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Types of greenhouses and frames 1

Greenhouses vary greatly in size, shape and


type to meet the widely different demands of
gardeners. This wide choice is not always
helpful to the beginner, who is often thor-
oughly confused by the variety of shapes and
materials. The basic factors which must be
considered are what the greenhouse is to be
used for, the amount of money available, and
where the greenhouse is to be erected.
When buying a greenhouse, carefully
assess the amount of growing space required.
There are two ways of measuring growing
space. The first is a simple calculation of the
soil or bench area available, which tells how
many plants may be accommodated. Simply
multiply the length of the greenhouse by the
breadth, taking account of t he space taken
up by paths, doors and equipment such as
heaters and water tanks. The second way of
calculating space is to consider the growing
area in conjunction with the height at the
eaves and t he height at the ridge. These two
dimensions affect first the amount of grow-
ing space for tall plants, such as tomatoes,
shrubs and climbers, and second ease of
access and comfort in use. In general, the
larger the greenhouse the cheaper each unit
of growing space becomes, though this is less
apparent in those models where the walls
slope inwards. All too often the beginner
chooses a greenhouse which in time proves
to be too small. If cost dictates a small green-
house to start with, make sure it is a model to
which extra sections can be added.
Shapes and styles
Greenhouses are either free-standing or lean-
to, that is, supported on one side by a house
or other wall. Free-standing houses may have
straight or inward sloping walls. Roof shapes
may be a simple span, hipped or double-
hipped curvilinear. The "mini" lean-to is a
structure much narrower than the usual lean-
to greenhouse. They are useful for the small
garden or where wall space is at a premium.
The smallest ones are too narrow to enter and
maintenance of the plants is done from the
outside. On sunny walls overheating can be a
problem in summer.
During recent years greenhouse manufac-
turers have been seeking more original de-
signs, and as a result circular and domed
styles have come on to t he market. These
usually have flat oblong wall panels but some
also are geodesic in structure, miniature
versions of t he vast space-dome-like Clima-
tron greenhouse at t he Missouri Botanic
Garden. Some of the more recent designs
have curved glass panels and an overall shape
that suggests the great Palm House at Kew
Gardens in London. Certain circular styles
have decided aesthetic appeal and can be-
come a feature or focal point in t he garden.
In addition they contain a surprising amount
of space, as the central path of a traditional
oblong structure is done away with. At
present however, they are more expensive in
terms of growing space than structures of
traditional shape.
Types of greenhouses and frames 2
Another departure from the tradi ti onal
greenhouse is the use of a framework of
tubul ar alloy or steel supporti ng a cover made
of plastic sheeting. Early models, still much
used commerci al l y, are called tunnel houses.
Smaller versions of this simple pattern are
available for t he amateur, and wel ded frame-
works in a vari ety of shapes are made.
Generally these have a tradi ti onal outl i ne but
some are dome-shaped. Plastic houses are
cheaper than glass-clad ones but have draw-
backs in use (see pages 10 and 11).
Design
Greenhouses can be fully glazed, or they can
have one or more sides boarded or bri cked
up to staging height. Both styles have advan-
tages, and t he choi ce must depend upon t he
use to whi ch t he greenhouse is to be put. If
crops are to be grown in t he border, glass to
ground is needed for light. If most plants will
be grown in pots, a staging is essential and t he
wall area beneath it can be made solid. Brick,
wood or asbestos-cement half walls provi de
useful insulation, cut t i ng the heating require-
ments of t he greenhouse. A compromi se is
to board the nort h wall only, gaining some
insulation wi t h little effect on light values.
Removable wooden insulation panels are
made for some designs of greenhouse. These
can be fi tted i n wi nter and removed when
crops are to be grown in t he bed. Kick boards
should be fi tted at t he base of glass-to-ground
walls to protect against accidental damage.
The crucial factors in the choi ce of shape
are accessibility, light transmission, and sta-
bility and durability. Commercially-available
greenhouses can be expected to be stable,
t hough t he site must be taken i nto account in
choosing a design. Plastic-covered houses,
for instance, are less durable in very wi ndy
places. Accessibility covers factors such as
door design, whi ch is dealt wi t h on page 9,
and heights at eaves and ridge pole. Low-
built houses can be raised on a home-made
pl i nth of brick, wood or concrete to give
extra headroom. Light transmission is critical
only in wi nter and early spring, for duri ng t he
summer months more light is available than
is needed by the plants. Thus light is only of
concern when planning very early crops.
Mobile greenhouses
Commerci al growers use mobi l e greenhouses
of t he Dut ch light type, whi ch can be pulled
on a system of rails over crops. These al l ow a
crop rotati on program to be f ol l owed. For
example, salad crops can be started on one
site in spring, t hen left to mat ure in t he open
while t he house is moved ont o a new site
where t omat oes are grown.
Frames
It is less easy to vary t he overall desi gn of a
garden frame and t he basic t radi t i onal shape
is still frequentl y met wi t h. This is a shallow
obl ong box wi t h one end higher t han t he
other and sloping sides shaped to hol d a lid
or light of glass or plastic. A useful size is
Types of greenhouses and frames 3
4 x 6 ft. Doubl e and mul ti pl e frames of this
design can be obtai ned. Variations i ncl ude
doubl e span tops and glass walls wi t h a
number of different patented methods of
opening.
Light-weight metal or plastic frames can be
moved around t he garden and placed on
ordinary beds in different positions as re-
quired. Traditional forms have permanent
bases of brick or wood.
Frames can be built along the sides of half- ,
boarded greenhouses in order to benefit f rom
surplus warmt h from the greenhouse.
The simplest form of frame is just a light,
a glass or plastic panel, placed over a shallow
pit. This allows pot or contai ner plants to be
hardened off.
Cloches
Until comparati vel y recently, cloches were
made as units or sections, each one like an
open-ended greenhouse in mi ni ature, fi tti ng
together to cover rows of crop plants. Made
of sheets of glass and a variety of patented
metal clips, t hey were cumbersome and
breakable but very efficient. Rigid plastic
sheeting has largely taken over f rom glass for
this t ype of sectional cl oche. The most recent
devel opment is t he tunnel cl oche made of
strips of flexible plastic sheeting stretched
over a series of wire hoops al ong a row and
held in place wi t h further hoops over the t op.
The ends are anchored firmly by buryi ng
t hem in the soil. Venti l ati on is by pushing up
t he plastic on the side away from the wi nd.
The traditional cloche (a) was made of solid
glass in a bell f orm. Class sheets j oi ned
wi t h clips can be tent-shaped (b) or barn-
shaped (c). Corrugated plastic sheeting (d)
can be bent over rows of crops and
anchored wi t h wi re hoops. Plastic tunnel
cloches (e) consist of l ong plastic sheets
bent over hoops and hel d wi t h more
hoops. Plastic sheet at t ached to wire
frames forms a t ent cl oche (f).
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Structure materials 1
The superstructure of a greenhouse may be
made of wood, al umi num alloy or steel. Pre-
stressed concrete, used for larger houses, is
too thi ck and heavy for smaller structures.
Metal
Most custom-bui l t greenhouses are made of
wood or al umi num alloy. The latter is now
by far t he most popular material, being light
and strong and easily extruded i nto t he
necessary shapes ready for bol ti ng together
on t he site. At one ti me, corrosi on was a
probl em, especially in areas of industrial air
pol l uti on and near t he sea. Modern alloy is
much more resistant so t hat corrosion is only
likely to occur in areas of very high industrial
pol l uti on, whi ch are not widespread.
Unlike t he wood-frame greenhouses once
widely sold, al umi num structures do not need
painting. This lack of regular mai ntenance is
a big factor in their popul ari ty.
Steel is also used in greenhouse construc-
t i on, either total l y, as in some large commer-
cial houses, or in conj unct i on wi t h an alloy in
smaller ones. The steel must of course be gal-
vanized or treated in other ways to prevent
rusting. Al t hough generally adequate, after
ti me t he galvanizing treatment breaks down
and rusting becomes a probl em. Galvanizing
can also be broken down by an electrolytic
reaction when alloy and steel members
t ouch. This factor is now well known however
and seldom occurs in well-designed smaller
amateur greenhouses.
Metal is a good conduct or of heat and col d
and for this reason, condensati on drip can be
a nuisance in metal-framed houses. This heat
conduct i on factor also means t hat metal
houses are colder, or cool more rapidly than
ti mber-framed ones, t hough t he differences
in temperatures between t he t wo are small.
Unless the regular mai ntenance of pai nti ng
and put t y renewal is considered a pleasure,
al umi num or steel and al umi num houses are
much to be preferred to t he various wood
houses, even those made of decay-resistant
redwood, red cedar or cypress, or other
woods t hat have been treated wi t h wood
preservative. A metal greenhouse will allow
the gardener to spend more ti me in t he
greenhouse than worki ng on it.
Wood
However wood greenhouses are still popular
for aesthetic reasons. The at t ract i ve colors of
redwood, cedar and cypress fit much better
i nto t he garden than t he col or of bright
al umi num or steel.
Providing a wood house is properl y con-
structed and secured to a bri ck or concret e
base and is initially treated wi t h a wood pre-
servative (if t he wood is not natural l y decay-
resistant), there is every chance it will out-
live its owner. Further pai nti ng wi t h a wood
preservative, or better still, linseed oil about
every five years or so is a wise precaut i on.
Apart f rom the aesthetic consi derati ons,
wood has some advantages when i t comes to
installing extra shelving, securing wires for
Aluminum frame greenhouses are
maintenance-free and have narrow glazing
bars, allowing t he maxi mum amount of
light to penetrate. The model shown has
diagonal braci ng struts for stability, a sliding
door and cement pl i nth foundati ons.
Cedar requires little mai ntenance and
blends well i nto t he garden surroundings.
The glazing bars are thi cker t han in
al umi num houses, but t hey have t he
advantage of bei ng easily dri l l ed for
fixings and pl ant supports.
Structure materials 2
i climbers ,andl hooks for hanging baskets.
Metal houses arcesometimes drilled for these
purposes but so often these holes seem to
lx> where they are not needed and drilling
extra ones is not easy wi t hout the right equi p-
ment. Extra holes also often penetrate the
protecti ve coatings on alloy and steel, leading
to corrosion.
Frames
The same considerations and comments re-
garding al umi num or steel and ti mber in t he
constructi on of greenhouses applies also to
frames. Since a frame is generally used in
conj unct i on wi t h a greenhouse it should be
of the same materials. If wood is selected
do not sit it directly on the soil. Mount the
frame on a low wall of brick or concrete. If
this is not possible then redwood or metal
alloy should be chosen.
Cloches
Class and pl ast i cf orm the bulk of a cl oche and
are discussed on pages 10-11. Glass cloches
are secured by various patented methods
using stout galvanized wi re or steel alloy
brackets i n conj unct i on wi t h wood or plastic
buffers. The latter met hod makes assembly
and di smantl i ng easy but it must be used wi t h
care when t he cl oche is constructed of
larger sheets of glass. Rigid plastic cloches are
secured either by galvanized wi re or are
mol ded to shape and free-standing. Tunnel
cloches require U-shaped wires or canes.
PAINTING AND PRESERVING WOOD
The surface must first be prepared before
it is treated. Brush down to remove dirt
and grit then wash the surface and allow
to dry. Rub the wood down wi t h a medi um
glasspaper or wet-abrasive, whi ch is easier
and prevents dust from flying about. When
repainting it may be necessary to strip
back and reprime if t he paint is blistered
or cracked as moisture is rapidly absorbed
once the skin of the paint is broken.
Softwood greenhouses will need paint-
ing every other year. Use an al umi num
primer if any bare wood is to be seen after
whi ch an undercoat should be applied
f ol l owed by t wo gloss coats for maxi mum
prot ect i on. Softwood greenhouses are
wi t hout questi on more difficult and costly
to mai ntai n than t he more expensive
hardwood greenhouses. The life of t he
greenhouse may be doubl ed if t he wood
is treated wi t h a preservati ve whi ch is
toxi c to decay organisms. Preservatives
should be applied to t he greenhouse by
t he manufacturer before t he greenhouse
is const ruct ed. They usually consist of
copper or mercuri al -zi nc compounds,
either in a water-sol ubl e f or m or in a
spirit solvent.
Tubular steel frame Doors Guttering
Steel tube frames are used for film-clad
greenhouses. Among t he cheapest frame
materials, steel must be galvanized if rust
and consequent repeated mai ntenance
work is to be avoi ded. Do not allow cont act
between steel and alloy components.
Sliding and hinged doors are available.
If possible, ensure t hat t he base of t he
doorway is flat, or provi de a ramp.
Some aluminum greenhouses have bui l t-i n
gutteri ng, wi t h others it is an extra. It avoids
drips and aids water saving.
Covering materials 1
Glass is the traditional glazing material for a
greenhouse, and for a long ti me was the only
material suitable for the j ob. Al t hough plastic
sheeting has become more popular, glass is
still the most widely used material. Most of t he
glass used for greenhouses is single-strength
sheet glass. However, doubl e-strength is
preferable. From a light transmission poi nt of
view, the larger the pane size the better.
There are also fewer heat-leaking joints wi t h
large panes, al though they are more expen-
sive to replace if any get broken.
Glazing
The techni que of securing the glass to the
superstructure is known as glazing. In the
past glass was installed in overl appi ng sheets
like shingles. The side edges were slipped i nto
grooves i n t he mullions or were put t i ed, but
there was no sealant along t he t op and
bot t om edges, thus allowing a fairly free ex-
change of inside and outside air. Today, the
glass is used in larger pieces and is fixed i nto
the framing members by various methods.
In some cases putty or an equi val ent material
is used. Class allows about 90 per cent of t he
sun's radiation to pass t hrough but filters out
t he ultra-violet part of the spectrum. Ultra-
violet light is not, however, essential to plant
growth and in excess it can be harmful .
Where the sun's heat is excessive and can
lead to scorching of plants, translucent glass
can be used; but this will cut down wi nter
light penetration considerably. In temperate
climates some form of shading is a preferable
alternative in hot weather.
Plastics
Plastic sheets and panels perform t he same
functions as glass in greenhouse coverings
and have the advantage of being cheaper and
non-breakable.
Polyethylene Polyethylene is applied in huge
sheets t hat make for faster glazing, but it
has a short life span. Normally it needs to be
replaced after one growi ng season. Poly-
ethylene wi t h ul tra-vi ol et inhibitors lasts
about twi ce as long. Al t hough t he material
does not break like glass, it is weakened by
ultra-violet light and often splits duri ng gales;
indeed on wi ndy sites even new sheeting may
split. It is i mportant t hat the sheeting be
stretched ti ghtl y over the superstructure.
Loosely secured material can act like a sail
and, because of t he movement, chafe against
its supports duri ng strong winds. These
factors can spell disaster before t he natural
life of t he sheeting is reached.
One advantage of pol yethyl ene is that it is
so light t hat t he greenhouse can be built
wi t hout foundati ons (although it must, of
course, be anchored to keep it from being
bl own over). Hence it can be moved around
the garden if desired.
A disadvantage of pol yethyl ene is that it
radiates heat rapidly. Because of this it is
often applied in a doubl e layer and a small
fan used to bl ow air between the sheets in
order to reduce heat loss.
Vinyl Vi nyl sheet is heavier than poly-
ethylene, more durabl e and considerably
more costly. If made wi t h an ul tra-vi ol et i n-
hibitor, it can last as l ong as five years. But it
comes in narrow sheets t hat must be heat-
seamed, whi ch greatly adds to t he difficulty
of installation. Also, like pol yethyl ene, it has
electrostatic properties t hat attract dust,
whi ch cl ouds t he sheeting and therefore
cuts down t he transmission of light.
Polyester The best known of t he polyester
films is Mylar. In t he 5-mm thickness used for
greenhouses, it has t he advantages of being
lightweight, it is strong enough to resist
damage by hail, it is unaffected by extreme
temperatures and has light-transmission
characteristics qui te similar to glass. Myl ar is,
however, expensive.
Myl ar should last about four years on
sturdy framed greenhouse roofs and longer
on t he sidewalls. It will not be so effective
when used on poorly built frames t hat are
rocked by wi nd.
Fiberglass .Plastic panels reinforced wi t h
fiberglass are considerably heavier than film
and much more durable. They retain heat
better t han other glazing materials but are
also more expensive.
The panels are semi-rigid and come in long
lengths up to 4 ft in wi dt h. The most common
wei ght of fiberglass used by amateurs is 4 or
5 oz, al though heavier weights are available.
The panels are either flat or corrugated. The
latter are generally used only on greenhouse
roofs because of their greater strength. Onl y
the type of fiberglass made specifically for
greenhouses should be used; the familiar
porch-roof material should not be used.
Perhaps the greatest advantage of fiber-
glass is its exceptionally high resistance to
breakagea compel l i ng reason for using it
in a nei ghborhood of rowdy children or
frequent hailstorms. This factor, coupl ed wi t h
its good resistance to ultra-violet, means it
should last between 10 and 15 years. Make
sure that it is not exposed to flame or ex-
tremes of heat, because it burns readily and
rapidly.
Because fiberglass is translucent, the light
admi t t ed to the greenhouse is soft and
shadowless. This feature makes the panels
especially attracti ve in the West, where light
intensity is high.
Acrylic Semi-rigid, usually flat acrylic panels
are ideal for greenhouses because of their
strength, light weight, resistance to sunlight
and good light-transmission characteristics.
They do scratch easily, but apart f rom this
their principal disadvantage is thei r very high
cost. However, acrylic is wor t h t he outl ay
as it will give good service for many years.
