rate of rooti ng success and give much interest and satisfaction. Mist propagation requires electricity and piped water supplies. It keeps the foliage of the plant material moist wi t h a fine mist-like spray of water, thus el i mi nati ng the need for light-reducing covers of plastic or glass. The sun's light and heat can fall ont o the cuttings wi t h only the greenhouse roof glass in t he way. As a result, a high level of photosynthesis t an cont i nue f rom the moment of insertion and subsequent rooti ng is more rapid and assured. There can be weani ng problems wi t h some of the more difficult to root plants once they reach t he pot t i ng stage. The system known as i ntermi ttent mist is also useful. The spray nozzles are coupl ed to a solenoid positioned among the cut- tings. When t he solenoid dries sufficiently it actuates a switch to start t he misting again. Anot her met hod is triggered by an absorbent pad attached to a switch. When the pad is wet and heavy it presses down and turns t he system off. When dry it rises and turns it on again. Where t he growi ng season is persist- ently warm and sunny, misting nozzles may be left on, or just shut off at night. Siting a propagator What ever propagati on equi pment is chosen it must be sited wi t h care in the greenhouse. Adequate light is essential but direct sunlight will raise the temperature excessively , in closed cases, sometimes to lethal limits. Shading must then be provided for all propa- gators enclosed wi th glass or plastic. This can be done by shading the cases or frames themselves or the glass of the greenhouse above. Any of the shading methods described on page 16 can be empl oyed, t hough t he permanent or semi-permanent liquid prep- arations are less desirable in climates where long, dull spells can be experienced at any ti me of t he year. Ideally, shading should be used onl y on bright days or during sunny spells so t hat photosynthesis is not curtailed more than necessary. A position at the north side or end of a greenhouse is best. The mist propagation met hod requires little or no shade in temperate zones, parti - cularly if the unit is sited at the north side or end of the greenhouse. In areas of hotter summer sun, light shading duri ng the middle part of the day may be necessary unless con- ti nuous misting nozzles are used. Heated propagators Small propagating cases are heated by a l i ght-bul b in a glass-covered case. Flats are placed on t he glass. Soil heating Thermostat Roof shape Soil-heating cables or heated panels in the base heat the growi ng medi um in larger propagators. An adjustable thermostat allows t he internal temperature to be mai ntai ned at t he required level despite weather changes. A sloped roof causes condensati on to run to t he sides of t he roof, avoi di ng harmful drips ont o plants. A kerosene-heated propagator can be used where there is no el ectri ci ty. Introduction/Hygiene 1 Of all the branches of horti cul ture, growi ng under glass is the most specialized. Not only is the constant mai ntenance of the plants necessary, but the envi ronment must be con- trol l ed to give acceptable growi ng condi ti ons. The ideal environment The basic aim should always be to create an ideal envi ronment for healthy growth, but perfecti on is seldom possible, and never possible if a mixed col - lection of plants is grown, for plants have differing needs. In theory at least, the fully automated greenhouse can be programmed to provide the correct levels of heat, light, humi di ty and venti l ati on whatever the con- ditions in the outside worl d. But in practi ce this is rarely the case. Freak weather con- ditions, a breakdown of equi pment or a simple power failure can qui ckl y upset the automated system. In the end, it is the skill of the gardener t hat counts. Aut omat i c equi pment can at best work to only fairly wi de tolerances and has t he disadvantage of providing the same levels of water, heat and so on for all the plants in the greenhouse. It is most i mportant to get to know t he limita- tions of the individual greenhouse and t he degrees of tolerance of t he plants being grown. This knowledge goes to build up the i ntui ti ve skill whi ch all good growers have, to know when to water and ventilate, when to damp down, shade or feed for the very best results. All this takes patience and practice and the beginner must be keen enough to spend ti me wi t h his plants, noti ng what happens to t hem under different condi ti ons. Record keeping There is much to be said for keeping a greenhouse diary or notebook. Record in it the daily maxi mum and mi ni mum temperatures, when seeds are sown or cut- tings taken, when plants are pot t ed, fed, staked, and stopped. In addi ti on, comment s can be made from ti me to ti me on t he vigor, appearance and health of t he plants. Over the seasons, a valuable record of t he prevailing conditions is built up. The daily routine It is i mportant to establish a regular daily routi ne when gardening under glass. To fail to do so is likely to lead to the disappoint- ments of poor-qual i ty plants and frequent failure of seedlings and young plants. Summer A routi ne for an imaginary summer day coul d be as follows. Once the morni ng sun is fully on the greenhouse, check t he temperature. If it is about five degrees above t he desired mi ni mum temperature for t he plants being grown, open t he ventilators by half to two-thi rds. If temperatures cont i nue to cl i mb, open up fully around mi d-morni ng. Damp down, shade if required and check t hat there are no dry plants (but leave the main wateri ng operati on until later). In early after- noon, go over t he wateri ng t horoughl y and damp down again if condi ti ons are hot. If it is not particularly hot, damp down in late after- noon. As soon as di rect sunlight is off t he greenhouse the blinds can be rolled up and when t he temperature drops back to about five degrees above mi ni mum, shut down the ventilators. Duri ng a warm spell t he t emperat ure may not drop so low even after nightfall and the greenhouse can then be left open day and night. Ail depends on t he mi ni mum temperature being mai ntai ned. Cleaning the greenhouse Winter Much the same procedure is fol l owed in winter, but if the weather is col d and t em- peratures do not rise, venti l ati on and damp- ing will not need to be carried out and water- ing will be mi ni mal . Whi l e this sort of routi ne is ideal for the plants, it is not easily carried out by t he gardener who may have to be away all day. Happily, it can be modified and compromises made. Full venti l ati on and essential wateri ng can be carried out just before leaving in t he morni ng and t he main wateri ng and dampi ng down done on arriving home. Dampi ng down duri ng t he day, while desirable for most plants, is not essential. Aut omat i c wateri ng and venti l ati on help to opti mi ze condi ti ons in greenhouses left unattended during t he day. In t he wi nter a daily check over in t he morni ng or evening is enough. If automati c ventilators and capillary wateri ng are i n- stalled, t hen a weekly check over should suffice in winter. Hygiene Al ong wi t h the right envi ronment and routine care, a good level of hygiene must be mai n- tained to ensure healthy, vi gorous plants The need to keep t he greenhouse and parti cularly the glass clean is often overl ooked. II is surprising how much di rt can settle firmly ont o a sheet of glass in t he open, even in areas where air pol l uti on is low. This consider ably cuts down light intensity, t he effects of whi ch are particularly noti ceabl e in winter. Plants whi ch need good light, such as t omat o, l ettuce and freesia, look t hi n and pale and lack substance. Class should be washed t horoughl y in aut umn, using a suitable non-t oxi c detergent Where t he glass overlaps, dirt accumul at e- and algae flourish, f ormi ng a dark band. Remove this di rt wi t h a metal plant label or a sliver of sheet metal . Class washing should be carried out at intervals during the wi nter, especially in areas of air pol l uti on. At other times of the year it is usually not In late summer, scrub t he framework of the greenhouse to remove pest and disease organisms. First empt y t he greenhouse. Use a dilute sterilizing agent. In autumn, wash t he glass t horoughl y using a non-toxi c detergent. Remove di rt and algae f rom glass overlaps wi t h an alloy plant label. At the same time, scrub surfaces such as paths and walls to remove algae, using a di l ute sol uti on of a propri etary algicide. Introduction/Hygiene 2 so important and in summer the layer of grime can even he beneficial, acting as partial shading, At least once a year the framework of the greenhouse should be scrubbed to remove pest and disease organisms such as the eggs of red spider mite and spores of fungal diseases. To do the j ob properly the green- house should be empty so t hat a sterilizing agent, a chemical fluid, can be added to the washing water. Late summer is a good ti me to wash the greenhouse, when all but the tenderest plants can be stood outside. In a humi d greenhouse a film of green algae can form on all moist surfaces including walls and floors, and can become slippery. All such surfaces should be scrubbed, using one of the proprietary algicides in the water. Hygiene should not stop at keeping the greenhouse clean. All used pots and seed flats should be thoroughl y washed and scrubbed before re-use to minimize the spread of disease. Remove any "ti de-marks" of soil or chemicals around the insides of the pots. Soak clay pots in water to ensure cleanliness. Perhaps the chief cause of infec- ti on of soil-borne rots is t he use of dirty contai ners for propagati on. It is of great i m- portance to ensure that containers are clean. In order to avoid cross-infection, always remove containers and used soil from the greenhouse when not in use. Spent soil pro- vides ideal condi ti ons for t he mul ti pl i cati on of bot h dampi ng off fungi and sciarid flies. It is i mport ant to wi pe tools clean after use to ensure they do not become a potential source of i nfecti on. It is futi l e to go to great lengths to sterilize soil, or to go to t he expense of buyi ng sterile soil mixes, if they are left lying about open to the elements. All mixtures and their com- ponents should be kept bagged and covered to mai ntai n their reliability. Do not at t empt to re-use spent soil mixes, even if sterilized, as t he chemical balances will be out of proport i on. PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL Good greenhouse hygiene, as outl i ned in t he previous section, is an essential starting poi nt in the avoidance of pests and diseases. How- ever, problems will inevitably occur because it is impossible to avoid i ntroduci ng infected material into the greenhouse. The fol l owi ng pages detail pests and diseases met wi t h in the greenhouse and prescribe remedies. On this page methods of control are discussed. Control methods Because the greenhouse is a closed envi ron- ment it is often easier than in the open garden to control pests and diseases. Some pests, such as snails, can be removed by hand, but most greenhouse problems will have to be dealt wi t h by chemical means. Some bio- logical control is possible for a few green- house pests (see below). Good growi ng prac- tice is t he first line of defence, for healthy sturdy plants are less susceptible to disease than sickly ones. Applying chemicals Choose a chemical whi ch will not harm the plants being grown, but whi ch is effective against the probl em concerned. Remove any plants likely to be harmed by the chemical, or cover t hem wi t h plastic sheeting secured wi t h string or elastic bands. Carefully follow the instructions given on the next page for the use of chemicals in the greenhouse. When spraying, open all ventilators and the door. Many pesticides are also available as dusts whi ch are applied from a puffer pack. Use dusts on flowers and on plants sensitive to moisture on foliage. Fumigation Chemicals can also be applied in smoke f orm, a process called fumi gati on. First check carefully that none of the plants present will be damaged by the fumi gant to be used. The manufacturer' s instructions will contai n a list. Remove any such plants from the greenhouse. Fumigants are available as simple pyrotechni c smokes whi ch resemble sl ow-burni ng fireworks, or as solids whi ch are vaporized on electric elements. Fumigants should be applied at a measured rate depend- ing upon the cubic capaci ty of the green- house. Measure the capaci ty by the formul a length x breadth x average height. Fumiga- ti on can be used against specific pests or as a general hygiene measure every six months. Appl y fumi gants in the eveni ng, t hen leave the greenhouse closed overni ght. Seal any leaks and close all venti l ators before applica- t i on. To sterilize t he greenhouse, empt y it of plants and burn sulfur at t he rate of 1 lb per 1000 cu ft. The burni ng sulfur produces sul- fur dioxide gas, whi ch is hi ghl y poisonous. Leave the greenhouse as soon as t he sulfur is i gni ted. Biological control In t he open, many harmful pests are kept under control by predators such as birds or other insects. In t he closed greenhouse envi ronment , such natural balances break down, leading to pest probl ems. In an effort to avoi d over-use of chemi cal s, biologists have investigated t he possibility of biological cont rol . This means i nt roduci ng a predator to attack concentrati ons of harmful pests. Some predators have been f ound to be regularly effective and are available commerci al l y. A predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis, con- trols greenhouse red spider mi te. A ladybird, Cryptolaemus montrouzeri, can be used against meal ybugs; a parasitic wasp, Encarsia formosa, for greenhouse whi t ef l y; and a bacteri um, Bacillus thuringiensis, attacks caterpillars. If biological control is used chemi cal means must be ruled out unti l t he predators have had a chance to work, whi ch limits its applica- t i on if more than one pest is f ound. Predators are a cure rather than a pr event i on: they cannot work until thei r prey, t he pest, is present. The critical t i me to i nt roduce preda- tors is when t he pest first appears. The preda- tor can then breed and bui l d up a large enough popul at i on to eradi cate t he pests. Predators will only breed faster t han t he pests when t he dayti me t emperat ure exceeds 21C/70F and light intensity is good. Whi l e biological cont rol avoids chemical bui l d-up on plants, a poi nt especially to be borne in mi nd wi t h f ood crops, it is a less certain and more compl i cat ed met hod of pest cont rol t han t he use of chemi cal s. The use of predators has to be careful l y t i med. This may involve i nvesti gati ng sources of supply well before t he t r oubl e is likely to arise and taki ng swift act i on once t he pests are not i ced. After use, wash and scrub seed boxes and pots to minimize the spread of disease. Store containers neatly and do not allow debris to build up. Potting soil should be kept in a bin wi t h a ti ght-fi tti ng lid to avoid staleness and possible cont ami nat i on. Remove spent soil f rom t he greenhouse after use. Pests and diseases 1 Introduction This section is concerned wi t h the various pests, diseases and disorders that may affect plants grown under glass. It is divided i nto t wo parts: ornamental plants, and fruits and vegetables. Wi t hi n each part, the possible troubles are listed by sympt om, such as Leaves discolored or Stems galled. Under each symptom the various causes that may produce it are described and control measures suggested. The most i mportant means of control l i ng pests and diseases is by good cultural prac- tice. In particular, ensure t hat plants are not allowed to become pot -bound or suffer from mal nutri ti on, that they are given sufficient water and light, and that the greenhouse has the correct temperature and humi di ty for the plants. If any of these condi ti ons is unsuitable, the plants will not only be much more sus- ceptible to attack by pests and diseases, they may also be damaged by the condi ti on itself and develop recognizable symptoms. Such problems are known as physiological dis- orders. They are discussed under the appro- priate sympt om. Even if plants are given the correct growi ng conditions, pests and diseases will still occur occasionally, and in this case it is often advisable to use pesticides or fungicides. Such chemicals are, however, potenti al l y dangerous and must be handled wi t h care at all ti mes; failure to do so may harm the user or damage plants. It is particularly i mport ant that the manufacturer' s instructions are read and fol l owed, and that all chemicals are stored in a cool dark place away from f ood- stuffs, if possible in a locked cupboard where children and pets cannot reach t hem. Wear rubber gloves when di l uti ng chemicals, and thoroughl y wash the sprayer, gloves and any other equi pment after use. Always spray from all sides of the plant to give an even coverage and ensure t hat bot h upper and lower leaf surfaces are covered. Finally, avoid using insecticides on plants t hat are in flower since t he petals may be damaged. Plants that have been severely attacked by pests or diseases should not be left in t he greenhouse since they can become a source of infection for other plants. All such plants should, if possible, be burned. SEEDLINGS This section covers the period of plant growth between germi nati on and the emergence of true leaves. Seedlings eaten Slugs, woodlice and millipedes can destroy plants by eating the foliage before the seed- lings have a chance to become established. Slugs are t he most destructi ve; woodl i ce and millipedes only become troubl esome when thev are present in large numbers. Slug pellets contai ni ng metal dehyde give some additional prot ect i on against woodl i ce and millipedes. Scatter pellets along seed rows. Seedlings collapsing Damping off is usually due to species of t he soil- and water-borne fungi Phytophthora and Pythium. Seedlings of anti rrhi num, sweet peas, lobelia, stock and zinnia are particularly susceptible to i nfecti on, and collapse at ground level. Prevent i nfecti on by sowing thi nl y, since the disease is encouraged by overcrowdi ng, and by using sterilized soil or compost of a good ti l th. Over-wateri ng can also induce dampi ng off, so water carefully wi t h clean water. Give adequate light but not too much heat. Check slight attacks by wateri ng wi t h captan or zineb after removing all dead seedlings. Captan or thi ram seed dressings can help prevent dampi ng off disease. BULBOUS PLANTS This section treats problems that are specific to plants having bulbs, corms, tubers or rhizomes. Plant stunted Non-rooting of hyaci nth bulbs is a physio- logical disorder, the precise cause of whi ch is not known. The leaves do not develop at the normal rate and t he inflorescence remains stunted. The roots of an affected bulb are either lacking or poorly devel oped. This probl em can be caused by the temperature being t oo high duri ng storage or forci ng, or by forci ng or lifting t oo early. Unfortunatel y it is not possible to detect in advance those bulbs in whi ch t he non-root i ng tendency has devel oped. Plant wilting Bacterial wilt (Xanthomonas begoniae) causes wi l ti ng and spotti ng on leaves of wi nter-fl oweri ng begonia hybrids derived from B. socotrana and 6. dregei. Burn severely diseased plants and do not propagate from t hem. If they are only slightly diseased, cut out affected parts and decrease the tempera- ture and humi di ty of the greenhouse. This will reduce the spread and severity of the disease, but it will also delay flowering. Disinfect the greenhouse after a severe attack of t he disease. Leaves discolored Leaf scorch (Stagonospora curtisii) causes brown blotches to appear on t he leaves of hippeastrum (amaryllis), particularly at the leaf bases, and also on t he flower stalks and petals. The affected tissues usually rot and become slimy. Cut out such tissues and burn t hem. Spray or dust affected plants wi t h sulfur or zineb. Unsuitable cultural conditions can check t he growt h of hippeastrums, causing red blotches or streaks (or both) to appear on the leaves, flower stalks and bulbs. This troubl e is usually caused by over- or under-wat eri ng or mal nu- t ri t i on; prevent it by mai ntai ni ng even growt h t hrough good cultural t reat ment . Leaves distorted Tarsonemid mites are a group of tiny creatures t hat infest t he growi ng poi nts of certain greenhouse plants. The bul b scale mite (Steneotarsonemus laticeps) lives in the neck of narcissus and hi ppeast rum bulbs. It causes a di sti ncti ve sickle-shaped cur- vature of t he leaves and a saw-toothed not chi ng al ong the margins. The flower stems become stunted and di st ort ed, again wi t h a saw-toothed scar al ong t he edges of the stem. The cycl amen mi te (Tarsonemus pallidus) and broad mi te (Polyphagotarson- emus latus) live inside t he leaf and fl ower buds of plants such as cycl amen, Hedera (ivy), begonia, impatiens, saintpaulia and Sin- ningia (gloxinia). Their feedi ng causes stems and leaves to become scarred and f requent l y to be di storted i nto spoon-l i ke shapes. The growi ng points may be killed and t he flowers are either di storted or fail to devel op. There are no cont rol l i ng chemicals avai l abl e to amateur gardeners. Burn all infested plants. Pests and diseases 2 Leaves, flowers and bulbs rotting Soft rot (Erwinia carotovora var carotovora) causes a soft, slimy, evil-smelling rot of the leaves and bulbs of hyacinths. It often com- mences in the inflorescences when florets have wi thered through a physiological dis- order known as blindness; for details see right under Buds wi theri ng. If the rot has not advanced too far it may be possible to save the bulbs for planting outside by cutti ng out all infected tissue. Such bulbs planted out- side will not flower for a year or t wo. Roots or tubers eaten Vine weevil grubs (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) are pl ump whi te maggots about 1/2 in long wi t h light brown heads. Plants grown from tubers are particularly susceptible but many other plants may be attacked. Usually the first symptom that is noticed is the plant wi l ti ng and, when it is ti pped out of its pot, most of the roots are seen to have been destroyed. Such plants rarely recover. Badly affected plants should be destroyed, the soil t hr own away and the pot sterilized. Some protecti on is given by adding chlorpyrifos granules or naphthalene flakes when pot t i ng up. Bulbs, corms or tubers rotting Basal rot may be caused by various fungi, and affects mainly Lilium and Lachenalia. The roots and base of the bulb rot, resulting in stunti ng of the t op growt h and di scol orati on of the leaves. Discard badly affected bulbs. In less severe cases cut out diseased roots and tissues, or scales in the case of lily bulbs. Then dip the bulbs in a solution of captan or benomyl before re-potti ng. Prevent such troubles by using only sterile compost and clean pots. Begonia tuber rot and cyclamen corm rot usually occur as a result of frost damage dur- ing storage. The tissues become soft and have a sweetish smell. Prevent these rots by ensuring that tubers and corms of the respective plants are stored carefully in a frost-proof place. Arum corm rot {Erwinia carotovora var caro- tovora) can be serious wherever arums {Zantedeschia spp. and hybrids) are grown under glass in large numbers. The plants wi ther and collapse due to rotti ng of the corms; these may develop extensive brown areas wi t h rotti ng roots arising f rom them. The corm lesions can lie dormant duri ng storage but when the corms are replanted the rot progresses rapidly. Destroy badly infected plants and disinfect the greenhouse. Sterilize the soil where diseased plants have been growi ng in beds. Examine corms when removi ng them from store and cut out any brown areas. Then steep t hem for t wo hours in a 2 per cent formalin solution before pl anti ng t hem out. Inflorescence loose Loose bud of hyaci nth, in whi ch the stem below t he flower bud fractures compl etel y at an early stage of growth, is usually caused by storing bulbs at too low a temperature. Bulbs t hat have been moved from cold storage into a very warm place are parti- cularly susceptible. Loose bud may also be caused by incorrect lifting or forci ng. Unfortu- nately it is impossible to detect the tendency for loose bud in a consi gnment of bulbs. Buds withering Blindness of bulbous plants is usually caused by the soil being too dry at a critical stage of growt h. Prevent this by maki ng sure that the compost never dries out. Less frequently it is caused by storing bulbs before pl anti ng in condi ti ons that are too hot and dry. Prevent this either by potti ng up i mmedi atel y on obtai ni ng bulbs, or by storing t hem in the proper conditions. The flower buds of affected bulbs turn brown and wi ther at an early stage. Such bulbs can be planted out in the garden but will not flower for a year or t wo. GENERAL PLANTS The pests and diseases menti oned in this section may, unless otherwise stated, affect any t ype of plant, i ncl udi ng those wi t h bulbs, corms, tubers, or rhizomes. Leaves eaten Carnation tortrix caterpillars {Cacoecimor- pha pronubana) feed on a very wi de range of plants and can be found t hroughout the year in heated greenhouses. The "caterpillars grow up to 3/4 in long and are pale green wi t h brown heads. They fol d over t he edge of a leaf wi t h silken threads, or bind t wo leaves together, and when small feed unnoti ced by grazing away the inner surfaces of these leaves. Later these caterpillars eat holes in t he foliage. Control light infestations by searching for and squeezing the caterpillars' hi di ng places. Otherwi se spray the plants t horoughl y wi t h a di l ute sol uti on of t ri chl orphon when signs of damage are seen. Ot her caterpillars t hat can be f ound on greenhouse plants include those of t he angle shades mot h (Phlogo- phora meticulosa) and t he silver-Y mot h (Autographa gamma). These feed in the open on t he foliage and flowers but may be difficult to find since they are act i ve mainly at night. Control these pests by hand-pi cki ng or by appl yi ng the above insecticides. Slugs (various species) can damage most plants, especially duri ng t he early stages of growt h. They frequentl y leave a slime trail on the foliage, whi ch distinguishes their damage from t hat caused by caterpillars. Control t hem by scattering slug pellets based on metal dehyde ont o t he soil surface around the plants. Leaves discolored Faulty root action may be caused by over- or under-wateri ng, mal nut ri t i on or poor pot- ti ng. It results in irregular yel l ow or brown bl otches on the leaves, or compl et e dis- SOOTY MOLD Some sap-feeding insects such as aphids, whiteflies, scales and meal ybugs excrete a sugary liquid known as honeydew. Since these insects feed mai nl y on t he under- sides of leaves the honeydew drops down ont o the upper surfaces of leaves grow- ing below the actual i nfestati on. Such leaves become sticky, and under damp condi ti ons various black, non-parasitic fungi known as sooty mol d rapidly de- velop. They do not di rectl y harm plants because they grow on t he honeydew, al though the amount of light and air reaching the foliage is reduced. Remove sooty mol d by wi pi ng t he leaves wi t h a soft damp cl ot h. Good vent i l at i on makes the atmosphere drier and thus less suitable for t he growt h of sooty mol d, but the best cure is to identify and cont rol the pest t hat is produci ng t he honeydew. Pests and diseases 3 coloration of the foliage, and premature leaf- fall. Prevent such troubles by careful potti ng up and correct cultural t reat ment for the type of compost being used. Appl i cati ons of foliar fertilizer should help overcome t he troubles, but in severe cases it may be neces- sary to re-pot the affected plant. Tip scorch of the leaves of plants such as aspidistra, chl orophyt um and sansevieria may be caused by the air being too hot or dry, or by faulty root action (see above). Affected plants should recover once the scorched leaves have been removed and the correct cultural treatment given. In the case of saintpaulia, anthuri um and palms such as kentia, it may be necessary to place the pot in a larger container packed wi t h damp moss or peat in order to create a humi d atmosphere. Sun scorch of leaves usually shows as pale brown blotches (often elliptical) across the foliage. It is caused by the sun's rays on a hot day passing either t hrough glass ont o moist foliage, or through a flaw in the glass whi ch acts as a lens to intensify the rays. Prevent scorch in greenhouses by careful venti l ati on to reduce humi di ty. Leaf spots are caused by a variety of fungi . In practically all cases they produce brown or black spots on the leaves, but on some hosts the spots have a purple border or they may have pinpoint-sized black dots scattered over t hem. Remove affected leaves and spray wi t h mancozeb or zineb. If further troubl e occurs the plants may be lacking in vigor due to faulty root acti on, in whi ch case see above and previous page. "Ring pattern" on saintpaulias and achimenes is caused by a sudden chilling of the leaves from wateri ng overhead in sunlight. Affected leaves develop large yellow rings. Prevent this by careful wateri ng. Viruses such as t omat o spotted wi l t and cucumber mosaic affect a wi de range of plants. In general the symptoms are mot t l ed, bl otched or striped leaves, affected parts being pale green, yellow or black. The leaves may also be distorted and the plants stunted. Destroy any plant showing these symptoms. A valuable plant such as an orchid may be kept but it will always produce discolored leaves and the troubl e may spread to previously healthy plants. Glasshouse thrips (Heliothrips haemor- rhoidalis) are thi n yellow or dark brown insects about 1/10 in long that live mainly on the upper surfaces of leaves and on flowers. They feed by sucking sap and cause a full green or silvery di scol orati on of the foliage, whi ch is also marked by mi nute black spots caused by the thrips' excretions. Control this pest by spraying t horoughl y wi t h a pyre- throi d compound, derris, mal athi on or a systemic insecticide. Leaves with corky patches Oedema, or dropsy, is caused by the atmos- phere being t oo moist or the soil too wet. It shows as pale pimple-like outgrowths on the undersurfaces of t he leaves and on t he stems. The outgrowths later burst and then become brown and powdery or corky. The most sus- ceptible plants are eucalyptus, ivy-leaved pel argoni um, peperomia and camellias the last menti oned develops large scabby patches on the undersurfaces. Improve the cultural condi ti ons by careful wateri ng and by venti l ati ng the greenhouse. Do not re- move affected leaves since this will only make matters worse. Corky scab of cacti is caused either by a lack of light and t he humi di ty being too high, or by over-exposure to sunlight. It occurs most frequentl y on Epiphyllum and Opuntia and shows as irregular rusty or corky spots whi ch develop i nto sunken patches as the tissues beneath die. Where the troubl e is very un- sightly propagate from the affected plant and ensure that new plants are given correct cultural t reat ment and are not exposed to t oo much light. Leaves blotched Chrysanthemum eelworm and fern eelworm (Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi and A. iragariae) are mi croscopi c worm-l i ke animals t hat live inside leaves. Many different plants may be infected, al though in greenhouses the main hosts are those indicated by the pests' com- mon names. Infested parts of the leaves t urn brown. At first these areas are clearly separ- ated by the larger leaf veins from the green, healthy parts, but eventually the brown areas coalesce and the whol e leaf dies. None of the chemicals available to amateur gardeners control eelworms, and infested plants should be burned. However, it is possible to give chrysanthemum stools a hot water treat- ment so that they will subsequently produce cuttings free of eelworms. Wash the dormant stools free of all soil and then plunge them in hot water at 46C/115F for five mi nut es - it is i mport ant t hat the ti me and temperature are exact. Then plunge i nto col d water. Leaves mined Chrysanthemum leaf miner grubs (Phyto- myza syngenesiae) tunnel the leaves of chrysanthemum and related plants such as cineraria (Senecio cruentus hybrids) and ger- bera. These mines show on the leaves as whi ti sh-brown lines meandering through the leaf and, in heavy infestations, leaves may lose almost all their green color. A single appl i cati on of benomyl pi ri mi phos-methyl controls this pest if applied as soon as mi ni ng begins, but if the plants are badly infested three applications of insecticide at ten day intervals will be necessary. Leaves with visible fungal growth Powdery mildews are common on chrysan- themums, begonias and cinerarias, and occur occasionally on other plants. The sympt oms are whi t e powdery spots on t he leaves and sometimes the stems. Vent i l at e t he green- house well since the fungi are encouraged by a humi d atmosphere. Plants t hat are dry at the roots are more susceptible to i nfecti on, so water before the soil dries out compl etel y. Fumigate the greenhouse wi t h di nocap smokes or spray wi t h di nocap or benomyl . Remove severely affected leaves. Rusts can affect chrysanthemums, fuchsias, pelargoniums, cinerarias and carnati ons. On fuchsias and cinerarias orange powdery pustules devel op on t he leaves, predomi - nantly on the lower surfaces. On ot her plants the pustules produce masses of chocol at e- col ored spores. Remove arrd burn affected leaves. If severely i nfected, destroy t he plant. Reduce t he humi di t y of t he atmosphere, and avoi d wet t i ng t he leaves. Spray at seven to ten day intervals wi t h zineb or mancozeb. Pests and diseases 4 Leaves with pests visible Greenhouse whitefly (ltrialeurodes vapor-iro- rum is one of the most common and troublesome of greenhouse pests. for details, sec page 40. Peach-potato aphid and mottled arum aphid (Myzus persicae and Aulacorthum circum- llexum) are both species of greenfly that suck sap from a wide range of plants. For details, see page 40. Soft scales (Coccus hesperidum) are sap- feeding insects that live on the stems and undersides of leaves near the main veins. For a description of these pests and their control , see below. Leaves mottled Greenhouse red spider mites (Tetranchus urticae) are mi nute pests t hat attack most greenhouse plants. For details, see page 40. Greenhouse leafhoppers (Zygina pallidifrons) suck sap from the undersides of leaves and cause white, pinhead-sized dots to appear on the upper surfaces. In heavy attacks these dots coalesce and most of the leaves' green color is lost. Adul t leafhoppers are about 5/8 in long and pale yellow wi t h t wo V-shaped gray markings on their back. The nymphal stages are creamy-white. As they grow they periodically shed their skins, whi ch remain attached to the undersides of t he leaves. Control leafhoppers by spraying wi t h any of the insecticides malathion, pi ri mi phosmethyl , methoxycl or or a pyrethroi d compound. Stems or crowns rotting Blackleg (various organisms) affects pelar- goni um cuttings and sometimes t he mature plant. The stem bases become soft, black and rotten, and affected plants die. Prevent this disease by using sterile soil mixes and pots, and by hygienic cultural conditions, including the use of clean water. Destroy severely diseased cuttings, but in the case of valuable plants it may be possible to propa- gate by taking a fresh cut t i ng from the t op of a diseased plant. Foot, crown and root rot may be caused by black root rot fungus or other soil or water- borne fungi. These organisms cause a brown or black rot of the tissues at the base of the stems, around the crowns or at the roots, and the top growt h wilts or collapses. Prevent these diseases by using sterilized soil mixes and pots, and by using clean water. Pot up carefully and tease out t he roots of pot- bound plants. Control by wateri ng wi t h ethazol plus benomyl , or use a solution of Banrot as a soil drench. In severe cases re- pot, using a smaller pot if necessary, in sterile soil or potti ng mi xture after having removed all dead parts i ncl udi ng roots. Spray the devel opi ng leaves wi th a foliar fertilizer. Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) causes plants to decay and affected leaves and flowers to become covered wi t h a gray-brown mass of fungal spores. The petals may also develop numerous small red or brown spots. Cray mol d spores are always present in t he air and infect plants through wounds and dead or dyi ng tissue. Infections can also occur between diseased and healthy tissues. Pre- vent gray mol d by good hygiene and by removi ng dead leaves and flowers promptl y. Venti l ate the greenhouse carefully to reduce humi di t y, and water early in the morni ng and not at night. Once the disease has appeared on any t ype of plant, spray wi t h benomyl or a copper fungicide or use Isotherm Termil bombs. In t he case of cycl amen affected by gray mol d around the crown, dust wi t h captan. Carnation wilt is caused by t he fungi Verti- cillium albo-atrum and Fusarium oxysporum f dianthi. Affected plants wi l t rapidly and the leaves become either yellow or gray-green and t hen straw-col ored. In both cases a brown di scol orati on can be seen in the inner tissues of affected stems. Prevent these diseases by using sterilized pots and soil. Destroy severely affected plants and sterilize t he greenhouse bench or floor on whi ch t he plants were standing. Do not propagate f rom diseased plants. To reduce the spread of wi l t drench the remaining plants wi t h a solution of benomyl or thi ophanate-methyl , repeating the treatment t wo weeks later. Stems or crowns with pests visible Scale insects such as hemispherical scale (Saissetia coffeae) and soft scale (Coccus hesperidum) encrust the stems of many different plants. The former have red-brown convex shells about ^ in in diameter, while the latter have yel l ow-brown, flat, oval shells of the same length. The insects live under- neath these shells and feed on sap. Once a suitable feeding place is f ound they do not move. Control by spraying plants thoroughl y wi t h mal athi on or ni coti ne three times at t wo week intervals. Mealybugs (Pseudococcus spp.) are gray- whi te soft-bodied insects t hat grow up to 1/4 in long. They infest cacti, succulents and many other plants, and secrete whi te, waxy fibers that cover the mealybug colonies and their egg masses. Control t hem by spraying wi t h mal athi on or nicotine. Thorough applications are necessary because mealybugs tend to live on relatively inaccessible parts of the plant, and t wo or more sprays at t wo week intervals may be needed. On plants t hat are liable to be damaged by insecticides, such as Crassula and ferns, dab mealybugs wi t h a brush di pped in methyl ated spirit. Stems galled Leafy gall (Corynebacterium tascians) affects mainly pelargoniums and chrysanthemums, and shows as a mass of abortive and often fasciated (flattened) shoots at soil level. Destroy affected plants and sterilize pots and the greenhouse bench on whi ch the plants were standing. Do not propagate from dis- eased plants. For details of sterilizing, see page 33 on Hygiene. Flower buds dropping Bud drop affects stephanotis, gardenias, hibiscus and camellias. It is caused by the soil being too dry at the ti me the buds were beginning to develop. Prevent this troubl e by ensuring that the soil never dries out. Gardenias may also lose their buds if the atmosphere is too dry. Prevent this by syringing the plants in t he morni ng and evening duri ng warm sunny weather except when the flowers are open, otherwise they will discolor. Over-wateri ng can also cause bud drop of gardenias. Bud drop can be avoi ded by careful greenhouse management. Ensure that temperature, humi di ty and venti - lation are correct. Flowers discolored Thrips (various species) are thi n, black or yellow insects, about 1/10 in long, that suck sap f rom the petals of carnat i on, chrysan- t hemum, cycl amen and other plants. The petals devel op whi t e flecks where the thrips have fed. Control t hem by sprayi ng t horough- ly wi t h mal athi on or ni coti ne. Care needs to be taken since flowers may be marked by insecticides, so spray when t he plants are not exposed to bri ght sunl i ght or high temperatures. Viruses such as cucumber mosaic and t omat o spotted wi l t can cause spotti ng or streaking of flowers, whi ch may also be dis- t ort ed. Most frequentl y affected are chrysan- t hemums and bulbous plants, especially lilies and cycl amen. Destroy affected plants. Flowers spotted or rotting Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) f requent l y attacks t he flowers of cycl amen and chrysan- t hemums. For symptoms and t reat ment , see under Stems or crowns rot t i ng, above. Pests in or on the soil Vine weevil grubs (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) are pl ump whi t e legless grubs, up to 1/2 in long, wi t h light brown heads. For symptoms of attack, and treatment, see under Roots and tubers eaten in the Bulbous plants section. Fungus gnats or sciarids (various species) are small gray-black flies t hat run over the soil surface of pot plants or fly slowly around t hem. Their larvae are thi n whi t e maggots up to 1/4 in long wi t h black heads. They live in the soil and feed mainly on rot t i ng pl ant material but they sometimes damage t he roots of seedlings and plants t hat are in poor health. They may also tunnel i nto t he base of soft cuttings and cause t hem to rot. Control t he adul t flies by spraying wi t h a pyrethroi d compound. Against t he larvae, mix some di azi non granules i nto t he soil around the plants. Springtails (various species) are whi t e soil- dwel l i ng insects, about 1/10 in l ong. They are f ound especially in peat-based mixes, and are distinguished by thei r habi t of j umpi ng when exposed on t he surface of t he soil. They usually appear on t he soil surface after plants have been watered. However, t hey cause no damage and there is, therefore, no need for any control s. Pests and diseases 5 Leaves discolored Downy mildew of brassica seedlings, especi- ally cauliflowers, is caused by the fungus Peronospora parasitica and that of l ettuce by Bremia lactucae. Whi t e mealy or downy tufts of fungal growth develop on t he underside of the leaves, whi ch become bl otched on t he upper surface. Affected seedlings are severely checked and lettuces may later be attacked by gray mol d (see below). These mildews are most troubl esome on overcrowded seedlings growi ng in very humi d condi ti ons. Prevent the diseases by sowing seed thi nl y in steril- ized, well drained soil or seed sowing mix, and ventilate carefully to reduce humi di ty. Do not over-water seedlings. Should mildew occur, remove diseased leaves and spray wi t h mancozeb or zineb. On brassica seedlings, chl orothal oni l and captafol may be used. Stems collapsing Damping off is usually due to species of the soil- and water-borne fungi Phytophthora and Pythium. Seedlings of lettuce, t omat o, mustard and cress are most susceptible to i nfecti on, and collapse at ground level. Over- crowdi ng encourages t he disease, therefore sow thi nl y and use sterilized soil of a good t i l t h or a well-prepared sterilized sowing mix. The organisms t hat cause dampi ng off are often present in unsterilized soil, particularly if it is compacted causing poor aeration. Overwateri ng can also i nduce dampi ng off. Use clean water to prevent i nfecti on by water-borne organisms whi ch build up in dirty tanks and butts. give adequate light but not t oo much heat. Check slight attacks by wateri ng wi t h captan or zineb after removal of t he dead seedlings. Wirestem fungus, caused by Rhizoctonia solani, is a disease of brassica seedlings, particularly cauliflowers, but the same fungus can also affect seedlings of other vegetables. Stems of affected brassica seedlings shrink at ground level before they toppl e, but other seedlings damp off as described above. Let- tuce seedlings affected by this fungus usually succumb to gray mol d (see below) fairly soon afterwards so t hat the original cause may be overl ooked. Prevent by sowing thi nl y in a good ti l th and avoi d over-watering. Use sterilized soil or a good-qual i ty soilless mix to help prevent i nfecti on. The fungus is not cont rol l ed by fungicides wi t h t he excep- ti on of di cl oran. The chemi cal can be raked i nto t he soil before sowing seed where this disease is known to be troubl esome. DISEASES OF MATURE CROPS The diseases described below may affect any crop, frui t or vegetable, being grown in greenhouses, col d or heated frames or under cloches, unless otherwise stated. Vines and peaches are treated separately at the end of this section. Leaves discolored Faulty root action is due to over- or under- wateri ng or poor transpl anti ng and can cause irregular yellow or brown blotches on the leaves. Prevent this by careful pl anti ng and correct cultural treatment. Appl i cati ons of a foliar fertilizer should help to overcome t he troubl e, but wi t h severely affected tomatoes it may be necessary to mound sterile soil around the base of the stem into whi ch new roots can grow as the pl ant recovers. Magnesium deficiency is common on t om- atoes and eggplants. Orange-yel l ow bands develop between the veins on the lower leaves, whi ch gradually t urn brown as t he symptoms spread progressively upwards. Spray at t he first signs of troubl e wi t h 1/2 lb magnesium sulfate in 21/2 gal of water, to whi ch is added a spreader. Spray repeatedly every seven to ten days until the plants have compl etel y recovered. Affected plants can still produce good crops it the deficiency is corrected early on. Leaves moldy Tomato leaf mold (Cladosporium lulvum) affects only tomatoes grown under glass or pol yethyl ene. A purpl e-brown mol d develops on the lower surface of leaves whi ch show yellow blotches on the upper surface. These symptoms may be overl ooked as affected leaves are subsequently often attacked by gray mol d. Grow resistant varieties and keep t he greenhouse temperature less than 21C/ 70F. Venti l ate well since the disease is encouraged by humi d atmospheres. At t he first signs of troubl e spray wi t h benomyl or mancozeb or use Exotherm Termil every 7 days. Leaves and stems rotting Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) is a common probl em under glass, affecting particularly grapes, strawberries, cucumbers and t om- atoes. Lettuce tends to wi l t due to attack at ground level. Affected stems, fruits and leaves rot and become covered wi t h a gray-brown velvety fungus growth. Sometimes the fungus does not rot t omat o fruits but produces pi n- poi nt spots, each wi t h a pale green ring, known as water spots, whi ch can still be seen on ripe fruit. Spores of the fungus infect plants through wounds and dead and dyi ng tissues, or by contact between diseased and healthy tissues. Remove dead leaves and over-ripe fruits prompt l y to avoid i nfecti on. Venti l ate greenhouses carefully to reduce humi di ty and water early in the morni ng, not at night. Over-wateri ng plants should be sprayed wi t h thi ram every three or four weeks. Prevent i nfecti on of grapes and strawberries by spraying wi t h benomyl as the first flowers open, repeating t wi ce at ten day to t wo week intervals, or wi t h captan or thi ram except on frui t to be preserved or canned. Fumigate an affected greenhouse wi t h smokes if possible. Stems wilting Foot and root rot can be due to various fungi , i ncl udi ng Thielaviopsis basicola and species of Fusarium, as well as those fungi whi ch cause dampi ng off and wirestem of seedlings HORMONE WEEDKILLER DAMAGE This commonl y affects plants under glass, particularly vines and t omat oes. Affected leaves become narrow and fan-shaped, show parallel veins, are frequentl y cupped and the shoots twist spirally. Take care when using hormone weedkillers, apply ing t hem wi t h equi pment kept solely for their use. Do not use t hem on a wi ndy day and, when spraying nearby, close green- house ventilators. Do not store weed- killers in a greenhouse since vapors from t hem can affect plants. Wash hands and tool s after appl yi ng weedki l l ers. (see above). The t op growt h wilts or collapses compl etel y because these soi l : and water- borne organisms attack t he roots and stem bases. Prevent this by t he use of cl ean water and by changi ng or sterilizing t he soil at least once every three years, or by t he use of sterile soil. Plant carefully, and tease out roots of pot -bound plants. Do not over- or under-water as plants suffering f r om faulty root acti on (see above) are very susceptible to attack. If f oot rot occurs, water wi t h a solution of captan, or al ternati vel y, zineb, or dust at t he base of t he pl ant wi t h dry bordeaux powder. When t omat oes are affected, place fresh sterilized soil around the base of t he stems and spray all plants wi t h a foliar fertilizer to encourage the devel opment of new roots in t he fresh soil. As these new roots devel op t hey shoul d re- vitalize t he plants. Verticillium wilt is caused by species of the fungus Verticillium. The larger leaves wilt duri ng t he day, parti cul arl y on hot days, but recover at night. Affected plants may lose their older leaves. Brown streaks are seen runni ng lengthways in t he tissues if t he base of t he stem is cut l ongi tudi nal l y. Destroy badly affected plants. Prevent t he disease by using sterilized soil or pl ant i ng mix, and always plant verti ci l l i um and fusari um re- sistant varieties. Seed catalogs i ndi cat e whi ch varieties are resistant. Tomato stem rot {Didymella lycopersici) causes a sudden wi l ti ng of mat ure plants. A brown or black canker devel ops on t he Pests and diseases 6 stem, usually at ground level, and small black specks, whi ch are the frui ti ng bodies of the fungus, can just be seen wi t h the naked eye all over the diseased tissues. These produce many spores whi ch over-wi nter and act as a source of i nfecti on the fol l owi ng season. It is essential, therefore, to burn all debris and to sterilize the greenhouse and equi pment at the end of the season if this disease has occurred. Destroy badly affected plants and spray the stem bases of the rest of the crop wi t h beno- myl or captan. Less severely diseased plants may be saved by cutti ng out affected tissues and applying a paste of captan mixed wi t h a little water, or by painting t hem wi t h a solu- tion of benomyl . Flowers dropping Tomato flower drop is almost always due to dry conditions at the roots. The flowers may open, but break off from the stalk at the joint and fall to the ground. Prevent this trouble by adequate but careful wateri ng. Fruits failing to develop normally Withering of young cucumbers starting at the blossom end is due to uneven growt h resulting from irregular wateri ng. Remove all the fruits from an affected plant to rest it, and spray t he foliage wi t h foliar fertilizer if a poor color. Later-developing fruits should be nor- mal once the plant regains its vigor, provi di ng there is no root disease present. Prevent fur- ther troubl e by wateri ng cucumbers carefully and regularly. Chats (small t omat o fruits) may form on plants whi ch are dry at the root, but poor pol l i nati on caused by cold nights and a dry atmosphere may also be responsible. Encour- age pol l i nati on by syringing the foliage in the morni ng and again duri ng t he day when t he weather is hot. Dry set of tomatoes is also due to poor pol - l i nati on. It is caused by the atmosphere being too hot and t oo dry. The fruits remain 1/8 in across and become dry and brown. Syringe t he foliage as described for chats above. Fruits discolored Blossom end rot of tomatoes shows as a circular and depressed brown or green-black patch on the skin at the blossom end of the frui t (the end farthest away f rom t he stalk). In most cases it is due to a shortage of water at a critical stage in the devel opment of young fruit. Prevent this by seeing that the soil is never allowed to dry out compl etel y. All the frui t on one truss may be affected but those devel opi ng later should be normal if the pl ant has a good root system and is looked after carefully. Greenback and blotchy ripening of tomatoes show as hard green or yellow patches on the fruits. The former occurs on the shoulder of t he frui t and t he latter on any part. Both may be encouraged by high temperatures and a shortage of potash; greenback is also caused by exposure of the shoulder to strong sun- light, and bl otchy ripening may occur where ni trogen is deficient. Prevent these troubles by adequate and early venti l ati on, by ensur- ing t hat plants have sufficient shade, and by correct feeding and wateri ng. Crow t omat o varieties resistant to greenback. Consult seed catalogs for lists of t omat o varieties resistant to greenback. Bronzing of tomatoes is caused by tobacco mosaic virus. Brown patches develop be- neath the surface, usually at the stalk end, and give a bronzed patchy appearance to the young fruit. When cut open the patches show as a ring of small dark spots beneath the skin. Wi t h severe i nfecti on depressed streaks whi ch fail to ripen may radiate from the stalk end. The internal tissues of such fruits show large brown corky areas. Plants bearing bronzed tomatoes woul d have shown other symptoms such as stunted growth or mottl ed foliage earlier in the season and should have been destroyed when these symptoms first appeared. Fruits rotting Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) can attack various crops. For details, see page 38. Fruits bitter Bitter cucumbers can be due to an excess of ni trogen in the soil or irregular growth. Avoi d excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers, and mai ntai n even growth by wateri ng carefully. Since pollination of the fruit can also result in bitterness, grow varieties having mostly female flowers. VINES The most serious disorder to affect vines grown under glass is powdery mi l dew. Leaves, shoots and fruits with fungal growth Powdery mildew (Uncinula necatof) shows a soft whi t e fl oury coati ng of f ungus spores on the leaves, young shoots and frui ts. Affected berries drop if attacked early, but in later attacks become hard, di storted and split, and are then affected by secondary fungi such as gray mol d. Vent i l at e careful l y since the disease is encouraged by humi di ty. Avoi d overcrowdi ng the shoots and leaves and provi de some heat if t he greenhouse is col d. Avoi d also dryness at t he roots. At t he first sign of mi l dew spray or f umi gat e wi t h di nocap, spray or dust wi t h sulfur, or spray wi t h benomyl . Up to four appl i cati ons may be needed. In wi nter, after removi ng the loose bark, pai nt t he vine stems wi t h a sol uti on of sulfur made up as f ol l ows: mi x equal parts of flowers of sulfur and soft soap to form lumps the size of golf balls. Put one l ump i nto a j am jar wi t h a little water and stir well wi t h t he brush used to pai nt t he stems. Leaves discolored Scorch is due to t he sun's rays striking t hrough glass ont o moi st tissues on a hot day. It shows as large brown patches whi ch soon dry out and become crisp. Prevent this by careful venti l ati on i n order to reduce t he humi di t y, and carefully remove all the affected leaves. Pests and diseases 7 Magnesium deficiency shows as a yellow- orange discoloration between the veins, but in some varieties t he blotches may be purple. Later t he affected areas t urn brown. Spray wi t h 1/2 lb of magnesium sulfate in 21/2 gal of water plus a spreader such as soft soap or a few drops of mild washi ng-up l i qui d. Repeat applications once or t wi ce at t wo- week intervals. Leaves with small globules Exudation of small round green or colorless droplets from t he leaves is qui te natural and usually goes unnot i ced. However, in the spring the transparent globules may become very noticeable on t he young foliage. The symptoms are most obvious on plants grow- ing in a very humi d atmosphere and they indicate t hat t he root acti on is vigorous and the plant is in good health. Nevertheless, venti l ate carefully to reduce t he humi di ty and prevent other troubles. Vine dying Honey fungus (Armillaria mellea) frequentl y kills indoor and outdoor vines. Whi t e fan- shaped growths of fungus develop beneath the bark of the roots and t he main stems at and just above ground level. Dark brown root-like structures known as rhizomorphs develop on the affected tissues, grow out through the soil and spread the disease. Dig out dead and dyi ng plants together wi t h as many roots as possible. If t he greenhouse is vacant, sterilize the soil wi t h 2 per cent formal i n, or change t he soil compl etel y before replanting. Sterilizing is a potentially danger- ous process. Wear gloves, protecti ve cl othi ng and a mask. Fruit failing to develop normally Shanking is due to one or more unsuitable cultural conditions. The stalks of the grapes shrivel gradually until compl etel y girdled. Odd berries or small groups of berries then fail to color and develop naturally at the early ripening stage. The berries are watery and sour, black varieties t urn red, whi t e varieties remain translucent. Ensure over- or under-wateri ng or stagnant soil are not re- sponsible. Reduce the crop for a year or t wo until the vine regains its vigor. When shanking occurs early in the season, cut out the wi thered berries and spray the foliage wi t h a foliar fertilizer. Splitting of berries most commonl y occurs as a result of powdery mildew (see above). However, it is sometimes due to irregular wateri ng. Remove affected berries before they are attacked by secondary organisms such as gray mol d, and water before the soil dries out . Scald is caused by t he sun's rays striking t hrough glass ont o moi st tissues on a hot day. Venti l ate carefully to reduce the humi d- ity. Remove affected berries showi ng sunken discolored patches. Oedema occurs when t he roots of an affected plant take up more water than t he leaves can transpire and is due to extremely moist condi ti ons in the soil, the atmosphere, or bot h. It shows as small warts or pimples on t he stalks and someti mes on t he berries and even on t he lower leaf surface. These out - growths may break open and then have a blister-like or whi t e powdery appearance, or they may become rusty-col ored and show as brown scaly patches. Do not remove t he affected parts as this will make matters worse. Mai ntai n drier condi ti ons bot h in t he air and soi l ; wi t h correct cultural t reat ment t he affected pl ant should eventually recover. PEACHES The fol l owi ng remarks on split stone also apply to nectarines. Fruit failing to develop normally Split stone shows as a cracki ng of the frui t at the stalk end, f ormi ng a hole large enough for t he entry of earwigs. The stone of such a frui t is split and t he kernel is either rotti ng or absent. Affected fruits are susceptible to secondary rotti ng. This troubl e can be due to t he soil being t oo acid. Lime to bri ng the pH up to 6.7-7.0. Poor pol l i nati on can also cause split stone, therefore hand-pol l i nate flowers by passing cot t on-wool or a soft camel hair brush from flower to flower. The commonest cause of this troubl e, however, is an irregular water supply. Prevent this by wateri ng in dry periods and mul chi ng to conserve moisture. In particular, ensure t hat the soil is never allowed to dry out . Greenhouse red spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) are ti ny, eight-legged creatures t hat can occur in large numbers on the undersides of leaves. They are just visible to t he naked eye but a hand lens is neces- sary to see t hem clearly. Despite their common name, these mites are yellow- green" wi t h black markings; they only become orange-red i n t he aut umn when they hibernate. Their sap feeding causes the upper surface of the leaves to become discolored by a fine mottl i ng. In severe infestations leaves dry up and t he plants become festooned wi t h a silken webbi ng produced by the mites. Mai ntai ni ng a damp atmosphere helps to check this pest but treatment wi t h insecticides such as mal athi on or di methoate will also be needed at seven day intervals until the pest has been control l ed. Take care when appl yi ng these chemicals to cucumbers and melons as they may be damaged by insecticides. Avoi d this risk by spraying in t he eveni ng when temperatures are cooler, and by maki ng sure the plants are not dry at t he roots. As an alternative to insecticides this pest can be control l ed by i nt roduci ng a predatory mite, Phyto- seiulus persimilis. Peach-potato aphid and mottled arum aphid (Myzus persicae and Aulacorthum circumflexum) are bot h species of greenfly t hat suck sap from a wi de range of plants. The former is either pink or yel l ow-green, bot h types often occurri ng together on t he same plant, whi l e t he latter is yel l ow-green wi t h a dark horseshoe marki ng on its back. Both types of aphi d excrete honeydew upon whi ch, i n humi d condi t i ons, sooty molds may grow and cause t he leaves and frui t to bl acken (see page 35). As t he aphids grow they shed thei r skins, whi ch become stuck on t he leaf surface where they are held by t he sticky honeydew. These skins are whi t e and are someti mes mistaken for whi tefl y or some ot her pest. Control aphids by appl yi ng pi ri mi phos- methyl or pyrethroi d compounds. Use the l ast-menti oned if t he crops are ready for eating. Greenhouse whitefly (Thaleurodes vapor- ariorum) is a maj or pest of greenhouse plants. Both t he small, whi t e, mot h-l i ke adults and thei r flat, oval , whi t e-green, scale-like larvae feed by sucki ng sap f r om the underside of leaves. Like aphids, adul ts and larvae excrete honeydew, whi ch allows t he growt h of sooty mol d. Whi t e- fly eggs and i mmat ure stages are not very susceptible to insecticides, maki ng wel l established infestations difficult to con- trol . Early t reat ment wi t h pi ri mi phos- met hyl or a pyrethroi d compound such as pyret hrum will prevent damage occurri ng if applied early. Spray heavy infestations several times at three to four day inter- vals. Greenhouse whi tefl y can be con- trol l ed by i ntroduci ng a parasitic wasp, Encarsia formosa. COMMON GREENHOUSE PESTS Feeding and fertilizers Plants require certain basic (hemic .lis in order to grow. In nature these arc present, to a greater or lesser extent, in the soil, contri - buted by the base rock and by the growt h and decay of plant and animal life. A balance between the nutrients available in a given envi ronment and the plants that will grow soon forms and is mai ntai ned. Gardening conditions, under glass or outside, upset this balance. In the greenhouse, the plants are in a closed envi ronment. The only nutrients avail- able are those in the soil and those supplied by the gardener. An explanation of the nutri ent needs of plants and a list of the essential elements is given on page 45. Properly formul ated soil mixes contai n nutrients needed for at least the initial stages of plant growth. At some point, however, these nutrients will become depleted and more must be added in the form of fertilizer. This process is called feeding. Types of fertilizer Balanced fertilizers contai n nitrogen, po- tassium and phosphorus. They are used for Applying fertilizer 1 Mix liquid or powdered fertilizer wi t h water i n the proporti ons given on t he pad Do not make solutions stronger t han t he recommended rate. 2 Apply t he dilute fertilizer to the surface of t he soil or pot t i ng mix wi t h a wateri ng can. 3 Apply top-dressings to beds, borders and large containers in granule f orm. Sprinkle the granules ont o the soil or potti ng mix and rake or fork in. Mix foliar fertilizers accordi ng to t he maker's i nstructi ons. Appl y to t he leaves of t he pl ant unti l run-off, using a wat eri ng can fi tted wi t h a fine rose. general cul ti vati on of most plants. Some plants require larger proporti ons of one element, and fertilizers are available whi ch provi de higher concentrati ons of potassium for tomatoes, for example. Special formul a- tions are sold designed for carnations, chrys- ant hemums and various fruits and vegetables. Fertilizers contai ni ng several elements are called compound fertilizers, simple fertilizers contai n only one element. They are applied when specific deficiencies are diagnosed, but must be used wi t h care in the greenhouse as it is easy to build up large concentrati ons of elements in soil mixes, damagi ng the plants. In addi ti on to the three basic ele- ments, many commerci al l y available com- pound fertilizers also contai n trace elements needed for plant growth. Using fertilizer Whi l e nutrients are necessary, too great a concent rat i on can be harmful . Nutri ent salts can bui l d up in the soil mix and damage roots. Plants must be ted at the rate they can take up f ood. Fast-growing crops such as tomatoes need heavy feeding, slow-growing plants such as cacti and alpines need very little. Feed plants when they are growing, not when they are dormant. Plants t hat are suffering from over-watering, incorrect en- vi ronmental conditions, pests or diseases will not be cured by feeding. Establish the cause of the troubl e and take steps to correct it. When the plant has recovered and is growi ng normal l y it will benefit f rom feeding. Follow the feeding instructions given for individual crops and carefully adhere to the instruc- tions on the fertilizer pack. When using liquid feeds, dilute to the proporti ons in- structed and do not use too strong a mixture. Liquid feeding Liquid feeds are watered ont o t he growi ng medi um and taken up by t he roots of plants. Because nutrients have to be dissolved before they can be taken up by the roots, application in liquid form speeds the process of absorption and allows the nu- trients to reach the plant qui ckl y. Nutrients applied to the soil or a mix in a solid form are dissolved by water applied as irrigation and are then taken up by the roots. Because liquid feeds are fast-acting, they are applied at frequent intervals, especially when a plant needs a nut ri ent boost, such as just before it flowers. Solid feeds Fertilizers in solid formgranul es or powdercan be added to soil mixes. The John Innes formul ae call for t he addi ti on of certai n amounts of John Innes base fertilizer, whi ch is made up as a powder. Solid fertilizers can also be added in t he form of t op dressings to plants whi ch are kept permanentl y in pots. Solid feeds are also added to soil beds. The larger amount of rooti ng medi um in a bed makes it possible for solid fertilizers in slow-release f or m to be used. These fertilizers are specially f ormul at ed to release t he elements t hey cont ai n over a peri od. When using solid fertilizers around plants, take care not to scorch t he foliage. Appl y t he t op dressing as close to the soil surface as possible and water in i mmedi atel y. Foliar feeding Some l i qui d ferti l i zersbut not al l and some special compounds, can be watered or sprayed ont o t he leaves of plants. Foliar appl i cati ons are very effective in cont rol l i ng deficiency sympt oms, parti- cularly of magnesium and t he mi nor elements, as t he elements are qui ckl y absorbed. Foliar feeding Soil and mixes 1 Plants growi ng under glass, whether in a con- tainer or in a bed in a greenhouse or frame, have access to lower levels of soil nutrients than do plants in open ground. Therefore soil in beds needs to be enri ched, and special soils or mixes are required for pots or con- tainers. An understandi ng of the nutrients necessary to plant growt h is i mportant in order to judge what needs to be added to basic soils and growi ng mixes to ensure health (see page 45). Beds provide a larger root run than do containers, and therefore need less enri ch- ment. But the soil in the bed must be in good condi ti on and well drained and aerated. Also, soils in beds may become infested wi t h bui l d- ups of pests and diseases, especially if t he same crop is grown year after year. Con- sequently the soil must be changed, or sterilized, regularly if beds are used. Beds Ground level beds or borders created f rom the soil on whi ch the greenhouse is placed can provide t he best possible rooti ng condi - tions and may contai n good reserves of nutri ents. The bed must be well drained and, unless it was previously part of a fertile garden, extra organic matter should be added. Wel l -decayed manure, garden com- post, l eal -mol d, peat or other organics should be dug at a rate of one 2 gallon bucketful per square yard, ideally some weeks before plant- ing. Spread balanced fertilizer over the bed just before pl anti ng. Appl y at a rate of 3- 4 oz per square yard. If the top-soil was stripped f rom the area prior to the erection of t he greenhouse, the existing sub-soil should be removed f rom the border site to at least one spade dept h. Replace it wi t h good top-soil or a mi xture of loam and one of the organic matter sources ment i oned above. Mixes Apart f rom natural soil beds, plants can be grown in special mixes or composts, or in inert media to whi ch are added nutrients in fluid f orm (see Hydroponi cs, page 49). The root systems of plants growi ng in containers are confi ned to a very much smaller vol ume Plants growi ng in open ground have room to expand thei r root system in order to search out water and nutrients. Contai ner-grown plants have thei r root systems confi ned and therefore nutri ents must be added to t he soil available. 1 Improve a greenhouse or frame bed by digging in organics such as well decayed manure or garden compost at a rate of 2 gallons per square yard. 2 Just before planting, rake in a balanced fertilizer at a rate of 3- 4 oz per square yard. 1 If good top-soil is lacking, remove exposed sub-soil to at least one spade's dept h. Deal wi t h any drainage problems. 2 Add good top-soil or a mi xture of l oam and organics to bring t he bed back to t he original level. At intervals add organi cs and general fertilizer to mai ntai n soil ferti l i ty. Greenhouse beds Replacing soil ROOT SYSTEMS Soil and mixes 2 of soil than they woul d normal l y occupy in a bed or border (see box). If ordinary garden soil is used in containers, vigorous plants in particular rapidly use up the available nutrients. This can be corrected by the application of extra minerals in the form of solid or liquid fertilizers, but plants will be more successful if they can be kept growi ng at a steady rate from the beginning. To this end it is necessary to create a richer, wel l - balanced soil for contai ner-grown plants. Compost formulae In the past, professional gardeners devised their own formul ae for contai ner soil, using in varying proporti ons such basic ingredients as turfy l oam, decayed manure and leaf-mold, plus various ferti - lizers. These pot t i ng media were known as composts, not to be confused wi t h the de- cayed vegetable matter known as garden compost. The Ameri can t erm mix or pot t i ng mix is now commonl y used. The need for a reliable standardized mix became i mperati ve for research purposes as horti cul ture de- veloped. In the 1930s the John Innes Institute in England devised such a formul a. It proved Making loam 1 Cut sods 4- 6 in deep f rom good pasture. Stack t hem grass side down in a sheltered position, adding a 2 in layer of strawy manure between each 10 in of sod. to grow a wi de variety of plants well, soon became popular, and is still widely used. Any good pot t i ng medi um must be well aerated and free-draining, but moisture- retentive. It must contai n sufficient fertilizers to supply all the needs of the plants for as long as possible. In addi ti on, it should be free f rom weed seeds, pests and disease organisms. These can be present in the basic loam whi ch is an ingredient of most mixes. The John Innes f ormul a demands t hat the loam be sterilized to destroy harmful organisms. Al - t hough the term "steri l i zed" is widely used in connect i on wi t h soil and mixes, the loam is actually heat-pasteurized, because it is not desirable to kill all life in t he soil. Loam The key ingredient of t he John Innes formul a is loam, the subtl y-bl ended soil com- posed of clay, fine sand, humus and minerals t hat is f ound under long-established valley pastures. To create the finest loam the t op 4- 6 in layer of pasture turf is removed and stacked in layers. Between each 10 in layer of turf a 2 in layer of strawy manure is laid. The stack should not exceed 6 ft high and wi de 2 Water the stack, whi ch shoul d be no more t han 6 ft high and wi de, and cover well wi t h heavy-duty plastic sheeting. Leave tor six months until the sods have rotted. STERILIZATION Commercially, loam is pasteurized in specially constructed f l at -bot t omed bins or troughs injected wi t h steam from below. There are also electric sterilizers, small versions of whi ch can be bought and used by amateurs who garden on a moderate scale. Small quantities of soil can be pasteurized in the ki tchen, using a steamer saucepan. Pass the loam, whi ch should be almost dry, t hrough a1/2 in mesh sieve and place a 6 in layer in the steamer. Bring 2 in of water to the boil in t he sauce- pan. Then put the lid on t he steamer and allow the loam to heat up. A thermometer must be used t hroughout the operati on (a candy thermometer is suitable) and once the surface of the loam reaches 82C/ 180F it must be kept as steady as possible for 10 minutes. As soon as the 10 minutes are up the loam must be turned out to cool . Loam can be steamed in large amounts by passing steam from a boiler into a pile of soil covered wi t h a tarpaul i n. 1 Pass good-quality, dry, fi brous l oam t hrough a 1/2 in mesh sieve. Prepare sieved l oam to f orm a 6 in layer in t he steamer. 2 Place the loam in t he steamer and bring t he water i n the lower port i on to t he boil. Keep at 82C/180F for 10 mi nutes. Alternatively, use a purpose-made soil sterilizer, whi ch heats wat er by means of an electric el ement. Soil and mixes 3 and the sods must be moist or made so as the work proceeds. Ideally, the stack should be made in an open shed to protect it from the rain. Alternatively, cover the t op wi t h heavy duty plastic sheeting. The stacked sods will turn i nto high qual i ty loam in about six months. Suitable pasture turf is in short supply and some of the commerci al pot t i ng mixes sold are made wi t h inferior loam. Generally speaking, however, such com- posts are still superior to garden soil and equal to other substitutes. Test a mix before purchase by handling a sample. A mix made wi t h good loam will have a high fiber content. How to make soil mixes The first stage in maki ng soil mixes to one of t he John Innes formul ae is to sterilize the loam (see page 43). The mix should be made up as soon as t he loam cools. Ingredients must be mixed well to obtai n an even and uni form end product. It is helpful to have a bushel or half-bushel box in whi ch to measure the ingredients, as lime and fertilizers are normal l y added at a bushel rate. A bushel is the amount t hat will fit into a box 22 in x 10 in x 10 in wi t hout compacti ng. Evenly layer the ingredients i nto a pile on a clean concrete floor. Sprinkle some of the lime and fertilizers ont o each sand layer. When the heap is compl ete it will clearly show layers of the various ingredients as they are of varying colors. The whole should be well mixed wi t h a clean shovel. John Innes formulae The basic potti ng mix formul a is: 7 parts by bulk l oam, 3 parts of coarse washed sand, and 2 parts of moist moss peat. To each bushel of this mi xture add 4oz of John Innes base fertilizer and | o z of ground limestone. This is a No. 1 compost or mix. For a No. 2 mix add twi ce as much fertilizer, and for No. 3, three times as much. For lime-hating plants a neutral to acid loam should be used if possible and the limestone omi t t ed. John Innes base fertilizer is rarely available commerci al l y but can be made up as fol l ows: 2 parts superphosphate, 2 parts bl ood meal and 1 part sulfate of potash. For t he seed-sowing mix t he proporti ons are: 2 parts loam, 1 part peat and 1 part sand, adding to each bushel 11/2oz of superphos- phate and 3/4 oz of ground limestone, whi ch 1 Prepare a bushel box for measuring ingredients. The box should measure 22 in by 10 in. Mark the 10 in dept h on t he inside. 2 Fill the box wi t h the first of t he ingredients to the 10 in level. Do not compact t he ingredients. 3 Spread the first of t he i ngredi ents on a hard, dry surface. 4 Sprinkle lime and fertilizer, accordi ng to the formul a being fol l owed, ont o t he pile. 5 Add further ingredients in layers, sprinkling lime and fertilizers between each layer. 6 When all the ingredients have been added, mix t he resulting heap wi t h a clean shovel unti l the mix is an even col or. Preparing mixes Soil and mixes 4 is omi tted for lime-hating subjects. It is recom- mended that, except for very fine or slow germinating seeds, sowing is made direct i nto John Innes potti ng compost No. I, thus doing away wi t h seed-sowing mixes. Al though there is plenty of experimental evidence to show the benefits of properly sterilized loam, it must be clearly stated t hat good plants can be grown wi t hout it. Weeds, pests and diseases will occur and have to be dealt wi t h, but everythi ng else considered, the risks are not high. Weeds are a probl em when seed sowing and it is advisable to use one of the non-l oam mixes menti oned below. A particularly annoyi ng possible result of using non-sterilized loam is t he i nt roduct i on of earthworms. Their tunnel i ng activities can slow down plant growt h and render t he mix so well drained that most of the water applied runs straight t hrough. Kill the worms by wateri ng affected pots wi t h solutions of potassium permanganate. Soilless mixes Sources of good loam have been in short supply for many years and much experi- mental work has been carried out to find alternative growi ng media. The most success- ful substance of all has been peat, in both its sedge and sphagnum moss forms. Soil mixes consisting purely of peat wi t h mineral nutrients added are now the most popular of all for t he amateur market. Professional opi ni on, however, favors the adding of at least some loam to peat-based mixes. Peat mixes Al l -peat mixes have t he advan- tage of being comparati vel y sterile and of being light and fairly clean to handle. They have proved remarkably successful for a wi de range of contai ner-grown plants provi di ng they are used to makers' instructions. They must not be firmed when potti ng in the way loam-based mixes are and wateri ng must be done wi t h care. If the plant's rootball becomes t oo dry and shrinks away from t he sides of t he pot, subsequent wateri ng is less effective even when wet t i ng agents are used. As much for this reason as any other, all-peat mixes are best used for qui ck-growi ng short- term plants whi ch require regular wateri ng. A disadvantage of peat is the lack of wei ght a peat rootball has. Tall plants soon become top-heavy. To overcome this factor and to render dryish peat more readily wet- table, it is an advantage to add a small percentage of coarse washed sand. U.C. mixes A series of simple standardized peat and sand media has been devised at the University of California. They are known as U.C. mixes. There are three vari ati ons: 3 parts by bulk moss peat and 1 part sand; equal parts peat and sand and 3 parts sand to 1 of peat. To this is added a special fertilizer. Soil mixes for special purposes Lime-hating plants such as azaleas must be grown in lime- free mixes. These can be bought, or normal John Innes formul ae can be used wi t h the lime omi tted. The formul a for John Innes acid compost, i ntended for aci d-l ovi ng plants, is: 2 parts loam, 1 peat, 1 sand, wi t h 1 1/2-oz cal ci um superphosphate and 3/4 oz flowers of sulfur added per bushel. To give a mix for plants whi ch require sharp drainage, add gravel or grit to the mixture. Plants whi ch need large amounts of water may benefit from t he addi ti on of charcoal, whi ch helps prevent souring of the saturated mix. Steri- lized leafmold can be used in mixes. PREPARING SOILLESS MIXES Follow t he bushel proport i ons listed on t he left, wi t h a quarter-bushel box (81/2 x 8 1/2 x 73/4 in) substi tuted if smaller quantities are requi red. The necessary chemi cal s can be applied one by one or in t he f orm of ready-mixed compounds available com- mercially. The nutri ents can be added as t he mix is used to save pri or mixing. If a commerci al compound is to be used, ensure t hat it includes t he necessary trace elements as well as t he basic nutri ents. Slow-release forms of potassi um and ni trogen can be added to soilless mixes to provi de for pl ant needs for three mont hs or longer, removi ng t he need for feedi ng. Trace el ements can also be applied in fri tted slow-release f or m. Fritted trace elements are released over a period of months. Mixes shoul d be used as soon as slow-release fertilizers have been added, or they will build up in t he mix before plants are present, leading to levels pos- sibly damagi ng to plants. SOIL NUTRIENTS Balanced feeding is the key to successful plant growth al though plant groups vary widely in their requirements of each nutrient. If a plant is to thri ve, its soil must contai n both the maj or and mi nor mineral elements. The macro or maj or nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, cal ci um, sulfur, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Of these, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (abbreviated to N, P and K) are required in large quant i - ties. In addi ti on to these nine mineral elements, plants also need mi nut e amounts of the minor, or trace elements such as iron, manganese, boron, mol yb- denum, zinc and copper. All balanced fertilizers contai n nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium wi t h some of t he trace elements occurri ng as i m- purities. Some balanced fertilizers are compounded so as to include balanced amounts of trace elements. The functi ons of the various nutri ent mineral elements are summarized here. Nitrogen Essential for the f ormat i on of pro- teins whi ch in t urn make up protopl asm, t he life-stuff of plants, ni trogen encourages leafy growt h and promotes rapid growt h in t he spring and summer. Insufficient nitro- gen results in a general suppression of growt h. Phosphorus Phosphorus is a consti tuent of protopl asm whi ch plays a part in phot o- synthesis, t he compl ex process by whi ch plants use light energy to make their own f ood. Deficiency shows as t hi n shoots and narrow leaves. Potassium (Potash) Essential to t he f unct i on- ing of enzymes active in the formati on of fibrous tissue, sugars and starches, potassium makes plants more disease-resistant. De- ficiency shows as thi n growt h. Magnesium Magnesium is a consti tuent of chl orophyl l , t he i mportant green matter normal l y present in most plants. It is essen- tial to those enzymes i nvol ved in the trans- porti ng of phosphorus wi t hi n the plant. Deficiency shows as severe chlorosis of t he leaves. Calcium A maj or element but required in very small amounts, cal ci um is i mportant for t he movement of carbohydrates in the plant and aids in the entry of phosphorus, nitrogen and sulfur wi th whi ch it combines. Deficiency is rare but can show as wi l ti ng of shoots, leaves and flower stalks. Sulfur Sulfur takes part in the formati on of protopl asm and proteins. Deficiency is very rare in well-prepared soil mixes but when it occurs symptoms are similar to those of ni trogen. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen These ele- ments are available f rom water and the atmosphere. Oxygen is absorbed from t he atmosphere and helps to convert the plant's f ood (sugar) i nto energy. Hydrogen is taken up f rom t he water by t he plant' s roots and combi nes wi t h carbon di oxi de, absorbed f rom t he atmosphere, to f orm a sugar compound whi ch i s t he plant' s f ood. Iron In its mineral f orm i ron enters i nto the maki ng of chl orophyl l and t heref ore is vital to all green plants. Defi ci ency shows as yellow to whi ti sh shoot tips whi ch often t urn brown and die back. Manganese Manganese is a trace el ement needed for t he f unct i oni ng of various enzymes and cell chloroplasts. Deficiency symptoms vary but usually show as chlorosis. Boron Deficiency of boron, a trace ele- ment mainly concerned wi t h cell di vi si on, results in a cri ppl i ng or death of devel opi ng tissues. Molybdenum, copper and zinc All three are vitally i mportant, in small quanti ti es, to t he proper growt h of t he pl ant. They are often present in soil mixes. Growing systems 1 Greenhouse growi ng systems are basec either on open beds or some f orm of con- tainer to restrict root run. The size, type and site of the greenhouse and t he choi ce of plants to be grown will di ctate t he ki nd of growi ng system used. Anot her factor is the manner in whi ch the greenhouse is to be run. Container, or restricted, systems lend them- selves more readily to automated watering than do soil beds, for instance. If mist units or soil-heating cables are to be installed, then a bench or staging system wi t h containers or raised soil beds will be needed. Containers are the best growi ng system if a large number of different plants is to be grown in a greenhouse, for they can be moved and re-sited as t he plants grow, thus freeing space for further propagati on and plant raising. Soil beds, on the other hand, do very well if only one maj or crop is to be grown at any one ti me. If, for instance, tomatoes or carnations grown for cut flowers are to be the main crop, then soil beds are preferable. Soil- level beds do not make use of t he vertical dimension of t he greenhouse except when tall crops are being grown. The use of con- tainers allows staging and high-level shelves to be installed to maximize the use of growi ng space, t hough the space below the staging is to a large extent wasted. The decision must depend upon t he crops chosen. Open beds If t he greenhouse is sited upon good soil, and that soil is free of pests, diseases and per- ennial weeds, open beds are the simplest growi ng system. Open beds must contai n a good-qual i ty soil or mix. If the soil is i n- adequate, modi fy or replace it (see page 42). If the site is wet and difficult to drain, a raised bed is t he best sol uti on. Construct one 9-12 in deep wi t h t he sides retained by boards or a brick or concrete wall. Fill the space above the cul ti vated garden soil wi t h good-qual i ty top-soil up to the level of the t op of the wall. Beds may also be f ormed on stagings, but t he stagings must be specially built to support t he weight. Bench beds have t he advantage of bringing small plants nearer to t he light and to a level whi ch makes cul ti vati on easier. They are especially appl i cabl e to t he growi ng of alpines (see page 88). Melons, and to a lesser extent cucumbers and tomatoes, are tradi ti onal l y grown on ridges or mounds of soil on benches. This system not only gives the plants more light than ground-level beds, but also enables t he rooti ng medi um to be mai ntai ned at a beneficially higher tempera- ture than is possible at ground level wi t hout soil heati ng cables. This is because air can circulate below the bench as well as above t he soil surface. Al t hough open soil beds are the most suitable growi ng system for such early crops as l ettuce, they are not economi c of room where ornamental s are concerned. Climbers and shrubs gi ven a free root run make strong growt h, but often at t he expense of blooms. A further disadvantage of soil-level beds, particularly if tomatoes are to be t he main crop, is t he possible bui l d-up of soil-borne pests and diseases. This is inevitable if t he same crop is grown year after year. The only remedy is replacement or sterilization of t he soil. Removing all the affected soil to 1ft depth and replacing it wi t h fresh, or sterilizing it (see page 43), is a laborious task. There are methods of sterilizing t he soil in situ wi t h Empty t he greenhouse and open venti l a- tors. Then, weari ng gloves, appl y a for- mal dehyde sol uti on (one part of 38- 40 per cent formal i n to 49 parts water) at 5 gal per square yard. Leave for 4 weeks. STERILIZING BORDER SOIL Raised bed Bench bed Ring culture On wet sites, raise the soil by bui l di ng a 9-12 in deep raised bed. Use boards, a brick wall or concrete as sides. Beds can be placed on benches at waist level. The benches must have extra-strong supports and drainage must be adequate. Ring culture consists of a bed of aggregate, placed in a trough or a plastic-lined trench, wi t h plants grown in bottomless pots or rings cont ai ni ng soil. Roots penetrate i nt o t he inert aggregate, where they absorb moisture and nutri ents. Growing systems 2 steam or chemicals, but in the main they are not convenient for the amateur. The easiest techni que is to soak the soil wi t h formal de- hyde (see page 46). The greenhouse must be empty when this is done, and t he soil cannot be used for at least one mont h after treat- ment. Formalin will give fair control of fungal diseases but has no effect on eelworms. Cresylic aci d, D-D and methyl bromi de are used commerci al l y against eelworms, the latter control l i ng fungi also, but these chemi - cals should never be used by amateurs. The work can be done by skilled contractors, but it is costly and only wort hwhi l e on a large scale where other growi ng systems cannot be used. Restricted growing systems This term is used to describe growi ng systems where t he plants' roots are in some way restricted by a container. Ring culture The ring cul ture system was de- vised for, and is mainly used for, growi ng tomatoes (see illustration, page 46). The aim of the ring cul ture system is to eliminate t he problems of the build-up of pests and diseases in open soil wi t hout restricting the plants' roots to the confines of a pot. Each plant is grown in a bottomless pot stood on a bed, or substrate, of gravel about 6- 9 in deep. The substrate is laid in a t rough lined wi t h plastic sheeting to prevent it comi ng i nto cont act wi t h t he soil. Thus t he roots are able to pass out of t he bottomless pot and enter t he substrate. Wat er is applied to the sub- strate only, not to t he pots, as soon as roots begin to penetrate t he substrate. Dig out a trench in the border soil at least 6 in deep and 16 in wi de. Line the base and sides of the trench wi t h heavy gauge plastic sheeting and fill it wi t h the substrate. For the substrate a mi xture of three parts gravel to one of ver- mi cul i te is recommended. Other suitable substrata are formed f rom perlite, stone chips or coarse sand. The substrate must be chemi cal l y inert. Place fiber rings or bottomless pots at least 8 in deep on t he substrate and fill t hem wi t h a sterilized rooti ng medi um such as John Innes pot t i ng compost No. 2 or 3. Soil-less media can also be used. Because of the small amount of growi ng medi um contai ned wi t h the ring, feeding has to be begun early in the plant's growt h. Proprietary liquid fertilizer, or a mix- ture consisting of 2 parts nitrate of potash, 3 parts sulfate of ammoni a and 5 parts super-phosphate (all by weight) should be applied to each ring weekly. Appl y at the rate of 1 oz of t he mi xture to 1 gal of water. The main disadvantage of the ring cul ture met hod is the need for precision in the appl i cati on of water and fertilizer. Wat er loss can be high, especially early on when the roots have not yet penetrated the substrate. Ring cul ture means devoti ng the whol e greenhouse, or a large part of it, to tomatoes. Pot plants such as chrysanthemums can be stood on the substrate later in the year. Plastic growing bags Crowi ng bags provi de restricted root runs but a larger t han average amount of growi ng medi um. They are plastic sacks usually the size of pillows, filled wi t h an all-peat growi ng medi um. They are laid flat in t he growi ng position and sections of the t op cut away so t hat plants can be i n- serted. Drainage is provi ded if necessary by maki ng slits along the edges near ground level. Wat eri ng must be carried out wi t h care as it is easy to over-water a large vol ume of all peat mix. The mix also dries out qui ckl y and it can be hard to re-wet. Feeding is necessary to suppl ement nutri ents. This met hod can be used f or a wi de range of plants but is parti cul arl y useful for t oma- toes, peppers and small squash. It keeps plant roots away f rom t he possible cont ami nat i on of diseased soil in greenhouse beds. Growi ng bags can also be used in concrete-fl oored greenhouses as t emporary beds, and smaller, lighter growi ng bags can be placed on the staging. Supporti ng tall plants such as t oma- toes is not very easy. The tradi ti onal cane stake cannot be used, for it wi l l not sup- port itself in t he growi ng bag. It is necessary to fix strings or wires to t he greenhouse frame above t he plants and to t rai n t he plants. The advantages of growi ng bags are free- dom f rom disease, a growi ng medi um t hat warms up fast, and conveni ence. Against these advantages must be set t he difficulties of accuratel y assessing feedi ng and wateri ng needs, and t he possible bui l d-up of mineral salts in t he peat. Crowi ng bags can also only be used once. 1 Place the bag on a flat surface in t he growi ng position. Slit t he t op to provi de planting spaces. 2 Add water to wet t he peat-based growi ng medi um. 3 Water and feed t he growi ng plants wi t h care, for it is easy to over-wet the peat in the bag. Make drainage slits in the sides if needed. Feeding will be necessary as t he plants grow, al though t he peat in t he bags has some nutrients added to it. Growing bags Growing systems 3 Straw bales The growi ng of plants under glass on slowly decomposi ng bales of wheat straw can be considered a modern devel opment of the old hot bed system. The reason for its devel opment, however, is qui te different. Its aim is t hat of ring cul ture, to provi de a disease- free root run, primarily for tomatoes and cucumbers. It is thus a restricted system, al though containers are not used. The straw bales are thoroughl y wet t ed and fermentati on is triggered by applying nitrogen, thus bui l d- ing up heat and giving off carbon dioxide. Both are beneficial to t he young plants, whi ch are placed in soil mounds on the bales as t he temperature in the bales starts to fall. The temperature in the center of the bale wi l l , under t he right condi ti ons, reach at least 43C/110F. Due to t he difficulty in obtai ni ng straw and the relatively intensive care needed, the system is a difficult one for the amateur. It also restricts t he use of t he greenhouse as the ammoni a given off duri ng fermentati on can damage some plants. Preparation Wheat straw bales are usually used as they do not decompose qui ckl y; barley and oat straw are inferior substitutes. Bales of 40- 60 lb wei ght should be used. If possible, they should be bound wi t h wi re rather than string, whi ch can rot. They are put on pol yethyl ene sheet end to end in rows where the plants are to be grown. The bales can be placed in a shallow trough lined wi t h polyethylene, whi ch helps to save water whi ch runs through the bale. The ventilators should be kept closed, and the greenhouse temperature should ideally be around 10C/ 50F to promote fermentati on. There are t wo alternative methods, one fast, one slow. Choose t hat whi ch fits t he period during whi ch the greenhouse is free of other crops. The slower met hod first involves thoroughl y wateri ng the bales. Then water in 1 1/2 lb nitro-chalk (ammoni um nitrate-lime mix- ture) per bale. Four days later, apply a further 1lb of nitro-chalk, again wateri ng in. Four days after that, add 3/4 lb of a general fertilizer and water in. Keep t he bales damp at all times. This met hod takes about 18 days. The second met hod takes 7-10 days. Thoroughly wet the bales and then apply 1 lb of nitro-chalk, 6oz of triple superphosphate, 6oz of magnesium sulfate, 12 oz of potas- sium nitrate and 3oz of ferrous sulfate, all rates per bale. Wat er the nutrients in. The second met hod is t hat favored by com- mercial growers of tomatoes. Fermentation Whi chever regime is applied, the straw will heat up t hrough fermentai on and should reach 43 o -54C/110 o -130F. Check the temperature wi t h a soil t hermo- meter every few days. When it drops to about 38C/100F and is still falling, planting can take place. To plant, pile a ridge of John Innes No. 3 compost or equi val ent mix along the t op of t he bales and set the plants i nto this. Sub- sequent wateri ng and liquid feeding must be carried out regularly and thoroughl y as the bales are very free-draining. Plants should be supported wi t h strings tied to the greenhouse roof (see page 50). Do not make the strings t oo ti ght as t he bales will settle. Straw bale cul ture has the advantage of provi di ng heat and carbon dioxide whi ch aid plant establishment, but bales take up a lot of greenhouse space. Care must be taken not to use straw sprayed wi t h hormone weedkiller. The straw bale system Preparing the bales The straw bale system is used for t oma- toes, cucumbers and other f ood crops. Plants are grown in ridges of soil mix. placed on f erment i ng wheat straw bales, i nto whi ch t he roots penetrate. Do not use straw sprayed wi t h hor mone weedki l l er. 1 Add fertilizers as listed in the text to the tops of the wet bales. Wat er the fertilizers in. 2 Check the temperature every few days duri ng fermentati on. Plant when it drops to 38C/100F. 3 Sprinkle soil or mix in a ridge al ong the tops of t he bales and plant. The roots will enter t he straw. Growing systems 4 HYDROPONICS Hydroponi cs is the techni que of growi ng plants in water and dissolved mineral nutrients wi t hout soil or other solid rooti ng medi um. I he fluid used has to contai n all the nutrients necessary to plant growt h, and some kind of support system is necessary to replace t he anchori ng acti on of roots in soil. The use of a hydroponi c system does take away t he skilled chore of wateri ng and vi rt u- ally eliminates diseases and pests of the root system. However, for success regular chemi - cal analysis of t he nutri ent is essential. There are several nutri ent formul ae whi ch t he amateur can try, some being available pre- mixed. If mixing is necessary, great care must be taken. An excess or a deficiency of any one or more minerals coul d spell disaster to the plants. None of the commerci al systems now available can be recommended to amateurs except to those interested in ex- peri menti ng for its own sake. Experiments conti nue and a system whol l y suitable for amateurs may be devel oped. Meanwhile, kit systems may interest enthusiasts. Nutrient film technique Nutrient film technique The nutri ent film techni que is a system of growi ng plants in troughs of shallow re- ci rcul ati ng nutri ent sol uti on. Polyethylene troughs or pre-formed open gullies are laid on flat surfaces in t he greenhouse to a slope of not less t han 1 in 100. A narrow strip of non-toxi c capillary matti ng is laid al ong t he base of t he gully beneath each plant con- tainer. This ensures t hat no pl ant dries out in the early stages of growt h and it leaves most of t he roots uncovered allowing good, in- expensive aerati on. The nutri ent solution, cont ai ni ng a compl et e range of pl ant foods, and if possible warmed to 25C/77F, is con- ti nual l y ci rcul ated by a submersible pump t hrough t he troughs to a cat chment tank at a fl ow rate of about 31/2 pints per mi nut e per gully. The systems available in kit f orm for amateurs are based upon modifications of this t echni que. Other hydroponics systems The other systems developed for commerci al horti cul ture are of mostly academic interest The warmed nutrient solution is pumped from a storage tank al ong gentl y sloping gullies. The gullies contai n a strip of capillary mat t i ng and are covered by "t ent s" of black pol yethyl ene to reduce evaporati on. Amat eur systems are smaller. to the gardener. However, some details of t hem are given so t hat the basic techni que may be understood. Pure solution This met hod uses nutrients contai ned in tanks about 8 in deep wi t h fine wi re mesh stretched across t he t op to hold t he stems of t he plants upright. The nutri ent solution needs to be artificially aerated and regularly tested for pH, and must be changed every t wo weeks. Among t he disadvantages of t he pure solution met hod are t he difficulty of supporti ng plants adequately, and t he fact that only a limited range of species will tol erate the permanent i mmersi on of