Sunlight and the greenhouse
Heat builds up rapidly in a greenhouse when
the sun is shining and can easily reach limits
lethal to plants wi t hout vent i l at i on and/or
shading. Light and heat f rom t he sun reach
t he earth as short-wave radi ati on, whi ch
passes easily t hrough glass and plastics. This
radi ati on warms everythi ng it t ouches, such
as the floor, benches, soil, pots and even the
plants themselves, whi ch t hen re-radiate
some of this heat as long waves. It is because
glass does not allow these l ong waves to pass
t hrough it t hat a bui l d-up of heat inside the
greenhouse results. Once shadows reach the
greenhouse, or after t he sun sets, heat is
lost via air fl ow t hrough cracks and as l ong-
wave radiation via solid walls and t he basic
framework.
Radiation is diffused as it enters a poly-
ethyl ene sheeting greenhouse and t he sub-
sequent l ong-wave radi ati on is not t rapped.
For this reason, pol yethyl ene sheeting-clad
structures, i ncl udi ng frames and cloches,
cool down more rapidly t han glass ones once
t he sun has gone, t hough t he differences are
not really significant in most climates. Once
Glass should be free of flaws and bubbles,
whi ch act as lenses and scorch plants.
Traditional put t y glazing (a). Dry met hods
(b, c) are used wi t h met al -f ramed houses.
Covering materials 2
the greenhouse heats up, convecti on cur-
rents arise and the warm air moves in a cyclic
fashion, varying somewhat wi t h the shape
and size of the house and the amount of
venti l ati on. In theory, convecti on currents
warm the whol e area, in fact there are often
small pockets of cooler and warmer air.
Light
Good glass allows about 90 per cent of total
i l l umi nati on to enter the greenhouse. This
includes reflected light from all sources.
Direct sunlight must strike the glass at a
90 degree angle for the maxi mum amount
of light to enter. If t he angle of t he sun varies
from this angle some of t he light will be de-
flected. Duri ng t he summer months there is
more than enough light for most plants, but
during wi nter it is in short supply. For this
reason a fair amount of research has gone
i nto finding the best greenhouse shapes for
good all-year-round light transmission. As a
result round greenhouses have proved to be
the best shape for this purpose. The angle at
whi ch the glass is set is obviously i mport ant
and among traditional greenhouse designs,
large, steeply inclined panes are the most
effective.
Duri ng the winter, sunlight in northern
regions reaches the earth at a low angle.
Therefore greenhouses wi t h walls set at a
slight angle present a surface at right angles,
or almost so, to the sun's rays, allowing
maxi mum penetrati on. In summer the angle
is not so crucial as the intensity of the sun-
light is far greater.
The position of the sun varies duri ng t he
day, movi ng t hrough an arc that varies f rom
about 60 degrees duri ng t he winter months
to 120 degrees or more in the height of the
summer. Thus a flat surface receives light at
the opt i mum angle for onl y a short ti me. The
round greenhouse solves this probl em by
presenting glass surfaces at different angles
so t hat t he plants receive light of sufficient
intensity t hroughout t he year. Some green-
houses have been designed to rotate so t hat
surfaces are exposed to t he sun as required.
Round greenhouses, however, are still not
as yet readily available. Most greenhouses,
whet her bought ready-made or bui l t, are of
the lean-to vari ety or tent-shaped.
The position of the sun varies widely from
wi nter to summer and this vari ati on must
be considered when pl anni ng the l ocati on
and choosi ng t he type of greenhouse. In
wi nter, t he arc between t he points of
rising and setting of t he sun is 60, in
summer 120. In wi nt er onl y t he south-
faci ng side of this greenhouse receives
di rect sun, i n summer t he ends t oo face
t he sun at morni ng and eveni ng.
Noon, Summer. The short rays f rom the sun
pass t hrough t he glass (a) and heat soil,
benches and walls. Heat is reflected as
long rays, whi ch cannot pass out t hrough
t he glass. Thus t he temperature rises. A
plastic-clad house (b) does not get so hot
because reflected long waves can pass
t hrough plastic, whi ch also diffuses light.
Noon, Winter. In winter, t he angle of t he
glass surfaces to t he sun becomes
i mport ant as t he sun angle is lower and t he
light intensity less. Verti cal sides (a) tend
to reflect some light, whi ch is lost. Sloped
sides (b) allow light to pass t hr ough at right
angles and light transmission t hr ough t he
glass is i mproved.
Sun angles and the "greenhouse effect"
Site and situation 1
All t oo often, the greenhouse is relegated to
a distant corner of the garden or to a site
whi ch is far from ideal for the plants to be
grown. If a greenhouse is being purchased
and particularly if the expense of heating it is
contempl ated, then the best situation pos-
sible must be f ound. Failure to choose the
best position coul d mean the di sappoi ntment
of poor quality flowers, fruits and vegetables.
In many cases, space in the garden will be
restricted and there will be only one possible
site. Even so, this site can be adapted to give
the best possible condi ti ons.
Choosing a site
Basic considerations are good light and
shelter from strong winds. Good light is
especially i mportant if plants are to be grown
during the winter months, and wi t hout some
sort of wi nd shelter heat losses will be con-
siderably greater than they need be, especi-
ally during cold spells. If t he site is chosen in
summer, and there are tall buildings or trees
to t he south, the shadows they will cast in
winter must be cal cul ated. In the latitude of
New York City the sun at noon on the shortest
day is poised about 28 above the horizon
and all shadows are long. Wi nt er sun angles
can be reproduced wi t h the aid of a pair of
calipers and a compass. A simple substitute
for the calipers is t wo straight flat pieces of
board about 1ft long, j oi ned at one end by a
single nail or screw. Open the calipers thus
formed at the required angle and, keeping
t he lower arm horizontal, poi nt the upper
arm due south. If the part of the sky where
the arm points is widely obscured by trees or
buildings, then shade is likely to be a probl em.
To take full advantage of t he light f rom t he
low winter sun, t he greenhouse should be
positioned wi t h its long axis aligned east-west
or as near to this ideal as possible. This posi-
ti on cuts shading from roof beams and astra-
gals (glazing bars) to a mi ni mum. An east-west
position also allows the rays of the sun to
penetrate at the most efficient angle (see
page 11).
Access There is no doubt that, to get the
most enj oyment out of a greenhouse, especi-
ally in winter, easy access from the house is
essential. The ideal is to have t he greenhouse
physically attached to t he house wi t h a direct
entrance, as is usual for sun-rooms or t he
larger type of lean-to or conservatory. This
arrangement makes it possible to use the
same heati ng system to heat both house and
greenhouse, wi t h a saving on installation and
subsequent runni ng costs. If the lean-to is
built against a south, south-east or south-
west-facing wall, wi nter light will be good and
shelter assured.
A greenhouse will get much more use, and
t he plants in it will get more care, if it is easy
of access. Ot her considerations such as
aspect and shade may take precedence, but
other things being equal it is best to site t he
greenhouse as close to t he home as possible.
Wherever it is placed, make sure t hat there
are hard-surfaced paths leading to it. This will
allow the use of a barrow to transport heavy
items such as compost and plants.
If possible t he greenhouse should be close
to frames, if they are used, and the seedbed.
Often greenhouse plants will be moved to or
f rom t he frame, and many seedlings will be
pl anted out i nto a frame or seedbed for
growi ng on. Frames can be placed against
t he walls of a half-boarded greenhouse.
Measuring shade areas with a sighting angle
1 To check if a site is likely to be shaded,
find out t he lowest angle of t he wi nter sun.
Join t wo pieces of wood wi t h a screw. Using
a protractor, carefully set t he pieces at t he
required angle. Tighten t he screw.
Shelter
For the free-standing greenhouse it is impor-
tant to choose a protected site or at least one
wi t h some shelter from the coldest prevailing
wi nd. The stronger and colder the wi nd blow-
ing across the glass, the greater the heat loss.
Some estimates make the loss caused by
wi nd as high as 50 per cent when a cold
wi nter gale is blowing. Some gardens, of
course, are well sheltered by buildings and
vegetati on. Wi nd problems in such gardens
will be restricted to eddies and occasional
severe storms.
Trees, even if they do not cast shadows
over the greenhouse, can cause problems by
rain drip onto glass, and can shed branches
whi ch can badly damage the greenhouse.
The roots of nearby trees can also damage
foundati ons and intrude into planting beds.
Creating shelter If it is not possible to find a
sheltered site, a hedge can be planted, or a
fence erected to provide a wi ndbreak. If this
is positioned at a distance of at least three
times the height of the greenhouse on t he
north, north-east or north-west side, shading
will be vi rtual l y nil.
2 Place the lower arm of t he sighting angle
on a spirit level at the planned position of
t he greenhouse. Point t he sighting angle
south, maki ng sure t hat it is exactly level.
Al t hough a solid wall or a cl ose-boarded
fence may seem the ideal, t he t urbul ence
factor must be taken i nto consi derat i on, par-
ticularly in areas frequentl y subj ect ed to
gales. When wi nd strikes a solid obj ect such
as a wall, it swirls over t he t op and causes
turbul ence on the other side, t he di stance
away f rom the wall that the t urbul ence ex-
tends dependi ng on wi nd speed. A hedge or
open-weave fence diffuses the wi nd and
breaks its mai n force and in this respect is
to be preferred. Such a barrier is effective
over a downwi nd distance equal to five to ten
times its height, so even if a barrier has to be
placed to the west or south-west of t he green-
house to counter prevailing wi nds, it can be
sited far enough away to avoi d shade
probl ems.
Foundation and erection
Once t he posi ti on of t he greenhouse has
been decided upon, t he terrai n must be
examined carefully. Ideally t he ground should
be level and well drai ned. If t he site slopes or
is very uneven it must be at least roughly
leveled. When leveling t he site, take care to
3 The upper arm will now poi nt to t he
lowest mi dday sun posi ti on. By si ghti ng
al ong this arm it is possible to esti mate
whi ch trees and buildings wi l l cast shadows
over t he pl anned site of t he greenhouse.
Site and situation 2
remove and conserve the top-soil especially
if a glass-to-ground greenhouse wi t h soil beds
is planned. Do not compact the soil when
leveling the site and erecting the greenhouse.
Undue pressure can destroy the soil struc-
ture, leading to drainage problems and loss of
fertility.
If t he site is wet, some sort of drainage
system should be installed. A row of tile drains
down the centre of the site wi t h a sump or
drywell at one end is usually enough, or a
concrete platform can be made wi t h its sur-
face just above the surroundi ng soil. If t he
greenhouse is to be erected on a sloping site,
ensure that there is drainage to cope wi t h
water running down the slope f rom above.
Construct a gutter to channel water around
t he greenhouse if necessary.
Bases and foundations All custom-bui l t green-
houses are sold wi t h detailed erection instruc-
tions. Many models have an integral or
optional base, made of shaped sections of
concrete whi ch are laid on t he soil. No other
foundati on is needed for t he smaller green-
houses provi di ng the site is firm and
accurately leveled. Ideally t he soil should
have been uncul ti vated or under grass for
several years. For greenhouses of 10 x 8 ft or
larger however a proper concrete foundati on
is necessary.
Marking out the site Whet her of compacted
soil or concrete, it is most i mport ant that t he
finished surface is level. The site should be
accuratel y marked out using t he plans sup-
plied wi t h the greenhouse. Carefully check
t hat t he base or foundati ons are on the cor-
rect al i gnment, using part of a building or a
boundary line as a fixed poi nt. Having estab-
lished a straight line along one wall of the
greenhouse, carefully measure a right angle
for t he end wall (see below right). A spirit level
is an essential tool duri ng preparati on. If t he
base or f oundat i on is not level, erection of
t he superstructure may be difficult, or it will
sustain stresses and strains t hat later coul d
lead to troubl e. Most small greenhouses are
erected level, t hough some are provi ded wi t h
a slight fall to allow gutters to f unct i on.
Particular attenti on should be paid to t he
anchori ng met hod, especially in wi ndy sites.
If sill bolts have to be cemented in place,
make sure enough t i me elapses for the
cement to harden before the superstructure
is built or glazed. The period required varies
wi th the weather and the proporti ons of t he
concrete mixture used. Al l ow at least 48
hours, more in cool weather. If glazing takes
place after the structure goes up this should
be carried out during dry, calm weather. The
same applies to t he erection of sections pur-
chased already glazed. If glazing is carried out
over a period of days there is much to be said
for doi ng the roof first. This allows the wi nd,
should it arise, to pass t hrough the structure.
A half-glazed house wi t h a strong wi nd blow-
ing on to the inside can be badly damaged.
Class can be very slippery when wet and
ideally should be handled only in dry weather.
In addi ti on, the putty and mastic seals used
in tradi ti onal glazing do not stick satisfactorily
in wet condi ti ons. If gutteri ng is to be fitted
to the greenhouse some t hought should be
given to rain water disposal at this stage. Rain
water butts provide a useful water reserve if
certain precautions are taken (see page 25).
Alternatively, a drywell must be dug nearby
and piping laid to it or to a nearby drainage
di tch or watercourse.
Water supply
Even if it is deci ded to use rain wat er butts as
a water source, these can run dry in dry spells
and there is much to be said for a per-
manent water supply in t he greenhouse. If an
aut omat i c or semi -automati c wat eri ng system
or a mist propagati on uni t is pl anned, run-
ning water is essential. Wi t h moder n plastic
pi pi ng and fittings t he i nstal l ati on of a supply
is not difficult, t hough a professional pl umber
must be called i n to make t he connect i on
to t he mai n supply. The suppl y pipe is best
laid at t he same t i me as t he f oundat i ons. If it
has to be added later, take care not to
damage t he foundati ons.
Electricity
Even if a greenhouse is not heated by it, a
supply of el ectri ci ty gives many advantages.
It is necessary for heated propagators, mist
units, soi l -warmi ng cables and artificial illumi-
nati on. Lighting is a very wor t hwhi l e extra,
for its installation allows t he greenhouse to be
used on wi nter evenings, addi ng a novel
di mensi on to gardeni ng under glass. For
details of electricity, see page 17.
Walls, hedges and fences must be sited to
block, or preferably filter, wi nd, yet not cast
shadows over t he greenhouse. The 6 ft
hedge above is south and west of t he
greenhouse, cut t i ng t he force of prevailing
wi nds yet casting no shadow. The fence to
t he nort h can be sited closer to t he
greenhouse, as it will not cast a shadow.
Use hedges or openwork fences as shelter
belts where possible as they filter the wi nd.
Mark the position of one side of t he green-
house, using t wo pegs and a taut line.
Check that the pegs are level. Then care-
fully measure a right angle, using a T
square, to establish t he posi ti on of one
end wall. Repeat to fix t he remai ni ng
corners. Check t hat all ei ght pegs are level.
A spirit level is an essential t ool .
Ventilation and shading 1
Owi ng to the "greenhouse effect" (see p. 11),
whi ch causes a rapid bui l d-up of heat inside
t he greenhouse when t he sun shines on it, an
efficient ventilation system is essential to
control temperature. Venti l ati on is also
necessary in order to provi de a supply of
fresh air and to control humi di ty. Stale air
provides ideal condi ti ons for t he spread of
diseases and pests. Venti l ati on must be con-
sidered a factor in the mai ntenance of a
balanced greenhouse envi ronment. It must
be matched to heating, shading and the
control of humi di ty.
Despite the advances made in small green-
house design few models, if any, are provi ded
wi t h enough ventilators to cope wi t h warm
summer day temperatures wi t hout openi ng
the door. Whi l e using the door as an emer-
gency ventilator is acceptable for some crops
and on quiet days, it should never be con-
sidered standard practice. For manufacturers,
more ventilators means design modi fi cati on
and extra material wi t h t he inevitable i n-
creased costs. However, most greenhouse
manufacturers can supply more ventilators
Air flow
Ventilators in bot h roof and sides allow
compl ete air ci rcul ati on wi t hi n t he
greenhouse. Roof vents can also act as
wi nd scoops in hot weather.
as opti onal extras so it is possible to rectify
t he deficiency.
When warmed, it is the nature of air to
become less dense and to rise. For this reason
ridge vents are al l -i mportant for releasing
over-heated air. As the hot air rises up and
passes out of t he ventilators, fresh cool air is
sucked in t hrough t he glass overlaps, glazing
cracks, and around t he doors. For full and
adequate venti l ati on the overall area of the
ridge ventilators should be equal to at least
one-sixth of t he floor area, more if feasible.
For t he smaller greenhouse alternate ventila-
tors either side of the ridge or at least t wo per
6 ft length are usually adequate. For larger
structures or those used as alpine houses t he
provision of conti nuous ventilators along
bot h sides is ideal.
Air exchange and subsequent cooling is
faster if side venti l ators are also fitted. These
can be just above ground or at bench level.
Venti l ators should be installed in both posi-
tions if possible. Ventilators should be posi-
ti oned on bot h sides of t he greenhouse so
t hat those on t he lee side can be opened
Ideally, roof venti l ators shoul d open to
about 55, thus cont i nui ng t he line of t he
roof when ful l y open. Venti l ators should be
posi ti oned on bot h sides of t he roof.
when cold winds are blowing. This practice
cuts down damaging cold drafts. All venti -
lators must be easily adjustable from closed
to wi de open. This is particularly i mportant
for the ridge ventilators whi ch, when fully
open, should ideally cont i nue the line of the
opposi te side of the roof. This is equivalent
to bei ng openabl e to about 55 degrees. Less
than this will mean that maxi mum venti l ati on
is not possible. However, there are practical
difficulties to such an installation and many
small houses have ventilators whi ch open
less wi de. A fully open venti l ator at this angle
is also an efficient wi nd trap, di recti ng a cool -
ing current downwards into the greenhouse.
This air-flow warms and rises up to exit via
the lee side ventilators, thus ensuring a rapid
air exchange on sunny days.
Air movement through side and ridge
ventilators can be strong on wi ndy days and
create drafts unwel come to many tropi cal
foliage plants and orchids. To cut down the
force of this ai rfl ow louvered ventilators have
been designed. However, while they can cut
down t he full force of a draft they cannot
Side ventilators
Side or wall ventilators speed air exchange
and cool i ng. They can be conventi onal
(above) or louver (above right). Check t hat
louver installations are draft-free when
eliminate it. Before installing l ouvered venti -
lators, check that they are reasonably draft-
free when closed.
Ventilator mechanisms
In the small greenhouse venti l ators are oper-
ated by hand, being opened and secured by
t he same perforated bar and pi n met hod
used for some factory wi ndows. In larger
greenhouses, parti cul arl y those wi t h venti -
lators t oo high to reach, a vari ety of open-
ing methods are used, i ncl udi ng cranks and
gearwheels, pulleys and cords, and rack and
pi ni on.
Automatic ventilators All t he manual met h-
ods, however efficient in themsel ves, rely
entirely on an efficient operator. Forget-
fulness can result in loss of or damage to
valuable plants. This factor, added to t he
frequent absence of t he gardener duri ng t he
day, has given t he i mpetus for t he i nventi on
of aut omat i c mechanisms. Initially, and still
widely used in t he bet t er-equi pped nurseries
of commerce and public gardens, came the
electric mot or coupl ed wi t h lifting gears and
closed. Louver venti l ators are useful when
orchi ds or other tropi cal pl ants are bei ng
grown as they cut down, but do not
eliminate, drafts.
Ventilation and shading 2
control l ed by a thermostat-acti vated switch,
more recently and now popular for the
smaller greenhouse, a system has been per-
fected whi ch is triggered by a heat-sensitive
compound. The compound is contai ned in a
strong metal cylinder, one end of whi ch is
closed by a plunger, the other end being
blanked off. On heating, the compound ex-
pands, pushing the plunger forwards. This
comparati vel y small amount of pressure is
magnified by a system of levers whi ch open
the ventilator. Closing is gradual once t he
compound starts to cool . Most types can be
adjusted to open at various temperatures.
The more sophisticated systems control ven-
tilators accordi ng to a full range of weather
conditions. Wi nd gauges actuate motors to
shut ventilators to avoid drafts. A rain
gauge can be linked to venti l ator control s to
shut down the house in t he case of rain,
though simple temperature controls, whi ch
will respond to increased cl oud cover and
the resulting temperature drop, produce t he
same effect. Sunlight-operated controls are
another refinement.
Ventilators can be opened by hand (top),
automati cal l y (above) or by remote control
(right). Aut omat i c systems consist of a
cylinder of a compound whi ch expands
Ventilator fans
Whi l e the methods of control l i ng venti l ati on
described above work adequately, particu-
larly in t he small greenhouse, the natural air
currents upon whi ch they rely are not totally
efficient in mai ntai ni ng a perfectly uni form
cl i mate. In larger structures in particular,
there may be unsuspected pockets of warm
or cool air whi ch can locally affect plant
growt h. To eliminate this factor and to cut
down drafts and conserve heat, ventilator
fans are used. The usual high speed fans used
in ki tchens and bathrooms are unsuitable,
as they can create artificial drafts, and low
speed fans, whi ch can move large volumes of
air, have been designed. Venti l ator fans are
also useful in plastic-clad greenhouses, where
water vapor condensing on t he plastic may
raise humi di t y unduly. A fan will prevent this
by ci rcul ati ng fresh air.
Installing fans Venti l ator fans should be i n-
stalled at one end of smaller houses or at
intervals along one side of larger structures,
wi t h venti l ators at the opposite end or side.
Each fan is set wi t h the blades parallel to and
when heated. This expansion operates a
plunger, whi ch pushes t he venti l ator open
via a system of levers. Remote systems
are used in large houses.
almost flush wi t h the wall of the greenhouse.
In place of glass are a series of louvers or flaps
whi ch hang down and cover the gap when
the fan is not worki ng. Under air pressure
from t he worki ng fan, the louvers assume a
horizontal position. The same system, but in
reverse, can be used for t he inlets at t he other
end or the side opposite the fans, thus pre-
venti ng unwanted venti l ati on when the fans
are not worki ng. The fans are usually operated
automati cal l y, being coupl ed to a pre-set
thermostat.
In general, the smaller t he fan t he higher it
should be set in the greenhouse wall. In the
small amateur greenhouse, one fan installed
above t he door is a usual recommendat i on,
while t he big 4f t fans used in commerci al
houses are set at various heights, dependi ng
upon the crop. The use of fans wi t hi n the
greenhouse, to circulate air rather than to
venti l ate, is usually coupl ed wi t h heating, but
when t he artificial heat is not in use it is
beneficial to leave the fan on to maintain a
buoyant atmosphere whi ch is vital for the
healthy growt h of many greenhouse plants.
Fans
Position a venti l ator fan above t he door of
a small greenhouse. Use onl y slow-running
fans designed for greenhouses.
Plan fan installations carefully, taking
account of the capaci ty of t he installation to
make t he necessary air changes. The placing
of inlet openings is i mport ant wi t h fan venti -
l ati on. Site t he inlets to al l ow cross-drafts to
occur, thus sti mul ati ng air movement . Damp-
ing pads can be placed over i nl et openings to
moi sten i ncomi ng air in hot, dry condi ti ons.
About 40 air changes an hour is t he right rate
t o ai m for.
Humidity
Humidistats, whi ch wor k on t he same pri n-
ciples as thermostats but respond to humi di ty
rather t han temperature, are used in com-
mercial greenhouses. They have t he effect of
avoi di ng any excess bui l d-ups of humi di t y by
t urni ng on fans for short peri ods and thus
ci rcul ati ng the air. One effect of fans, especi-
ally in smaller greenhouses, is to dry the air.
If a fan is used as t he mai n means of ventila-
t i on, some f orm of dampi ng down or other
humi di t y cont rol should be practi sed in warm
weather. Aut omat i c spray systems can be
obtai ned for this purpose.
A l ouvered venti l ator must be posi ti oned at
t he opposi te end of t he greenhouse to a fan
to provi de a fl ow of air.
Ventilation and shading 3
Shading is a greenhouse necessity that is
easily overl ooked. Whi l e in wi nter every effort
is made to maximize the amount of sun re-
ceived, in spring and summer too much sun-
light can qui ckl y overheat the greenhouse,
killing plants. Some form of shading system is
therefore essential. It must, however, be used
in conj unct i on wi t h venti l ati on and wateri ng
wi t h the aim of mai ntai ni ng a balanced
greenhouse envi ronment. All too often
shading is used simply to reduce heat and the
mai ntenance chore of wateri ng.
In greenhouses where venti l ati on is efficient
there is much to be said for not shading unless
absolutely necessary. Sun-loving plants in
particular, such as succulents, will grow more
sturdily in full light. Where a very varied col -
lection of plants is grown it is not difficult to
position t hem so that the shade lovers are
behind those that need or tol erate full light.
Methods of shading
Shading can be carried out in t wo basic ways,
by pai nti ng or spraying liquid ont o the glass,
or by blinds. Lime wash was once a standard
liquid shading and wel l -di l uted emulsion
paint has also been used. If applied too
thi ckl y, both of these substances tend to stick
on ti ght and need hard rubbi ng to remove at
the end of the season. Proprietary com-
pounds are now available whi ch rub off easily,
yet are not affected by rain. All the tradi ti onal
shading substances are likely to be thi nned
or washed off duri ng heavy rain and will need
replacing if hot weather conti nues. All liquid
shading should be whi te. Green pai nt and
green blindsabsorb heat, while whi te
reflects it.
The pri mary disadvantage of liquid shading
is that, duri ng summer's inevitable dull, cool
spells, plants suffer from lack of light and
warmt h just when they need it most. For this
reason the use of blinds is more efficient and
to be preferred. Roller blinds can be fitted
either to the outside or inside of the green-
house, and Venetian blinds fitted to the
interior. Exterior blinds are the most effective
as they prevent heat bui l d-up. Blinds on the
inside of the glass stop light reaching the
plants but the heat penetrates the glass and
warms t he greenhouse in the normal way.
Al t hough they can be neat and easily used,
internal blinds can also be a nuisance where
lots of tall plants wi t h leaves or flowers near
the glass are grown. In general, blinds fitted
to the outside of the house are to be pre-
ferred, t hough weather hazards must be
taken i nto consideration, particularly that of
strong wi nd. Exterior blinds can be rolled
down in winter to provide a certain amount
of prot ect i on against frost.
Blinds Slatted blinds of wood or plastic laths
are best, being l ong lasting and rolling and
unrol l i ng easily. A certai n amount of light
penetrates the blinds, but i ndi vi dual plants
are not harmed as the angle of the sun
changes slowly duri ng the day. Also good arc-
blinds made from whi t e suffused plastic
sheeting, and Venetian blinds. Ideally, and
especially for the greenhouse owner away
each day, the roller blinds shoul d be auto-
mat ed, t he unrol l i ng mechani sm coupl ed t o
an el ectroni c eye or t hermost at . This of
course adds greatly to t he cost. Wher e auto-
mat i on is not cont empl at ed, t he owner of the
smaller greenhouse can easily devise make-
shift shading for a few hot spells. Wi ndow-
like frames of strong laths or canes can be
covered wi t h opaque plastic sheeti ng or light
burlap and hung or cl i pped to t he green-
house sides and roof, inside or out .
Methods of shading Automatic shading Improvised shading
1 Shading paint is applied
to t he outside of t he glass
in spring. Do not apply t oo
thickly.
2 Exterior blinds prevent
heat bui l d-up and cut down
light. They can also be
useful as frost protecti on.
3 Interior blinds are less
effective than exterior ones,
but are neat and easily
used.
Exterior blinds can be unrolled and
retracted by motors triggered by light-
sensitive devices. This is expensive, but
useful on greenhouses often left unattended.
Improvised screens can be made f r om
burl ap or cl ot h, and cl ot h or plastic sheet
can be pi nned or stuck to t he outsi de
of greenhouses.
Electricity 1
Al though it is possible to run ,1 greenhouse
wi thout an electricity supply, lack ol power
|)uts many of the techniques of modern
horti cul ture out of the gardener's reach. A
whol e range of appliances from heaters to
pest control equi pment depends upon a
power source. Electric light also makes it
possible to use the greenhouse for more
hours per day in winter.
Installing electricity
House electricity out of doors is a matter for a
professional. Amateur gardeners are not
recommended to attempt installation, for the
risks are great. Cables will have to be laid
outdoors unless the greenhouse is a lean-to
adj oi ni ng the home, and the envi ronment of
the greenhouse itself raises dangers due to
high humi di ty and damp.
If cables have to be installed, plan t he
route they are to take wi t h the aid of an elec-
trician. Cables can be buried or suspended
from posts. Buried cables should be sunk
in trenches at least 2\1/2 deep. Route t he
trenches where they will cause least disturb-
ance to garden plants, lawns and trees. When
buryi ng the cables, the electrician will pro-
tect them from accidental damage by cover-
ing t hem wi th a board or a row of tiles.
Such a protecti ve layer will prevent damage
when digging or carrying out other cul ti va-
tions in the garden. Make sure that trenches
do not interfere wi t h drainage systems.
Cables buried beneath paths or lawns need
not be so deep, but wherever they run, a
record should be kept of their position so
that if the layout of the garden is changed
the gardener is aware of the exact position
of the cables.
Cables taken overhead must be fixed to a
stout wire supported on poles well above t he
ground. Keep the cable clear of trees whi ch
may chafe it. The gardener may be able to
save on the electrician's bill by doi ng un-
skilled preparatory work such as digging
trenches or erecting poles. Consult the elec-
trician and agree on exactly what is to be
done by whom before starting work.
Power points
Inside the greenhouse, t he power cable
should termi nate at a purpose-designed
greenhouse control panel. Choose only those
installations designed for greenhouse con-
ditions. A control panel allows several pieces
of equi pment to be run from one point.
Fused, swi tched sockets are provi ded wi th an
i ndependent main swi tch. The main power
cable has only to be connect ed, the sockets
being ready wi red. The equi pment is then
plugged in in t he normal way. Always use
fused plugs, if possible made of rubber
rather t han plastic.
Lighting
Strip or bulb lighting, using heavy-duty damp-
proof fittings, is relatively easy and cheap to
install once a power supply is available. Light-
ing will increase the use a greenhouse gets
duri ng winter, maki ng it possible for t he
gardener who is away duri ng the day to
attend to the plants in comf ort .
Lighting installations can also be used to
speed plant growt h and to modify growt h
rates to produce special effects. Many plants
are very sensitive to "day l engt h", the period
duri ng whi ch light is strong enough for growth
to occur. Duri ng wi nter in northern areas, and
in areas wi t h high atmospheric pol l uti on, this
level is often not reached. Banks of strip
lights are used commerci al l y to modify t he
day length and bring plants into flower out-
side their normal season. Install lights about
3 ft above the greenhouse bench, in banks
sufficiently large to provi de t he light intensity
requi red. Consult specialist suppliers of green-
house equi pment for details of light levels
and periods. Too much light, or t oo long a
"day", is often worse t han t oo little, as many
plants have very specific requirements. Use
mercury vapor lamps, as the type of light they
produce is best for plant growt h. Banks of
fluorescent tubes can also be used, mount ed
2 ft above t he bench.
Other electric equipment
Propagating equi pment, wateri ng devices
and venti l ati on equi pment are described on
the appropri ate pages. Equipment used in t he
greenhouse must be made for the purpose.
Do not, for instance, use domestic cool i ng
fans and fan heaters as they may be affected
by t he damp atmosphere in the greenhouse
and become dangerous.
Thermostats should be set to t he
temperature required in t he propagating
case or soil cable unit. Check t he
manufacturer' s literature for t he
temperature range the appliance controls.
Fan heaters can be used to back up other
heati ng systems or as a system on thei r
own. Use onl y those desi gned for
greenhouses, whi ch can wi t hst and damp.
Cables laid underground should be
protected against accidental damage while
digging. Cover t he cable wi t h a treated
plank or place tiles over it.
A control panel simplifies t he i nstal l ati on of
el ectri ci ty i n t he greenhouse. Al l equi pment
can be control l ed f rom t he panel , whi ch has
fused, swi tched sockets.
Heating 1
In the cooler temperate regions where frost
occurs regularly in winter, sun heat alone is
too weak and unreliable for the successful
growth of tender plants under glass. There-
fore to get the best out of a greenhouse an
artificial heat source must be installed if only
to keep the mi ni mum temperature above the
frost limit. An alternative is to use a heated
propagating case as a "greenhouse wi t hi n a
greenhouse" to allow seeds and cuttings to be
started earlier than in t he greenhouse itself.
It is possible to run a greenhouse wi t hout any
heatsee the Cold Greenhouse section
(page 64)but a heat source whi ch, com-
bined wi t h insulation, maintains the temper-
ature above freezing, is almost essential.
The first question to ask when planning a
heating system is what level of heat is needed.
Two factors must be taken i nto account. They
are the prevailing weather conditions in the
locality and the needs of t he plants to be
grown. There are certain levels of tempera-
ture whi ch must be mai ntai ned if various
types of plants are to be grown (see Intro-
ducti on, page 2). Refer to the map, right,
for the lowest likely temperature. Consider
the modi fyi ng effects of height, exposure and
proxi mi ty to the coast, whi ch can raise or
lower mi ni mum temperatures.
Once the mi ni mum temperature needed
in the greenhouse has been decided, t he
temperature increase required can be cal cu-
lated. This is the number of degrees t hat the
temperature must be raised above the likely
mi ni mum to be encountered in the locality.
Thus if t he likely mi ni mum temperature of the
area is 2C, and a cool greenhouse is plan-
ned the temperature must be raised by 6C
and t he heating system must be adequate.
Greenhouses have higher heat losses than
other, more solid, structures and are more
prone to drafts. Also, heat is lost quickly
through glass so col d spots can easily develop
if the heati ng system is not carefully designed.
A single stove or radiator placed in the center
of t he greenhouse will not necessarily warm
the whol e air space, whi ch is t he reason why
pipe systems are popular. To check for col d
areas, place several maxi mum- mi ni mum
thermometers at intervals around the green-
house and leave t hem overni ght. Alter-
natively, use a single thermometer, placing it
at different points on nights wi t h the same or
very similar air temperature.
Before cal cul ati ng heat needs, check what
can be done to i mprove the insulation of the
greenhouse. Doubl e glazing is t he most
effective means of cut t i ng heat loss. Per-
manent doubl e glazing is heavy, costly and
can interfere wi t h light transmission, but is
becomi ng a more attracti ve opt i on as better
systems are designed and fuel costs conti nue
to cl i mb. Alternatives to permanent doubl e
glazing are temporary plastic sheet doubl e
glazing or t he use of insulating panels on the
lower parts of the greenhouse sides.
Drafts should be stopped wherever pos-
sible, not onl y because they increase heat
loss but because drafts can interfere wi t h t he
worki ng of heati ng systems.
CALCULATING HEAT LOSS
Use the map right to establish the t em-
perature rise required. Then calculate the
rate of heat loss. First measure the glass
area of the greenhouse in square feet. Each
square foot of glass will lose 1.13 British
Thermal Units (BTU's) of heat per hour for
each degree F of temperature difference
between inside and out. Thus if there is
360 sq ft of glass and the temperature
difference between inside and out is 10F,
the heat loss is 4,068 BTU/hour (360 x 10
x 1.13). Thus in order to maintain a t em-
perature 10F above the likely mi ni mum,
a heating system capable of raising the
temperature by 4,000 BTU's- is needed.
Heaters and fuels have their heat outputs
quoted in BTU's/hour so the size of heating
installation needed can be calculated.
Bear in mi nd addi ti onal heat loss from
wi nd, t hrough gaps in the structure and
t hrough necessary venti l ati on. Measures
taken to reduce heat loss such as doubl e
glazing reduce t he amount of heat needed.
Heat loss varies wi t h materi al : the all-glass
figure quot ed gives a slight over-estimate
for a part wood or brick house.
The map above divides North Ameri ca
into ten zones of hardiness. This zone
system was devised by the Arnol d Arbor-
et um at Harvard, and is widely used by
scientists and gardeners. The zones are
defined in terms of consistent average
annual mi ni mum temperature and length
of growi ng season. When cal cul ati ng
greenhouse heati ng needs, use t he map
to assess t he local mi ni mum t emperat ure.