roots. Flooded substrate Similar tanks to those used for t he pure solution met hod are required for this system, but they must be protected wi t h a layer of bi tumi nous paint. Plastic-lined tanks or troughs are an alternative. The tank or trough is filled wi t h an inert aggregate, ideally washed gravel or grit, t hough coarse vermi - culite, perlite, polystyrene chips, lignite or weathered coal ash may also be used. This substrate is regularly fl ooded wi t h t he nutri ent sol uti on, the surplus being recycled. The sol uti on must be tested regularly for con- centrati on and pH, and adjustments or repl acement made when necessary. Replace- ment of the solution is more costly than adj ustment, but is more reliable, as the correct concentrati on is assured. The fl ood- ing and draining operati on ensures that sufficient air gets to the roots and the sub- strate gives t he plants adequate support. Drainage tank The drainage tank system is a simplified version of t he fl ooded substrate met hod. The system can be adapted to a variety of situations. Dig a trench and line it as described under Ring Cul ture (page 46). Make drainage holes in t he sides about 3 in above t he base. Alternatively, any tank of similar depth and wi dt h wi t h the same pat- tern of drainage holes can be used. Ideally, use an absorbent substrate, such as vermi - culite, perlite or lignite, t he last being recom- mended. Washed sand t hat is not t oo coarse and thus has good capillarity is also suitable. Add nutri ent solution to t he substrate regu- larly, t he surplus draining away, a reservoir remaining below t he drainage holes. Less nutri ent is needed than for other methods, and checks are less frequent. Hydroponics systems The pure solution system uses tanks of sol uti on, wi t h pl ant stems support ed by hori zontal wire mesh. The flooded substrate system uses troughs filled wi t h an inert aggregate whi ch supports t he roots. The drainage tank system is similar to the above. A t rench lined wi t h perforated plastic sheet is used. Plant supports Many greenhouse plants require some ki nd of support to control and direct thei r growt h. Examples are tomatoes, frui t trees and orna- mental climbers. The plants t hat require sup- port outdoors, such as certain shrubs and annuals, will also need support under glass, t hough the supports need not be as strong as those used in t he open. Permanent systems are needed for some plants such as grape vines. Such supports are attached to t he framework of t he greenhouse, by nails or screws in the case of wooden frames, or by clips or bolts to metal frames. Other crops such as tomatoes require temporary props. These are similar to those used outdoors, but use is often made of t he greenhouse frame- work t o anchor t hem. Canes Bamboo or wooden canes can be used in borders where there is sufficient soil to anchor t hem securely. Use one cane per plant, of a height suitable for t he mature plants. Insert t hem on planting. Tie t he plants to t he canes wi t h soft garden string at 12 in intervals. Strings Where canes are i mpracti cabl e, be- cause for instance pots or growi ng bags are being used, drop lengths of strong string from secure fixings in t he greenhouse roof to t he base of each plant. At t ach the string loosely around t he pl ant beneath t he lowest true leaf. Twist t he string gently around the plant as it grows. Do not allow t he string to become t oo ti ght. Netting Plastic or plastic-covered wire net- ti ng can be draped f rom t he greenhouse structure along t he line of t he plants. Support t op and ends of t he net securely to the frame- work. Gently gui de t he plants t hrough t he netti ng as they grow, t yi ng in wi t h soft string as necessary. Netti ng of varyi ng mesh sizes can be used. Some crops, such as melons and cucumbers, require large-mesh nets. Wires Fruit trees and climbers can be trai ned up permanent or t emporary systems of wires stretched hori zontal l y al ong greenhouse walls. In lean-to greenhouses, screw eyes can be attached to rear walls and 14 gauge gal- vanized wi re fixed between t hem. Al terna- tively, fix vertical battens to t he wall and drill t hem for bolts, to whi ch t he wires are attached. Wires should be kept taut by the use of a straining bolt at one end of the wire. Fix wires for frui t trees 15-18 in apart. Crapes need wires at a 10 in spacing. Wires can be used vertically to support cl i mbi ng crops such as beans and ornamental climbers. In all cases, attach the plants to t he wires wi t h soft string as necessary. Some forms of plastic netti ng are perishable and rot after a season or t wo. Do not use such netti ng for perennial plants. Rigid wire or plastic-covered wire netti ng can be fixed, using battens, to walls or greenhouse frames to provi de support for cl i mbi ng plants. Fastenings Metal -framed greenhouses need drilling, or t he addi ti on of special bolts, be- fore wire or other support systems are erected. Special bolts are available wi t h T- shaped ends whi ch slot i nto the glazing bars of most al umi num greenhouses. To these bolts attach drilled brackets between whi ch the wires can be fixed. Wooden battens can be attached to the bolts to provide easy permanent or temporary fixing points for strings, nets or wires. Ordi nary screws or bolts can be used in wooden-f ramed houses. Supporting plants in growing bags It is not possible to drive supports i nto the growi ng bag, as t he small amount of soil will not hold a stake or cane and t he plants whi ch grow up it. Self-supporting metal frames can be obtai ned whi ch stand over t he bag. Al ternati vel y, drop strings f rom t he green- house framework to t he plants or at t ach plants to wall wires or nets. Supporting plants in pots Li ghtwei ght wi re frameworks can be bought whi ch are inserted into t he pot t i ng mix. Several light canes tied together in a fan-shape achi eve t he same result. Bushy twigs, as used out doors for peas, are useful for supporti ng small cl i mbers and other ornamental plants. If fl oweri ng plants such as carnati ons are being gr own for cut t i ng in large numbers, plastic or wire netti ng can be stretched hori zontal l y above the bed or staging and t he plants al l owed to grow t hrough it. Perennials Fruit trees and cl i mbers need robust support systems to cont rol and di rect their growt h. Avoi d perishable materials. Canes Strings Netting Tall crops Grape vines Lean-to walls Tie t he plants to bamboo canes at 6-12 in intervals, using soft garden string. Loosely tie strings below t he plant's first true leaf, wi nd t hem around t he stems and t hen run t hem to t he frame. Wi re or string netting at t ached to t he greenhouse frame can be used to support plants. Tall or heavy crops need stronger strings or wires and strong fixings to avoi d collapse. Vines require a rigid system of hori zontal wires at 10 in spacings, firmly attached to t he greenhouse frame. Climbers can be t rai ned up a f ramework of wi re mesh fixed to battens. Pots and potting 1 Until the advent of methods such as ring culture and growi ng bags, most greenhouse plants were grown in containers. There were primarily a range of plastic or clay flower pots, wi th tubs being used for larger, semi- permanent plants. Containers are still the main tool for propagati on, and they find favor wi t h gardeners who want to concen- trate on ornamental greenhouse plants. They provide the most versatile way of growi ng a wi de range of plants in a small greenhouse. Pots come in a wi de range of sizes, and tubs extend the size range upwards. There are also several types of disposable pot, i ncl udi ng those formed from organic material whi ch can be planted wi t h the plant. Whatever container is used, there are certain principles whi ch must be fol l owed when potti ng, re-potti ng and pot t i ng on plants. These operations are covered in detail on pages 52-54. Clay and plastic pots It was once asserted that only clay pots coul d be used to grow plants successfully. Plastic pots, when first i ntroduced, were viewed wi t h suspicion, mainly because they did not have the porous quality of clay. However, as clay pots become more and more expensive, and often difficult to obt ai n, the controversy fades into the background. It has been wi del y proved that plastic pots will grow plants just as well as clay, and it had become clear t hat they have certai n advantages. The first advantage is t hat plastic pots are much cheaper than clay. They are also more durable and easier to clean, for they do not harbor dirt. Clay pots need soaking, scrubbi ng and sterilizing between use, whereas plastic pots can be wi ped clean wi t h water and detergent. Plastic pots are also lighter than clay, whi ch makes for easier handl i ng. However, because they are lighter, plastic pots when used wi t h light soilless mixes may be top-heavy. Plants in plastic pots need wateri ng less frequentl y than those in clay, because clay pots are porous. The difference is mi ni mal when plants are well rooted and growi ng vigorously. Plants in plastic pots therefore need less day-to-day care than those in clay, but there is a danger of overwateri ng. Drainage All pots should have adequate drainage holes in the base. Lack of drainage leads to saturated soil and rotti ng roots. Good drainage also allows capillary wateri ng systems to be used efficiently. The drainage holes allow water to rise up into the soil f rom t he capillary medi um below. Many plastic pots have a raised rim around the base. This lifts the drainage holes clear of the bench or shelf on whi ch t he pot is standing, allowing water to drain away through gaps in t he rim. Wi t hout such a rim, water can be prevented from draining away. Size and shape Pots are tradi ti onal l y round, and round pots have advantages in display- ing plants. They are also easier to fill wi t h soil, especially in the smaller sizes, than rectangular pots. Square pots do have the merit of being economical on space. More can be fitted onto a shelf or i nto a propagating case. They contai n a greater vol ume of soil than round pots of the same diameter. Pots are measured by their diameter at t he rim in inches. Two sizes should be acquired as t he basis of a stock of pots: 2-21/2 in and 5- 6 in. Pots are normal l y about as deep as they are wi de, but half pot shal f as deep as their wi dt hare also used. They are often called alpine pots as one of t hei r mai n uses is for alpines and other l ow-growi ng plants. Half pots can also be used for raising seed and for other propagati on wor k when only a small quant i t y of material is bei ng raised. The broader t he base of t he pot, t he more stable it will be when it contai ns a possibly t op- heavy plant. Alternatives to pots The illustration below left shows t he range of alternatives to t he tradi ti onal pot t hat is avail- able. Clay pots (a) have been j oi ned by plastic pots (b), also available as half pots (c). Shallow seed pans (d) are useful for sowi ng in small amounts. Non-ri gi d pots such as black plastic sleeve containers (e) are of t en used for trans- pl anti ng and for plants for sale. Disposable pots i ncl ude peat rectangles (f), individual peat pots (g), paper pots (h), peat pellets (i) and soil blocks (j). Flats in wood and plastic compl et e t he range (k and I). Potting bench Soil blocking A potting table or bench wi t h sides and a back keeps soil mix away from growi ng areas. Moisten special peat-based bl ocki ng mix and press t he bl ocki ng machi ne i nto it. Use t he blocks 24 hours later. CONTAINERS Pots and potting 2 Disposable pots Several alternative systems have been de- veloped to avoid the problems of root dis- turbance that result from growi ng in pots or flats. Seedlings grown in flats, for instance, are traditionally pricked out into small pots, then moved again into individual pots or i nto the open garden. Sowing in soil blocks or peat pots makes these moves unnecessary. The block or pot is planted wi t h the young plant, and provides it wi t h extra humus as it is becomi ng established in its new pot or bed. Paper and papier mache pots have t he same effect. Bedding plants are often raised f rom seed commerci al l y in strips of expanded polystyrene whi ch contai n holes for seed and soil mix. This material is heat-retentive and easily broken to release the plants on pl anti ng out. However, the strips can only be used once. Plastic sleeve pots, also widely used commerci al l y, can be used for pricking on seedlings whi ch are later to be planted out. When filling such non-rigid containers wi t h soil mix care must be taken to fill all the corners to avoid air pockets. Peat pots and soil blocks Peat pots can be bought individually or in strips and blocks. Whi l e they have the advantages in cut t i ng t he amount of root disturbance described above, they are relatively expensive. They are useful for sowing large seeds such as beans. Soil blocks also involve expense, for a special machi ne must be bought. However, the cost of the bl ocki ng machi ne can be set against t he saving in pots, whether of plastic or peat, t hat soil blocks bring. Special soil mix is needed, but soil mix or its ingredients has to be purchased anyway, and its cost is t he only factor once the machi ne is paid for. The bl ocki ng machines produce either square or hexagonal blocks about 2 in high, wi t h a depression in the t op for the seed to be sown or t he seedling pricked on. To make a batch of soil blocks, moisten some special bl ocki ng mix in a bucket or bowl . Test the moisture cont ent by squeezing. If t he mix crumbles a little, it is ready. If it falls apart, it is t oo wet. If it does not start to crumbl e, it is t oo moist. Push the moul d i nto the damp mix and when it is full depress the plunger a little to consolidate the soil mix. Place the soil blocks on a flat so that they are t ouchi ng and leave for 24 hours to consolidate. Then insert the seed or seedling. Pot on or plant out when the roots begin to emerge from the sides of the block. Keep the block moist at all times as the peat-based bl ocki ng mix is difficult to re-wet. Substitutes for pots Plastic dairy produce containers, paper or plastic cups and similar substitutes can be used in place of pots when expense is a major consi derati on. Punch adequate drainage holes in the base of t he pots, and use the correct mix, and good results should be obtai ned. Seed flats Just as plastic pots have replaced clay ones, so wooden seed flats have been superseded by plastic. Flats are vital for raising larger numbers of seedlings. Many propagating cases are designed to take the standard-sized seed flat, whi ch measures 14in x 81/2in x 21/2in. Half-sized flats, 6 in x 81/2 x 21/2, are also used. Plastic flats must be well drained and rigid, even when filled wi t h damp soil mix. Make sure also that the seed flats chosen are of good qual i ty plastic: some sorts become bri ttl e when exposed to sunlight for any length of ti me. One advantage of wooden flats is that a side or end can be easily prized away to allow seedlings to be slid out in a block. If wooden flats are used, they must be careful l y (l eaned between use. Wi t hout careful mai nt enance they rot easily and thus have a shorter lift' than plastic flats. Substitute flats may be created by press- ing i nto service such things as frui t boxes, plastic and polystyrene cartons and ki tchen foil or plastic f ood containers. Cleanliness and good drainage are the mai n condi t i ons; when they are achi eved just about anyt hi ng will do. There is, however, no substi tute for t he neat appearance of a bank of clean plastic or wooden flats. Other equipment A sieve wi t h a 1/2 in mesh, a further fine sieve, and a supply of labels will be requi red. Potting Crock the pot to provi de adequate drainage. Moisten a supply of pot t i ng soil and water the plants to be pot t ed. Hold the plant in t he pot by a leaf and pour in compost wi t h a circular mot i on. Tap t he pot to di stri bute t he soil. Firm gently wi t h the finger tips to avoid air pockets around t he roots of t he plant. Place t he pot t ed plants in a posi ti on wi t h good light and water to settle t he soil around t he roots. Pots and potting 3 Potting procedure Potting, re-potti ng and potti ng on are some of the most frequent tasks the greenhouse gardener faces. Whi l e they are not difficult, the basic techniques should be mastered, for if plants are not potted properly, no amount of subsequent care will make t hem grow to their full potenti al . Potting is the initial transfer of a seedling, rooted cutti ng or bought-i n plant to a pot or other container. Potting on is its transfer to a larger pot as it grows. Re-potting is move- ment to a new pot of the same size as the old, the prime obj ect being to renew some of the soil mix around the rootball. The potting bench The first step is to have a proper work surface for potti ng. A bench or table wi t h a back and sides allows t he soil mix to be piled up. If there are never more than a few plants to pot at a ti me, construct a portable bench from a 2 ft square board wi t h a retaining rim 3- 4 in high around three sides. This board can be rested on the greenhouse bench when required. A permanent pot t i ng bench should be at waist height, 3 ft wi de and Potting on 2 ft deep. The sides and back can be 6-12 in high. The bench can be placed in the green- house or in a shed or outhouse, wherever there is space. If the bench is in t he green- house, be sure not to leave surplus soil lying on it or on the floor, where it will attract pest and disease organisms. Preparation Assemble t he pots, drainage material such as crocks if needed, and t he soil mix. Carefully choose pots no larger than necessary: most plants grow and look better in small rather than large pots. Use a soil mix suitable for the plant being grown, and make sure t hat it is well mixed. Soil should be damp but not wet. It should be possible to pour it cleanly i nto the pot by hand or wi t h a t rowel . Potting Seedlings or cuttings growi ng in flats or pots should be watered. Loosen t hem from their contai ner by knocki ng t he sides. Remove seedlings carefully, holding t hem by the seed leaves, not the stem. Keep t he rootball as large as possible. Use a di bbl e to help free the seedling and roots from t he soil. Place the plant in the pot and pour fresh soil around the roots. Make sure that the plant is not potted too deepl ythe base of the stem should be level wi t h the surface of the soil. Di stri bute the soil around t he roots wi t h a circular mot i on of the hand or trowel . Tap the pot gently on the bench to settle the soil around t he roots. Make sure t hat the plant is centered in the pot. If roots still show after tappi ng, add more pot t i ng soil, then firm lightly wi t h the fingertips. A further tap on t he bench will level the soil leaving it ready for watering. The degree of firming can vary wi t h the type of plant and soil type. All-peat mixes require little firming, tappi ng fol l owed by wateri ng will settle the medi um amongst t he roots. Loam-based mixes, particularly when used for vigorous plants, can be made firm wi t h light finger pressure. The former practice of rammi ng soil firm wi t h a potti ng stick is now con- sidered unnecessary. When the potti ng operati on is compl eted there must be a space between t he soil surface and t he pot rim to al l ow for efficient wateri ng. As a guide, ai m at a space equal to one-seventh or one-ei ghth of t he depth of t he pot. As much water as will fill this space should t horoughl y wet all t he soil wi t h a l i ttl e surplus tri ckl i ng out at t he bot t om. Potting on When the young plant has filled its container wi t h roots it will need pot t i ng on, that is, removi ng f rom its contai ner and placing in a larger one. First water t he pl ant, but do not soak it. Invert t he pot ont o an open hand wi t h the plant stem hangi ng down between t he mi ddl e and index fingers. Gentl y rap t he pot rim on a firm wood surface, or tap it wi t h a light hammer, and lift t he pot off. If this operat i on does not wor k t he first ti me, t he plant may be t oo dry and wat eri ng should be repeated before t ryi ng again. Prepare a new pot whi ch should be large enough to allow about an inch gap all round t he rootball to t he right level, then fill t he gap wi t h fresh soil, t appi ng and fi rmi ng as descri bed above. Wat er t o settle t he soil. PEAT PELLETS Peat blocks and pellets al l ow seedlings to grow and be transpl anted wi t hout root di sturbance. The plants shoul d be potted or pl anted out when t he roots emerge f rom t he block. The net t i ng wi l l decom- pose in t he soil. Water the plant. Select a pot 1 in larger than the present pot and crock it if necessary. Hold the plant stem between t he fingers and i nvert t he pot, tappi ng gently so t hat t he rootbal l slides out. Place the rootball in t he new pot and sprinkle moist soil around it. Firm carefully. Pots and potting 4 Re-potting Re-potting is carried out when the plant has reached as large a size as is required and the status quo needs to be mai ntai ned. The aim is to replace some of the spent soil around the rootbal l . Re-potting is necessary every year or every other year. Check t he cultural instructions for t he plant concerned for advice on t he frequency of re-potti ng. Some species resent disturbance, in whi ch case they should be top-dressed (see below). It is best done when t he plant is resting or dormant in late aut umn. Remove the plant from its pot and reduce the size of the root- ball by up to a quarter, using a small hand fork and a sharp knife or shears to prune any thi ck roots. On larger perennial plants such as frui t trees and bushes, prune the t op growt h by the same amount as the roots. This ensures t hat t he plant remains bal anced. If necessary, tease out the roots from the root- ball using a fork or stick. Remove some of t he old spent soil from the rootbal l , wi t hout damaging the roots if possible. If the same pot is to be used, clean it well. Place some Re-potting Remove the plant f rom its pot as described under potti ng on. Remove some of t he spent soil from the rootball by loosening. fresh soil in t he base of the pot and put the plant back in position. Push more fresh soil in around the sides, maki ng sure there are no air pockets left and that the soil is pushed around t he roots. Firm t he surface of t he soil, and water. Top-dressing Top-dressings of fresh soil are applied to beds, borders and containers. When used on pot plants the process of top-dressing serves t he same f unct i on as re-potti ng. It is more practical than re-potti ng on very large plants whi ch are difficult to re-pot, and is essential for those plants whi ch resent the di sturbance of re-potti ng. Duri ng the dor- mant season, strip away the t op layer of soil and any small roots. This must be done carefully and any of the thi cker roots en- countered should be left. On compl et i on, fill the gap wi t h a rich mix such as John Innes No. 3. Firm the mix carefully and water lightly. Top-dressing is usually carried out in early spring, just before the plant begins to grow again. Hanging baskets Baskets made from wire, wi t hout a drip-tray, must be lined wi t h sphagnum moss before the mix is added. Black pol yethyl ene is a more conveni ent but less tradi ti onal and less attracti ve lining. It must be perforated. Use John Innes No. 2 potti ng compost for hanging baskets, as its loam base holds moi sture wel l . Peat-based mixes can be used but they tend to dry out in the exposed envi ronment of a basket and are hard to re-wet. Place a layer of moss in t he bot t om of the basket and weigh it down wi t h moist mix. Add one or t wo trailing plants and firm more mix around their roots. Proceed by building up layers of plants and mix, pushing the trailing plants through the basket so that they can hang down the sides. Build up t he layer of moss around the sides, keeping it above t he level of mix at all times. Place up- right plants in the final layer of mix so that they grow upwards from the basket. Hanging baskets shoul d be replanted wi t h fresh material each year so pot t i ng on and re- potti ng do not arise. MAINTENANCE OF CONTAINERS If l ooked after, pots, tubs, boxes and other containers will last for many years. Once plants are removed f rom t hem they shoul d be washed in a mild di si nfectant, dried and stored in a dry place. Wooden cont ai ner! should be treated wi t h a non-toxic: pre- servative, ideally coat ed inside wi t h .in asphalt paint. If metal cans are used as substitute containers, make sure that they are pai nted wi t h non-toxi c pai nt to pre vent rust. Some i mprovi sed plastic; con- tainers will tend to become bri ttl e under the effects of t he ul tra-vi ol et component of sunlight. Clay pots are expensive to replace and should be wi red or ri veted to prevent breakage. Unless compl et el y shattered, broken pots can be repai red very satis- factori l y wi t h waterproof cerami c glue. Those based on epoxy resin are strong and permanent. It is rarely possible to repair broken plastic pots. Wooden contai ners can often be mended using screws or nails. Use greased brass screws when assembling large wooden contai ners. To strengthen a cracked clay pot , wrap galvanized wi re around t he pot and twist the ends gentl y together. Keep cracked pots scrupulously clean, for t he cracks can harbor dirt and pest and disease organisms. Trim the roots wi t h sharp scissors, knife or shears. On larger plants, prune t op growt h I n proport i on. If the old pot is to be used, clean it well. Replace t he rootball and add fresh soil, firming wel l . Growing from seed 1 One of the most satisfying aspects of garden- ing under glass is raising plants from seed, cuttings or by other propagati on methods. Many plants can be raised wi t h a mi ni mum of equi pment and skill, while wi t h practice and patience the ability to cope wi t h the more difficult plants grows qui ckl y. The main methods of propagati ng green- house plants are by seeds and stem cuttings. Less i mportant methods are layering, offsets, bulbils, root cuttings and leaf cuttings. Propagation equi pment ranges f rom t he most basic improvised tray to the sophistica- ti on of a mist unit. Equipment is described on page 30, containers on page 51. The purpose of propagation equi pment is to provi de t he opt i mum envi ronment, in terms of t empera- ture, irrigation and humi di ty, for the plants. Hygiene Wi t h all aspects of propagating, hygiene is vital. The seed sowing or rooti ng medi um should be sterilized and all con- tainers scrubbed clean before use. Between each batch of propagati on, the case or frame should be washed inside wi t h disinfectant. (See page 32.) Check all cuttings regularly and remove all leaves t hat are fallen and any whi ch are yel l owi ng or browni ng. Take pre- cautions against damping-off disease of seed- lings (see page 33). Make sure that t he stock plants are free from pests and diseases. Seed sowing Growing from seed In t he wi l d, all flowering plants reproduce themselves by seed and in the garden too this is an i mport ant method of increase. It must be borne in mi nd, however, t hat many garden plants are of mut ant or hybri d origin and may not come true to type f rom seeds. For such plants, vegetative propagati on methods are required. Make sure t hat home-saved seeds are f rom healthy plants. Growing conditions In order to germinate successfully, seeds must have moisture, air and a suitable temperature. The temperature they need varies widely, dependi ng upon t he species or variety. The maj ori ty of greenhouse plants will germi nate at 15-18 o C/60 o -65F, a t emperat ure easy to mai ntai n in a home propagator. Some of the plants raised under glass for setting outside will germi nate at lower temperatures, around 10C/50F or less, whi l e many tropi cal plants need 24 o -26C/ 75 o -80F. As a rough guide, a suitable germi nati ng temperature is at least five degrees above the mi ni mum required by t he plants when growi ng. When to sow The best ti me to sow seeds varies wi t h the species, but in general early spring suits most plants. The seeds of many hardy plants need a cool period after sowing before they will germi nate properly. This is an example of t he often compl ex dormancy factors t hat are inherent in some seeds. The seeds of a few plants benefit from a dry warm period because, t hough superficially ripe, they are not fully mature wi t hi n. Some seeds have chemical inhibitors in the seedcoat whi ch normally leach out duri ng heavy rain- fall. Seeds in this category should be soaked in cold water for 24 to 48 hours before sowing. This simulates the natural leaching process. In general, most tropical and sub-tropical plants do not have these dormancy problems. If there is any doubt as to when to sow seeds, particularly if home-saved, sow half when gathered or received and t he other half the fol l owi ng spring if the first batch has not already germi nated. Alpines grown f rom seed need special treatment. See pages 88- 90 on the alpine house. Soil and containers Pre-mixed seed sowing mixes (composts) are available commerci al l y, some contai ni ng loam, as in the John Innes formul a, while others are all peat. Both sorts are suitable for most greenhouse plants. For details and mixtures see page 42. When a few plants only of each species are needed, small pots or pans of 3- 4 in diameter are ideal. Sowing Fill each contai ner above the rim, tap it gently on the potti ng bench, then strike off t he surplus soil wi t h a straight-sided board so t hat t he soil comes level wi t h t he rim. Firm t he soil down wi t h a presser, then sow t he seeds evenl y and t hi nl y. Seeds whi ch are large enough to handle either wi t h t he fingers or f l at -t i pped forceps are best space-sown, t hat is, each seed should be placed in position sufficiently far apart each way t hat subsequent seedlings can devel op wi t hout crowdi ng. Larger seeds such as sweet peas can be sown singly in batteries of small pots, soil blocks or peat pellets to save bot h initial pricking-off and pot t i ng. Use the presser again to push t he seeds into the surface so they are not moved duri ng the coveri ng operat i on. Very fine seeds such as those of begonia and lobelia are difficult to sow evenl y and are best mixed wi t h some fine dry sand to aid dispersal. Fine seeds of this sort do not need coveri ng. Larger seeds shoul d be covered wi t h a layer of fine soil equal in dept h to the longest diameter of t he seed. This is best done t hrough a fine mesh sieve. Aftercare Wat eri ng shoul d be carried out as soon as t he seeds are sown, using a fine-rosed can or by i mmersi on. Immersi on is best for very fine seeds as overhead wateri ng may disturb or cl ump t hem. Place t he pot in a bowl or deep tray filled wi t h wat er so that it comes at least halfway up t he pot. As soon 1 Fill a container wi t h soil mix, tap it, then strike off surplus soil wi t h a board. 2 Firm the soil wi t h a presser to wi t hi n \ in of t he rim. Sow t he seed thi nl y and evenly. 3 Space-sow seeds whi ch are large enough to handle wi t h t he fingers or a pair of forceps. 4 Press the seeds i nto t he surface of t he soil. Cover wi t h a t hi n layer of sieved soil. 5 Water by immersion, placing the contai ner in water until t he t op of t he soil darkens. 