The difference bet ween t he expected mi ni -
mum and t he t emperat ure desired i n t he
greenhouse is the necessary t emperat ure
increase t he heati ng system must provi de.
Heating 2
Air ci rcul at i on Suppl yi ng oxygen to heaters
Wind can lower the temperature of t he
exposed side of the greenhouse. Adequate
air ci rcul ati on helps to avoi d col d spots.
Allow a gap between benches and stagings
and t he sides of t he greenhouse to permi t
air to ci rcul ate.
Leave a ventilator open whi l e combust i on
heaters are in use. Avoi d drafts over
plants.
Alternatively, install a door or wal l vent
whi ch will provi de enough oxygen for
combust i on wi t hout creati ng drafts.
Insulation Checki ng for cold spots
Check for cold spots in the greenhouse by
using one or more maxi mum- mi ni mum
thermometers. Place t hem around t he
greenhouse or, if only one is available, vary
its posi ti on noti ng mi ni mum temperatures
on nights of similar outside temperature.
Insulation can be applied in t he form of
special panels (left) or plastic sheeting, right,
whi ch should be fixed in doubl e layers
using tacks or a staple gun. Remove
insulation as soon as t he weat her moderates
for it wi l l i mpede light transmi ssi on.
Heating 3
Solid fuel piped hot water systems
Heating water by burni ng solid fuel is a cheap
method of heating a greenhouse. Modern
furnaces burni ng coal, anthraci te, and other
special fuels are designed to reduce stoking
and the clearing of ash to a mi ni mum. Many
have qui te good thermostati c control but
are not so accurate as t he more easily con-
trolled fuels such as electricity and gas. Wat er
heated in a boiler wi t hi n the furnace ci rcu-
lates t hrough a system of pipes. The pipes,
whi ch must rise gently f rom the boiler, should
be of narrow-di ameter al umi num rather than
the large-diameter cast iron type. Furnaces
are rated in terms of heat out put as BTU's/
hour. Choose a furnace large enough to heat
the greenhouse to the desired temperature
(see page 18). Onl y t he fuels recommended
by the maker must be used. The pipes are
best filled wi t h soft water such as rainwater,
and will have to be t opped up from ti me to
ti me. Large installations may have a main
constant-level system of the water tank and
ball-valve t ype.
Oil-fired piped hot water systems
Solid fuel furnaces may be adapted to burn oil
or a purpose-bui l t system can be installed.
Oil-fired systems can be thermostati cal l y
cont rol l ed: an efficient thermostati c control
system reduces t he amount of attenti on
required to mai ntai n a constant temperature.
Large, specially manufactured oil-fired i n-
stallations are highly efficient and automati c.
Gas-fired piped hot water systems
Gas furnaces are easy to operate and may be
fully automati c, being control l ed t hermo-
statically. Care should be taken to site t he
furnace where its fumes will not be carried
i nto t he greenhouse. Gas fumes can be
dangerous to plants. If the furnace is not
burni ng correctly, dangerous carbon mon-
oxide fumes will be given off instead of carbon
dioxide and water vapor whi ch is beneficial to
plants. Ensure that the flue fitted to the fur-
nace is tall enough to carry fumes away from
the greenhouse. Regular mai ntenance should
be carried out on all furnace systems to avoid
problems wi t h fumes and fuel wastage.
Linking greenhouse and domestic systems
Wher e a lean-to greenhouse or sun room
is to be heated and a hot water radiator
system is used in the home, it is sometimes
possible to link the t wo. However, it is
advisable to consult a heating engineer first,
and best if possible to i ncorporate the green-
house heater in the home system when it is
installed rather than to add later. Problems
can arise wi t h a linked system because
greenhouses need heating at night, whereas
homes are heated during the day and evening.
Natural gas heating
Natural gas burnt directly in special heaters
is very efficient. Its by-product s carbon
dioxide and water vapor which enhance the
greenhouse atmosphere make t he com-
mercial greenhouse practi ce of at mosphere
enri chment, whi ch encourages t he plants to
grow, available to the amateur gardener. As
t he burner is sited inside t he greenhouse,
regular mai ntenance is necessary in order to
avoi d possible emission of poi sonous gases
such as carbon monoxi de. The natural gas
systems on t he market are thermostati cal l y
control l ed and fully automati c, with a safety
valve whi ch prevents t he mai n suppl y from
being turned on unless t he pilot flame is
alight. It is more conveni ent to use a piped
natural gas supply in conj unct i on wi t h a
special greenhouse heater whi ch is portabl e
to some extent. Bottled natural gas such as
propane or butane tends to be expensive
Piped systems circulate hot water f rom a
furnace through pipes laid around t he
greenhouse. The hot water rises f rom t he
boiler, slowly cools, and returns via t he
lower pipe to t he furnace. This kind of
system, using large-diameter cast iron pipes,
is less efficient than t he small-bore system,
right, whi ch has mostly superseded it.
The small-bore piped system uses narrow
al umi num piping. Because of t he extra
fri cti on in smaller pipes, t he water does not
rise by convect i on as freely as in large
pipes and a ci rcul ati ng pump may be
needed. A header tank (illustrated) tops up
t he water i n t he system. Such furnaces
can be fuelled by solid fuel , gas or oi l .
Heating 4
al though it is convenient where piped
supply is not available. Propane is advisable
when the storage bottl e is kept outside as
butane does not readily volatilize in cold
weather. The larger the bottles or cylinders,
the more economi cal is this type of heating.
Kerosene heaters
Kerosene is the simplest form of heating to
install. Choose a heater that is designed for
the greenhouse, as some household kerosene
heaters give off fumes deadly to plants.
Greenhouse heaters are specially designed to
reduce the risk of fumes and are often
equipped wi t h tubes or other devices to
distribute the heat evenly around t he green-
house. They are, however, difficult to control
thermostatically. A flue is a desirable feature,
since some models may tend to produce
harmful fumes. Some have hot water pipes
as well as hot air ducts. Kerosene heaters
produce water vapor as they burn whi ch
keeps the greenhouse atmosphere moist,
al though venti l ati on is necessary at times as
the atmosphere may become excessively
humi d. When combusti on is taki ng place the
greenhouse must be venti l ated to provi de an
oxygen supply. Keep the heaters clean and
t he wi ck t ri mmed accordi ng to t he maker's
instructions. Features to look for when buyi ng
a kerosene heater are stainless steel lamp
chi mneys, fuel level indicators and large,
separate fuel tanks to make filling easier and
less frequent.
Electric heating systems
Electric heati ng is the most efficient and
effective. It is easy to control , clean and is the
safest for use wi t h plants as there are no
fumes. It must be fitted by an electrician as
the combi nat i on of electricity and damp can
be lethal (see page 17).
Siting a boiler
Fumes from a furnace can harm plants. Site
i t therefore outsi de t he greenhouse and
downwi nd, so t hat t he prevai l i ng wi nd
carries smoke and fumes away.
Where pipes run across a doorway, lay
metal grilles above t hem to allow heat to
rise yet protect the pipes from damage.
Electric tubular heaters distribute warmt h
evenly in t he same way as pi ped hot water
systems. They can be mount ed in banks or
installed singly in greenhouse col d spots.
Natural gas heaters heat t he air by t he
burni ng of a gas whi ch is harmless to plants
if t he burners are correctl y adj usted. Piped
or bot t l ed gas can be used.
Kerosene heaters must be careful l y
mai ntai ned to avoi d harmful fumes.
Choose a model wi t h a large, easily-filled
fuel tank and a fuel level i ndi cator.
Heating 5
There are many different types of electrical
heating apparatus especially developed for
greenhouses. Tubular heaters have a similar
capacity for even di stri buti on as hot water
piping systems. Position along a side wall of
the greenhouse in a single line or group
together at points around the greenhouse to
give more heat to colder areas.
There are compact fan-assisted heaters
whi ch are easily moved and will spread the
heat over the whol e area of the greenhouse.
They may also be used to circulate cool air
when heat is not needed. Thermostatically
control l ed fan heaters will accurately control
temperatures to wi thi n one or t wo degrees
wi t h no waste of fuel or heat and need little
maintenance. Fan heaters circulate air, keep-
ing t he atmosphere buoyant and reduci ng
the chance of fungal disease. The best type of
fan heater has separate thermostats con-
trol l i ng the fan and the heat, supplying heat
when it is needed. When the fan is switched
off the air will remain relatively motionless
except for convecti on currents. The advant-
age of this system is that there will be inter-
mi t t ent air circulation wi t h little heat loss.
The fan-heated greenhouse can be safely
left closed during cold weather as there is no
contami nati on of the air and no need for
extra venti l ati on.
Convecti on heaters are another type of
efficient electric heater. They consist of a
cabinet wi t h holes at t he t op and bot t om
wi t h heating wires inside whi ch warm the air.
The warm air rises and flows out at the t op
causing cold air to be drawn in at the bot t om.
In this way convecti on currents cycle t he air
around the greenhouse.
Storage heaters can be economi cal using
the off-peak rate for greenhouse heating.
This type of heating is, however, difficult to
control thermostatically. There will some-
times be too little and sometimes t oo much
heat. They are best used for background
warmt h in conj unct i on wi t h a main heat
source keeping the maxi mum temperature
thermostatically. An accuratel y control l ed
electric heater can be used to mai ntai n the
maxi mum temperature level wi t h a kerosene
heater for background warmt h. The advan-
tage of using a combi nati on of heaters is t hat
the more expensive fuels are conserved.
Soil heating cables
There are many advantages to the gardener
in warmi ng the soil from below. Crops may be
raised earlier than normal and cuttings and
seed germi nati on should be more successful.
There are t wo good methods of warmi ng
t he soil using cables. The first utilizes bare
cables buried 6- 9 in below t he surface of the
soil wi t h low voltage current passed through
t hem by means of a transformer to step down
the pri mary voltage. Alternatively, insulated
soil-heating cables are used in conj unct i on
wi t h t he full house current buri ed 6- 9 i n
below t he surface.
The soil is excavated to t he required depth
and a layer of sand spread over the bot t om
of the trench and raked level. The required
length of cable, as recommended by the
manufacturer, is laid over the surface in
parallel lines as evenly spaced as possible.
The cable is then pegged in position using
galvanized wi re pegs.
There is no need for special precautions to
protect the wire when using a low voltage.
However, 115 and 230-volt cables can be
dangerous if accidentally severed. It is there-
HEATING COSTS
At a ti me when the relative prices of the
various fuels are fl uctuati ng, it is impossible
to give a realistic i ndi cati on of what it
costs to heat a greenhouse. Two key
points emerge from any study of heating
costs. First, waste of heat, through inade-
quate insulation, drafts and poor ad-
j ustment of heating systems, is a major
factor in most fuel bills. Second, the effect
of raising the greenhouse temperature
f rom cool to warm level is to doubl e bills.
Therefore t he decision to grow warm
greenhouse plants is one t hat must be
taken wi t h an eye on t he cost. Also,
careful management and heat conserva-
t i on can make all the difference to the
economi cs of greenhouse heating. The
flexibility of the various fuels must be
considered as well as cost. Electricity,
especially when used to power fan heaters,
is very flexible and little energy is wasted
provi di ng unwant ed heat.
1 Remove the border soil to a depth of
9 in. Pile the border soil to one side and
rake over the base of the trench produced.
2 Lay soil heati ng cables on t he soil
surface. Space t he cable in a series of loops
46 in apart. Do not let t he loops t ouch.
Peg t he cable down wi t h staples.
3 Replace t he border soil and rake it level.
Wat er t he bed lightly. Damp soil conducts
heat better than dry.
4 Connect t he soil heati ng cabl e to a
thermostat, if one is suppl i ed wi t h t he cabl e
kit, or di rect to an outl et. Carefully f ol l ow
the maker's i nstructi ons on i nstal l ati on.
Heating 6
lore a good plan to lay ,1 length ot galvanized
mesh over the cable. Spread sand over the
mesh and then replace the soil. Plug the
cable into a waterproof outl et whi ch is
placed well above the level of the soil where
there is no danger of it getti ng wet.
Soil-heating cable kits are available com-
plete wi t h thermostats, al though the ther-
mostat is not essential. Soil-heating installa-
tions vary in power. They usually provi de a
temperature of 16C/60F.
Thermostats
The various heating systems described may
all be control l ed by special greenhouse
thermostats. A thermostat is a device t hat
controls the temperature of the atmosphere
in the greenhouse by regulating the fuel
supply to the heater. Two strips made of
different metals, j oi ned together wi t hi n t he
thermostat, expand and cont ract in response
to changes in temperature. The movement
of this bi-metallic strip switches electrical
contacts whi ch control the flow of fuel, or the
flow of air to solid fuel, thus regulating the
speed at whi ch the fuel is burnt. Very
accurate thermostati c control is possible
wi t h electric heaters, and for this reason
other types of heater use electricity to
operate motors or electro-magnets whi ch
regulate the flow of fuel. A thermostat usually
has a graduated dial whi ch is set to the
required temperature whi ch the thermostat
will t hen mai ntai n, if the heating system is
powerful enough.
Conserving heat in the greenhouse
Heat will be lost through broken and cracked
glass, ill-fitting doors and vents, whi ch must
be repaired or i mproved.
Lining t he greenhouse in wi nter wi t h
pol yethyl ene sheet to give a "doubl e glazing"
effect will help enormousl y (see page 22). Use
the thi nnest and clearest pol yethyl ene sheet
available. It is the static air trapped between
t he plastic and t he glass that forms the insula-
t i onso do not leave gaps. So t hat vents can
be opened, line t hem separately.
Burlap or old blankets placed over the
roof at night in extremely cold weather will
conserve heat. They must, however, be
removed in t he morni ng.
Warm-air duct heating
Polyethylene ducts, whi ch may be
perforated, distribute heat given out by an
electric fan heater or a gas heater fi tted
wi t h a fan. Such pipes can be installed
either below benches or al ong the
greenhouse eves. First used in commerci al
greenhouses, they are an efficient means of
di stri buti ng heat in larger greenhouses.
SOLAR HEATING
All sources of heat are solar in t he sense
that their fuels are derived, however
distantly, from the power of the sun. Oi l ,
coal, and gas, and el ectri ci ty generated
from t hem, are fossil fuels produced by
nature from sun power. Because these
fuels are expensive, increasingly scarce
and liable to interruptions in supply,
many attempts have been made to har-
ness the sun directly. Two linked problems
i mmedi atel y arise: ti mi ng and heat stor-
age. The sun tends to shine when heating
is least required, so some means of heat
storage is essential. None of the systems
available can be said to overcome these
problems so compl etel y t hat they can be
recommended as a sole system of heating.
Solar heating has t wo uses at the present
stage of devel opment: as a back-up heat
source and as an area for experiment by
techni cal l y-mi nded gardeners. The illus-
trations on this page show the principles
behi nd some of the solar heat methods
in use.
Heat storage
War m air is sucked by a fan down a duct
f rom t he roof space, where sun heat is
greatest duri ng t he day. Rocks bel ow the
fl oor store heat. At night, t he f an reverses.
Solar furnace Water panels and heat storage
Water is pumped up and flows over roof
panels. The sun heats t he panels and t he
water, whi ch is stored in an insulated tank.
At night, flaps are opened to let heat out.
The sun heats air behi nd t he glass wall,
causing it to rise. War m air fl ows i nto the
heat storage of rocks, whi ch are heated. At
night warm air is pumped f r om t he storage.
Water supply and watering 1
Every greenhouse should have a piped supply
of water, unless it is very small or is close to
the house or an outside faucet. Despite t he
contrary preferences of some gardeners,
city water is perfectly acceptable for plants,
and, unlike rainwater, the piped supply is
unlikely to fail. However, gutteri ng is useful
in itself in preventing drips from the green-
house and it is sensible to store the water the
gutters channel. Rainwater storage requires
careful planning and attenti on to hygiene if
water butts are not to become havens for
waterborne pests and diseases.
If stored rainwater is to be the only source
of supply, at least t wo 60 gal butts will be
needed for a fully-stocked 8 x 8f t green-
house, and even then t he reserves will be
used up during a dry spell. Butts should have
ti ght-fi tti ng lids to keep out leaves and other
debris whi ch can foul t he water. Two or
more butts can be connected by overflow
pipes to store surplus water. An alternative to
butts is a tank wi t hi n t he greenhouse or
even under the floor, wi t h pipes leading f rom
the guttering. Wi t h this arrangement, a faucet
can be installed over the tank to replenish
it when rain fails. If water reserves of these
kinds are cont empl at ed, it must be borne in
mi nd t hat mosquitoes and other pests will
breed in static water. Wat er from tanks can
also act as a distributor of fungal and bacterial
plant diseases.
If runni ng water is installed in the green-
house, make sure the water piping is well
buri ed to prevent freezing. Install t he pipes,
whi ch can be of modern plastics wi t h com-
pression fittings, when the greenhouse is
being built. Fit a faucet chosen to suit the
wateri ng equi pment likely to be used. A
range of modern hose couplings and connec-
tions for automati c wateri ng devices is
available, allowing several wateri ng systems
to be used at t he same ti me.
Watering systems
Once a supply of water is assured, wateri ng
systems can be chosen. These range f rom
simple cans to automati c devices.
Cans Even if automati c wateri ng devices are
favored, a wateri ng can will still be necessary
for wateri ng plants on shelves and lor
measuring out liquid fertilizer, fungicides and
insecticides. A gallon can is the most useful.
It should feel balanced and comfortabl e to the
grasp. It should have a tapered extension
spout for plants at the back of benches and
on shelves, and a fine rose for wateri ng newly-
sown seeds or pricked-off seedlings, or for
dampi ng down floors. If high-level shelving
or hanging baskets are fi tted, obtai n a
smaller 1/2 or 3/4 gal can wi t h a long, curved
spout. Cans are made of galvanized or
enameled metal or plastic, t he latter being
now t he most readily available. Plastic is
cheaper than metal and lighter to handle.