6 Cover containers wi t h a sheet of glass or plastic and keep t hem away f rom di rect sunl i ght. Growing from seed 2 as the surface of the soil darkens and glistens remove the pot and place in t he appropri ate germi nati ng temperature. To prevent undue dryi ng out of the soil during the germi nati ng period the pots should be kept out of di rect sunlight and placed either in a propagati ng case or covered wi t h sheets of glass. If di rect sunlight is likely to fall on t hem, they must be shaded wi t h sheets of cardboard or newspaper to prevent scorching. This coveri ng is i mportant, for if t he soil surface dries out just as t he seeds are germi nati ng it can be fatal, especi- ally to very small seeds. Germination Inspect t he seed containers regularly and either wi pe off the condensati on or t ur n t he glass over. After t he first week to ten days, examine daily to catch t he first signs of germi nati on. Once t he seedlings are seen pushing t hrough t he soil, remove t he coveri ng and bring i nto good light, but shade from direct sunlight for the first week or so. If t he seed was sown t oo densely or more seedlings appear than were expected, it is advisable to spray wi t h captan or zineb as a precautionary measure against dampi ng- off disease. Feeding If seedlings are to be kept in the con- tainer for some time, they should be given a liquid fertilizer accordi ng to the manufac- turer's instructions. Addi ti onal feeding is necessary because many seed mixes con- tai n onl y a phosphate fertilizer, and other nutri ents are necessary for healthy plant growt h. Pricking off Once t he seedlings are seen to be ready for pri cki ng off, fill pots, pans or boxes wi t h t he chosen pot t i ng mix as described for seed sowing. Lift t he seedlings wi t h care. If in quan- ti ty, small clumps should be dug out wi t h a dibble or a stout wooden label, then teased apart, taki ng care to handle t hem by t he seed leaves onl y; damaged seedlings should be discarded. Wher e a f ew seedlings are growi ng in a small pot it is best to tap out all t he seedlings and soil, and t hen to shake or tease t hem apart. If there is little or no root branchi ng, seedlings can be left to make small plants for direct pot t i ng later. Make pl anti ng holes wi t h a dibble, a cyl i n- drical stick like a bl unt -poi nt ed pencil and thi ck enough to make a hole large enough to take the seedling root comfortabl y. Dibbles of differing thickness will be needed for seed- lings of varyi ng size. Each seedling should be inserted at t he same dept h or a little deeper t han i t was when growi ng i n t he original con- tainer. Push the soil gently around the root and firm each seedling lightly wi t h the dibble. The distance apart at whi ch seedlings should be set varies wi t h its size. Very small seedlings such as those of begonias can be set about 1 in apart, larger ones to 2 in or more. Bedding lobelia seedlings may be pricked off in groups of t wo or four to make handling easier. The equally small begonias can be treated in t he same way but are best kept singly. To aid handling, each ti ny seed- ling can be picked up wi t h a notched-ti pped flat stick or plant label. Once pri cki ng off is compl eted, each pot, pan or box must be watered carefully wi t h a fine-rosed can and returned to t he same en- vi ronment . When t he seedlings have grown to the stage when their leaves start to over lap, they are ready lor pot t i ng or hardenning, off and pl anti ng out. Hardening off After t he seedlings have been pri cked off, they have to be gradually weaned to a stage at whi ch they can be pl anted out and survive cool temperatures, f l uct uat i ng water condi - tions and t he effects of wi nd wi t hout their growt h rate being affected. This process is called hardeni ng off. Once the pri cked-out seedlings have re- established, move t hem to a col d frame, whi ch should be kept firmly closed. Gradually air the frame duri ng the day by raising the lid, unti l t he frame is open cont i nual l y. GERMINATION On germi nati on, each seed produces one pri mary root or radicle, a stem known as a hypocot yl , and one or t wo seed leaves or cotyl edons. Flowering plants are classi- fied by t he number of seed leaves they produce. The monocotyl edons, whi ch i n- cl ude all members of t he lily, amaryllis, oni on and agave families, produce one usually grassy seed leaf. The di cotyl edons, whi ch include most other vegetable and flower families and all the broad-leaved trees and shrubs, have t wo, usually rounded or oval seed leaves. There are some anomalies to this appar- ently straightforward classification. Some members of bot h groups retain their seed leaves as f ood stores below ground, t he first leaves to appear being true ones. Familiar examples are broad bean, sweet pea, oak and pal m. The germi nati on of seeds covers t he entire process, from subj ecti ng a resting seed to suitable conditions to cause it to develop to the stage at whi ch the seedling produces true leaves and establishes as a young plant. If a seed is subjected to t he condi ti ons required for germi nati on, and it fails to germinate, despite the fact that it is alive, then the seed is described as being dormant . Wat er is vital to allow plant growth to get under way. So, if t he seed has not been soaked before sowing, it is i mport ant that the soil should be wat ered i mmedi at el y after sowing. Once the seed has sufficiently i mbi bed, the embryo inside t he seed begins to produce root and stem systems, whi ch eventually break out of t he seed. To grow, the embryo uses its f ood reserves. When oxygen is combi ned wi t h carbohydrates in these f ood reserves, t he energy necessary for gr owt h is produced. All growt h processes wi t hi n t he seed are chemical reactions acti vated by t he addi - ti on of water. To devel op successfully, the seed needs an increasing quant i t y of water, and the soil used must be capabl e of hol di ng these amount s. As all the processes i nvol ved are basic- ally chemi cal reactions t hey wi l l obey normal physical rules, t he simplest of whi ch implies t hat t he higher t he t em- perature is raised, the faster will be t he rate of t he reacti on. In practi ce, this means t hat t he warmer seeds are kept, the qui cker they will germi nate. As all these reactions are t aki ng place in a biological context, there are biological limitations as to how high the t emperat ure can be raised. Higher temperatures are also more costly to mai nt ai n. Pricking off 1 Lift seedlings in clumps wi t h a wooden label or a dibble, then tease t hem apart, taki ng care to handle t hem by the seed leaves only. 2 Make planting holes in fresh soil wi t h a dibble, and insert t he seedlings to t he correct dept h. Firm t he soil lightly around t he roots wi t h t he dibble. Cuttings 1 Growi ng from cuttings is the most popular method of vegetative propagation. Cuttings are severed pieces of stem, leaf or root i n- duced to form roots and shoots and develop i nto young plants. The advantage of this met hod of vegetative propagati on is that every young plant will be identical wi t h its parent and often will flower and frui t sooner than a seedling. The severed piece of t he plant is detached from its parent and has to survive while it develops a root and shoot system and becomes a compl ete plant. Therefore, it is vital to provi de an envi ron- ment that will i nduce the product i on of new root and shoot growt h as fast as possible. Stem cuttings Dependi ng on t he species and variety and t he age of t he plant, stem cuttings take anythi ng from about t en days to several weeks to pro- duce roots and start to grow. The younger t he parent, the faster t he cut t i ng will root. This is a factor often overl ooked and it must be a maj or influence on t he choi ce of pl ant material when taki ng cuttings. Duri ng this period they must be kept alive and in a healthy condi t i on. To cut down water loss as much as possible, all leafy cuttings must be kept in a "cl ose" or humi d propagati ng case or improvised container. The rate at whi ch a stem cut t i ng develops its roots is dependent on t he temperature around it. The higher t he temperature, wi t hi n reason, the faster the root-triggering chemi cal reaction and thus root product i on. However, if the whol e cut t i ng is kept warm, t he ti p should begin to grow and food will be di verted from t he i mport ant f unct i on of f ormi ng roots, thus weakeni ng t he cut t i ng. Therefore, a stem cutti ng ideally requires cool air to retard the growi ng tip, and warm soil to encourage root producti on. The exact temperatures vary wi t h t he con- di ti on of the stem and how susceptible it is to water loss. Softwood and greenwood cut - tings require bot t om heat of about 21C/ 70F and as cool an aerial temperature as practi c- ablea mist uni t wi t h soil heating is ideal. Semi-ripe and evergreen cuttings may be rooted in a similar envi ronment, al though less bot t om heat is required. Some may also be rooted successfully in col d frames or closed cases if a mist unit is not available. A moist but well-aerated rooti ng medi um must be used in all cases. John Innes seed compost, all-peat seed and cut t i ng mixes, and t he 50/50 sand and moss peat mi xture (see page 42) are all suitable. For difficult plants use pure sand, whi ch must be coarse and well washed. There are no nutri ent minerals in sand and al most none in peat, so once t he cutti ngs start to root a proprietary liquid ferti - lizer should be used at each wateri ng until pot t i ng is carried out. Potting should be done as soon as the cut t i ng is well rooted. Selecting and taking cuttings Cuttings shoul d always be taken f rom vigor- ous plants, whi ch are young and healthy in themselves. If possible, t he parent plant shoul d be severely pruned to encourage it to produce faster-growi ng shoots f rom whi ch cutti ngs can be made. If it is anti ci pated t hat a large number of cutti ngs will be taken from one parent, t he parent plant should be pruned hard to encourage t he growt h of new shoots. Growt h-cont rol l i ng chemicals called hor- mones are responsible for t he rooti ng of cutti ngs. In many cutti ngs enough natural hormone is present to initiate rooti ng but it is recommended t hat one of t he proprietary hormone rooti ng powders is used as a stan- dard procedure. These powders also usually contai n a fungi ci de to combat rotti ng. The ability of t he propagati ng material to regenerate roots and shoots depends on its stage of devel opment. This is particularly true of woody-st emmed plants. Some root best f r om soft shoots, others as t he shoots begin to get woody at the base, and yet others when t hey are ful l y woody. Four categories of devel opment are generally recognized. These are softwood, greenwood, semi-ripe and hardwood stem cuttings. The box right illus- trates some of the ways of taki ng cuttings. Heel cutti ngs are short stems pulled away from t he main plant. The heel is the thi n sliver of pl ant material t hat tears away f rom t he main stem. Mal l et cuttings i ncorporate a section of main stem on either side of t he side-shoot chosen for propagati on. Softwood and other cutti ngs are often taken f rom t he tips of branches. Leafbud cuttings consist of a whol e leaf, bud, and short piece of stem. TYPES OF CUTTINGS Heel cuttings can be made from soft, green, semi-ripe or hardwoods. Strip a young side-shoot away from t he main stem so that a strip of bark comes away. Mal l et cutti ngs consist of a side-shoot and a section of the main stem. They are taken f rom semi-ripe and hardwoods. The plug of mature wood helps prevent rot t i ng. Softwood stem cuttings are taken from the tips of the current season's growth. Hor- mone powder is not needed, but it is good practi ce to dip the cut t i ng in fungicide. Leaf-bud cutti ngs can be t aken f rom any t ype of wood. They consist of a short piece of stem wi t h a leaf and a bud in its axil. The leaf chosen must be ful l y mat ure. Cuttings 2 Softwood stem cuttings Vigorously growing shoots of non-woody plants, or fast-growing tips of potentially woody stems, are used as softwood cuttings. Softwood cuttings are taken in spring or early summer. The stems are best gathered in early morning when at maximum turgidity. If the cuttings are not to be used immediately, place them in a bucket of water. An exception is the zonal geranium which roots better after cuttings have been left exposed and shaded for a period of 24 hours. Trim each shoot to 3 in long, cutting cleanly just beneath a node or leaf. All leaves on the basal third to one half should be removed. Place a 4-6 in layer of t he chosen rooting medium in the bottom of the propagating case, or fill boxes or pots. If there are only a few cuttings of each species, 3-4 in pots make best use of propagating room. This is particularly useful if several species are being propagated which have a wide range of rooting times. Insert the cutting into the rooting medium so that about one-third of its length is in the soil, water and place in a propagating case, ideally with bottom heat. Softwood cuttings are extremely susceptible to water loss. A mist unit thus provides a very high quality environment. Aim for a rooting medium temperature of 21-24C/70 o -75F. Spray with fungicide on insertion and weekly thereafter. Greenwood stem cuttings Greenwood cut- tings are taken in early summer from the soft tips of t he stems, just as the main flush of growth slows down but before any sort of woodiness is observable. They differ from softwood cuttings only in their speed of growth. Treat them in the same way as softwood cuttings, rooting them in a mist unit or a heated propagating case. Semi-ripe stem cuttings This category is a stage further from green wood, each cutting being made from shoots which are hardening at the base. Such cuttings are taken in late summer. Semi-ripe cuttings can be rooted in poorer light and lower temperatures than softwood or greenwood cuttings, and can thus be grown in a cold frame. Cuttings should be 4- 6 in long, and it is often advantageous for them to have a heel of older wood at the base. To obtain a heel, choose lateral shoots as cuttings, each one being either sliced or gently pulled off with a downwards movement so that a sliver or heel of the parent stem is attached. If a tail of tissue extends from the heel this should be cut away cleanly. If the tip of the semi-ripe cut- ting is soft it should be removed. Cut off the lower foliage, leaving about a third of the cutting bare. Insert them in the same way as softwood cuttings. Semi-ripe cuttings taken in late summer should be left in the cold frame until t he end of the following growing season. Feed regularly to encourage vigor- ous growth. Lift and transplant the new plants in autumn. Hardwood stem cuttings This method is sel- dom used under glass, though it is suitable for bougainvillea and a few other shrubs and climbers that have a fully dormant period. Growth will have then ceased and t he stems will be fully mature. Use 6 in pieces of mature wood which have dropped their leaves. Treat with hormone powder and insert them in a closed frame within the greenhouse. Leave about half the length of the cutting above soil level. Hardwood cuttings, although leafless, will still lose some water by evaporation from their surface. The commonest reason why these cuttings may fail to develop roots is because they are allowed to dry out. To avoid water loss, expose as little of the cutting ,is possible above the ground. However, it the cutting is planted too deep, the buds will not grow properly. Thus it is vital to expose sufficient of the cutting above ground for about three buds to develop. Keep the cuttings cool to prevent dormant buds developing and diverting energy from the developing roots. Leaf-bud cuttings Leaf-bud cuttings may be taken from any of the types of stem. Each cutting consists of a leaf, a bud in its leaf axil and a very short piece of stem. The leaf supplies food to support the cutting and t he regenerative processes; the bud is the basis for the new stem system; and the piece of stem is where t he first roots are produced. New stems produced by pruned plants have t he best chance of success. Select one of these new stems with an undamaged Softwood cuttings 1 Gather shoots from the tips of vigorously-growing plants. If possible, take cuttings in the early morning. 2 Trim each shoot to 3 in long, cutting below a node or leaf. Remove leaves from the bottom third of the cutting. 3 Fill pots or trays with soil mix. Make planting holes with a dibble and insert the cuttings. 4 Water the cuttings and place in a propagating case or mist unit. The rooting medium should be kept at 21 o -24C/70 o -75F. 5 Spray the cuttings with a dilute fungicide on planting and weekly thereafter. Label the containers. 6 When the cuttings have rooted, gradually reduce bottom heat and when they have hardened off pot using John Innes No. 1 compost. Cuttings 3 mature leal, insure that there is a viable bud in the leaf axil. Cut close above t he bud so that as small a snag as possible is left. This minimizes t he likelihood of rotti ng and die-back. Make the basal cut about 1-11/2 in below the t op cut so that sufficient stem is available to anchor t he cutti ng firmly in the growi ng medi um. Appl y a rooting hormone. Insert t he cut t i ng wi t h its bud level wi t h the soil surface. Place cuttings of t he more hardy plants in a col d frame and cutti ngs of less hardy plants in a well-lit protected envi ronment such as a mist uni t or closed case. It may be necessary to support large-leaved plants such as Ficus elastica wi t h a short length of cane inserted next to each cut t i ng to prevent it toppl i ng. The cane can be inserted t hrough t he rolled leaf, whi ch is itself secured by a rubber band. Vine eyes Vi ne eyes are t he hardwood equivalent of leaf-bud cutti ngs taken whi l e the grape vine, or other woody plant, is leaf- less. Prepare t he vine eyes as described above. Insert t hem horizontally wi t h the bud just above the soil surface. If this met hod is chosen it will aid rooti ng if a sliver of bark is removed Evergreen cuttings on the opposi te side of the stem from the bud. Label the pot and stand it on a greenhouse bench or in a closed casethe higher t he temperature, the faster will be t he rate of regeneration. Wat er the cut t i ng to prevent i t dryi ng out. Do not overwater during the wi nter when t he cut t i ng is dormant, as the soil will readily waterl og, causing t he cutti ng to rot and die. Harden off the cut t i ng once it has rooted, and transplant in spring. Label it. Stem sections A few greenhouse plants, notabl y Dietlen- bachia (dumb cane), Dracaena and Cordyline, become leggy wi t h age, t he lower stem be- comi ng leafless. When t he pl ant becomes unat t ract i ve i t can be cut back to just above soil level. Sever t he t op of t he removed stem and use it as an evergreen cut t i ng. Cut the remai ni ng bare stem i nto 11/2-2 in lengths and insert these stem section cuttings verti - cally wi t h t he t op flush wi t h t he soil, or hori zontal l y and compl etel y covered by about 1/2 in of t he rooti ng medi um. It is advis- able to dip t he sections i nto a fungi ci de before insertion. If they are inserted vertically, make sure they are t he same way up as when growi ng on the plant. Each cut t i ng will have several incipient buds, one to three of whi ch may grow i nto aerial shoots. Evergreen cuttings Evergreen cutti ngs are taken f rom stems of very ripe wood. Unlike hardwood cuttings they are not leafless and are not fully dormant because of their evergreen habit. Because they have leaves, the cuttings need extra care to prevent excessive water loss. Take evergreen cuttings, f rom a pruned plant if possible, duri ng later summer to early aut umn; rooti ng will normal l y take place duri ng winter. Evergreen cutti ngs taken in late summer should be 4- 6 in long. Take a heel wi t h t he cut t i ng if it is to be propagated in unsterilized soil in a col d frame or poly- ethyl ene tunnel . Neaten any tail on the heel. Leave on t he cut t i ng any termi nal bud t hat may have f ormed. If, however, growt h is con- ti nui ng, cut out t he soft ti p wi t h a knife. Strip the leaves off t he bot t om thi rd of t he cutti ng. Make a shallow vertical wound about 1 in long in t he bot t om of t he stem of plants that are difficult to root. Di p t he base of t he cut t i ng i n root i ng hormone powder. Ensure t he cut surface is covered wi t h t he powder. Plant t he cut t i ng up to its leaves in a col d frame or mist unit. Al l ow t he leaves of cuttings t o t ouch but not t o overl ap. Ai m for cool , moi st condi t i ons by shading t he frame unti l light i ntensi ty becomes lower in wi nter. Leave f rame-grown cutti ngs in place for t he whol e of t he next gr owi ng season. Pot on mi st-uni t cutti ngs i n spring, t aki ng care not to damage t he roots. Evergreen plants can be propagated f rom softer wood earlier i n t he growi ng season. Treat these cutti ngs accordi ng to the con- di ti on (soft, green wood or semi -ri pe wood) of thei r stems. Conifers Some conifers, but not most spruces, pines and firs, can be propagat ed f r om cuttings. Either a warm envi ronment such as a propa- gati ng case or a col d f rame can be used. Select young, act i vel y-growi ng shoots and take cutti ngs i n aut umn and wi nter. 1 In late summer, take heel cuttings of t he current season's growt h, f rom a pruned pl ant if possible. Rooting is in winter. 2 Trim the heel, pi nch out t he growi ng t i p and remove leaves f rom t he lower t hi rd of t he cut t i ng. 3 Make a shallow 1 in cut at t he base of t he stem. Di p t he cut area in rooti ng hormone powder. 4 Mix peat, grit and sand i nto col d-frame soil. Plant t he cutti ngs in the frame up to thei r leaves. Do not allow leaves to overlap. 5 Shade t he frame and water well. In wi nter, insulate t he frame against frost if necessary. 6 The following autumn, transpl ant t he rooted cutti ngs, t aki ng care not to damage t he fragile roots. Label t he plants. Leaves 1 Some greenhouse and house plants will develop plantlets on their leaves. In some cases this is done naturally, in others leaves are detached, treated in much the same way as cuttings, and the plantlets whi ch develop grown on. Al t hough only a small range of plants can be grown from leaves, this range includes many of the most popular such as Begonia rex and the African violet Saintpaulia ionantha. Types of leaf cuttings The simplest form of leaf cut t i ng is a compl ete leaf wi t h a stalk. Such leaf-petiole cuttings can be taken at any season when a compl ete young leaf is available. Mi dri b cuttings make use of the fact t hat a leaf mi dri b is an exten- sion of a leaf-stalk and is able to regenerate in the same way. Propagation by midrib cuttings is most successful from plants having leaves wi t h a single central vein, such as Streptocarpus. Lateral vein cuttings develop on the side-veins of a leaf after t he midrib has been cut out. Leaf slashing involves the growt h of plantlets from cuts made in a leaf wi t hout a central main vein. Taking leaf-petiole cuttings Leaves of plants such as Begonia rex can be cut i nto squares whi ch wi l l , given correct condi ti ons, each produce a plantlet. Succu- lents and some bulbs have t he capacity to produce plantlets from leaf sections. Foliar embryos A few plants develop plantlets naturally. Examples are Tolmiea menziesii, the pig-a- back plant, and Mitella. Some plants release their plantlets naturally, on others the plant- lets have to be separated f rom the parent plant. Propagation conditions Leaf cuttings of all sorts are vulnerable to moisture loss and therefore must be kept in a closed propagator, or under a glass sheet or pol yethyl ene tent. Bottom heat best provides the warm, humi d condi ti ons re- qui red The most common cause of failure in leaf propagati on is rotti ng of t he leaf before it has a chance to become established. Hygiene is thus vital. All propagati ng equi p- ment and containers should be clean, and soil shoul d be sterile. Choice of leaves Young yet fully developed leaves should be chosen. If the leaf is still growing, its energy will go into developing fully. This will delay the generation of new plant life in the form of plantlets. Since a leaf is unsupported by a root system, any delay can be a source of problems. Select leaves t hat are compl ete, normal and un- damaged, and free from pests and diseases. It is possible to take leaf cuttings all the year round, so long as young compl ete leaves are available. Planting and aftercare Use a cuttings mix made up of equal parts of sand and grit. When taki ng t he leaves from the parent plant, use a sharp knife or razor blade. Always spray or water leaf cuttings wi t h a fungicide on planting. If the plantlets are slow to develop, foliar feeding may be necessary. Do not feed until plantlet growt h has begun. Taking leaf-petiole cuttings Leaf-petiole cuttings can be taken at any ti me of t he year when new leaves are avail- able. Choose an undamaged leaf whi ch has recently expanded to its mature size. Make up a mix of equal parts silted peat and grit Fill a contai ner and firm the mix to within 1/4 - 3/4 in of the rim. Cut t he chosen leal from the parent plant wi t h a clean sharp knife About 2 in of stalk should be attached to the leaf. Using a dibble, insert the peti ol e at a shallow angle in t he mix. Firm t he mix gently around the petiole. The leaf shoul d be almost flat on the surface of the mix so that the stalk is in t he t opmost layer of t he cutti ngs mix, where air can penetrate. Insert the remaining cuttings, label t hem and water with a dilute fungi ci de. The leaf cutti ngs will need an at mospher e of high humi di ty, such as t hat produced in a heated propagati ng case. Bottom heat, mai ntai ni ng a t emperat ure of 20*C/68*F, is ideal. The cuttings must have sufficient light to devel op, but should be shaded from direct sunlight. In about 5- 6 weeks, pl antl ets shoul d begin to devel op on t he leaf stalk. Several may appear on each stalk, t hough t he number is variable. The number of pl antl ets that appear on each stalk is smaller t han t he number that each leaf will produce using leaf squares of 1 Cut an undamaged, fully grown young leaf from t he parent plant. Cut near t he base, and tri m t he stalk to about 2 in. 2 Insert t he stalk at a shallow angle in a flat of cutti ngs mix. Firm the mix gently around t he stalk. 3 Spray t he cuttings wi t h a di l ute fungi ci de as soon as they are inserted. 4 Place the flat of cuttings in a propagati ng case at 20C/68F. Shade lightly to protect t he cuttings f rom di rect sun. 5 Alternatively, place a f ew cuttings in a 3 in pot. Cover wi t h a pol yethyl ene bag supported on wire. Place in a warm, light room. 6 Pot on t he pl antl ets once they are large enough to handl e. Harden off by reduci ng heat and increasing venti l ati on. Leaves 2 leal slashing. When the plantlets are suffi- ciently large to be handled, pot t hem on i nto |ohn Innes No. 1 or equivalent. Liquid feeding may be necessary if the plantlets have to remain in the original cuttings mix for any length of ti me. The popular African violet, Saintpaulia ionantha, is often propagated from leaf-petiole cuttings. Ot her plants that respond to the met hod are begonias (other than Begonia rex), Peperomia caperata, and P. metallica. Taking leaf square cuttings Unlike the leaf-petiole met hod, the leaf square cuttings techni que allows a large number of plants to be propagated from a single leaf. It is mainly used to propagate Begonia rex and related species. Take a fully expanded, undamaged young leaf from the parent plant. Lay it face down on a sheet of clean glass and cut the leaf into a series of squares. Each piece should be roughly 3/4 in square. Be careful not to crush the leaves when cutti ng. Prepare a flat of cuttings soil and firm it to wi t hi n 1/4-3/8 in of the rim, water it well and lay the leaf squares on the soil surface, face upwards and about j in apart. Label and spray wi t h a dilute fungicide. Do not water leaf squares, but irrigate if necessary by standing t he flat in a bath of water. Place the flat of cuttings in a closed propagating case wi t h bot t om heat and keep t hem at a temperature of 18-21C/ 65- 70F. Avoi d direct sunlight, but allow t he cuttings enough light to begin devel opment. Plantlets should begin to appear after 5- 6 weeks. They should not be detached f rom the leaf square and potted on until they are large enough to handle. Gradually harden off the plantlets by admi tti ng air to the pro- pagating case and reducing the temperature. Leaf slashing Begonia rex can also be pro- pagated by leaf slashing, a techni que similar to propagation from leaf squares. Choose a large mature leaf, lay it on a sheet of glass, and instead of cut t i ng it into squares, make 3/4 in cuts across the leaf veins. Ai m for one cut every square inch. Place the leaf face up on damp soil, and secure it wi t h a wire staple. Treat as leaf squares above. Plantlets will develop at t he cuts. Monocot leaves Some plants have monocot yl edonous leaves, that is, leaves wi t h a series of parallel veins runni ng along the length of the leaf. Such plants include bulbous species such as hyaci nth and snowdrop, and succulents such as Sansevieria (mother-in-law' s tongue). Leaves f rom bulbous plants are delicate and should be handled as little as possible. Take a mature leaf and cut into 1 in sections across t he veins, using a sheet of glass and a sharp blade as described above for leaf squares. Insert t he cuttings vertically in cuttings soil or mix. Spray wi t h fungi ci de and place in a warm (21C/70F), humi d envi ron- ment. New leaves used for propagati on from bulbs in spring will take four to six weeks to produce plantlets. Pot up t he plantlets once they are large enough to handle. Grafting Grafting is not a common met hod of pro- pagation in the amateur greenhouse, t hough it is used by professionals and in the open garden to propagate shrubs, roses and frui t trees. The main purpose of grafting is to replace the rootstock of a given plant wi t h another, compati bl e rootstock. This can have t he effect of restricting the growt h of the plant, conferri ng resistance to disease, or promot i ng vigorous growt h. The process is not techni cal l y difficult, and grafting can form an enj oyabl e area for experiment. Full details may be f ound i n t he compani on vol ume in this series, Plant Propagation. MIDRIB CUTTINGS Leaves wi t h pronounced central ribs can be used as propagati on material in t he same way as whol e leaves wi t h stalk attached. The midrib is an extension of the stalk, and when cut into sections plantlets will develop from the cut sur- faces of the rib, given t he correct condi - tions. Cut leaves of Gloxinia, Streptocarpus and similar plants i nto 1 1/2 in sections. Insert vertically in flats of soil and treat as leaf square cuttings. Plantlets should appear in 5- 6 weeks. Taking leaf square cuttings 1 Carefully cut a large fully grown young leaf from the parent plant, cut t i ng near the base. 2 Lay the leaf face down on a sheet of clean glass. Cut t he leaf i nto squares, each about 3/4 in across. 3 Place the leaf squares 1/2 in apart on t he surface of a flat of damp soil in a warm, humi d envi ronment . 4 Spray the cuttings wi t h di l ute fungicide. Shade f rom di rect sunlight. 5 Harden off young plantlets by increasing venti l ati on and reduci ng temperature. 6 Pot on t he pl antl ets when t hey are large enough to handl e John Innes No. 1 or equi val ent. Other propagation methods 1 Air layering 1 In spring, tri m leaves and side-shoots f rom t he chosen stem. Girdle by cut t i ng off a 1/3 in ring of bark wi t h a sharp knife. 2 Apply hormone power to t he cut. Squeeze a ball of wet sphagnum moss around t he girdled stem. 3 Wrap a square of black pol yethyl ene around the moss ball. Secure t op and bot t om wi th tape. Leave for a growi ng season. 4 Towards the end of the fol l owi ng dormant season, prune any new growt h above the layered port i on. 5 Then cut t he stem bel ow t he pol y- ethyl ene. Remove t he pol yethyl ene, taki ng care not to damage t he delicate new roots. 6 Pot i nt o John Innes No. 1 or equi val ent, firm in gentl y and place in t he greenhouse unti l new gr owt h begins. Air layering Whi l e cuttings are induced to form roots after being detached from the parent plant, air layering is a techni que whi ch induces the growth of roots on stems still attached to the parent. Its main use in the greenhouse is to propagate Ficus elastica, t hough it can also be used on citrus trees and on shrubs. Air layering is carried out in spring or late summer on growths of the current season that are becomi ng woody. The necessary condi ti ons for root formati on are restriction of the chosen stem and the exclusion of light. The roots thus stimulated are encouraged by damp, moist conditions. Preparing a stem Trim off the leaves and side- shoots of a straight stem to between 6 and 12 in from t he ti p. Girdle t he stem wi t h a sharp knife and apply hormone powder. Applying the rooting medium Sphagnum moss, whi ch is well aerated and holds mois- ture, is the best rooti ng medi um. Soak a hand- ful of moss thoroughl y and squeeze it to remove excess moisture. Wor k it i nto an i nterwoven ball of fibers 2- 3 in in diameter, split and place around the girdled stem. Hold the moss in place wi t h a square of black pol yethyl ene wrapped around to f orm a tube and fixed in place wi t h tape. The black poly ethylene will keep in moi sture, keep out light and mai ntai n the correct warm, moist en vi ronment for root f ormat i on and growt h, Aftercare and potting Ai r-l ayered plants will normal l y take at least a growi ng season to establish themselves. Towards the end of the dormant season after the first growi ng season, prune back any new gr owt h above the layered section. Cut t he stem just below the bot t om of the pol yethyl ene-cl ad section and carefully remove the pol yet hyl ene and the tape. The moss should be combi ned wi t h the new roots to f orm a root bal l . Cut away t he section of stem bel ow t he new roots, slightly loosen t he rootbal l and plant < art- fully in a pot of John Innes No. 1 or equivalent Firm gentl y to avoi d damagi ng t he roots. Bulb scaling Bulbs increase naturally by pr oduci ng bulb- lets or offsets but this met hod is slow. A faster met hod of propagati on is bul b scaling. This can be done wi t h lily and f ritillary bulbs. These Other propagation methods 2 bulbs have relatively narrow scale leaves whi ch can be readily pulled off the bulb's basal plate, lake scales from fresh, healthy bulbs, preferably in Oct ober or November. Cut only a few scale leaves from each bulb. Treat all scales wi th a fungicide such as captan by shaking t hem in a bag wi th fungicide powder. Place the scales in sterile cuttings mixture or damp vermi cul i te and seal the whol e in a plastic bag. Store at 21C/70F until, in about 6- 8 weeks, bulblets develop at the base of the detached scales. When the bulblets appear, plant the scale leaves, wi t h the bul b- lets, in pots of potti ng mix or soil. Plant t hem vertically wi t h the tips just above t he soil mix. Water sparingly, and keep at 21C/70F until leaves are produced. At t he end of t he season, after the leaves have died down, lift and separate the new bulbs, pot t i ng on or replanting t hem at once. Division I he garden techni que of propagati ng peren- nials by division is practi ced in the green- house. Mature plants whi ch have become too large can be di vi ded, as can those fibrous- crowned plants whi ch become woody i n the center and onl y produce new growt h at t he edges. Dahlias and tuberous begonias can be divided but grow better from cuttings or seed. Greenhouse plants that can be divided i n- cl ude arums, ferns, and some orchids. Plants wi t h fibrous crowns should be divided i m- medi atel y after flowering. Remove the plant from its pot and dip the rootball in a bucket of water. Then gently pull the crown i nto pieces of the required size. Tough crowns can be cut wi t h a knife. Make sure that each piece has a good eye or bud. Trim the long snoots on t he divided segments to balance the t op- growt h and roots and lessen water loss. Plant in pots and water well. All material propagatedseeds, leaves or cutti ngsmust be labeled. Otherwi se it is very easy to lose track of what plants are. The label should show the date of sowing or propagati on, the species and t he variety. Other i nformati on such as the source of the propagating material or reminders of t he condi ti ons required may be added. Labels can simply be wood, plastic or metal tags (a). Data can be wri tten on these tags using a soft lead pencil or wax crayon. Al ternati vel y, paint a strip at t he end of a seed flat whi t e to form a wri ti ng surface (b). When the flat is re-used a new layer of whi t e paint can be applied to obliterate t he label and provi de a new wri ti ng sur- face. Mat ure plants can have labels attached to t he stem. These can be made of plastic or light metal (c). Hand machines are avail- able whi ch pri nt labels on strips of plastic or punch letters ont o lead strips (d). Bulb scaling 1 In autumn, remove scale leaves f rom t he outside of bulbs. Cut onl y a few scale leaves f rom each bulb. Dust wi t h fungicide powder. 2 Place the scale leaves in a plastic bag cont ai ni ng damp vermi cul i t e or an equal mi xture of damp peat and gri t. Blow up t he bag, seal it and put it in a war m dry place. 3 Six-eight weeks later, when bulblets appear at t he base, plant t he scales upright in John Innes No. 1 or equivalent and cover the mix wi t h grit. 4 Place the pots in a war m (21C/70F) wel l - lit place. New leaves wi l l appear in spring. Harden off, and in aut umn lift and separate t he bulbs. Replant as soon as possible. The year in a cold greenhouse 1 The year in a cold greenhouse This calender details sowing and harvesting times for basic col d greenhouse crops and lists planting, sowing and pot t i ng on times for ornamentals. Regular tasks such as wateri ng, feeding, dampi ng down, shading and ventilating are not listed every mont h. The t i mi ng of these procedures is to a large extent dependent upon day to day condi ti ons and on t he crops being grown. Follow t he instructions given under individual crops, and act accordi ng to the basic principles discussed in the first t wo sections of this book. Pest and disease control is another regular task that must be attended to whenever problems arise. The worst period for pests is f rom Apri l to October, but problems such as whitefly and red spider mite can appear in any of t he 12 months. Follow the instructions on pages 33-40 for the control of pests and diseases. Using a cold greenhouse A cold greenhouse is one whi ch possesses no form of artificial heat. It is, in effect, no more than a protecti ve coveri ng against extremes of col d, wet and wi nd. A col d greenhouse can f orm a vital and interesting adj unct to t he garden provi ded its limitations are recognized and t he plants to be grown carefully selected. The most i mport ant l i mi tati on of the col d greenhouse is t hat of temperature. In winter, if the outside temperature drops to around 7C/20F it is likely t hat there will be several degrees of frost inside the greenhouse. It is wise to recognize this and to avoid tryi ng to over-wi nter plants whi ch are not frost- hardy. It is possible to give protecti on against frost by pl ungi ng pots and coveri ng plants wi t h pol yethyl ene or burlap, but these pro- vide l i mi ted defense against severe frosts. Conditions and choice of plants A col d greenhouse will suit those plants t hat are hardy outdoors, and will in most cases allow t hem to be grown better. It also suits annuals, i ncl udi ng fruits and vegetables, whi ch are half-hardy outdoors. A cold green- house can extend t he growi ng season at either end, al l owi ng crops to be taken earlier and later t han outdoors. Ornament al annuals and biennials can be raised f rom seed in the predi ctabl e conditions a cold greenhouse offers, and various propagati on techniques carried out. Despite t he lack of artificial heat, t he gardener has various techni ques available to allow hi m to alter t he envi ronment of a col d greenhouse. The basic principles explained in the section on Running the Greenhouse (pages 32-33), apply here, t hough wi t h the narrow tol erance of many col d greenhouse plants extra care is needed. Ventilation The most effective met hod of temperature control available is venti l ati on. In very cold conditions it can be colder in t he greenhouse than outside if t he doors and lower ventilators are not opened for a few hours in t he mi ddl e of t he day. Cold air is heavy and collects in a pool at ground level, but will fl ow out if given t he chance. Most venti l ati on is concerned wi th trap- ping solar heat. Once outside temperatures start to rise in spring, ventilators should be opened a little in the morni ng and closed some hours before sunset. This regime may well cause the thermometer to rise five degrees above nor mal ; this heat surplus not only acts as a cushi on against t he rapid drop in t emperat ure as ni ght falls, but also i m- proves t he growi ng atmosphere. Some of the surplus heat is absorbed by t he soil, paths and structure generally, moderat i ng night temperatures as it is given off i nto t he cool i ng air. This mechani sm is expl oi ted by several solar heati ng systems At all times the aim is to produce a buoyant atmosphere, one i n whi ch t he air wi t hi n the greenhouse is movi ng up and around rather t han l yi ng stagnant. Air movement The ci rcul at i on of air is a vital factor in col d greenhouse management . Even in a cl osed-up col d house in wi nter, imperfec- tions in glazing can allow air to escape suf- ficiently fast to give t wo compl et e air changes per hour. In high summer wel l -venti l ated greenhouses can have 120 air changes per hour, whi ch helps to keep i nternal t empera- tures close to those outsi de. If t hrough a deficiency in venti l ati on air changes drop to 30- 40 per hour, summer greenhouse t em- peratures can rise as high as 43C/110F, to t he det ri ment of plants. January Plan the year's crops and order seeds and seedlings. Ventilate the greenhouse on sunny days. Sow onions for transplanting. Sow early radishes in soil borders or peat pots. Bring in plunged bulbs to flower in the greenhouse (Babiana, Chionodoxa, Crocus, daffodils, Fritillaria, Iris, Leucojum, Ornithogalum.) Bulbs which have finished flowering can be planted out into frames. Sow lily seed. Begin sequence of chrysanthemum cuttings later in the month. February Ventilate as necessary. Water sparingly. Sow lettuce, early bunching turnips, carrots, parsnips and early beets (until March), bulb onions (until April). Sow tomatoes in heat later in the month. Bring potted strawberries in to crop in late spring. Bring in remaining plunged bulbs to replace those which have finished flowering. Pot on and divide ferns if necessary. Pot on over-wintered coleus, fuchsias and pelargoniums. Sow and place in a propagating case: Abutilons, tuberous and fibrous begonias, Coleus, Celosias, Gloxinias, Streptocarpus. Pot on annuals sown in autumn. Re-pot evergreen azaleas. March Sow lettuce, celery, carrots, mustard and cress. Sow in heat: eggplants, sweet peppers, dwarf beans, tomatoes if not sown in February. Prick out lettuce seedlings. Pot out late in month. Sow for transplanting: broad beans, runner beans, brassicas, leeks, celery, peas, sweetcorn, chives, thyme. Continue to bring in pot strawberries. Sow half-hardy annuals and alpines. Pot on over-wintered annuals. Take pelargonium and dahlia cuttings. Plant out rooted cuttings taken in winter. Plant hippeastrum bulbs in pots. April Sow according to needs: lettuce, radish, mustard and cress, beets, endive, parsley. Sow sweetcorn, celeriac, dwarf French beans, cucumbers. Harvest early radishes and lettuce, chicory, seakale and rhubarb. Complete sowing half-hardy annuals. Sow biennials for spring flowering under glass. Prick out March-sown seedlings. Begin to harden off bedding plant seedlings. Take fuchsia cuttings, pot rooted dahlia and other cuttings. Pot up tuberoses for flowering. Start feeding camellias. May Plant eggplants, sweet peppers, okra and cucumber, melons. Harvest early carrots, early bunching turnips, beets. Plant out tomatoes after last frost. Harden off bedding plants and plant out after frosts have ended. Take cuttings from regal pelargoniums. Sow Calceolaria, Freesia, Schizanthus for winter flowering. June Harvest lettuce, radish, endive, mustard and cress, beans, parsley. Continue to sow biennials. Pot on cyclamen seedlings. Take cuttings of pinks. Plunge azaleas outside and feed every 14 days. The year in a cold greenhouse 2 Excessive summer temperatures can be reduced by dampi ng down floors and walls wi th city water, whi ch rarely rises above a temperature of 10 L C/50"F. Dampi ng down also promotes a degree of humi di ty enj oyed by most plants. Excessive transpi rati on caused by very dry, hot conditions gives a severe check to plant growth. Shading, used in con- j unct i on wi t h venti l ati on, is also i mport ant in control l i ng summer condi ti ons. For full de- tails of shading and venti l ati on practice, see pages 14-16. Thus the management of a col d green- house is an amalgam of attenti on to venti l a- ti on, atmospheric moisture, warmt h and light. Holding the envi ronmental balance is a compl i cated art in whi ch experience is an i mportant factor. Plants for the cold greenhouse Most annuals, biennials and shrubs, provi ded they are hardy, can be successfully over- wi ntered in a cold house. The advantage of doing so is that they flower t wo to three weeks earlier than plants grown outdoors. Their condi ti on, not having had to cont end wi t h wi nter weather, is better than that of outdoor plants. Blooms are more spectacular as wi nd and rain damage is not a probl em. Alpines and similar plants can also be grown in an unheated greenhouse, but they require condi ti ons whi ch precl ude t he growt h of many other plants. The runni ng of an alpine house is described on pages 88- 90. Many food crops can be grown in a col d house, provi di ng cash saving over shop prices and often produce of a higher quality. Tomatoes, t he most popular crop, are covered in detail on pages 70-71. The fol l owi ng pages also detail t he cul ti vati on of fruits and other salad and vegetables. Anot her aspect of garden food product i on t hat a greenhouse can assist is t he raising of seedlings for trans- pl anti ng outdoors. This frees the gardener from dependence on commerci al l y raised plants, and makes the growi ng of unusual vegetables, and t he obscurer varieties of common ones, possible. As wi t h flowers, the qual i ty of crops grown under glass will be higher t han those grown outdoors, due to t he lack of weather damage. This is especially true of salad crops and strawberries. Over-wintering Successful over-wi nteri ng is more likely if certain precautions are taken. Duri ng the coldest spells, plants must be kept on the dry side. It is best t hat the roots do not freeze for these are often more tender than the tops. Ground level beds should be deeply mul ched wi t h bracken or straw and t he bases of shrubs and climbers wrapped. Large pots and tubs must be wrapped either wi t h straw, glass fiber, or any other approved insulating material t hat can be secured in place wi t h netti ng or burlap and wi re twi ne. Smaller pots are best plunged in peat or sand. Wi nt er sets limitations on what can be grown permanentl y in the unheated green- house. From about mid-spring to late aut umn the full range of cool greenhouse plants thri ve happily. From late spring to early or mi d- aut umn even warm greenhouse plants suc- ceed. Wi t h a heated propagating case, such plants can be over-wi ntered. Flowering plants from seed A wi de range of hardy and tender annuals and biennials is readily available to provide color and interest in the cold greenhouse for a large part of t he year. These plants can be used as t he main display or to fill in gaps between non-fl oweri ng per manent plants or frui t and vegetable crops. Hardy annuals can be sown in late summer or early aut umn. They will over-wi nter well in a col d greenhouse and flower late t he fol l owi ng spring, well ahead of thei r normal season. This t echni que can be used for hardy biennials, but these need to be sown in early summer and may be grown outsi de or in an open col d frame until late aut umn. Routine seed sowi ng and pricking off i nto flats or pans is all t hat annuals and biennials initially require (see pages 55-56). Thereafter place t he young plants singly i nto 5 in pots, or space three out i nto 6 or 7 in con- tainers. A fairly rich soil mix is recom- mended, a John Innes pot t i ng No. 2 being very satisfactory. Once t he young plants are 3- 4 i n tall, pi nch out thei r tips to encourage branchi ng and a more bushy habi t. As soon as they are growi ng more strongl y, in late wi nter or early spring, commence liquid feedi ng and repeat at 10-14 day intervals. At about this ti me, insert t wi ggy sticks or canes for support. For full details, see page 55. July Harvest sweet peppers, lettuce, radishes, mustard and cress, parsley, tomatoes left in the greenhouse. Take hydrangea cuttings. Take half-ripe cuttings. August Sow lettuce, radishes, mustard and cress, winter endive. Sow cyclamen seeds. Take fuchsia cuttings, pot on half-ripe cuttings. September Sow lettuce, radishes, mustard and cress, alpine strawberries. Plant late in month: apricots, peaches, grape vines. Harvest lettuces, parsley, radishes, mustard and cress. Lift seakale roots late in month, pot up and blanch. Sow hardy annuals for spring flowering under glass. Pot on hardy biennials for spring flowering. Bring in evergreen azaleas, pot- grown chrysanthemums. Plant bulbous irises and hyacinths in pots. October Sow lettuce for crops in spring. Plant fruit trees. Continue to pot up and blanch seakale. Bring in tender bedding perennials for over-wintering. Repeat sowings of annuals. Prick out annuals sown in September. Pot on biennials. Sow sweet peas. Over-winter chrysanthemum stools and dahlia tubers. November Sow onions for transplanting. Box up rhubarb crowns, chicory and remaining seakale. Insulate boxes if necessary. Bring in pots of herbs for winter supply. Plant grape vines. Cut back chrysanthemums to 6 in after flowering to encourage growth for cuttings. Prick out October-sown sweet peas. Pot on annuals. Bring plunged bulbs into the greenhouse as shoots appear. December Harvest chicory. Bring in remaining plunged bulbs for spring flowering. Take advantage of quiet period to do cleaning and maintenance jobs on greenhouse and equipment. Fruits A t ol d greenhouse can be used to grow a variety of fruit (Tops, the best choke being melons, strawberries, grapes, peaches, apri- cots and nectarines. The more stable envi ron- ment of the greenhouse, and t he protecti on it affords, allows the product i on of earlier, more reliable fruit crops compared wi t h out- door culture, especially in districts wi t h cooler than average summer temperatures. The greatest l i mi tati on of the col d green- house for growing fruit is that many of t he crops, but particularly grapes, peaches, apri - cots and nectarines, take up a great deal of space. If possible, it may be best to devote a whol e greenhouse to frui t cul ture but if this is not practical, select frui t that will not occupy the whol e house or block light from other plants. Alternatively, cul ti vate plants in pots to restrict their growt h to manageable proporti ons. Choosing a greenhouse I or small-growing crops such as melons and strawberries a house of conventi onal di men- sions will be suitable but a larger house is necessary to accommodat e other frui t ade- quately unless they are grown in pots. When choosing a greenhouse for growi ng frui t remember that a vigorous grape vine will need a border at least 8 ft long and t hat a peach, apri cot or nectarine will require a greenhouse wi t h a wall or glass sides at least 12 ft high. When selecting a greenhouse for fruit growing follow all the general principles described on pages 12-13. Fruit trees should be grown against a south-faci ng wal l . Planting Vines, peaches and their relations and melons can all be planted direct i nto the border soil of the greenhouse, whi ch should be prepared according to the individual requirements of each crop. Strawberries, however, are best cultivated in pots or barrels. If space is limited it is also possible to cul ti vate grapes, peaches, apricots and nectari nesand even plums, apples, pears and cherriesin pots, al though for the last four of these it is essen- tial to select varieties grown on dwarfing rootstocks. Container cul ture has the added advantage that it is possible to provide exactly the right type of soil but it is i mport ant to give plants the maxi mum possible light. It will be difficult for plants to thrive, and for fruit to ripen, if plants in pots are shaded b) a thi ck vine or a vigorous peach. Training and support Except for strawberries all the types of fruit suggested for the cold greenhouse will need some system of wi re; on whi ch they can be trained and this should be combi ned wi t h a support system. Al ways remember to arrange t he trai ni ng system before pl anti ng because inserting wires be- hind growi ng plants is not only difficult but can lead to damage. Ventilation The exact needs of fruit crops vary in detail but good venti l ati on is essential. Peaches, for example, ideally need venti l ati on f rom the roof and sides of t he house. When growi ng a crop that takes up a good deal of space in the greenhouse always make sure t hat the growt h of the plant does not interfere with the venti l ati on system or make wi ndow; difficult to open. For full details of cultural practices see the vol ume Fruit in this series. CULTIVATION Grapes Construct a trai ni ng system of hori zontal wires 9 in apart and 15 in f rom the glass. Plant in November in wel l - drai ned porous border soil contai ni ng l oam, peat and grit wi t h added base fertilizer and limestone. Wat er to give a t horough soaking in early spring. Mul ch. Keep t he soil thoroughl y damp, wateri ng every 7-10 days in hot weather, and re- duce wateri ng as frui t ripens. Venti l ate f rom January to March then close t he vents unti l May or when t he air tempera- t ure exceeds 18C/64F. Peaches, apricots and nectarines Con- struct a trai ni ng system of wires placed 10 in apart and 10 in f rom the glass. Plant in Oct ober in border soil enriched wi t h peat and add lime at 1 lb per sq yd. Mul ch. Wat er well after pl anti ng and from the ti me growt h starts. Venti l ate during the day onl y after frui t has set. Close the house at night. Melons 1 Prepare a soil mix of 2 oz steamed bonemeal and 2 oz compound fertilizer to one 2 gal bucketful of soil. Place this on t op of t he border soil in a ridge 1 ft high. 2 Stretch wires al ong t he sides 1 ft apart and 15 in f rom t he glass. Tie in t wo canes per plant, one f rom soil to eaves, t he other f r om t he eaves to t he house ridge. In May pl ant t he seedlings raised in heat. 3 As the plants grows tie stems to canes and laterals to t he horizontal wires. Pinch out t he growi ng poi nt when plant is 6 ft tall. Pinch back side shoots to t wo leaves beyond each flower. Increase venti l ati on. 4 Thin the fruit to f our of t he same size per pl ant when fruits are wal nut-si zed. Wat er t he plants very wel l and l i qui d feed t hem every 7-10 days. As fruits enl arge support t hem wi t h netti ng slings. Tomatoes 1 Tomatoes are an excellent choi ce of crop for a col d greenhouse for they are tender plants t hat profit greatly f rom t he protecti on glass affords. A heated propagati ng case can be used in a col d greenhouse to provi de t he added heat necessary for raising plants f rom seed. All greenhouse-grown tomatoes need careful attenti on to wateri ng, feedi ng and care in control l i ng pests and diseases. Raising tomato plants Wi t hout the use of a heated propagating case it is usually best to purchase t omat o plants rather than raise t hem f rom seed. Choose strong plants wi t h no trace of disease. Seed sowing Seed may be sown in a heated propagating case in early January for pl ant- ing eight weeks later. Sow seed thi nl y in John Innes No. 1 compost placed directly in the case or in flats or pans whi ch are placed in it. Seeds sown too thi ckl y are likely to suffer from damping-off diseases. Set the propagator thermostat to 18C/65F. At this temperature germi nati on and emergence should take place in 7-10 days. Keep t he seedlings evenly moist but not waterl ogged. Raising from seed Pricking out When the seedlings have de- veloped thei r first t rue leaves 10-12 days after sowing, carefully prick t hem out singly i nto individual 3 in peat or plastic pots filled wi t h a propri etary pot t i ng soil or mix. Insert a small dibble beneath t he roots of each seedling and hold t he seedling by its leaves to prevent damage. Use the dibble to make a hole big enough to take each seedling wi t hout re- stri cti ng its roots. Wat er t he seedlings gently to firm t he soil round their roots and replace t hem i n t he propagator. Temperature control Keep the seedlings at 18C/65F until they begin to shade each other, t hen t ur n t he thermostat down t o 16C/60F. About a week before planting, reduce t he t emperat ure to 10C/50F. Appl y a bal anced liquid feed (see page 41) and sup- port plants wi t h a small cane if they become t oo tall to support themselves. Planting Whi l e seedlings are maturi ng, decide whi ch growi ng system will be used. The main choices are between greenhouse soil, ring cul ture, 9 in pots placed di rect on greenhouse soil, growi ng bags or straw bales (for full details see page 46). If plants are to be grown directly in greenhouse soil, doubl e dig and enrich the lower spade depth wi t h wel l -rotted com- post or manure. For pot or ring cul ture fill pots wi t h John Innes No. 2 or 3 or an equivalent mix. Plant tomatoes when the young plants are 6 to 9 in tall. This is usually when the flowers on t he first truss are just openi ng. Immedi atel y before planting, water plants thoroughl y and destroy any plants that show signs of disease. Make a hole in t he chosen growi ng medi um big enough to accom- modate t he roots wi t hout crowdi ng. Place the t op of each rootball level wi t h the soil surface. Plants raised in peat pots should be made t horoughl y wet before pl anti ng (tear down one side of t he pot wall if necessary to prevent dryi ng out) and planted compl ete wi t h t he pot. Space plants about 18 in apart each way. Give planted tomatoes a t horough wateri ng in and keep t hem moist to make sure t he roots become well established. Support In t he greenhouse t omat o plants are usually best supported on soft garden string tied to a horizontal wire near the greenhouse Planting roof at one end and to the stem of t he plant, under the lowest true leaf, at t he other, Each plant is t hen twi sted loosely r ound t he string as it grows. Take care not to damage t he plant stem by pul l i ng t he string t oo ti ght. Alter natively, plants in pots or gr own entirely in greenhouse soil may be loosely tied to bamboo canes for support. Watering and feeding The success of greenhouse-grown tomatoes depends on meti cul ous at t ent i on to wateri ng and feedi ng t hr oughout t he life of t he plant. Plants will be damaged by dryi ng out whi ch causes flower drop, or waterl oggi ng whi ch is a particular hazard for plants gr own in iso- lated systems such as growi ng bags, for it qui ckl y kills off plant roots. Plants in growi ng bags will only t hri ve if t he growi ng medi um is kept uni forml y moist, whi ch may mean water- ing three or four times a day in hot weather. Ring cul ture also demands much water be- cause drainage is very rapi d. The most stable water supply is achi eved wi t h plants grown directly in greenhouse soil. In all systems, irregular wateri ng will cause frui t to split. 1 Early January Sow 2- 3 seeds per sq in in propagator filled wi t h sieved soil. Sprinkle over 1/8 in layer of soil and cover wi t h newspaper. 2 Prick out seedlings 10-12 days after sowing using a small dibble. Transfer to 3 in pots filled wi t h John Innes No. 1 or an equi val ent mix. 3 Place pots in propagator and set thermostat to 18C/65F. Wat er sparingly but often. Liquid feed before pl anti ng. 4 Mi d-l ate April When flowers on first truss are just openi ng water plants wel l . Remove plants f r om pots and pl ace 18 in apart i n chosen growi ng medi um. Tomatoes 2 Greenhouse grown tomatoes should he liquid fed wi t h a proprietary fertilizer mixed wi th the water accordi ng to the manufac- turer's instructions. A balanced fertilizer will provide nitrogen to encourage vegetative growth and potassium to i mprove quality. Trimming and de-leafing As t omat o plants grow they develop side shoots in t he j uncti ons (axils) between leaf and stem. These must be removed while they are small or they will use up water and nutrients needed by the producti ve parts of the plant. Snap off each side shoot cleanly between finger and t humb, preferably in early morni ng when t he plants are turgi d. Avoi d pulling whi ch leaves scars t hat are easily invaded by disease-causing fungi . When plants are 45 ft tall, remove t he lower leaves up to the first truss. Use a sharp knife and cut cleanly leaving no snags. De- leafing allows more light to reach the plant base, improves air ci rcul ati on and helps to combat fungal diseases. As t he trusses crop make sure any yel l owi ng or diseased leaves are removed. Pollination and fruit setting If frui t setting is a probl em it can be i mproved by assisting pollen dispersal. Spray t he plant wi t h a fine dropl et spray, shake the plant gently or tap t he flower trusses. Stopping In a col d greenhouse tomatoes will not usually produce more t han six or seven fruit trusses per season so it is best to snap off the growi ng poi nt t wo leaves beyond the sixth or seventh truss. Conti nue to remove further sideshoots, whi ch will often be stimulated i nto growt h by the stoppi ng process. Harvesting Ripe frui t should be ready for picking in mi d- May f rom seed sown in early January. Harvest t i me depends upon sowing ti me. If climate allows, crops can for instance be sown in |une for Sept ember-December crops. Pests and diseases Greenhouse tomatoes are notoriously sus- cepti bl e to pests and diseases whi ch are described in detail on pages 38- 40. Support 1 Bamboo canes can be used for support. Tie t he plant on loosely wi t h soft garden string so t hat stems are not damaged. 2 Snap off side and basal shoots between t humb and forefinger. If possible de- shoot in early morni ng when t he stems are turgi d. 3 Spray the flowers wi t h a fine dropl et spray or shake t he pl ant gentl y to disperse pol l en and i mprove frui t setti ng. 4 Liquid feed growi ng plants fol l owi ng manu- facturer' s instructions. Wat er t hem as necessary. 5 Snap off growing point 2 leaves above t op truss when 6- 7 trusses have set fruit. Remove any lower leaves t hat t urn yel l ow. 6 Pick ripe fruit by snap- pi ng t he stalk, leaving t he calyx on t he frui t. Ripe frui t left under hot sun will soon lose its firmness. Vertical training Plants are carefully twisted round soft string attached below lowest true leaf and to a horizontal wire 6- 8f t above ground level. V-training Plants are twi sted round strings set alternately at 60 to t he ground. This system is good for straw bale cul ture wi t h plants placed closer t han 18 in. TRAINING SYSTEMS Stopping Vegetables and salads 1 The greatest advantage of the cold green- house in salad and vegetable growi ng is that it can be used to extend t he growi ng season at both ends of the year. In warmer parts of the country, an unheated greenhouse can also provide winter crops. Those summer crops normally grown outside, such as t omat o and cucumber, can be grown under glass for faster maturi ng and protecti on against rain, hail and wi nd. Wi t h good pl anni ng a green- house can provi de food for the ki tchen almost all the year round. It is also very useful for raising young vegetable plants whi ch are later pl anted out i nto t he garden. The most significant l i mi tati on of the col d house is implicit in its descri pti onbecause it is unheated, t he gardener must wai t unti l the house temperature reaches a suitable poi nt before certain seeds can be sown. Also, the winter temperature i n t he col d house precludes the growi ng of many out of season crops. When considering whi ch crops to grow, make maxi mum use of space. Catch crops such as carrots and radishes can be grown between tall crops before they develop. Leaf crops Good choices for the cold house include salad greens, seakale and herbs. Lettuce Sow l ettuce seed in pots then prick t hem out into peat blocks or pots before pl anti ng t hem in greenhouse soil. If seed is sown in small quantities at fortni ghtl y inter- vals from early spring until aut umn, a constant supply can be assured. To prevent diseases, particularly botrytis, it is i mportant to venti l ate t he house well in all but the worst weather. The crop needs adequate light and attenti on to wateri ng. Give a few t horough waterings rather t han many small ones. The crop will be i mproved by a t horough soaking about 10 days before harvesting. Mustard and cress As long as t he greenhouse temperature is 10C/50F or above, mustard and cress can be sown at weekly intervals. Sow seed on a moist tissue in a shallow dish and place it in the dark under a bench, lightly covered wi t h a dark cl oth or newspaper if necessary to exclude light. Once t he seeds have germi nated, move the dish up into a lighter place and keep the seeds well watered. Winter endive Sow seed as for lettuce in late August to early September and put in a well-lit position. Venti l ate the house and water the seedlings regularly. When plants are fully grown, tie them round loosely wi t h raffia and place a large plastic pot over selected plants to blanch t he leaves. Cover the drainage hole of t he pot and support it on crocks to allow free air ci rcul ati on. Seakale From late September to late October, lift seakale crowns f rom t he garden and tri m off the side roots and any yel l owi ng foliage. Trim the main roots to about 6 in. Al l owi ng 3 crowns per pot, plant t he crowns in 9 in plastic pots filled wi th rich soil mix such as John Innes No. 3. Cover each pot wi t h another of t he same size turned upside down and place under the greenhouse staging. Ideally the crowns need a temperature of about 10C/50F, so if t he house gets t oo cold insulate the pots wi t h newspaper or burlap. Herbs Many herbs will conti nue growi ng through the wi nter if plants are potted up and brought into the cold house for protecti on duri ng winter. Herbs that benefit most from such prot ect i on include parsley, chives, mint, French tarragon, pot marj oram, rosemary, t hyme and sage. Wat er plants wel l and venti - late t he house duri ng t he day in all but the worst weather. In spring, begin sowi ng seeds of annual and biennial herbs as soon as the greenhouse t emperat ure is high enough. Root crops and bulbs Small quanti ti es of root crops can be raised in t he col d house for harvesti ng weeks before t he mai n out door crops. Seed sowi ng can begin in February-March in peat pots or di rectl y i nto slightly acid greenhouse border soil prepared accordi ng to crop requi rements. If t he vegetables are to be eaten really young and tender, make more sowings at three or four week intervals. Thoroughl y water and well venti l ate t he house once t he tempera- tures begi n to rise i n Apri l . Pods Select dwarf varieties of bush beans for cold greenhouse cul ti vati on and make t wo sow- ings, one in spring for early summer croppi ng, Lettuces 1 Sow seed in 31/2 in pots filled wi t h pot t i ng soil. Cover t he seeds lightly and water using a fine rose. Repeat sowings every 2 weeks. 2 Prick out as many seedlings as required i nto small i ndi vi dual peat blocks or pots. Wat er wel l and increase t he venti l ati on accordi ng to t he weather. 