Automatic watering: Capillary benches
Wat eri ng plants properly by hand can be a
ti me-consumi ng j ob, requiring knowl edge
and experience. There are several methods of
wateri ng plants automati cal l y, whether in
pots or beds. Where a large col l ecti on of pot
plants is mai ntai ned and especially if t he
owner has to be away duri ng the day, a
capillary bed system is a wort hwhi l e invest-
ment. This met hod works on the capillarity
of moist sand. That is, water is sucked up
through the tiny spaces between the grains
of sand through the drainage holes into the
pot. Line a deep bench t op wi t h heavy gauge
plastic sheeting, and fill wi t h washed sand
to a depth of 2- 3 in. Special trays can also
be used. The sand is kept conti nual l y moist
on the surface but not waterlogged, either
wi t h a wateri ng can or an automati c device.
The simplest of these is t he inverted demi -
j ohn or header bottl e in a shallow reservoir,
whi ch overflows directly ont o the sand
or i nto connecti ng guttering. A more fully
automati c system uses a header tank con-
nected to a piped water supply and fed to
the sand bench via a ballcock valve. The pot
plants, whi ch should not be crocked, are
pushed i nto the t op inch of the sand wi t h a
screwing mot i on so that sand is forced i nto
the drainage hole or holes and makes
cont act wi t h the soil. Water is taken up i nto
t he soil by capillary acti on.
An alternative to sand is the so-called
capillary matti ng whi ch is kept wet in t he
same way. It can however, become clogged
wi t h algae after a ti me and then needs
careful washing or replacing.
Automatic watering: Pipe systems these
methods of wateri ng i nvol ve pi pi ng and
finer t ubi ng or nozzles. Trickle systems are the
most popular. In its simplest f orm this is
piping perforated at intervals and so arranged
t hat a perforati on is over each pot, or by
each plant to be watered. Somewhat more
sophisticated versions have nozzles or a
length of t ubi ng from each perf orat i on. In the
so-called spaghetti system a sheaf of very
small-bore tubes runs f rom t he end of a
hose. Each tube is t hen led to a pot and
cl i pped i nto place. These met hods can be
set to tri ckl e indefinitely, or t he water supply
can be set to a solenoid valve and l i nked to a
ti me cl ock to run at set intervals.
If a slow non-stop tri ckl e is used t he pots
must be inspected regularly. Large, vigorous
plants may need more water than t he trickle
can deliver, and will suffer as a result.
Overhead sprinklers can also be used on an
aut omat i c basis and for plants whi ch need
a high humi di t y they are ideal. Care must be
taken, however, to see t hat all plants are
getti ng an adequate water supply. The dense
or broad foliage of some pot t ed plants can
effectively prevent enough water f r om reach-
ing the rootbal l beneath.
Whi l e all these self-watering met hods are
invaluable to t he greenhouse gardener, they
must be used intelligently. As wi t h all forms
of aut omat i on, they are non-sel ecti ve and
this is a disadvantage where living organisms
are concerned. Every pl ant will get t he same
amount of water whet her it needs it or not.
Some will respond by growi ng lush and out of
character, others may become waterl ogged
and slowly die. Wher e a wi de vari ety of plants
is grown, they must be i nspected regularly.
Over-wet plants must be t aken out of the
automati c system for a whi l e to dry out,
whi l e dry ones must be given extra water
by hand.
Humidity
Al t hough water is primarily used for keeping
the roots moist, most plants appreci ate or
need humi di t y in t he air, at least when in full
growt h. This t oo can be provi ded by aut oma-
ti on, using overhead or near-ground nozzles
such as those used in mist propagat i on
systems (see page 30).
WATERING CANS
Wateri ng cans should be durable and
well-balanced. A long, possibly sectional,
spout is useful in a crowded greenhouse
and a small can allows plants on high
shelves and hanging baskets to be easily
reached. A fine rose will be required for
wateri ng seeds and delicate seedlings and
rooted cutti ngs.
Water supply and watering 2
Water butts should have ti ght-fi tti ng lids.
Two or more can be connect ed by pipes.
Faucets allow cans to be filled.
Storage butts Internal tanks Connecting fittings Header tanks
Guttering can be led i nto t he greenhouse
to fill an internal water tank. Fit a ti ght-
fi tti ng cover to keep insect pests out.
Special fittings replace faucets and allow
several appliances, such as hoses and a
header tank, to be used at once.
Header tanks and bottles suppl y wat er to
capillary and tri ckl e i rri gati on systems by
gravity.
Capillary bench Capillary matting
The capillary bench watering system
consists of a pol yethyl ene-l i ned tray filled
wi t h sand. The sand is moistened and t he
plants take up water f rom t he sand through
t he pots' drainage holes. Push t he pots
i nto t he sand wi t h a screwing mot i on.
An alternative to a sand bench, capillary
mat t i ng soaks up water whi ch is t hen
taken up by plants by capillary acti on.
Wat er can be supplied manual l y or by a
header t ank or bottl e. The mat t i ng becomes
clogged wi t h algae after a t i me.
Water supply and watering 3
Watering
All watering under glass requires care, espe-
cially that of plants in containers. In the
beginner's greenhouse at least, more plants
are likely to suffer or die f rom lack of, or t oo
much, water than succumb to pests and
diseases. Wateri ng is a skilled operati on, not
even all professional gardeners fully master it.
Like so many other aspects of gardening
under glass, it is essential to get to know t he
plants well. In time, personal observation
will provide the experience t hat is required to
judge accurately the needs of each plant at
any ti me of the year.
Watering containers
Water plants in containers by filling the space
between the soil surface and the pot rim wi t h
water, thus ensuring t hat the whol e of t he
root system is moistened. Frequency of
wateri ng depends on several factors, notably
the vigor of the plant, temperature, type of
soil, and the container. A fast growing, well
rooted plant will probably need wateri ng
each day in summer, perhaps even t wi ce
daily during a hot spell. In wi nter the same
plant may need wateri ng only once or t wi ce a
week, or even less if it has a definite resting
peri od.
If in doubt as to when a plant needs water,
there are several useful observations that can
be made and points to check. Wi l t i ng or
flagging of the plant is very obvious when in
an advanced state but the observant gar-
dener will note the slight droopi ng of soft
stem and leaf tips whi ch precedes this,
denoti ng a need for water. Whatever t he
soil mixture used it is always paler in t one
when dry. When this state is reached in a
clay pot, wateri ng is required. In a plastic pot
however, this indication is not so reliable, as
containers of this sort are not porous and t he
soil stays more moist below the surface layer.
If the plant is not growi ng vigorously or the
weather is cool, it is advisable to scratch i nto
the surface of t he soil wi t h the finger ti p.
If the t op 1/4 in of the soil is dry, t hen water-
ing should be carried out. An estimate of
t he wei ght of a pot full of soil can also
be used as a guide. To enable t he wei ght
differences to be recognized, a range of pots
should be filled and firmed as for potti ng and
allowed almost to dry out (or dryish potti ng
mi xture can be used at the outset). Each pot
is then wei ghed in the hand, watered t ho-
roughly and checked again. A met hod
formerl y much used involves t he use of a
tapper, easily made from a length of cane
and a small block of wood about the size of
a cot t on reel. Each pot is rapped smartly in
t urn and if a ringing tone is given out the root
ball is dry and wateri ng is needed. A dull,
hol l ow noise denotes t hat the rootball is
moist. This onl y works wi t h clay pots.
The above methods can be used success-
fully on healthy actively growi ng plants. They
are less easily applied to dormant or resting
plants whi ch require keeping barely moist.
Provided a free-draining potti ng medi um is
used, ideally a loam-based mixture, applying
just half t he usual amount of water at each
appl i cati on is usually successful. All-peat pot-
ti ng mixes shrink away from t he sides of the
pot when kept too dry and much of t he
subsequent water applied runs down the
sides. To overcome this difficulty the plants
should be stood in trays of water so that the
bot t om half of each pot is submerged. Unless
the soil is dust-dry, a few minutes in water
will suffice to moisten it adequately.
Watering beds
Beds and borders in t he greenhouse are
watered in much the same way as those in
t he out door garden and it is even more
i mport ant to use a rose or sprinkler on the
can or hose. This prevents panning of the
soil surface and unsightly soil-splash on
lower leaves of small plants. As wi t h pots,
beds must be attended to regularly and
thoroughl y. It is all t oo easy to thi nk the bed
has been well watered when in effect it is
still dry several inches down. Many a crop
of grapes, peaches or tomatoes has been
spoilt for this reason. The equivalent of at
least one inch of rain should be applied each
ti me. To get a rough idea of this amount,
stand a straight-sided contai ner on the bed
duri ng wateri ng. When an inch is measurable
in the bot t om, leave for at least an hour then
dig a small hole about 6 in deep and if dryish
soil shows at the bot t om of the hole, water
again.
Fine sprays of water directed by nozzles
ont o plants are an efficient way of bot h
wateri ng and raising humi di ty.
Trickle irrigationspaghetti
Trickle systems supply a small amount of
water conti nuousl y to each plant. Check
plants regularly.
The so-called spaghetti system works on t he
same principle as the tri ckl e system.
Flexible tubes, attached to a central
coupl i ng, deliver water to each pl ant. A
header tank can be used to give a
cont i nuous supply, or a t i meswi t ch fi tted.
Spray lines Trickle irrigation
Benches and staging 1
Kent lies and staging of some sort arc used in
most greenhouses, the only exceptions being
those houses used entirely for growi ng crops
in the border soil, those devoted to tall con-
tainer plants and possibly those lean-tos
whi ch are primarily used for growi ng fruit
against the rear wall. Benches are less per-
manent than stagings, a term used to refer
to robust long-term constructi ons often
supporti ng raised soil beds.
The use of benches and staging has several
advantages. They multiply the amount of
useful growi ng space available, as the area
underneath t hem can often be used. This is
especially true in glass-to-ground houses,
where enough light will penetrate the area
beneath the benches to grow crops such as
lettuce and to raise seedlings in boxes and
pans. In half-glazed houses the area beneath
the staging can be used for forci ng crops such
as rhubarb and seakale and for storing dor-
mant plants duri ng winter. Plants grown on
benches are likely to receive more light than
those placed on the floor or grown in soil
beds. It is also easier to water and generally
mai ntai n plants at bench levelmost
benches and stagings are 2 1/2 ft high. The
plants are also nearer eye level, allowing
t hem to be better appreci ated.
Ot her kinds of structure such as shelves,
pot holders, orchi d baskets, and hanging
baskets for ferns and trailing plants can also
be fitted into the greenhouse. Take care not
to over-crowd the greenhouse, for too many
structures will cut out light, impede air ci rcu-
l ati on, and allow high-level plant containers
to drip ont o those below.
Positioning benches
Take account of the aspect of the greenhouse
when pl anni ng the position of benches and
staging. If the axis of the house is east-west,
then one bench on the north side is ideal, as
it does not block light. The south soil bed can
be used for crops, and adequate light will
reach plants on the bench. Place high-level
shelves where they will not cast shadows over
other plants for an appreciable porti on of t he
day. Bear in mi nd that shelves raised near to
the roof glass will be subject to extremes of
heat, cold and sunlight, and that plants
placed on t hem will need extra care. Finally,
ensure that there is easy access to all plants.
Benches and staging should be no more than
4 ft deep, and shelves, pot holders and hang-
ing baskets should be placed where they do
not i mpede normal work in the greenhouse.
Keep hanging baskets, for instance, above
normal head height unless they are sus-
pended over a bench or other area away
from the central path. Shelves can be placed
across the end of the greenhouse, opposite
the door, it they do not obstruct side benches.
Types of bench and staging
The first choice to be made is between solid
and perforated tops. Both have their advan-
tages, and the choice depends to a large
extent upon the crops to be grown and the
type of cul ti vati on to be carried out. Air
ci rcul ati on around benches is not so critical
in summer, when more ventilators will be
open. Then, perforated benches may be
covered wi t h plastic sheet or metal trays to
allow solid-bench techniques to be used.
Uses for solid benches A solid t op to the
bench or staging allows beds of soil, sand or
gravel to be f ormed. These can range from
thi n layers of gravel on whi ch containers are
stood, to aid drainage and increase humi di ty,
to 4- 6 in deep beds of sand or soil. Such beds
are essential if mist propagat i on or t he use of
soil heati ng cables are to be practi ced.
Gravel trays are watered in summer wi t h t he
aim of increasing humi di t y. Sol i d-topped
benches are also needed if tri ckl e irrigation
systems are cont empl at ed. Hydroponi cs sys-
tems, whi ch rely on a f l ow of nutrients in
liquid f orm, need solid benches. Shallow
metal trays can be used to convert per-
forated benches i nto solid ones.
Materials The choi ce is bet ween metal
frames, wood frames and permanent brick
or concrete stagings. Metal and wood frames
can be fitted wi t h perforated or solid tops.
Some benches are removabl e, giving flexi-
bility in t he arrangement of t he greenhouse.
Wood will need to be t hor oughl y cleaned at
least once a year as it can harbor pest and
disease organisms.
Types of staging
Staging can be timber or metal-framed, or
supported on brick or concrete piers.
Slatted wood staging (a) is tradi ti onal and
attractive. It allows air ci rcul ati on in winter,
and in summer can be covered wi t h plastic
sheet whi ch can be spread wi t h moisture-
retaining vemi cul i te, gravel or peat. Net-
t opped stagings (b), wi t h metal frames, give
maxi mum air ci rcul ati on al l owi ng heat to
ci rcul ate. Metal trays can be laid on t he
staging and filled wi t h gravel (c). Solid
brick staging (d) acts as a heat reservoir,
releasing at ni ght heat absorbed duri ng t he
day. Concrete is also strong, and can
similarly support raised soil beds and heavy
pots, but it retains less heat t han brick.
Benches and staging 2
Shelves Displaying plants
1 Metal or wood shelves can be fixed to
glazing bars on t he sides and roof of the
greenhouse. Use special clips on al umi num
frames. Make shelves at least 6 in deep.
2 Tiered staging displays large numbers of
pot plants attracti vel y. It is available in
wood or metal and can be placed on t he
ground or on staging.
Pot holders allow plants, especially trailers,
to be mount ed on the greenhouse sides.
They can be bought or improvised f rom
bent wire.
Shelves under staging
Hanging baskets can be suspended from
brackets mount ed on walls or from the
greenhouse roof. Use those fi tted wi t h drip
trays if t hey are placed above other plants
Hardening-off shelves Displaying orchids
1 Many orchids grow best in perforated
containers or wooden baskets, whi ch can
be suspended f rom t he greenhouse roof.
(See pages 84-85)
2 Epiphytic orchids can be grown on thi ck
pieces of bark. Wr ap roots in compost and
wi re t he pl ant and rootball to t he bark,
whi ch is hung f rom t he roof.
Shelves can be mounted under staging in
glass-to-ground houses, especially on t he
south side. Use shelves for pots of bulbs
duri ng their dormant periods.
Some greenhouses are equi pped wi t h
openi ng panes al l owi ng flats of plants on
shelves bel ow t he staging to be slid i nto the
open by day and returned at ni ght.
Benches and staging 3
Solid brick and concrete stagings can he
built as part of the structure of half-glazed
greenhouses wi t h a brick base, l hey are very
strong, and also have the advantage of in-
creasing the amount of heat the greenhouse
can store and release during the night. Sun
shining through the glass strikes the staging
and heat is stored in the same manner as in
a brick or stone wall. This heat is given off
during the night, moderati ng the temperature
drop in the greenhouse. Brick is a much more
efficient storer of heat than concrete, and
therefore brick structures should be chosen
if heat storage is an i mportant factor. Choose
hard-faced bricks whi ch are less porous t han
the normal sort. These are easier to scrub
down and less likely to harbor pest and
disease organisms.
Bench-top beds
Soil beds at bench level are described on
page 46. They need strong brick or concrete
staging and by their nature are permanent.
Less permanent beds can be formed by add-
ing raised edges to solid-based benches. Such
benches can be covered wi t h soil, sand or
gravel. The use of soil heating cables re-
quires a bed of sand or soil 4 in deep, in whi ch
the cables are buried. Power cables of special
type are used to raise the sand temperature
to 43C/110F, and the sand transmits t he
heat to pots and flats of plants and seeds
placed upon it. Soil-heating systems are fre-
quentl y used wi t h mist propagati on.
Alpine houses frequently have stagings
topped wi th a tray contai ni ng 4- 6 in of
gravel, into whi ch the pots contai ni ng t he
plants are plunged. Again, a strong per-
manent structure is essential. Alpines can
also be grown in bench-top beds. Often t wo
beds are const ruct ed: one filled wi t h stony,
acid soil, the other wi t h a free-draining
alkaline soil.
Shelves
The use of narrow shelves above the mai n
bench or staging maximizes growi ng space
and allows pot plants to be placed where they
are attractive yet not in the way of propaga-
tion and other bench-top activities. Shelves
may be fixed to the glazing bars or suspended
from t hem. Shelves can also be suspended
from the roof beam if there is enough head-
room. Proprietary fastening systems have
brackets whi ch can be adjusted to the dis-
tances between the greenhouse frame bars.
Shelves should be wi de enough to take t he
pots envisaged, strong, and easy of access.
Bear in mi nd t he need to water the plants.
Tiered shelves Banks of tiered wood or metal
shelves can be installed in place of normal
benches, or can be mount ed upon the bench
itself. They are of most use where large num-
bers of ornamental pot plants are grown,
allowing the largest possible number of
plants to be displayed.
Hanging baskets
Hanging containers may be essential if many
trailing ornamentals are grown, and in any
case such containers are attracti ve. Baskets
are made of metal, or preferably plastic-
covered metal . They are filled wi t h soil mix
and lined wi t h moss (see page 54). Place t hem
carefully where drips will not be a probl em,
and ensure t hat fastenings are strong enough
to support the combi ned weights of con-
tainer, plants and wet soil.