3 When plants have 4- 5 true leaves plant t he peat blocks or pots 8 in apart i nto t he greenhouse border soil. Wat er well and ensure good venti l ati on. 4 Harvest lettuce by careful l y pul l i ng up whol e plants and t r i mmi ng off t he roots, or cut plants bel ow l ower leaves. Remove discarded matter f rom greenhouse. the other in July for aut umn harvesting. Pre- germinate the seeds and sow four or five seeds round the edges of a pot filled wi t h John Innes No. 2 or equi val ent mix. For t he spring sowing wait until early April in cool areas, or germinate the seeds indoors. Water t he plants well once flowers appear and venti l ate the house in warm weather. Vegetable fruits Cucumbers, sweet peppers and eggplants, as well as tomatoes whose cul ture is des- cribed in detail on pages 70- 71, can all be grown in the cold greenhouse. Cucumbers Pre-germinate cucumber seeds then sow t hem singly in 3 in pots filled wi t h |ohn Innes No. 1 or a similar mix. Al l ow 4 to 5 weeks from sowing to pl anti ng and ti me t he operati on so t hat pl anti ng can take place in late May, if necessary germi nati ng the seeds indoors. Preferably, plants should be planted in growi ng bags (2 plants per standard bag) or singly on straw bales. At planting ti me or before, erect a system of supporti ng strings tied to horizontal wires near the greenhouse roof, or insert bamboo canes on to whi ch plants can be loosely ti ed. Developing plants should be well watered and given liquid feed and the atmosphere in the house should be kept as humi d as pos- sible. Pinch and tri m the plants as shown in the illustrations and remove any male flower. Sweet peppers These vegetable fruits are best grown in the cold greenhouse in pots. Because the seed needs a temperature of 21C/70F for germi nati on, seeds must be germinated in a propagating case and t he seedlings hardened off, or the gardener can buy plants from a nursery. Al l ow 10 to 12 weeks between sowing and pl anti ng in late May. Sow seed thi nl y on moi stened soil covered wi t h 1/8 in of compost and then wi t h glass and newspaper. When seedlings are large enough to handle, prick t hem out i nto 3 in pots filled wi t h John Innes No. 3 compost or plant 3 plants in a standard sized growi ng bag. Place pots 18 in apart on the border soil or greenhouse staging. When plants are about 6 in tall, remove the growi ng poi nt to encourage bushy growth, and support and tie them to bamboo canes if necessary. Keep plants well watered and liquid fed and venti - late the house in warm weather. Wat ch for aphids and red spider mites. Spray wi t h mal athi on or derris if pests are seen. Eggplants These need very similar cultural condi ti ons to peppers, and plants can be raised f rom seed in the same way or pur- chased from a nursery. Ai m for planting in early May and allow t wo plants to a standard size growi ng bag. Pinch out the growi ng points when plants are 9-12 in high and allow onl y 5 or 6 frui t to develop on each plant. Remove any extra fruits, leaving t he remaining ones well spaced, and pi nch off any extra flowers t hat f orm. Wat er and feed often but sparingly and venti l ate the house in hot weather. Wat ch out for pests and spray against those t hat appear as for peppers. Raising seed Seeds of many vegetables can be raised in t he col d house for planting out once t he weather is suitable to provi de earlier, more reliable crops. Sow seed in peat blocks or pots for easy planting later on and keep house well venti l ated. See pages 55- 6. Cucumbers WI TLOOF CHICORY In November, lift wi tl oof chi cory roots f rom t he garden and cut off t he leaves to wi t hi n \ in of the crown. Trim the roots to 9 in and take off any side shoots. Store the roots horizontally in boxes of dry sand outsi de under a north wall unti l t hey are needed. From mi d-November onwards plant 3 or 4 chi cory roots at weekly intervals in a 9 in plastic pot filled wi t h sand so t hat each cr own is 1/2 in above t he t op of t he soil. Wat er sparingly and cover wi t h pot to keep out light. Place under t he bench and keep well vent i l at ed. The chi cons will be ready after 4 weeks. 1 Late May Plant seedlings raised in heat in 9 in pots filled wi t h pot t i ng soil. Wat er and l i qui d feed regularly. Keep t he greenhouse humi d. 2 June-July Tie growi ng plants to canes for support. Pinch out growi ng points as main stems reach t he roof. Venti l ate frequently, but carefully, as humi di ty is i mportant. 3 June onwards Keep single laterals in each leaf axil and stop t hem at 2 leaves. Remove male flowers if appropri ate. Harvest by cut t i ng t he stems wi t h a sharp knife. Vegetables and salads 2 The year in a cool greenhouse 1 A cool greenhouse, one provi ded wi t h a heat- ing system that ensures t hat temperatures do not fall below 4.5C/40F, provides an en- vi ronment suitable for a vast range of plants. Nearly all the plants from the world' s t em- perate zones can be cul ti vated, and t he choi ce extends into those from the sub- tropi cal and tropi cal regions. A di sti ncti on is made between those plants that can be grown in wi nter in a cool house, such as salads and chrysanthemums, and those such as sub-tropical bedding plants whi ch are dormant at cool greenhouse temperatures but survive the wi nter undamaged, when they woul d die in the open garden or an unheated house. In addi ti on, all those plants whi ch will tolerate cold greenhouse condi - tions can be grown in a cool house. In many cases their growi ng seasons will be longer. It is possible to raise a wi der range of out-of- season food crops and ornamentals given t he mi ni mum temperature of a cool house. To many gardeners, t he cool greenhouse is the norm and a col d or warm house is a devi ati on from it. When gardening literature and catalogs are consul ted, it will be noti ced t hat "greenhouse pl ants" tends to mean those to be grown in a cool house. Whi l e there are very many plants to choose f rom for growi ng in a col d house, it is often wort h experi menti ng to try to wi den t he range still further. Plants rarely have an absolute mi ni mum temperature whi ch kills t hem, unless it be frost level whi ch, by freezing the cells, can cause physical damage. Many plants t hought to need higher t em- peratures than the cool house mi ni mum can in fact be accl i mated to t he prevailing con- ditions. A lot depends upon avoi di ng ex- tremes and sudden changes. If t he balance of the envi ronment heat , humi di ty and venti l ati oni s carefully wat ched, plants t hought tender may survive and go on to flourish. Among those wort h experi menti ng wi t h are t he many house plants available, and sub-tropical flowering plants such as those fostered by Vi ctori an conservatory gardeners for wi nter blooms. Management The principles of cool greenhouse care are those outl i ned earlier in this book for t he runni ng of any greenhouse. The one main difference in the running of a cool house is t he need to mani pul ate t he heating system. An inefficient heating system is undesirable for three reasons. First, if the system is not runni ng correctl y it will not be able to mai n- tain the necessary temperature and plants will suffer. The second reason is that i n- efficiency in the use of fuel will lead to rapidly escalating bills. Heating a greenhouse is expensive, and if the system used keeps the temperature unnecessarily high, or burns fuel inefficiently, the cost will be magnified. Third, certain kinds of heating system, those whi ch burn gas or oil, can harm plants if they are not adj usted correctl y. Badly set wicks and burners can cause the heater to give off poisonous fumes. Thermostats The sensible management of a heating system centers around t he use of thermostats. These devices sense tempera ture changes and act as switches, t urni ng the heati ng system on and off as requi red. They are most often used wi t h el ectri cal systems, whi ch are easily control l abl e and capabl e "I produci ng heat qui ckl y. Gas and oil systems can also be fitted wi t h thermostatsas are domesti c central heati ng boilers. A thermostat is only useful if t he system it control s has sufficient capaci ty. The heaters must be capable of mai nt ai ni ng t he desired t emperat ure wi t hout runni ng constantl y. The section on heati ng (pages 18-23) shows how to calculate the size of heati ng installation necessary. Once a large enough system has been installed, t hermost at i c cont rol will January Check draft-proofing, insulation (if fitted) and heating system. Set thermostats to night minimum of 4.5C/40F. Water plants in flower, water others sparingly. Maintain a dry atmosphere to discourage mildew. Sow canna, fuchsia, pelargonium. Bring in bulbs for flowering as they show growth. Take cuttings of winter-flowering chrysanthemums and carnations. February Ventilate when possible and gradually increase watering. Day length will increase. Maintain minimum temperature. Sow bedding plants with long germination/growing periods, half- hardy annuals, sweet peas, begonia, calceolaria, salvia, schizanthus, and germinate in a propagating case. Continue to take chrysanthemum cuttings. Sow brassicas and onions for transplanting outdoors. Sow early bunching turnips, carrots, parsnips, beets, okra, tomatoes, cucumbers. Plant tomato plants from middle of the month. Begin re-potting of ferns and palms. Bring in more bulbs for flowering. March Increase watering, ventilate well on sunny days and maintain a more humid atmosphere. Be alert for and combat insect pests such as aphids. Sow sweet pepper, squash, half- hardy annuals, tomato, bedding plants, basil. Transplant rooted cuttings taken in winter. Repot orchids and other perennials as necessary. Begin to take softwood cuttings. Pot up tuberous begonias. April Pay attention to ventilation and watering as temperatures increase. Keep heating switched on, setting thermostat for minimum night temperature. Sow cucumbers, squashes, pumpkins, dwarf French beans, runner beans for transplanting outdoors, primulas, half-hardy annuals such as stocks and zinnias, and Campanula pyramidalis. Continue re-potting and potting on. Move bulbs which have flowered to a frame. Move over-wintering pot plants outdoors into a sheltered position. Transplant seedlings from seed sown earlier in the spring. Take further softwood cuttings. Dust tomato flowers to encourage pollination. Move half-hardy plants into a frame to harden off. May Water freely, shade as necessary in sunny weather and encourage a more humid atmosphere. Sow cineraria, primula. Plant chrysanthemums and move outside. Pot on carnations, zonal pelargoniums, tuberous begonias, annuals raised from spring-sown seed. Feed all plants in active growth. Take precautions against insect pests. Pinch out young fuchsias when 4-5 in high. Remove cucumber laterals and all male flowers. Tie in tomato plants and pinch out side shoots. June Turn off and overhaul heating system. Ventilate freely, shade whenever necessary and damp down and spray to raise humidity. Water as required, twice a day if necessary. Sow calceolaria, Primula nialamides, zinnia, all for autumn and winter flowering. Feed tomato plants and all other plants in growth. Pot on plants raised from seed as necessary. Plant out bedding plants into their flowering positions in the open garden. Plunge azaleas, hydrangeas and other pot plants which have finished flowering. Cut back shoots of regal pelargoniums. The year in a cool greenhouse 2 ensure that it only operates when the tern perature falls below the pre-set level. The heater will raise t he temperature, triggering the thermostat again and cut t i ng off t he system. Thermostats must be placed away from drafts and cold spots, where they will give an artificial reading. Balance Whi l e the main stress of cold green- house management is on mai ntai ni ng the wi nter mi ni mum, t hought must be given to the other components of greenhouse management. Shading, venti l ati on and humi - dity control are all crucial, especially in summer. Just as plants have a mi ni mum temperature for healthy growt h, so they have maxi mum levels of temperature whi ch will harm t hem. Problems caused by high air temperatures are often magnified by failure to ensure adequate humi di ty. If there is not enough water vapor in t he atmosphere, plants will transpiregive out water f rom their leaves i nto t he ai rtoo quickly. Increase humi di t y by regular dampi ng down and the installation of damp sand beds under benches. Whi l e summer heat and wi nter col d have to be countered by active management, the most difficult times of the year for the runni ng of the cold greenhouse can be spring and aut umn. Duri ng these seasons the sun has power to qui ckl y heat the greenhouse, while t he nights are cool. Cold dayti me tempera- tures can easily occur due to sudden weather changes. This combi nat i on can be particularly tryi ng in the late wi nter and early spring. Sun heat is becomi ng more powerful , and the effect of the sun combi ned wi t h artificial heating can qui ckl y raise t he temperature, often above t he level required, unless ventila- t i on is prompt l y given. Under these con- ditions automati c ventilators (see pages 15- 16) show their wor t h. A col d house will not suffer so much from this probl em because it does not have t he reservoir of artificially generated heat t hat a cool house has. More sun heat is thus needed to raise the t em- perature to unwanted levels. Growing plants The fol l owi ng pages deal wi t h the cul ti vati on of ornamentals, including bedding plants whi ch are covered in detail, and f ood crops. All t he ornamentals and f ood crops covered in the preceding cold greenhouse section, such as annuals, tomatoes and salad crops, can be added to the list. The difference comes mainly in ti mi ng of sowing and croppi ng. Tomatoes, for instance, can be planted f rom mid-February onwards in a cool greenhouse, while in a cold house late Apri l is the earliest possible date. Annuals will flower earlier in t he spring in a cool house t han in a col d one. Lettuce, radish and other salad crops can be sown in late summer and aut umn for aut umn and wi nter croppi ng. Other plants Many more plants than those described in detail on the fol l owi ng pages can be grown in a cool greenhouse. The plants chosen, especially those i l l ustrated in t he step-by-step sequences, are t he most re- wardi ng for t he relatively i nexperi enced and/ or those whi ch illustrate a key growi ng prin- ciple. The i nformati on gi ven can be adapted to cover t he cul ti vati on of many other plants. There are other categories of plants of interest whi ch are less popul ar but still wort h consi deri ng if greenhouse space is available. For example, many shrubs can be grown in contai ners under glass and brought i nto flower earlier t han outsi de. Examples are lilac, forsythi a and hydrangea. Fruits such as citrus can be grown in t ubs in cool green- house condi ti ons. Most ci trus trees will tol erate a wi nt er mi ni mum of 7C/45F, t hough t he lime needs 10C/50F. Summer temperatures should be mai nt ai ned at 13- 16C/55 0 -61F for successful croppi ng. Full details of the cul ti vati on of war m temperate fruits are given in Fruit in this series. July Maintain a moist atmosphere and attend to watering. Ventilate well and shade as required. Sow sapiglossis and make a repeat sowing of Primula malacoides and calceolaria. Take hydrangea cuttings. Stake plants, especially annuals growing in pots, and train climbers Pot on pelargoniums reared from spring cuttings and plunge outdoors. Pot on carnations, and repot freesias. August Continue summer shading, watering and damping down regime. Watch for cool nights towards the end of the month as days shorten. Sow annuals for spring flowering, cyclamen, cineraria. Prick out calceolarias and other seedlings from earlier sowings. Take cuttings of pelargoniums. Pot on primulas, cinerarias. Plant bulbs for winter and spring flowering, such as freesias, tulip, hyacinth, narcissi. Feed chrysanthemums standing outdoors and water well. Repair any structural damage to the greenhouse and repaint if necessary. September Reduce watering and damping down as temperatures drop. Restart the heating system to check it and switch on if necessary towards the end of the month. Check winter fuel supplies if necessary. Reduce shading. Sow more annuals for spring flowering. Pot up remaining bulbs. Bring in azaleas, camellias, chrysanthemums and other pot plants that have spent the summer in the open. Pot on cyclamen, cinerarias and primulas into final pots and move onto greenhouse shelves. Take cuttings of bedding plants before they are discarded, and of coleus, heliotropes and fuchsias. October Switch on the heating system and set the thermostat to maintain a minimum night temperature of 4.5C/40F. Ventilate freely on warm days but exclude fog and damp. Reduce watering and remove shading completely. Pot up the last of the bulbs. Feed cyclamen, cinerarias, primulas and camellias. If possible, remove all plants and fumigate the house against fungal diseases. Scatter pellets to combat slugs. November Maintain minimum winter temperature as October and ventilate sparingly. Further reduce watering of all except plants in flower. Pot on annuals. Keep in good light and give minimum water. Bring in the first batch of bulbs for winter flowering. Prune shrubs. Sow lettuce. Bring in fuchsias, begonias and hydrangeas and store under the staging. Keep almost dry. December Fit insulation to greenhouse sides if possible and stop up all drafts. Cover the house with burlap or mats in very severe weather. Protect tender plants with paper, polyethylene or burlap if severe frost is forecast. Cut watering to the minimum. Ventilate a little when possible and run a fan heater to circulate the atmosphere. Bring in more bulbs. Box up seakale and witloof chicory for forcing. Cut down chrysanthemums after they have flowered and start to take cuttings of soft growth. Keep cineraria, cyclamen, primulas and other plants required for Christmas flowering in a warm part of the house. Water them with care, avoiding the foliage. Clear debris, dead leaves and used pots from the greenhouse. Clean all pots, trays and propagating equipment. Bedding plants 1 The cool greenhouse is an ideal place for raising summer bedding plants. Using the greenhouse in this way shortens the pro- pagation period and, as long as plants are properly hardened off and precautions taken against disease, ensures the product i on of sturdy plants. The other advantages to the gardener of raising his own plants from seed compared wi th buyi ng plants direct from t he nursery are that he knows exactly what he is growi ng and that there is less risk of plants being damaged as they do not have to be transplanted from overcrowded seed flats. Seed sowing One of the most critical aspects of raising bedding plants from seed in the greenhouse is timing. As a general rule, t he sequence of sowing is determi ned by the speed at whi ch seeds germinate and by the growt h rate of the developing seedlings. For this reason slow-growing species required for summer bedding are sown in February and March and a monthl y sowing plan adopted accord- ing to the scheme shown above. Even wi t h Growing bedding plants from seed the artificial heat provi ded by the cool greenhouse, devel opment of seeds sown in t he first t wo months of the year is slow because of low wi nter light intensity. Seeds of beddi ng plants may be sown in flats or pans (dwarf pots). Fill the chosen containers wi t h a good seed-growing mix- ture whi ch should be damp. There is no need to avoi d peat-based soils, wi t h their low nutri ent reserves, because t he seeds will germi nate relatively rapidly in the frost-free envi ronment of t he greenhouse. Once t he containers are full, press down t he soil wi t h the fingers or a presser board to wi thi n 1/4 in of t he top, but be careful not to press t oo hard as this will restrict the drainage and tend to encourage dampi ng off diseases and attack by sciarid flies. The best met hod of sowing seed depends on t he size of individual seeds. For small seeds such as those of Begonia semperflorens, mix t he seeds wi t h fine dry sand in the seed packet then sow t hem by broadcasting, keeping t he hand close to t he soil surface. Larger seeds can be broadcast in the same way, but wi t hout the addition of sand. The larger seeds, such as those of zinniasand small seeds that have been pelletedare best planted singly by hand. Cover sown seed wi t h soil but be careful not to make this coveri ng layer t oo thick. Label t he con- tainer clearly then water in the seeds wi t h a dilute mi xture of Captan or a copper-based fungicide to help prevent dampi ng off disease. Use a rose on the wateri ng can so that seeds are not dislodged from their planting positions by t he water. Germination Even in a cool greenhouse, devel opi ng seeds, particularly those sown in mi d-wi nter, will benefit f rom extra warmt h. This is best pro- vided by a propagating case. When using such a case, place the seed containers i n- side it and set t he thermostat to 21C/71F. If a propagati ng case is not available, either take t he seed containers indoors and put t hem in a warm place or cover t hem wi t h a sheet of glass. A piece of newspaper may be placed on t op of the glass as light is not i mport ant unti l after germi nat i on. As soon as the seeds germi nat e (this may take one to three weeks dependi ng on temperature and the species) remove any coveri ng and put the contai ners in a well lit place but be careful that t hey do not risk being scorched by strong sunlight. Water wi t h di l ute Captan to combat damping oil and other seedling diseases. If possible mai ntai n the t emperat ure at 21*C/70*F to promot e speedy devel opment . The seedling) also need good venti l ati on and t he green house ventilators shoul d be opened for at least an hour a day except in very severe- weather condi ti ons. Pricking out Seedlings should be pri cked out as soon as they are large enough to handl e. If left in their original containers they will become overcrowded and their roots will become so entangl ed t hat t he gardener will be unable to avoid damagi ng t hem when t hey are re- moved. Prick out seedlings i nto individual pots or flats filled wi t h John Innes No. 1 or a 1 Fill a seed flat wi t h seed-sowing soil. Firm the soil wi t h the fingertips or a presser board to wi t hi n 1/2 i n of t he t op. 2 Sow the seeds thinly. Small seeds can be mixed wi t h fine dry sand and broadcast ont o t he soil to make sowing easier. 3 Sieve soil over medium-sized or large seeds so t hat they are just covered. Do not cover small seeds. 4 Water the seed flat wi t h a di l ut e mi xture of Captan or ot her fungi ci de to combat dampi ng off and other diseases. Bedding plants 2 similar potti ng soil, taking care to handle then) by one leaf and between finger and t humb. Use a dibble to pry out the seed- lings and to make a hole in the soil big enough to accommodat e each plant. If seed- lings are pricked out i nto flats, allow at least 11/2 in between them each way to prevent overcrowdi ng. Firm the soil round each seedling wi t h the dibble, label and give another wateri ng wi t h dilute fungicide to guard against dampi ng off. Even in ideal conditions t he seedlings will suffer some check to their growt h after pricking out but careful handl i ng and trans- planting when the root system is small and unbranched will help to reduce this to a mi ni mum. After pricking out the temperature can be reduced to 18C/65F but good vent i - lation is still essential to healthy seedling devel opment. When seedlings are big enough and when there is no chance of frost, seed- lings should be hardened off in a col d frame (see page 91) or by turni ng off the greenhouse heating system and gradually increasing the venti l ati on first by day and then at night. Propagation Whi l e most beddi ng plants are raised from seed, several i mportant plants can be propa- gated by cuttings or division. Full details of these methods of propagati on are given on pages 57-63. Cuttings can be taken in aut umn when the plants are lifted, or in spring f rom tubers kept dormant over t he wi nter. Geraniums are one of many beddi ng plants t hat can be propagated by cuttings. Keep the cuttings at a mi ni mum temperature of 4C/40F over wi nter, and water sparingly. Pot on as neces- sary i nto 4 or 5 in pots, harden off and plant out i n t he normal way. Overwintering Some beddi ng plants can be overwi ntered in a cool house for re-use t he next season. Lift t he plants in aut umn and pot or box up. Cut back t he foliage by about one-half, water very sparingly and venti l ate freely to guard against gray mol d. Plenty of light is neces- sary to avoi d the product i on of drawn, weak growt h. Plant out as normal in spring. Larger seeds can be sown in peat blocks formed from damp peat-based soil wi t h a bl ocki ng device, or in peat pots. Both have the advantage of being planted wi t h the young plant in the flowering position. The seedlings are therefore not subject to the disturbance of pricking out. Sow 2- 3 seeds in each block and water well. Provide the condi ti ons described in the capti on sequence below. When t he seedlings have reached first true leaf stage, thi n to the strongest per block. When seedlings are ready to be planted out and have been hardened off in a frame or been placed outsi de duri ng t he day, plant in t he fl oweri ng posi ti ons. If possible, remove bot h plants and soil, allowing t he roots to be gentl y teased out and t he young plants to be i nserted wi t h an adequate rootbal l . Make pl anti ng holes wi t h a trowel and water wel l after firming in. Wat er well unti l t he plants have be- come established. Pot -grown greenhouse perennials can be used as dot plants. PEAT BLOCKS PLANTING OUT 5 Place the flat in a propagati ng case at 21C/70F, or in a warm place indoors if a case is not available. 6 As soon as the first seedlings emerge, place t he flat in good light. Keep t he t emperat ure at 21C/70F. 7 Spray seedlings wi t h Captan or another dilute fungi ci de to combat dampi ng off disease. Ensure t hat venti l ati on is adequate. 8 Prick out seedlings i nt o flats, boxes or i ndi vi dual pots as soon as t hey are large enough t o handle. Fruits and vegetables 1 The cool greenhouse can be used to best effect in growing food crops if it is used to cul ti vate not only tomatoes, cucumbers and the other vegetable fruits described on pages 70-73 but also more tender vegetables such as okra. Melons and early strawberries are also good subjects for the cool house and so, if space allows, are peaches and nec- tarines whi ch often fail to do well in the open. Early strawberries The cool house will enable the gardener to pick crops of strawberries in March or Apri l . Propagation In late June, peg down the runners of plants growi ng in the open garden i nto 3 in pots filled wi t h John Innes No. 1 potti ng compost buried wi t h their rims level wi t h t he soil surface. After four to six weeks, when the new plants are well established, sever t hem from the parents and place the pots on well-drained soil or in an open cold frame. Water t hem well and as plants grow pot t hem on i nto their final 6 in pots using John Innes No. 2 or an equi val ent peat-based mix. Until September, liquid feed the plants once a week and water frequentl y. Leave the plants undisturbed until Novem- ber then bury the pots up to their rims in peat or well-drained soil to prevent frost from reaching their roots. Ideally, this should be done in a col d frame but a sheltered corner of the garden (not a frost pocket) will suffice if necessary. If there is any risk of frost damage, close t he frame or cover t he plants wi t h straw. Greenhouse cultivation In mi d-December take the pots into the greenhouse and place them well apart on a sunny shelf to allow good air circulation and maxi mum light. For a fort- night keep t he temperature just above freez- ing then raise it to 7C/45F. Do not be t empt ed to t urn the heating up any higher as this will create t oo much foliage at t he expense of frui ti ng capacity. When the flower trusses appear in February, raise the mi ni mum temperature to 10C/50F and ventilate t he house a little during the dayti me if the green- house air temperature exceeds 21C/70F. At this stage plants will benefit if the house is damped down once a week and if they are given a high potash liquid feed twi ce a week. When the flowers are open, increase t he mi ni mum temperature to 13C/55F but do not open the ventilators until the temperature reaches 24C/75F. As t he flowers open, carry out a daily pol l i nati on routine, trans- ferring pollen from flower to flower wi t h a small paint brush. Duri ng this pol l i nati on period do not damp down the house as this may prevent frui t f rom formi ng. To obtai n fewer, but larger fruit, remove the smallest flowers as soon as their petals have fallen off and leave eight to ten fruits on each plant. Once frui t begins to set, resume t he dampi ng down routi ne and water the plants very well in sunny weather. Conti nue feedi ng until the fruits begin to t urn pink in order to i mprove frui t flavor. Melons In the cool house, melons can be cul ti vated as described for the col d house on page 69 except t hat by mai ntai ni ng a mi ni mum springtime temperature of 21C/70C frui t will be produced much earlier. In the cool house mel on seed can be planted in February and March to give earlier frui t in June and July respectively. Remember to damp down t he house well except duri ng pol l i nati on and when t he fruits start to ripen. Okra Also known as gumbo and ladies' fingers, okra are unusual vegetable fruits parti cu- larly good for cooki ng in curries and other oriental dishes. They are not hard to grow but bei ng tropi cal plants they need fairly high temperatures, particularly for germina- ti on and plant raising. Raising from seed Sow seed thi nl y in a seed flat filled wi t h moist soil mix or sow t hem singly in peat pots f rom February onwards. Cover the seeds wi t h a thi n layer of mix, water t hem in, then cover the pots or flats wi t h a sheet of glass and one of newspaper. Turn the glass once a day and maintain a temperature of 18-21 o C/65 o -70F. The seeds will take f rom one to three weeks to ger- minate, dependi ng on the temperature. As soon as they are big enough to handle, prick out the seedlings i nto 3 in peat or plastic pots filled wi t h John Innes No. 1 potti ng compost. Greenhouse cultivation In early spring, plant out okra di rect i nto the greenhouse border soil or transpl ant t hem i nto 10 in pots of Early strawberries 1 Mid-December Bring rooted plants in 6 in pots i nto t he cool house. Make sure they are well spaced. Keep t he temperature just above freezing. Liquid feed t wi ce a week. 2 Two weeks later raise t he t emperat ure to 7C/45F. When flower trusses appear raise i t to 10C/50F. Venti l ate and damp down when t he t emperat ure exceeds 21C/70F. 3 When the flowers open stop dampi ng down and increase t he temperature to 13C/55F. Venti l ate t he house at 24C/75F. Pollinate t he flowers daily wi t h a brush. 4 When fruit has set resume dampi ng down. Support f rui t trusses wi t h f orked twigs inserted in t he pots. Stop feedi ng when frui t begins to col or. Fruits and vegetables 2 John Innes No. 2 compost. Whi chever met hod is chosen, plants should be provided wi t h canes for support and placed 21-24 in apart in each di recti on. Throughout the growi ng season, water plants well and when they are 9-12 in high, pi nch out the growi ng points to encourage a bushy habit and a good suc- cession of flowers and fruit. Wat ch out for signs of whitefly and red spider mi te. Okra should be harvested when they are young and t he seeds inside their pods still soft. Harvest between June and September. Peaches In a large greenhouse, especially a lean-to, it is possible to grow a fan-trained peach or nectarine. Both these fruits will crop more reliably in the cool house than in t he garden. The best sort of peach to choose for a cool house is the common pl um rootstock St Julien A whi ch is semi-dwarfing and so more manageable. Soil The border soil of the greenhouse can be used but should be enriched wi t h plenty of organic matter before a peach is pl anted. Alternatively, the border soil may be re- placed wi t h a preparati on made from sods of fibrous chalky loam stacked for six months then mixed wi t h one part of rubble to every ten parts of l oam. A fortni ght before planting in spring, mix in 8oz of John Innes base fertilizer to every 2 gal bucketful of soil. Care of plants A peach will need a mi ni mum temperature of 7C/45F f rom late wi nter until frui t is f ormed. Onl y venti l ate the house when t he temperature rises above 18C/65F. Until t he flowers open, damp down the house on sunny days and spray the foliage wi t h clean water daily. In early summer, mul ch plants well wi t h rotted manure or garden compost and apply a liquid t omat o feed every 10 days f rom bud burst to the start of frui t ripening. When t he flowers open hand pollinate t hem wi t h a small paint brush and when fruitlets f orm thi n t hem to about t wo per cluster when they are about 1/2 in long. Thin again at the 1 in stage to leave fruits evenly spaced 8-10 in apart. Care after harvesting After the fruits have been pi cked, open the ventilators and leave t hem open unti l spring. 1 March Transplant young plants raised in heat di rect i nto greenhouse soil or transfer t hem to 10 in pots. Space plants 21-24 in apart and provi de canes for support. 2 Pinch out t he growi ng poi nts to encourage bushy gr owt h and a good succession of fruits when pl ants are 9-12 in tall. Guard against pests. 3 Through the growing period water plants regularly. If necessary spray against red spider mi te using mal athi on or a similar low-persistence pesticide. 