Pots can be suspended in wire or cord
"cradl es", or in t he decorati ve purpose-made
holders designed primarily for house plants.
Drill plastic pots to take t he wi re; clay pots
can be fi tted into a sling.
Pot holders Simple metal rings attached to
brackets can be used to support pots. Fix t he
rings to greenhouse frame uprights.
Permanent supports
Plant support systems are discussed on page
50. Permanent supports, such as the system
of wires illustrated right, must be planned
when other fittings such as benches, staging
and shelves are being considered. In a lean-
to house t he rear wall can be wi red for the
growi ng of espalier or cordon frui t trees or
climbers. Walls should be scrubbed down,
preferably wi t h a fungicide, rendered if
necessary and t hen painted or whi tewashed
before the wires are fi tted. Trellising can be
fitted to battens and hinged at the bot t om to
allow t he wall behind to be pai nted. This is
onl y necessary for very long-lived plants such
as vines. Full details can be f ound in Gardening
Techniques in this series.
WIRING A WALL
Rear walls of lean-to greenhouses can be
used to grow fruits and ornamental
plants. Careful preparation pays dividends
later on, when the plant will cover the
wall and make mai nt enance and repair
to t he framework difficult.
First scrub down t he wall wi t h water and
a di l ute horti cul tural di si nfectant to kill
pest and disease organisms. If the wall is
of brick, repoint and render if possible.
Then whitewash or paint the wall to
provi de a light-reflecting surface.
Fix 2 in square wood battens verti cal l y
at either end of t he wal l . Using straining
bolts at one end, stretch wires hori zontal l y
between t he posts, 15-18 in apart.
Propagating aids 1
All gardeners like to propagate their own
plants, at least by the t wo basic means of
sowing seeds and taki ng cuttings. The pri n-
ciples and methods of propagati on are dealt
wi th on pages 55-63, the equi pment used, on
the next t wo pages.
Most tender plant seeds germinate more
readily if kept at a temperature a little warmer
than is required by the growi ng plant. Seeds
of hardy and half-hardy vegetables and
flowers are often sown under glass in late
winter or early spring before the weather is
warm enough outside. The main probl em in
propagation is to ensure survival of t he
propagated material (be it seed, cut t i ng or
graft) until it forms a new young plant. If t he
correct material has been used at the start,
and properly prepared, then success is
directly related to the control of the envi ron-
ment by the gardener.
Environmental factors In plant propagati on
there are t wo envi ronments: the aerial en-
vi ronment, whi ch can be broken down i nto
humi di ty, temperature, gas cont ent and light
transmission; and the envi ronment of t he
medi um (soil or compost), whi ch covers t em-
perature, moisture, aeration and chemical
reaction (acidity/alkalinity). The j ob of propa-
gation equi pment is to modi fy these factors
t o provi de t he opt i mum condi ti ons.
The ideal environment An ideal envi ron-
ment is one t hat allows mi ni mum water loss
f rom t he plant, cool air temperatures,
adequate light penetrati on, a normal at mo-
spheric balance between soil and air, good
drainage and warm soil temperatures. The
aci di ty/al kal i ni ty reaction should be neutral.
The degree to whi ch a particular system of
envi ronmental control operates will limit the
propagati on techniques t hat can be used
successfully wi t hi n it. In general, t he "softer"
or less hardy t he plant material the greater
will be t he degree of envi ronmental control
needed to achieve success. The vagaries of
t he normal out door cl i mate are too great
for all but t he easiest and hardiest plants to be
propagated successfully wi thout protecti on
For these reasons a properl y-constructed
heated propagating frame or case is highly
desirable. In addi ti on, the larger propagating
cases can be used to house a small col l ecti on
of tropical plants in a cold or cool greenhouse.
Propagating cases
Basically, the propagating frame or case is a
smaller version of a garden frame. It provides
a closed hi gh-humi di ty envi ronment and can
be used either in the greenhouse or indoors if
light is adequate. The case can be of wood or
al umi num, wi t h a cover of glass or plastic
sheeting. Bottom heat can be supplied elec-
trically by soil heating cables (see page 22)
or custom-made units wi t h built-in heating
elements can be purchased. Small units are
heated by light-bulbs fitted to the end walls,
or by fluorescent lighting tubes. For t he
amateur there is now a wi de range of easily-
portable propagating cases wi t h a heating
uni t as an integral part. Generally of reason-
able cost, they are much to be preferred to
i nexpertl y-made or put together do-i t-your-
self frames. The cheaper cust om-bui l t cases
have cable heating whi ch mai ntai ns a t em-
perature around 65"F/18"C. If outsi de con-
ditions are col d, however, the t emperat ure
can drop much lower and for this reason ,a
more efficient heating uni t coupl ed wi t h a
thermostat is desirable. If tropi cal plants are
being propagated, it must be possible to
mai ntai n a mi ni mum t emperat ure of about
75F/24C. Sophisticated units have bot h
bot t om heat to warm t he soil and cables
around t he sides to war m t he air.
Unheated propagators If most of t he propa-
gation is done f rom late spring to late sum-
mer, bot t om heat is not so i mport ant and a
wi de vari ety of cust om-made propagators
wi t hout heat are available. Like t he heated
ones, they are largely of plastic, t he bot t om
being like a seed flat, t he t op an angular
dome of clear rigid plastic. Home-made
frames of wood and glass or plastic sheeting
A mist unit provides fine sprays of water in
the air above the plants, whi ch are thus
constantly covered by a fine film of water.
Such a unit is used in conj unct i on wi t h
soil-heating cables. A thermostat con-
trols the soil heat, and a cut-off switch,
responsive to light, moi sture or ti me, t he
water supply. Sunlight is uni nterrupted as
there is no need for a glass or plastic cover.
Mist units can cover entire benches.
An ordinary seed flat, pan or pot can be
convert ed i nto a propagator if pol yethyl ene
sheeting is spread over hoops and sealed.
Purpose-made propagators have a domed
plastic t op over an ordi nary seed flat.
Venti l ators are usually f i t t ed.
Propagating aids 2
CAN be just as effective and for small-scale
propagation some of the rigid plastic boxes
sold for food storage are useful. Simplest of
all is a plastic bag wi t h either the pot of
cuttings or seeds placed inside, or wi t h the
bag inverted over the pot. If the latter met hod
is used, t wo U-shaped loops of galvanized
wire can be pushed into the rooti ng medi um
to prevent the bag from collapsing ont o the
cuttings or seedlings.
Mist units
For the gardener who is particularly keen to
propagate plants of all kinds, a mist uni t will
ensure a higher rate of rooti ng success and
give much interest and satisfaction. Mist
propagation requires electricity and piped
water supplies. It keeps the foliage of the
plant material moist wi t h a fine mist-like
spray of water, thus el i mi nati ng the need for
light-reducing covers of plastic or glass. The
sun's light and heat can fall ont o the cuttings
wi t h only the greenhouse roof glass in t he
way. As a result, a high level of photosynthesis
t an cont i nue f rom the moment of insertion
and subsequent rooti ng is more rapid and
assured. There can be weani ng problems
wi t h some of the more difficult to root plants
once they reach t he pot t i ng stage.
The system known as i ntermi ttent mist
is also useful. The spray nozzles are coupl ed
to a solenoid positioned among the cut-
tings. When t he solenoid dries sufficiently it
actuates a switch to start t he misting again.
Anot her met hod is triggered by an absorbent
pad attached to a switch. When the pad is
wet and heavy it presses down and turns t he
system off. When dry it rises and turns it on
again. Where t he growi ng season is persist-
ently warm and sunny, misting nozzles may
be left on, or just shut off at night.
Siting a propagator
What ever propagati on equi pment is chosen
it must be sited wi t h care in the greenhouse.
Adequate light is essential but direct sunlight
will raise the temperature excessively , in
closed cases, sometimes to lethal limits.
Shading must then be provided for all propa-
gators enclosed wi th glass or plastic. This can
be done by shading the cases or frames
themselves or the glass of the greenhouse
above. Any of the shading methods described
on page 16 can be empl oyed, t hough t he
permanent or semi-permanent liquid prep-
arations are less desirable in climates where
long, dull spells can be experienced at any
ti me of t he year. Ideally, shading should be
used onl y on bright days or during sunny
spells so t hat photosynthesis is not curtailed
more than necessary. A position at the north
side or end of a greenhouse is best.
The mist propagation met hod requires
little or no shade in temperate zones, parti -
cularly if the unit is sited at the north side or
end of the greenhouse. In areas of hotter
summer sun, light shading duri ng the middle
part of the day may be necessary unless con-
ti nuous misting nozzles are used.
Heated propagators
Small propagating cases are heated by a
l i ght-bul b in a glass-covered case. Flats are
placed on t he glass.
Soil heating Thermostat Roof shape
Soil-heating cables or heated panels in the
base heat the growi ng medi um in larger
propagators.
An adjustable thermostat allows t he internal
temperature to be mai ntai ned at t he
required level despite weather changes.
A sloped roof causes condensati on to run
to t he sides of t he roof, avoi di ng harmful
drips ont o plants.
A kerosene-heated propagator can be used
where there is no el ectri ci ty.
Introduction/Hygiene 1
Of all the branches of horti cul ture, growi ng
under glass is the most specialized. Not only
is the constant mai ntenance of the plants
necessary, but the envi ronment must be con-
trol l ed to give acceptable growi ng condi ti ons.
The ideal environment The basic aim should
always be to create an ideal envi ronment for
healthy growth, but perfecti on is seldom
possible, and never possible if a mixed col -
lection of plants is grown, for plants have
differing needs. In theory at least, the fully
automated greenhouse can be programmed
to provide the correct levels of heat, light,
humi di ty and venti l ati on whatever the con-
ditions in the outside worl d. But in practi ce
this is rarely the case. Freak weather con-
ditions, a breakdown of equi pment or a
simple power failure can qui ckl y upset the
automated system. In the end, it is the skill
of the gardener t hat counts. Aut omat i c
equi pment can at best work to only fairly
wi de tolerances and has t he disadvantage of
providing the same levels of water, heat and
so on for all the plants in the greenhouse. It
is most i mportant to get to know t he limita-
tions of the individual greenhouse and t he
degrees of tolerance of t he plants being
grown. This knowledge goes to build up the
i ntui ti ve skill whi ch all good growers have, to
know when to water and ventilate, when to
damp down, shade or feed for the very best
results. All this takes patience and practice
and the beginner must be keen enough to
spend ti me wi t h his plants, noti ng what
happens to t hem under different condi ti ons.
Record keeping There is much to be said for
keeping a greenhouse diary or notebook.
Record in it the daily maxi mum and mi ni mum
temperatures, when seeds are sown or cut-
tings taken, when plants are pot t ed, fed,
staked, and stopped. In addi ti on, comment s
can be made from ti me to ti me on t he
vigor, appearance and health of t he plants.
Over the seasons, a valuable record of t he
prevailing conditions is built up.
The daily routine
It is i mportant to establish a regular daily
routi ne when gardening under glass. To fail
to do so is likely to lead to the disappoint-
ments of poor-qual i ty plants and frequent
failure of seedlings and young plants.
Summer A routi ne for an imaginary summer
day coul d be as follows. Once the morni ng
sun is fully on the greenhouse, check t he
temperature. If it is about five degrees above
t he desired mi ni mum temperature for t he
plants being grown, open t he ventilators by
half to two-thi rds. If temperatures cont i nue
to cl i mb, open up fully around mi d-morni ng.
Damp down, shade if required and check t hat
there are no dry plants (but leave the main
wateri ng operati on until later). In early after-
noon, go over t he wateri ng t horoughl y and
damp down again if condi ti ons are hot. If it is
not particularly hot, damp down in late after-
noon. As soon as di rect sunlight is off t he
greenhouse the blinds can be rolled up and
when t he temperature drops back to about
five degrees above mi ni mum, shut down
the ventilators. Duri ng a warm spell t he
t emperat ure may not drop so low even after
nightfall and the greenhouse can then be left
open day and night. Ail depends on t he
mi ni mum temperature being mai ntai ned.
Cleaning the greenhouse
Winter Much the same procedure is fol l owed
in winter, but if the weather is col d and t em-
peratures do not rise, venti l ati on and damp-
ing will not need to be carried out and water-
ing will be mi ni mal .
Whi l e this sort of routi ne is ideal for the
plants, it is not easily carried out by t he
gardener who may have to be away all day.
Happily, it can be modified and compromises
made. Full venti l ati on and essential wateri ng
can be carried out just before leaving in t he
morni ng and t he main wateri ng and dampi ng
down done on arriving home. Dampi ng down
duri ng t he day, while desirable for most
plants, is not essential. Aut omat i c wateri ng
and venti l ati on help to opti mi ze condi ti ons
in greenhouses left unattended during t he
day.
In t he wi nter a daily check over in t he
morni ng or evening is enough. If automati c
ventilators and capillary wateri ng are i n-
stalled, t hen a weekly check over should
suffice in winter.
Hygiene
Al ong wi t h the right envi ronment and routine
care, a good level of hygiene must be mai n-
tained to ensure healthy, vi gorous plants
The need to keep t he greenhouse and parti
cularly the glass clean is often overl ooked. II
is surprising how much di rt can settle firmly
ont o a sheet of glass in t he open, even in
areas where air pol l uti on is low. This consider
ably cuts down light intensity, t he effects of
whi ch are particularly noti ceabl e in winter.
Plants whi ch need good light, such as t omat o,
l ettuce and freesia, look t hi n and pale and
lack substance.
Class should be washed t horoughl y in
aut umn, using a suitable non-t oxi c detergent
Where t he glass overlaps, dirt accumul at e-
and algae flourish, f ormi ng a dark band.
Remove this di rt wi t h a metal plant label
or a sliver of sheet metal . Class washing
should be carried out at intervals during
the wi nter, especially in areas of air pol l uti on.
At other times of the year it is usually not
In late summer, scrub t he framework of the
greenhouse to remove pest and disease
organisms. First empt y t he greenhouse. Use
a dilute sterilizing agent.
In autumn, wash t he glass t horoughl y using
a non-toxi c detergent. Remove di rt and
algae f rom glass overlaps wi t h an alloy
plant label.
At the same time, scrub surfaces such as
paths and walls to remove algae, using a
di l ute sol uti on of a propri etary algicide.
Introduction/Hygiene 2
so important and in summer the layer of
grime can even he beneficial, acting as
partial shading,
At least once a year the framework of the
greenhouse should be scrubbed to remove
pest and disease organisms such as the eggs
of red spider mite and spores of fungal
diseases. To do the j ob properly the green-
house should be empty so t hat a sterilizing
agent, a chemical fluid, can be added to the
washing water. Late summer is a good ti me to
wash the greenhouse, when all but the
tenderest plants can be stood outside.
In a humi d greenhouse a film of green algae
can form on all moist surfaces including walls
and floors, and can become slippery. All such
surfaces should be scrubbed, using one of the
proprietary algicides in the water.
Hygiene should not stop at keeping the
greenhouse clean. All used pots and seed
flats should be thoroughl y washed and
scrubbed before re-use to minimize the
spread of disease. Remove any "ti de-marks"
of soil or chemicals around the insides of the
pots. Soak clay pots in water to ensure
cleanliness. Perhaps the chief cause of infec-
ti on of soil-borne rots is t he use of dirty
contai ners for propagati on. It is of great i m-
portance to ensure that containers are clean.
In order to avoid cross-infection, always
remove containers and used soil from the
greenhouse when not in use. Spent soil pro-
vides ideal condi ti ons for t he mul ti pl i cati on
of bot h dampi ng off fungi and sciarid flies.
It is i mport ant to wi pe tools clean after use
to ensure they do not become a potential
source of i nfecti on.
It is futi l e to go to great lengths to sterilize
soil, or to go to t he expense of buyi ng sterile
soil mixes, if they are left lying about open to
the elements. All mixtures and their com-
ponents should be kept bagged and covered
to mai ntai n their reliability. Do not at t empt
to re-use spent soil mixes, even if sterilized,
as t he chemical balances will be out of
proport i on.
PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL
Good greenhouse hygiene, as outl i ned in t he
previous section, is an essential starting poi nt
in the avoidance of pests and diseases. How-
ever, problems will inevitably occur because
it is impossible to avoid i ntroduci ng infected
material into the greenhouse. The fol l owi ng
pages detail pests and diseases met wi t h in
the greenhouse and prescribe remedies. On
this page methods of control are discussed.
Control methods
Because the greenhouse is a closed envi ron-
ment it is often easier than in the open
garden to control pests and diseases. Some
pests, such as snails, can be removed by hand,
but most greenhouse problems will have to
be dealt wi t h by chemical means. Some bio-
logical control is possible for a few green-
house pests (see below). Good growi ng prac-
tice is t he first line of defence, for healthy
sturdy plants are less susceptible to disease
than sickly ones.
Applying chemicals Choose a chemical
whi ch will not harm the plants being grown,
but whi ch is effective against the probl em
concerned. Remove any plants likely to be
harmed by the chemical, or cover t hem wi t h
plastic sheeting secured wi t h string or elastic
bands. Carefully follow the instructions given
on the next page for the use of chemicals in
the greenhouse. When spraying, open all
ventilators and the door. Many pesticides are
also available as dusts whi ch are applied from
a puffer pack. Use dusts on flowers and on
plants sensitive to moisture on foliage.
Fumigation Chemicals can also be applied in
smoke f orm, a process called fumi gati on.
First check carefully that none of the plants
present will be damaged by the fumi gant to
be used. The manufacturer' s instructions will
contai n a list. Remove any such plants from
the greenhouse. Fumigants are available as
simple pyrotechni c smokes whi ch resemble
sl ow-burni ng fireworks, or as solids whi ch are
vaporized on electric elements. Fumigants
should be applied at a measured rate depend-
ing upon the cubic capaci ty of the green-
house. Measure the capaci ty by the formul a
length x breadth x average height. Fumiga-
ti on can be used against specific pests or as a
general hygiene measure every six months.
Appl y fumi gants in the eveni ng, t hen leave
the greenhouse closed overni ght. Seal any
leaks and close all venti l ators before applica-
t i on. To sterilize t he greenhouse, empt y it of
plants and burn sulfur at t he rate of 1 lb per
1000 cu ft. The burni ng sulfur produces sul-
fur dioxide gas, whi ch is hi ghl y poisonous.
Leave the greenhouse as soon as t he sulfur
is i gni ted.
Biological control
In t he open, many harmful pests are kept
under control by predators such as birds or
other insects. In t he closed greenhouse
envi ronment , such natural balances break
down, leading to pest probl ems. In an effort
to avoi d over-use of chemi cal s, biologists
have investigated t he possibility of biological
cont rol . This means i nt roduci ng a predator to
attack concentrati ons of harmful pests. Some
predators have been f ound to be regularly
effective and are available commerci al l y. A
predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis, con-
trols greenhouse red spider mi te. A ladybird,
Cryptolaemus montrouzeri, can be used
against meal ybugs; a parasitic wasp, Encarsia
formosa, for greenhouse whi t ef l y; and a
bacteri um, Bacillus thuringiensis, attacks
caterpillars.
If biological control is used chemi cal means
must be ruled out unti l t he predators have
had a chance to work, whi ch limits its applica-
t i on if more than one pest is f ound. Predators
are a cure rather than a pr event i on: they
cannot work until thei r prey, t he pest, is
present. The critical t i me to i nt roduce preda-
tors is when t he pest first appears. The preda-
tor can then breed and bui l d up a large
enough popul at i on to eradi cate t he pests.
Predators will only breed faster t han t he
pests when t he dayti me t emperat ure exceeds
21C/70F and light intensity is good.
Whi l e biological cont rol avoids chemical
bui l d-up on plants, a poi nt especially to be
borne in mi nd wi t h f ood crops, it is a less
certain and more compl i cat ed met hod of
pest cont rol t han t he use of chemi cal s. The
use of predators has to be careful l y t i med.
This may involve i nvesti gati ng sources of
supply well before t he t r oubl e is likely to
arise and taki ng swift act i on once t he pests
are not i ced.
After use, wash and scrub seed boxes and
pots to minimize the spread of disease.
Store containers neatly and do not allow
debris to build up. Potting soil should be
kept in a bin wi t h a ti ght-fi tti ng lid to avoid
staleness and possible cont ami nat i on.
Remove spent soil f rom t he greenhouse
after use.
Pests and diseases 1
Introduction
This section is concerned wi t h the various
pests, diseases and disorders that may affect
plants grown under glass. It is divided i nto
t wo parts: ornamental plants, and fruits and
vegetables. Wi t hi n each part, the possible
troubles are listed by sympt om, such as
Leaves discolored or Stems galled. Under
each symptom the various causes that may
produce it are described and control measures
suggested.
The most i mportant means of control l i ng
pests and diseases is by good cultural prac-
tice. In particular, ensure t hat plants are not
allowed to become pot -bound or suffer from
mal nutri ti on, that they are given sufficient
water and light, and that the greenhouse has
the correct temperature and humi di ty for the
plants. If any of these condi ti ons is unsuitable,
the plants will not only be much more sus-
ceptible to attack by pests and diseases, they
may also be damaged by the condi ti on itself
and develop recognizable symptoms. Such
problems are known as physiological dis-
orders. They are discussed under the appro-
priate sympt om.
Even if plants are given the correct growi ng
conditions, pests and diseases will still occur
occasionally, and in this case it is often
advisable to use pesticides or fungicides.
Such chemicals are, however, potenti al l y
dangerous and must be handled wi t h care at
all ti mes; failure to do so may harm the user
or damage plants. It is particularly i mport ant
that the manufacturer' s instructions are read
and fol l owed, and that all chemicals are
stored in a cool dark place away from f ood-
stuffs, if possible in a locked cupboard where
children and pets cannot reach t hem. Wear
rubber gloves when di l uti ng chemicals, and
thoroughl y wash the sprayer, gloves and any
other equi pment after use. Always spray
from all sides of the plant to give an even
coverage and ensure t hat bot h upper and
lower leaf surfaces are covered. Finally, avoid
using insecticides on plants t hat are in flower
since t he petals may be damaged.
Plants that have been severely attacked by
pests or diseases should not be left in t he
greenhouse since they can become a source
of infection for other plants. All such plants
should, if possible, be burned.
SEEDLINGS
This section covers the period of plant growth
between germi nati on and the emergence of
true leaves.
Seedlings eaten
Slugs, woodlice and millipedes can destroy
plants by eating the foliage before the seed-
lings have a chance to become established.
Slugs are t he most destructi ve; woodl i ce and
millipedes only become troubl esome when
thev are present in large numbers. Slug
pellets contai ni ng metal dehyde give some
additional prot ect i on against woodl i ce and
millipedes. Scatter pellets along seed rows.
Seedlings collapsing
Damping off is usually due to species of t he
soil- and water-borne fungi Phytophthora
and Pythium. Seedlings of anti rrhi num, sweet
peas, lobelia, stock and zinnia are particularly
susceptible to i nfecti on, and collapse at
ground level. Prevent i nfecti on by sowing
thi nl y, since the disease is encouraged by
overcrowdi ng, and by using sterilized soil or
compost of a good ti l th. Over-wateri ng can
also induce dampi ng off, so water carefully
wi t h clean water. Give adequate light but
not too much heat. Check slight attacks by
wateri ng wi t h captan or zineb after removing
all dead seedlings. Captan or thi ram seed
dressings can help prevent dampi ng off
disease.
BULBOUS PLANTS
This section treats problems that are specific
to plants having bulbs, corms, tubers or
rhizomes.
Plant stunted
Non-rooting of hyaci nth bulbs is a physio-
logical disorder, the precise cause of whi ch
is not known. The leaves do not develop at the
normal rate and t he inflorescence remains
stunted. The roots of an affected bulb are
either lacking or poorly devel oped. This
probl em can be caused by the temperature
being t oo high duri ng storage or forci ng, or
by forci ng or lifting t oo early. Unfortunatel y
it is not possible to detect in advance those
bulbs in whi ch t he non-root i ng tendency has
devel oped.
Plant wilting
Bacterial wilt (Xanthomonas begoniae)
causes wi l ti ng and spotti ng on leaves of
wi nter-fl oweri ng begonia hybrids derived
from B. socotrana and 6. dregei. Burn severely
diseased plants and do not propagate from
t hem. If they are only slightly diseased, cut
out affected parts and decrease the tempera-
ture and humi di ty of the greenhouse. This
will reduce the spread and severity of the
disease, but it will also delay flowering.
Disinfect the greenhouse after a severe
attack of t he disease.
Leaves discolored
Leaf scorch (Stagonospora curtisii) causes
brown blotches to appear on t he leaves of
hippeastrum (amaryllis), particularly at the
leaf bases, and also on t he flower stalks and
petals. The affected tissues usually rot
and become slimy. Cut out such tissues and
burn t hem. Spray or dust affected plants wi t h
sulfur or zineb.
Unsuitable cultural conditions can check t he
growt h of hippeastrums, causing red blotches
or streaks (or both) to appear on the leaves,
flower stalks and bulbs. This troubl e is usually
caused by over- or under-wat eri ng or mal nu-
t ri t i on; prevent it by mai ntai ni ng even growt h
t hrough good cultural t reat ment .
Leaves distorted
Tarsonemid mites are a group of tiny
creatures t hat infest t he growi ng poi nts of
certain greenhouse plants. The bul b scale
mite (Steneotarsonemus laticeps) lives in the
neck of narcissus and hi ppeast rum bulbs.
It causes a di sti ncti ve sickle-shaped cur-
vature of t he leaves and a saw-toothed
not chi ng al ong the margins. The flower
stems become stunted and di st ort ed, again
wi t h a saw-toothed scar al ong t he edges of
the stem. The cycl amen mi te (Tarsonemus
pallidus) and broad mi te (Polyphagotarson-
emus latus) live inside t he leaf and fl ower buds
of plants such as cycl amen, Hedera (ivy),
begonia, impatiens, saintpaulia and Sin-
ningia (gloxinia). Their feedi ng causes stems
and leaves to become scarred and f requent l y
to be di storted i nto spoon-l i ke shapes. The
growi ng points may be killed and t he flowers
are either di storted or fail to devel op. There
are no cont rol l i ng chemicals avai l abl e to
amateur gardeners. Burn all infested plants.
Pests and diseases 2
Leaves, flowers and bulbs rotting
Soft rot (Erwinia carotovora var carotovora)
causes a soft, slimy, evil-smelling rot of the
leaves and bulbs of hyacinths. It often com-
mences in the inflorescences when florets
have wi thered through a physiological dis-
order known as blindness; for details see
right under Buds wi theri ng. If the rot has not
advanced too far it may be possible to save
the bulbs for planting outside by cutti ng out
all infected tissue. Such bulbs planted out-
side will not flower for a year or t wo.
Roots or tubers eaten
Vine weevil grubs (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) are
pl ump whi te maggots about 1/2 in long wi t h
light brown heads. Plants grown from tubers
are particularly susceptible but many other
plants may be attacked. Usually the first
symptom that is noticed is the plant wi l ti ng
and, when it is ti pped out of its pot, most of
the roots are seen to have been destroyed.
Such plants rarely recover. Badly affected
plants should be destroyed, the soil t hr own
away and the pot sterilized. Some protecti on
is given by adding chlorpyrifos granules or
naphthalene flakes when pot t i ng up.
Bulbs, corms or tubers rotting
Basal rot may be caused by various fungi,
and affects mainly Lilium and Lachenalia. The
roots and base of the bulb rot, resulting in
stunti ng of the t op growt h and di scol orati on
of the leaves. Discard badly affected bulbs.
In less severe cases cut out diseased roots
and tissues, or scales in the case of lily bulbs.
Then dip the bulbs in a solution of captan or
benomyl before re-potti ng. Prevent such
troubles by using only sterile compost and
clean pots.
Begonia tuber rot and cyclamen corm rot
usually occur as a result of frost damage dur-
ing storage. The tissues become soft and
have a sweetish smell. Prevent these rots by
ensuring that tubers and corms of the
respective plants are stored carefully in a
frost-proof place.
Arum corm rot {Erwinia carotovora var caro-
tovora) can be serious wherever arums
{Zantedeschia spp. and hybrids) are grown
under glass in large numbers. The plants
wi ther and collapse due to rotti ng of the
corms; these may develop extensive brown
areas wi t h rotti ng roots arising f rom them.
The corm lesions can lie dormant duri ng
storage but when the corms are replanted
the rot progresses rapidly. Destroy badly
infected plants and disinfect the greenhouse.
Sterilize the soil where diseased plants have
been growi ng in beds. Examine corms when
removi ng them from store and cut out any
brown areas. Then steep t hem for t wo hours
in a 2 per cent formalin solution before
pl anti ng t hem out.
Inflorescence loose
Loose bud of hyaci nth, in whi ch the stem
below t he flower bud fractures compl etel y at
an early stage of growth, is usually caused by
storing bulbs at too low a temperature.
Bulbs t hat have been moved from cold
storage into a very warm place are parti-
cularly susceptible. Loose bud may also be
caused by incorrect lifting or forci ng. Unfortu-
nately it is impossible to detect the tendency
for loose bud in a consi gnment of bulbs.
Buds withering
Blindness of bulbous plants is usually caused
by the soil being too dry at a critical stage of
growt h. Prevent this by maki ng sure that the
compost never dries out. Less frequently it is
caused by storing bulbs before pl anti ng in
condi ti ons that are too hot and dry. Prevent
this either by potti ng up i mmedi atel y on
obtai ni ng bulbs, or by storing t hem in the
proper conditions. The flower buds of affected
bulbs turn brown and wi ther at an early
stage. Such bulbs can be planted out in the
garden but will not flower for a year or t wo.
GENERAL PLANTS
The pests and diseases menti oned in this
section may, unless otherwise stated, affect
any t ype of plant, i ncl udi ng those wi t h
bulbs, corms, tubers, or rhizomes.
Leaves eaten
Carnation tortrix caterpillars {Cacoecimor-
pha pronubana) feed on a very wi de range of
plants and can be found t hroughout the year
in heated greenhouses. The "caterpillars grow
up to 3/4 in long and are pale green wi t h brown
heads. They fol d over t he edge of a leaf wi t h
silken threads, or bind t wo leaves together,
and when small feed unnoti ced by grazing
away the inner surfaces of these leaves. Later
these caterpillars eat holes in t he foliage.
Control light infestations by searching for and
squeezing the caterpillars' hi di ng places.
Otherwi se spray the plants t horoughl y wi t h
a di l ute sol uti on of t ri chl orphon when signs
of damage are seen. Ot her caterpillars t hat
can be f ound on greenhouse plants include
those of t he angle shades mot h (Phlogo-
phora meticulosa) and t he silver-Y mot h
(Autographa gamma). These feed in the open
on t he foliage and flowers but may be
difficult to find since they are act i ve mainly at
night. Control these pests by hand-pi cki ng or
by appl yi ng the above insecticides.
Slugs (various species) can damage most
plants, especially duri ng t he early stages of
growt h. They frequentl y leave a slime trail on
the foliage, whi ch distinguishes their damage
from t hat caused by caterpillars. Control
t hem by scattering slug pellets based on
metal dehyde ont o t he soil surface around
the plants.
Leaves discolored
Faulty root action may be caused by over- or
under-wateri ng, mal nut ri t i on or poor pot-
ti ng. It results in irregular yel l ow or brown
bl otches on the leaves, or compl et e dis-
SOOTY MOLD
Some sap-feeding insects such as aphids,
whiteflies, scales and meal ybugs excrete a
sugary liquid known as honeydew. Since
these insects feed mai nl y on t he under-
sides of leaves the honeydew drops down
ont o the upper surfaces of leaves grow-
ing below the actual i nfestati on. Such
leaves become sticky, and under damp
condi ti ons various black, non-parasitic
fungi known as sooty mol d rapidly de-
velop. They do not di rectl y harm plants
because they grow on t he honeydew,
al though the amount of light and air
reaching the foliage is reduced. Remove
sooty mol d by wi pi ng t he leaves wi t h a
soft damp cl ot h. Good vent i l at i on makes
the atmosphere drier and thus less suitable
for t he growt h of sooty mol d, but the
best cure is to identify and cont rol the pest
t hat is produci ng t he honeydew.
Pests and diseases 3
coloration of the foliage, and premature leaf-
fall. Prevent such troubles by careful potti ng
up and correct cultural t reat ment for the
type of compost being used. Appl i cati ons of
foliar fertilizer should help overcome t he
troubles, but in severe cases it may be neces-
sary to re-pot the affected plant.
Tip scorch of the leaves of plants such as
aspidistra, chl orophyt um and sansevieria
may be caused by the air being too hot or
dry, or by faulty root action (see above).
Affected plants should recover once the
scorched leaves have been removed and the
correct cultural treatment given. In the case
of saintpaulia, anthuri um and palms such as
kentia, it may be necessary to place the pot in
a larger container packed wi t h damp moss or
peat in order to create a humi d atmosphere.
Sun scorch of leaves usually shows as pale
brown blotches (often elliptical) across the
foliage. It is caused by the sun's rays on a hot
day passing either t hrough glass ont o moist
foliage, or through a flaw in the glass whi ch
acts as a lens to intensify the rays. Prevent
scorch in greenhouses by careful venti l ati on
to reduce humi di ty.
Leaf spots are caused by a variety of fungi . In
practically all cases they produce brown or
black spots on the leaves, but on some hosts
the spots have a purple border or they may
have pinpoint-sized black dots scattered
over t hem. Remove affected leaves and spray
wi t h mancozeb or zineb. If further troubl e
occurs the plants may be lacking in vigor due
to faulty root acti on, in whi ch case see above
and previous page.
"Ring pattern" on saintpaulias and achimenes
is caused by a sudden chilling of the leaves
from wateri ng overhead in sunlight. Affected
leaves develop large yellow rings. Prevent
this by careful wateri ng.
Viruses such as t omat o spotted wi l t and
cucumber mosaic affect a wi de range of
plants. In general the symptoms are mot t l ed,
bl otched or striped leaves, affected parts
being pale green, yellow or black. The
leaves may also be distorted and the plants
stunted. Destroy any plant showing these
symptoms. A valuable plant such as an
orchid may be kept but it will always produce
discolored leaves and the troubl e may spread
to previously healthy plants.
Glasshouse thrips (Heliothrips haemor-
rhoidalis) are thi n yellow or dark brown
insects about 1/10 in long that live mainly on
the upper surfaces of leaves and on flowers.
They feed by sucking sap and cause a full
green or silvery di scol orati on of the foliage,
whi ch is also marked by mi nute black spots
caused by the thrips' excretions. Control this
pest by spraying t horoughl y wi t h a pyre-
throi d compound, derris, mal athi on or a
systemic insecticide.
Leaves with corky patches
Oedema, or dropsy, is caused by the atmos-
phere being t oo moist or the soil too wet. It
shows as pale pimple-like outgrowths on the
undersurfaces of t he leaves and on t he stems.
The outgrowths later burst and then become
brown and powdery or corky. The most sus-
ceptible plants are eucalyptus, ivy-leaved
pel argoni um, peperomia and camellias
the last menti oned develops large scabby
patches on the undersurfaces. Improve the
cultural condi ti ons by careful wateri ng and
by venti l ati ng the greenhouse. Do not re-
move affected leaves since this will only make
matters worse.
Corky scab of cacti is caused either by a lack
of light and t he humi di ty being too high, or
by over-exposure to sunlight. It occurs most
frequentl y on Epiphyllum and Opuntia and
shows as irregular rusty or corky spots whi ch
develop i nto sunken patches as the tissues
beneath die. Where the troubl e is very un-
sightly propagate from the affected plant and
ensure that new plants are given correct
cultural t reat ment and are not exposed to
t oo much light.