4 June onwards Cut young pods as soon as they are ready, using sharp scissors, to give a l ong croppi ng peri od. Remember t hat old pods are stringy and unpal at abl e. If space allows a fan-trained peach may be grown against the back wall of a lean-to greenhouse or under the roof of a doubl e or single-span cool house. Ideally an area of 15 ft x 10 ft is needed. Plant the tree direct into greenhouse soil enriched wi t h organic matter and provi de wires 6 in . apart for support. For early frui ti ng mai n- tai n a mi ni mum temperature of 7C/45F from late wi nter until fruits are formed and venti l ate only when t he temperature exceeds 18C/65F. FAN-TRAINED PEACH The year in a warm greenhouse 1 In theory, raising the greenhouse temperature to bring it into the warm cat egorymi ni mum night temperature 13C/55Fgreatly i n- creases the range of plants that can be grown. However, t wo i mportant factors must be set against this benefit. First, the cost of heating a greenhouse to warm level is very high. Second, the range of plants easily available to gardeners and suitable for warm greenhouse conditions is relatively small. The character of a wel l -stocked warm greenhouse is qui te different from t hat of col d and warm houses. Many of t he plants are grown for their foliage, whi ch is often large and handsomely patterned. A warm greenhouse full of foliage plants, ferns and orchids has a lush, tropical feeling. The gardener's response to this markedl y different atmosphere is a matter of taste, but t he contrast between a warm house, whi ch reproduces a different climate, and the cool house, whi ch moderates an existing one, must be appreciated. Before deciding on a warm greenhouse, the gardener should consider the plants to be grown. If the main use for a greenhouse is considered to be raising food crops such as t omat o, mel on and l ettuce, wi t h a few sub- tropi cal foliage plants to add interest, a cool house will suffice, wi t h the foliage plants kept in a large propagati ng case heated to warm greenhouse levels. Similarly if a large number of seeds are to be raised in t he early spring, a propagati ng case of soil-heated bench bed will be more economi cal . A medi um sized greenhouse can also be fitted wi t h a parti ti on and used as a combi ned cool and warm house. The inner section can then be double-glazed and fitted wi t h a hi gh- powered heati ng system, while t he outer part of the house is run as a cool house. This allows plants to be moved from one to another when they are needed for flowering or forci ng. Bulbs can be placed in t he cool section after flowering, and plants raised from seed in t he warm house can be moved i nto the cool section as the first stage in hardening off. The routi ne management of a warm greenhouse follows much the same pattern as any other heated house. In general, venti l ati on problems are fewer than under a cool regime. Ventilators will not need open- ing until the temperature reaches 21-24"C/ 70-75F. If, on days of cool winds, hot sun and passing cl oud banks the temperature briefly rises to 38C/100F, there need be no cause for alarm. Shading, however, is vital especially as many of t he plants grown come from forest or jungle envi ronments where shade is dense and light intensity low. Heating The heating system will need careful design to ensure t hat it is capable of mai ntai ni ng t he mi ni mum temperature necessary. See pages 20- 21. Whi chever fuel is chosen for the main heating system, failures can occur. Electricity is subject to power cuts, whi ch can affect gas and oil systems as well as electric ones by cutti ng power to pumps and igniters. Solid fuel and oil systems may be forced out of acti on by fuel supply problems. A back-up system whi ch uses another fuel is vital, for if the wi nter night temperature is allowed to fall many valuable plants may be lost. A kerosene heater, kept well mai ntai ned and wi t h a full fuel tank, is a good insurance. Electric fan heaters are also useful back ups for solid fuel systems. Fan heaters also have the beneficial effect of ci rcul ati ng air, Pests and diseases, especially fungal diseases ,and mildew, can be a probl em all the year round in a warm greenhouse. A buoyant at mo- sphere, such as that produced by a fan heater, helps to prevent such troubl es. Foliage plants Many of the foliage plants cul t i vat ed in warm greenhouses are wi del y grown as house plants. Some houses plants require a higher mi ni mum temperature t han even a warm greenhouse provides, but most will thri ve in the better light and more even envi ronment of a greenhouse. The many books on house plants describe t he gr owi ng condi t i ons needed. Bear in mi nd t hat whi l e wi nter condi ti ons in a warm greenhouse may be ideal for some house plants, t hey may find summer temperatures there t oo hot. Shading must be considered an essential when growi ng foliage plants. Among fol i age plants suitable for warm greenhouse condi t i ons are: Aphelandra squarrosa (zebra plant). Deep January Restrict watering to those plants in flower or active growth. Keep humidity low and ventilate only around noon, maintain a buoyant atmosphere. Sow begonia, gloxiana, strepocarpus in heat, also those seeds listed under Cold and Cool greenhouses for sowing in a propagator. Bring in bulbs for forcing. Force early-flowering azaleas and other flowering shrubs. Force seakale, witloof chicory and rhubarb boxed up in the autumn. Take softwood cuttings of begonia and geranium. Root succulents, coleus, philodendron, tradescantia and other plants which develop aerial roots. Check perennials and re-pot those that are getting pot-bound. Clear out unwanted, sickly or overcrowded plants. Prepare pots, flats and benches for seed sowing and propagation. February Water more freely and ventilate in sunny weather. Keep up cold weather precautions such as insulation and draft proofing. Sow half-hardy annuals and begin sowing bedding plants. Sow celery and brassicas for transplanting into the open garden. Sow tuberous begonia seeds in a propagating case. Take cuttings of chrysanthemum, fuchsia, salvia and perpetual - carnations. Box up dahlia tubers in peat to promote growth for cuttings next month. Continue re-potting and pot up rooted cuttings. Bring more bulbs and shrubs in for flowering. Bring in batches of primula, and cineraria. Force lily of the valley. March Ventilate freely on warm days and maintain a more humid atmosphere. Shade susceptible plants from bright sun. Increase humidity by syringing, spraying and damping down, keeping plants in flower dry. Begin feeding plants in active growth and those due for spring flowering. Sow tomato, cucumber, pepper, eggplant, melon stocks, aster, zinnia, coleus. Prick off seedlings grown from previous month's sowing. Take cuttings of dahlia, fuchsia, hydrangea, solanum, salvia. Continue re-potting. Divide ferns and cannas if necessary. Stop decorative chrysanthemums and perpetual carnations propagated from cuttings taken earlier in the year. Move orchids and camellias into shady areas of the greenhouse. Bring in begonia tubers, place in flats of peat and start into growth. Pot up as leaves appear. April Ventilate for most of the day, but beware of night frosts, which can still be sharp. Water freely, increase humidity by damping down and syringing, and shade when necessary. Where most plants require shade permanent summer shading can be applied this month. Continue feeding and be on the alert for increasing pest and disease problems. Fumigate the greenhouse against pests if possible. Take softwood cuttings of camellia, fuchsia, osmanthus and other suitable plants. Repot azaleas, camellias and other shrubs after they have finished flowering. Trim plants into shape at the same time. Pot on fuchsia, petunia and zonal pelargonium. Re-pot orchids. Move seedlings of half-hardy annuals and bedding plants to a frame to harden off before planting out. Move winter-flowering bulbs to a frame and plunge. May Increase watering, damping down and shading as temperatures rise. Continue feeding and pest and disease control. Continue to sow primula and sow cineraria for winter flowering. Sow Begonia semperflorens for winter flowering. Take cuttings of most plants, especially euphorbia, azalea, heaths, and begonia. Pot on rooted cuttings and prick on seedlings. Harden off seedlings as necessary in a frame. Move remaining potted bulbs into the open garden or frame for plunging. Pot on gloxiana, celosia, begonia. Pot on chrysanthemums and stand the pots outdoors in full sun. June Turn off and overhaul the heating system. Use a fan or kerosene heater if unseasonal weather occurs. Ventilate freely and shade the house. Water twice a day if necessary. Maintain humidity by damping down, spraying and syringing frequently. Continue to sow primula, calceolaria, cineraria, and zinnia for early autumn flowering in pots. Sow gloxiana and begonia for flowering the following year. Take cuttings of fuchsia, hydrangea, tuberous begonia, rockea and other succulents. Pot chrysanthemums into flowering pots. Pot on as necessary young plants grown from seeds and cuttings. Hand-pollinate melons. Feed tuberous begonias. The year in a warm greenhouse 2 green, broadly whi te-vei ned leaves wi t h spikes of yellow bracts and flowers. 2- 3f t . ( alathea spp. Many plants in this genus are grown as house plants. They need a mi ni mum temperature of 16"C/60"F. C. Makoyana (pea- cock plant) is one of the most striking, wi t h oval leaves yellow-green above wi t h a bold patterning of large and small dark green ovals. The same pattern is reproduced in red on t he undersides of the leaves. 3 ft. Cyperus altemifolius (umbrella grass). Not botanically a grass, this plant provides a valuable contrast to broad-leaved plants. It requires plenty of moisture. 2- 4f t . Dieffenbachia (dumb cane). Species include D. amoena, wi t h whi te spotted leaves and D. picta wi t h smaller, deep green ivory flushed leaves. The variety D. p. ' Rudolph Roehrs' has longer, almost entirely yellow leaves wi t h whitish blotches and green mid-rib and leaf margins. All thri ve best at above 16C/60F. 3 ft or more. Fittonia verschaffelti. This trailing pl ant has olive-green leaves wi t h an elaborate net- work of red veins. Gynura (velvet plant). Two species are grown as foliage plants, both having dark green leaves felted wi t h purple hairs. C. aurantiaca is shrubby, C. sarmentosa has a trailing habit. Iresine spp. Several members of this genus are grown as short-term foliage plants in pots. The beefsteak plant (/. herbstil) has deep red- purpl e oval leaves on red stems. Maranta leuconeura (prayer plant). This low- growi ng spreading plant can be used at the front of a bench bed. Species have varied- col ored leaves. Peperomia spp. Plants f rom this genus grown for thei r foliage have shrubby, trailing and cl i mbi ng habits. Many are epithytes, and all need a free-draining soil mix. Pilea. Two species are grown as foliage plants. P. cadierei is a bushy plant wi t h elliptic leaves patterned wi t h silvery blotches. P. microphylla has sprays of small leaves. The inconspicuous flowers shed pollen explosively, hence t he vernacular name of artillery plant. Flowering plants Plants listed below are perennials. Other fl oweri ng plants appear in t he bulbs list, and orchids and begonias are discussed on the succeeding pages. Annuals and the other flowering plants listed in the cool greenhouse section can be grown in a warm house. Coleus Thyrsoideus. This sub-shrub carries clusters of blue flowers in wi nter. It is best raised annually from cuttings in spring. 3 ft. Columnea. These trailing plants are very well suited to hanging baskets. C. glorosa has pendant chains of small reddish leaves and tubul ar red flowers in wi nter and spring. Crossandra infundiluliformis. A shrubby peren- nial, this plant carries fan-shaped pink to red flowers for much of the year. The foliage is attracti ve. 2- 3 ft. lusticia spp. Several are grown as annuals from spring cuttings. /. carnea has pink to purple tongue-l i ke flowers in aut umn. It can reach 4- 6 ft if regularly pot t ed on. J.. rizzenii has an arching habit and clusters of scarlet and yel l ow flowers for much of the year. Rhoeo spathaca (boat lily). Small whi te flowers are carried on boat-shaped bracts in the leaf axils. Becomes cl ump-f ormi ng wi t h age. 1ft. Saintpaulia ionantha (African violet). Easy to propagate, and compact, this plant has become very popular. Mai ntai n 16C/60F, light shade and moderat e humi di ty. For propagati on, see pages 60- 61. Streptocarpus (cape primrose). S. rex/7 and its hybrids have dark wri nkl ed leaves and clusters of funnel -shaped flowers in a variety of colors. Shade tol erant. Shrubs and climbers The fol l owi ng species whi ch survive at a wi nt er mi ni mum of 13C/55F. Acalphya hispada. This shrub has large oval leaves and cri mson tassel like fl ower clusters. It will grow to 6 ft, but can be kept to half this height by pruni ng. Antigonon leptopus (coral vine). Fast-growing and needing pl enty of space, this twi ni ng cl i mber has narrow leaves and small bright pink flowers in clusters. 10 ft or more. Coffea arabica ' Nana' (dwarf coffee). The coffee tree has shiny dark green leaves, fragrant whi t e flowers and red berry-like fruits. 3- 6 ft. Dipladenia spendens. A vi gorous twi ni ng cl i mber wi t h large pink fl owers. Tuberous- rooted, it should be cut back hard each wi nter. 10 ft. July Ventilate night and day according to temperature. Maintain a moist atmosphere and keep all plants well watered. Shade as necessary. If necessary, repaint the greenhouse interior, choosing a spell of settled weather for the task and moving the plants outside or into a frame. Maintain the pest control program. Look out for and combat fungal diseases. Continue to sow primula, cineraria, calceolaria, also first batches of annuals for winter and spring flowering. Take cuttings of hydrangeas and other plants not propagated in June. Re-pot freesias and pot on cuttings and seedlings planted earlier in the year as necessary. Pot on perpetual carnations and place them in an open frame. Move remaining winter-flowering shrubs to a frame or outdoor plunge bed. August Prepare heating system for autumn operation. Order fuel if necessary. Use a fan or kerosene heater to maintain night temperature in unseasonal weather. Continue watering, shading and pest and disease control. Sow more annuals for spring flowering. Sow cyclamen. Take cuttings of half-hardy bedding plants such as geranium, also take softwood cuttings such as coleus, begonia, tradescantia, regal and fancy pelargoniums. Feed and water chrysanthemums placed outdoors. Tie them in to stakes to prevent wind damage. Pot up first batch of bulbs for winter flowering. Pot on cineraria and primula grown from seed. September Remove permanent shading and start the main heating system, setting the thermostat to maintain the necessary minimum night temperature. Continue to water and damp down freely and ventilate when necessary. Temperatures may range from very warm to freezing, so control ventilation carefully. Pot up more bulbs for winter flowering. Place cyclamen, cineraria and primula into flowering pots. Bring into the greenhouse azaleas, camellias and other perennials which have spent the summer in the open garden. Bring in chrysanthemums for autumn flowering. Spray and wipe down the leaves of foliage plants. Prune woody climbers. Pinch out the flower buds on fibrous begonias to encourage winter flowering. October Reduce watering and cut humidity. Continue to ventilate and provide heat as necessary. Do not allow air to become stagnant through inadequate ventilation, or mildew may occur. Wash down the glass, inside and out, to permit maximum light penetration during winter. Pot up tulips and further batches of other bulbs for winter and spring flowering. Bring in remaining chrysanthemums. Re-pot all plants that have outgrown their pots during the summer. Bring in any perennial bedding plants and tub or pot fruit trees and shrubs needing winter protection. Plant climbers and fruit trees and bushes. Feed cyclamen, camellia, cineraria and primula. November Cut ventilation to the minimum, opening the house only in the middle of the day. Water sparingly and reduce humidity. Keep temperature above the minimum but not too warm. Re-pot lilies. Bring in early bulbs from the frame. Bring primulas and calceolaria in from the frame or cool house for early flowering. Lift and store begonia tubers. Box up seakale, witloof chicory and rhubarb for forcing. December Maintain minimum temperatures, ventilate carefully and water sparingly. Only those plants in bloom or about to bloom will need much water. Cure drafts and insulate wherever possible. Bring in more bulbs for forcing. Cut back chrysanthemums as they finish flowering, and place the stools in a frame. Bring in azaleas, deutzia, primula, cineraria and cyclamen for winter flowering. Force seakale and witloof chicory. Using frames 1 A frame is a versatile piece of equipment which can be used as an extension <>l the greenhouse or on its own. A frame is parti- cularly useful for a gardener wi t hout a green- house, especially if it can be heated, for given the restrictions in size, a heated frame can be used for most of t he plants t hat can be grown in a greenhouse. Both heated and unheated frames can be used for raising new plants, i ncl udi ng early vegetables; for extendi ng the growi ng season; for hardening off green- house-grown plants before they are pl anted out i n t he garden; for overwi nteri ng plants such as chrysanthemums and for pl ungi ng potted bulbs t hat will later be taken indoors to bl oom. The soil, mix or other growi ng medi um placed in t he frame will depend on the exact use to whi ch the frame is put. The main shapes and sizes of frames are described in detail on page 7. The frame should be deep enough to accommodat e t he plants to be grown in it. Siting A frame can be placed abut t i ng a greenhouse or on its own. If one wall of t he frame is placed against t he greenhouse wall t he frame will benefit f rom i mproved insulation and re- duced heat loss. Anot her advantage is t hat the heating system of t he greenhouse can usually be extended to serve t he frame. Place a frame t hat is to be used on its own in an open, sunny, easily accessible posi ti on that affords plenty of light and some shelter f rom high winds. Never place a frame in a corner of the garden known to be a frost pocket. The general rules for siting frames and green- houses are further explained on pages 12-13. Heating A cold frame, t hat is a frame wi t h no f orm of heating, is less useful t han a heated frame whi ch will allow a wider range of plants to be grown. In a heated frame, early vegetables will be ready for croppi ng sooner and there is less chance of tender plants failing to sur- vive the wi nter. A heating system for a frame works by heating t he soil and/or t he air. Soil heating can be provi ded by electric cables or, if the frame is abut t i ng a heated greenhouse, by hot water pipes. The air in a frame can be heated by electric cables or hot water tubes placed round the walls. Whi chever heating system is chosen (see also pages 18-23) it should always i ncl ude an accurate t hermo- stat to aid careful regulation of t he growi ng condi ti ons wi t hi n the frame. Insulation To help conserve t he heat built up in a frame duri ng t he day, t he frame lights can be covered on cold nights wi t h burlap sack- ing or a roll of ol d carpet. Place blocks of wood carefully on t op of t he sacking or carpet to prevent i t f rom bl owi ng away. Alter- natively, buy a special sheet wi t h eyelet holes and ti e it to wooden pegs placed in t he soil. The sides of the frame can also be insulated by lining t hem wi t h bales of straw encased in chi cken wire. Ventilation Plants grown in heated and col d frames need good venti l ati on to encourage free air ci rcu- l ati on. Poor venti l ati on increases air humi di ty wi t hi n t he frame and encourages t he growt h of disease-causing organisms. Make sure t hat t he lights of t he frame can be opened at several different levels and t hat they can easily be removed altogether. For venti l ati on t he lights may be propped open wi t h a block of wood, or a brick, or pushed back entirely off t he f rame and placed at an angle over t he frame wi t h one end on t he ground, as long as they will not bl ow away. In very wi ndy weather secure t he lights wi t h cord wound round cleats screwed to the frame wall, or by hooks and eyes. Watering To water t he plants in a frame t he lights can simply be lifted or removed. Always water plants wi t h a rose fi tted to t he wateri ng can or hose so t hat soil is not washed away f rom around pl ant roots. Semi -automati c wateri ng wi t h a perforated hose or capillary wateri ng as used in t he greenhouse (see pages 24-26) are also effective and time-saving. In t he capillary system, water is supplied via a tri ckl e irrigation line whi ch ensures a slow, steady water supply to t he growi ng medi um i n the frame. When t he frame is not in use and in t he summer, remove t he lights so t hat t he soil can get a good natural wateri ng f rom t he rain. This will also help to prevent a damaging bui l d-up of mineral salts in t he soil. Growing early carrots in a heated frame 1 February Dig garden soil in t he frame. Place heati ng cables in t he frame and cover t hem wi t h 6 in of good garden soil. 2 Rake in 2- 3 oz of general fertilizer then water wel l . Close t he frame. 3 A week later Sow seed in drills 4 in apart or broadcast at 1/12 oz per square yard. Set thermostat to 18C/65F. Keep frame shut. 4 March As seedlings devel op t hi n (if necessary) to 111/2 in apart. Remove all thi nni ngs. Wat er to fi rm. Replace lights. 5 As weather warms open lights on sunny days but close t hem at night. Plants will now need more water. 6 April Remove lights compl et el y when all chance of frost is past. Store lights in a safe place. Harvest carrots as needed. Using frames 2 Light and shading To ensure maxi mum entry of light, keep frame lights clean at all times and renovate and clean t hem in summer. As in t he greenhouse, plants in a frame risk being scorched and badly damaged by hot sun. To prevent this, apply a shading compound to t he inside of the frame lights as necessary, or place a sheet of muslin or small mesh plastic netti ng over the frame on hot, sunny days. The coveri ng can be rolled back in cl oudy weather. Raising seed Seed of all kinds can be sown in a heated or unheated frame in pots, boxes or flats or directly i nto prepared soil. Turn on t he heat- ing system, if there is one, for a day or t wo before sowing to warm t he soil. Seeds of hardy plants can be sown in a heated frame as early as February, seeds of tender plants from late February to March. For an un- heated frame, add on another mont h to six weeks in each case, and more if the spring is a cold one. Seedlings in pots or boxes are best placed in the frame on a 3 in layer of gravel or weathered ashes to allow good Hardening off in an unheated frame drainage or, if a capillary wateri ng system is used, on a 2 in layer of coarse sand placed on a thi ck sheet of pol yethyl ene. Note that seeds pl anted in pots or boxes will need more care in wateri ng as they dry out more qui ckl y t han those pl anted di rect i nto t he soil. Seedlings of tender or hal f-hardy plants raised in a heated frame will also need hardening off before they are pl anted out i nto t he garden. Early crops in a heated frame Carrots, radishes, lettuces, beets and spring onions are among t he many vegetables t hat can be grown in a heated frame for early croppi ng and for eating when young and tender. Mont hs of pl anti ng for heated frames are shown in t he list above. Soil Most early crops can be sown in the frame di rect i nto good wel l -dug garden soil enri ched wi t h wel l -rotted manure, compost or peat, plus 2- 3 oz of a general wel l -bal anced fertilizer per square yard. If t he garden t op soil is very stony or shallow, it may be prefer- able to replace t he t op 1-11/2 ft wi t h new good-qual i ty t op soil or to replace t he soil compl etel y wi t h good sterilized soil placed on a perforated pol yethyl ene sheet placed in t he frame. If necessary, make provision for any parti cul ar needs of the crop to be grown l ettuces for example do best in humus-ri ch soil whi l e carrots prefer soil t hat has not been freshly manured. Care of seedlings Freshly sown seed of most vegetable crops will germi nate best at a t em- perature of 18C/65F so this is t he ideal t hermost at setting for seed pl anted in late wi nter or early spring. On col d nights, insu- late the frame wi t h burlap or similar material. The frame should be venti l ated duri ng the day as long as t he weather is not very col d or wi ndy. In bad weather ensure maxi mum entry of light by washing all debris off the lights regularly. As t he weather warms the lights can be opened wider duri ng t he day and closed at night. Once all risk of frost is past and plants are well established, the lights can be removed altogether, cleaned and stored and t he heating system t urned off. Crops in a cold frame For vegetables, a col d frame provides similar protecti on to cloches (see page 94) but re- tains heat better and is cool ed less by the wi nd. Vegetables sown in a cold frame will still crop earlier than those sown outdoors wi t h no prot ect i on. Among t he best crops for the col d frame are cucumbers, zucchinis, melons, smaller squashes and out door tom atoes. Cucumber and similar seeds are best pre-germi nated at a t emperat ure of 21C 70F before bei ng pl anted in t he col d frame i n early May. Venti l ate t he frame as necessary duri ng t he day and close it down at night until plants are established t hen remove the lights in June. For out door t omat oes, raise seeds indoors and pl ant t hem out i n t he col d f rame i n May or early June. Venti l ate t he f rame as neces- sary but do not remove t he lights compl etel y until t he plants are well established, by whi ch t i me t hey will have probabl y out gr own the hei ght of t he frame. The lights can be replaced at t he end of t he season to help ripen t he last fruits and combat frost. Cuttings Cuttings of all types can be gr own in a frame. Use a heated frame for cutti ngs of tender 1 Spring As air temperature rises, place boxes or pots of greenhouse-reared seedlings or cuttings in t he frame. 2 During first week (weather permitting) leave lights half open duri ng t he day for venti l ati on but close down each night. 3 During second week leave lights open a little at night. Towards end of week remove lights compl etel y except in wi ndy weather. 4 In third week remove plants f r om t he frame and pl ant i n thei r permanent positions in t he garden. Using frames 3 Softwood shrub cuttings can be pl anted in a cold frame in June, semi-hard ones in July and August. See pages 57-59 for details. Hardening off Many tender or half-hardy plants raised in t he greenhouse need to be put t hrough a "t ough- eni ng-up" process called hardening off before they are pl anted out i nto t he garden. A col d frame is ideal for this purpose. In spring, when there is no risk of tender or half-hardy plants being exposed to frost once they are in their permanent positions in t he garden, take pots or boxes of young plants f rom t he greenhouse and place t hem in t he frame. For one week leave t he lights open duri ng t he day (as long as the weather is not col d or wi ndy) but close them at night. Duri ng t he second week, leave the lights open a little at night. Towards the end of t he second week open t he frame as wi de as possible at night. In t he t hi rd week the plants can be pl anted in thei r permanent positions in t he garden. Plunging bulbs in an unhealed frame Overwintering and storage A frame can act as a useful protected storage site for plants duri ng the wi nter and, at the same t i me, save valuable space in t he green- house. A heated frame will be needed for tender plants such as pelargoniums and fuchsias whi ch shoul d be placed in the frame in September. In t he same mont h, freesias can be pot t ed up and placed in a heated frame. Out door chrysanthemums can be overwi nt ered in an unheated frame after they have been cut back and boxed in a pro- prietary pot t i ng mix. The frame should be well venti l ated except in very severe weather to help prevent diseases such as botrytis, whi ch are encouraged by stagnant air. Storage A col d frame can be empl oyed to store dormant bulbs and tubers t hat are susceptible to frost damage. After lifting dahlia tubers, for example, pack t hem in boxes of dry peat before storing t hem in a heated frame. Store bulbs in a col d frame loosely packed in wooden boxes wi t h plenty of room for air to ci rcul ate between t hem. Make sure the frame is well venti l ated but guard against damp whi ch can cause rot. The plunge bed A plunge bed is a bed of damp sand, peat or a mi xture of gravel and weathered coal ashes 1ft deep i nto whi ch pots are buri ed or plunged up to their rims. A plunge bed in a col d frame is useful for accommodat i ng plants t hroughout t he year. From spring on- wards, as alpines finish flowering in the alpine house, transfer t hem to t he plunge bed. Plunge t he pots up to their rims and keep the bed damp but never let it become dry or waterl ogged. The cool moist envi ronment of t he plunge bed will produce good strong growt h. Similarly, pot -grown greenhouse plants can be plunged in summer, whi ch will prevent t hem f rom dryi ng out t oo qui ckl y. Duri ng t he summer there is no need to place the lights on t he frame. Bulb forcing In wi nter, use t he plunge bed for forci ng bulbs. Plant bulbs in pots, plunge t hem and cover t he pots wi t h a 3 in layer of peat. Place t he lights over t he frame, leaving t hem open a little for venti l ati on. After eight weeks the bulbs will have f ormed good root systems and can be taken indoors in succession for flowering. OVERWINTERING Heated and unheat ed frames are very use- ful for stori ng and prot ect i ng flowering plants in wi nter, so freei ng val uabl e green- house space. Use a heat ed frame for tender plants such as pel argoni ums. Lift plants f rom t he garden i n aut umn, cut t hem back and pl ant i n boxes before pl aci ng t hem i n t he f rame. Similarly, make chrysant hemum "st ool s" by cut t i ng back plants t o wi t hi n 4 - 6 i n of t he ground before boxi ng t hem up and pl aci ng t hem i n an unheat ed frame. Vent i l at e well.. 1 October Fill frame wi t h a 1 ft layer of sand, peat or a mi xture of gravel and weathered coal ashes. Wat er and allow to settle. 2 Plant hyacinth bulbs in pots t hen plunge up to thei r rims in t he frame. Cover wi t h a 3 in layer of peat to exclude light. 3 Place lights over frame to protect pots f rom heavy wi nter rainfall. Keep the frame well venti l ated. 4 After eight weeks Remove pots f rom frame and take indoors in sequence for fl oweri ng. Using cloches Cloches provi de plants wi t h virtually the same protecti on as cold frames, except t hat they retain heat rather less well and t hat t he air inside t hem is cool ed more qui ckl y by t he wi nd. The advantage of cloches is t hat they are more mobi l e and versatile to use. Cloches can be empl oyed in many wayst o warm the soil before seeds are sown; for raising seedlings, especially half-hardy annual bed- di ng plants and vegetables to extend the growi ng season at each end of t he year; to protect individual plants, particularly alpines, from col d and wet and to save bl ooms f rom splashing and spoiling by mud; to provi de shelter f rom col d and wi nd and to ripen off onions and similar crops in poor weather. Cloches can also be used to spread t he season of cut flowers. Rows of gladioli, for example, tend to flower at t he same ti me, but if half is cl oched, the cutti ng peri od is lengthened. Using cloches Cloches should be placed in an open position away f rom the shade of trees. Never put t hem in a very wi ndy place where they will cool qui ckl y and risk being damaged or bl own Year-round uses for cloches 1 January Place cloches over soil prepared for seed sowing. Leave for 2- 3 weeks to dry and warm soil. Do not close cl oche ends. over. Any cloches likely to be overturned by strong wi nds shoul d have fittings to anchor t hem to t he ground or should be secured wi t h string ti ed to pegs placed in t he ground. Leave pl enty of room between rows of cloches for easy access and wateri ng. Ventilation Venti l ati on is essential to prevent t he bui l d- up of stagnant, over-moi st ai rt hat encourages disease. If single cloches are placed in rows, always leave a small gap between each one if t he cloches have no bui l t-i n venti l ati on system such as adj ustabl e t op or sides. In the case of a pol yethyl ene tunnel sides can be lifted and supported wi t h a pot or wooden block. The gaps between t he cloches can be increased if necessary to let in more air, but to avoid t oo much draft, and consequent heat loss, close t he ends wi t h purchased cl oche ends or wi t h a sheet of glass or thi ck plastic held in place wi t h a wooden stake. Soil preparation Before placing cloches in position, prepare t he soil for t he plants or crop t hat is to be protected accordi ng to its specific needs and make sure t hat t he same crop is not grown in t he same soil t wo years runni ng. Before sowing seed or planting out seedlings raised in a greenhouse or heated frame, put the cloches in posi ti on and leave t hem for t wo to three weeks to dry and warm the soil. A dressing of balanced fertilizer can be raked in before cloches are posi ti oned. Watering Cloches need only be removed for wateri ng if they are coveri ng small seedlings whi ch need a very even sprinkling of water. Other- wise, water can be applied to cloches f rom overhead wi t h a wateri ng can or hose if there is insufficient rain. The water runs down t he sides of t he cloches and is absorbed i nto t he soil, reaching t he roots of t he plants whi ch grow naturally towards sources of f ood and water. For l ong rows of cloches it is also possible to supply water via a sprinkler or irrigation t ubi ng placed between t he rows. On light soil make a shallow channel on t he outside of each cl oche in whi ch water can easily collect and drain into t he soil. STORING CLOCHES Store cloches not in use by stacki ng t hem on their ends in a sheltered corner of the garden where they will not get broken or bl own over by strong wi nds. 2 Early spring Use cloches to protect newly sown seed and seedlings. Close cl oche ends but venti l ate well accordi ng to type. 3 Autumn In rainy weather place harvested onions under cloches to dry out before storage. Venti l ate wel l . Leave ends open. 4 Winter Single cloches can be put over alpines such as cushi on plants susceptible to rotti ng i n wet soil.