Leaves blotched
Chrysanthemum eelworm and fern eelworm
(Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi and A. iragariae)
are mi croscopi c worm-l i ke animals t hat live
inside leaves. Many different plants may be
infected, al though in greenhouses the main
hosts are those indicated by the pests' com-
mon names. Infested parts of the leaves t urn
brown. At first these areas are clearly separ-
ated by the larger leaf veins from the green,
healthy parts, but eventually the brown areas
coalesce and the whol e leaf dies. None of the
chemicals available to amateur gardeners
control eelworms, and infested plants should
be burned. However, it is possible to give
chrysanthemum stools a hot water treat-
ment so that they will subsequently produce
cuttings free of eelworms. Wash the dormant
stools free of all soil and then plunge them
in hot water at 46C/115F for five mi nut es -
it is i mport ant t hat the ti me and temperature
are exact. Then plunge i nto col d water.
Leaves mined
Chrysanthemum leaf miner grubs (Phyto-
myza syngenesiae) tunnel the leaves of
chrysanthemum and related plants such as
cineraria (Senecio cruentus hybrids) and ger-
bera. These mines show on the leaves as
whi ti sh-brown lines meandering through the
leaf and, in heavy infestations, leaves may
lose almost all their green color. A single
appl i cati on of benomyl pi ri mi phos-methyl
controls this pest if applied as soon as mi ni ng
begins, but if the plants are badly infested
three applications of insecticide at ten day
intervals will be necessary.
Leaves with visible fungal growth
Powdery mildews are common on chrysan-
themums, begonias and cinerarias, and occur
occasionally on other plants. The sympt oms
are whi t e powdery spots on t he leaves and
sometimes the stems. Vent i l at e t he green-
house well since the fungi are encouraged by
a humi d atmosphere. Plants t hat are dry at
the roots are more susceptible to i nfecti on,
so water before the soil dries out compl etel y.
Fumigate the greenhouse wi t h di nocap
smokes or spray wi t h di nocap or benomyl .
Remove severely affected leaves.
Rusts can affect chrysanthemums, fuchsias,
pelargoniums, cinerarias and carnati ons. On
fuchsias and cinerarias orange powdery
pustules devel op on t he leaves, predomi -
nantly on the lower surfaces. On ot her plants
the pustules produce masses of chocol at e-
col ored spores. Remove arrd burn affected
leaves. If severely i nfected, destroy t he plant.
Reduce t he humi di t y of t he atmosphere, and
avoi d wet t i ng t he leaves. Spray at seven to
ten day intervals wi t h zineb or mancozeb.
Pests and diseases 4
Leaves with pests visible
Greenhouse whitefly (ltrialeurodes vapor-iro-
rum is one of the most common and
troublesome of greenhouse pests. for details,
sec page 40.
Peach-potato aphid and mottled arum aphid
(Myzus persicae and Aulacorthum circum-
llexum) are both species of greenfly that suck
sap from a wide range of plants. For details,
see page 40.
Soft scales (Coccus hesperidum) are sap-
feeding insects that live on the stems and
undersides of leaves near the main veins. For
a description of these pests and their control ,
see below.
Leaves mottled
Greenhouse red spider mites (Tetranchus
urticae) are mi nute pests t hat attack most
greenhouse plants. For details, see page 40.
Greenhouse leafhoppers (Zygina pallidifrons)
suck sap from the undersides of leaves and
cause white, pinhead-sized dots to appear on
the upper surfaces. In heavy attacks these
dots coalesce and most of the leaves' green
color is lost. Adul t leafhoppers are about
5/8 in long and pale yellow wi t h t wo V-shaped
gray markings on their back. The nymphal
stages are creamy-white. As they grow they
periodically shed their skins, whi ch remain
attached to the undersides of t he leaves.
Control leafhoppers by spraying wi t h any of
the insecticides malathion, pi ri mi phosmethyl ,
methoxycl or or a pyrethroi d compound.
Stems or crowns rotting
Blackleg (various organisms) affects pelar-
goni um cuttings and sometimes t he mature
plant. The stem bases become soft, black
and rotten, and affected plants die. Prevent
this disease by using sterile soil mixes and
pots, and by hygienic cultural conditions,
including the use of clean water. Destroy
severely diseased cuttings, but in the case of
valuable plants it may be possible to propa-
gate by taking a fresh cut t i ng from the t op of
a diseased plant.
Foot, crown and root rot may be caused by
black root rot fungus or other soil or water-
borne fungi. These organisms cause a brown
or black rot of the tissues at the base of the
stems, around the crowns or at the roots,
and the top growt h wilts or collapses. Prevent
these diseases by using sterilized soil mixes
and pots, and by using clean water. Pot up
carefully and tease out t he roots of pot-
bound plants. Control by wateri ng wi t h
ethazol plus benomyl , or use a solution of
Banrot as a soil drench. In severe cases re-
pot, using a smaller pot if necessary, in sterile
soil or potti ng mi xture after having removed
all dead parts i ncl udi ng roots. Spray the
devel opi ng leaves wi th a foliar fertilizer.
Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) causes plants to
decay and affected leaves and flowers to
become covered wi t h a gray-brown mass of
fungal spores. The petals may also develop
numerous small red or brown spots. Cray
mol d spores are always present in t he air
and infect plants through wounds and dead
or dyi ng tissue. Infections can also occur
between diseased and healthy tissues. Pre-
vent gray mol d by good hygiene and by
removi ng dead leaves and flowers promptl y.
Venti l ate the greenhouse carefully to reduce
humi di t y, and water early in the morni ng and
not at night. Once the disease has appeared
on any t ype of plant, spray wi t h benomyl or
a copper fungicide or use Isotherm Termil
bombs. In t he case of cycl amen affected by
gray mol d around the crown, dust wi t h
captan.
Carnation wilt is caused by t he fungi Verti-
cillium albo-atrum and Fusarium oxysporum
f dianthi. Affected plants wi l t rapidly and the
leaves become either yellow or gray-green
and t hen straw-col ored. In both cases a
brown di scol orati on can be seen in the inner
tissues of affected stems. Prevent these
diseases by using sterilized pots and soil.
Destroy severely affected plants and sterilize
t he greenhouse bench or floor on whi ch t he
plants were standing. Do not propagate
f rom diseased plants. To reduce the spread
of wi l t drench the remaining plants wi t h a
solution of benomyl or thi ophanate-methyl ,
repeating the treatment t wo weeks later.
Stems or crowns with pests visible
Scale insects such as hemispherical scale
(Saissetia coffeae) and soft scale (Coccus
hesperidum) encrust the stems of many
different plants. The former have red-brown
convex shells about ^ in in diameter, while
the latter have yel l ow-brown, flat, oval shells
of the same length. The insects live under-
neath these shells and feed on sap. Once
a suitable feeding place is f ound they do not
move. Control by spraying plants thoroughl y
wi t h mal athi on or ni coti ne three times at t wo
week intervals.
Mealybugs (Pseudococcus spp.) are gray-
whi te soft-bodied insects t hat grow up to 1/4 in
long. They infest cacti, succulents and many
other plants, and secrete whi te, waxy fibers
that cover the mealybug colonies and their
egg masses. Control t hem by spraying wi t h
mal athi on or nicotine. Thorough applications
are necessary because mealybugs tend to
live on relatively inaccessible parts of the
plant, and t wo or more sprays at t wo week
intervals may be needed. On plants t hat are
liable to be damaged by insecticides, such as
Crassula and ferns, dab mealybugs wi t h a
brush di pped in methyl ated spirit.
Stems galled
Leafy gall (Corynebacterium tascians) affects
mainly pelargoniums and chrysanthemums,
and shows as a mass of abortive and often
fasciated (flattened) shoots at soil level.
Destroy affected plants and sterilize pots and
the greenhouse bench on whi ch the plants
were standing. Do not propagate from dis-
eased plants. For details of sterilizing, see
page 33 on Hygiene.
Flower buds dropping
Bud drop affects stephanotis, gardenias,
hibiscus and camellias. It is caused by the soil
being too dry at the ti me the buds were
beginning to develop. Prevent this troubl e
by ensuring that the soil never dries out.
Gardenias may also lose their buds if the
atmosphere is too dry. Prevent this by
syringing the plants in t he morni ng and
evening duri ng warm sunny weather except
when the flowers are open, otherwise they
will discolor. Over-wateri ng can also cause
bud drop of gardenias. Bud drop can be
avoi ded by careful greenhouse management.
Ensure that temperature, humi di ty and venti -
lation are correct.
Flowers discolored
Thrips (various species) are thi n, black or
yellow insects, about 1/10 in long, that suck
sap f rom the petals of carnat i on, chrysan-
t hemum, cycl amen and other plants. The
petals devel op whi t e flecks where the thrips
have fed. Control t hem by sprayi ng t horough-
ly wi t h mal athi on or ni coti ne. Care needs to
be taken since flowers may be marked
by insecticides, so spray when t he plants
are not exposed to bri ght sunl i ght or high
temperatures.
Viruses such as cucumber mosaic and
t omat o spotted wi l t can cause spotti ng or
streaking of flowers, whi ch may also be dis-
t ort ed. Most frequentl y affected are chrysan-
t hemums and bulbous plants, especially
lilies and cycl amen. Destroy affected plants.
Flowers spotted or rotting
Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) f requent l y attacks
t he flowers of cycl amen and chrysan-
t hemums. For symptoms and t reat ment , see
under Stems or crowns rot t i ng, above.
Pests in or on the soil
Vine weevil grubs (Otiorhynchus sulcatus)
are pl ump whi t e legless grubs, up to 1/2 in long,
wi t h light brown heads. For symptoms of
attack, and treatment, see under Roots and
tubers eaten in the Bulbous plants section.
Fungus gnats or sciarids (various species) are
small gray-black flies t hat run over the soil
surface of pot plants or fly slowly around
t hem. Their larvae are thi n whi t e maggots up
to 1/4 in long wi t h black heads. They live in the
soil and feed mainly on rot t i ng pl ant material
but they sometimes damage t he roots of
seedlings and plants t hat are in poor health.
They may also tunnel i nto t he base of soft
cuttings and cause t hem to rot. Control t he
adul t flies by spraying wi t h a pyrethroi d
compound. Against t he larvae, mix some
di azi non granules i nto t he soil around the
plants.
Springtails (various species) are whi t e soil-
dwel l i ng insects, about 1/10 in l ong. They are
f ound especially in peat-based mixes, and
are distinguished by thei r habi t of j umpi ng
when exposed on t he surface of t he soil. They
usually appear on t he soil surface after plants
have been watered. However, t hey cause no
damage and there is, therefore, no need for
any control s.
Pests and diseases 5
Leaves discolored
Downy mildew of brassica seedlings, especi-
ally cauliflowers, is caused by the fungus
Peronospora parasitica and that of l ettuce by
Bremia lactucae. Whi t e mealy or downy tufts
of fungal growth develop on t he underside of
the leaves, whi ch become bl otched on t he
upper surface. Affected seedlings are severely
checked and lettuces may later be attacked
by gray mol d (see below). These mildews are
most troubl esome on overcrowded seedlings
growi ng in very humi d condi ti ons. Prevent
the diseases by sowing seed thi nl y in steril-
ized, well drained soil or seed sowing mix, and
ventilate carefully to reduce humi di ty. Do not
over-water seedlings. Should mildew occur,
remove diseased leaves and spray wi t h
mancozeb or zineb. On brassica seedlings,
chl orothal oni l and captafol may be used.
Stems collapsing
Damping off is usually due to species of the
soil- and water-borne fungi Phytophthora
and Pythium. Seedlings of lettuce, t omat o,
mustard and cress are most susceptible to
i nfecti on, and collapse at ground level. Over-
crowdi ng encourages t he disease, therefore
sow thi nl y and use sterilized soil of a good
t i l t h or a well-prepared sterilized sowing mix.
The organisms t hat cause dampi ng off are
often present in unsterilized soil, particularly
if it is compacted causing poor aeration.
Overwateri ng can also i nduce dampi ng off.
Use clean water to prevent i nfecti on by
water-borne organisms whi ch build up in
dirty tanks and butts. give adequate light but
not t oo much heat. Check slight attacks by
wateri ng wi t h captan or zineb after removal
of t he dead seedlings.
Wirestem fungus, caused by Rhizoctonia
solani, is a disease of brassica seedlings,
particularly cauliflowers, but the same fungus
can also affect seedlings of other vegetables.
Stems of affected brassica seedlings shrink
at ground level before they toppl e, but other
seedlings damp off as described above. Let-
tuce seedlings affected by this fungus usually
succumb to gray mol d (see below) fairly
soon afterwards so t hat the original cause
may be overl ooked. Prevent by sowing
thi nl y in a good ti l th and avoi d over-watering.
Use sterilized soil or a good-qual i ty soilless
mix to help prevent i nfecti on. The fungus is
not cont rol l ed by fungicides wi t h t he excep-
ti on of di cl oran. The chemi cal can be raked
i nto t he soil before sowing seed where this
disease is known to be troubl esome.
DISEASES OF MATURE CROPS
The diseases described below may affect any
crop, frui t or vegetable, being grown in
greenhouses, col d or heated frames or under
cloches, unless otherwise stated. Vines and
peaches are treated separately at the end of
this section.
Leaves discolored
Faulty root action is due to over- or under-
wateri ng or poor transpl anti ng and can cause
irregular yellow or brown blotches on the
leaves. Prevent this by careful pl anti ng and
correct cultural treatment. Appl i cati ons of a
foliar fertilizer should help to overcome t he
troubl e, but wi t h severely affected tomatoes
it may be necessary to mound sterile soil
around the base of the stem into whi ch new
roots can grow as the pl ant recovers.
Magnesium deficiency is common on t om-
atoes and eggplants. Orange-yel l ow bands
develop between the veins on the lower
leaves, whi ch gradually t urn brown as t he
symptoms spread progressively upwards.
Spray at t he first signs of troubl e wi t h 1/2 lb
magnesium sulfate in 21/2 gal of water, to
whi ch is added a spreader. Spray repeatedly
every seven to ten days until the plants have
compl etel y recovered. Affected plants can
still produce good crops it the deficiency is
corrected early on.
Leaves moldy
Tomato leaf mold (Cladosporium lulvum)
affects only tomatoes grown under glass or
pol yethyl ene. A purpl e-brown mol d develops
on the lower surface of leaves whi ch show
yellow blotches on the upper surface. These
symptoms may be overl ooked as affected
leaves are subsequently often attacked by
gray mol d. Grow resistant varieties and keep
t he greenhouse temperature less than 21C/
70F. Venti l ate well since the disease is
encouraged by humi d atmospheres. At t he
first signs of troubl e spray wi t h benomyl or
mancozeb or use Exotherm Termil every
7 days.
Leaves and stems rotting
Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) is a common
probl em under glass, affecting particularly
grapes, strawberries, cucumbers and t om-
atoes. Lettuce tends to wi l t due to attack at
ground level. Affected stems, fruits and leaves
rot and become covered wi t h a gray-brown
velvety fungus growth. Sometimes the fungus
does not rot t omat o fruits but produces pi n-
poi nt spots, each wi t h a pale green ring,
known as water spots, whi ch can still be seen
on ripe fruit. Spores of the fungus infect plants
through wounds and dead and dyi ng tissues,
or by contact between diseased and healthy
tissues. Remove dead leaves and over-ripe
fruits prompt l y to avoid i nfecti on. Venti l ate
greenhouses carefully to reduce humi di ty
and water early in the morni ng, not at night.
Over-wateri ng plants should be sprayed
wi t h thi ram every three or four weeks.
Prevent i nfecti on of grapes and strawberries
by spraying wi t h benomyl as the first flowers
open, repeating t wi ce at ten day to t wo week
intervals, or wi t h captan or thi ram except
on frui t to be preserved or canned. Fumigate
an affected greenhouse wi t h smokes if
possible.
Stems wilting
Foot and root rot can be due to various fungi ,
i ncl udi ng Thielaviopsis basicola and species
of Fusarium, as well as those fungi whi ch
cause dampi ng off and wirestem of seedlings
HORMONE WEEDKILLER DAMAGE
This commonl y affects plants under glass,
particularly vines and t omat oes. Affected
leaves become narrow and fan-shaped,
show parallel veins, are frequentl y cupped
and the shoots twist spirally. Take care
when using hormone weedkillers, apply
ing t hem wi t h equi pment kept solely for
their use. Do not use t hem on a wi ndy day
and, when spraying nearby, close green-
house ventilators. Do not store weed-
killers in a greenhouse since vapors from
t hem can affect plants. Wash hands and
tool s after appl yi ng weedki l l ers.
(see above). The t op growt h wilts or collapses
compl etel y because these soi l : and water-
borne organisms attack t he roots and stem
bases. Prevent this by t he use of cl ean water
and by changi ng or sterilizing t he soil at
least once every three years, or by t he use of
sterile soil. Plant carefully, and tease out
roots of pot -bound plants. Do not over- or
under-water as plants suffering f r om faulty
root acti on (see above) are very susceptible
to attack. If f oot rot occurs, water wi t h a
solution of captan, or al ternati vel y, zineb,
or dust at t he base of t he pl ant wi t h dry
bordeaux powder. When t omat oes are
affected, place fresh sterilized soil around
the base of t he stems and spray all plants
wi t h a foliar fertilizer to encourage the
devel opment of new roots in t he fresh soil.
As these new roots devel op t hey shoul d re-
vitalize t he plants.
Verticillium wilt is caused by species of the
fungus Verticillium. The larger leaves wilt
duri ng t he day, parti cul arl y on hot days, but
recover at night. Affected plants may lose
their older leaves. Brown streaks are seen
runni ng lengthways in t he tissues if t he base
of t he stem is cut l ongi tudi nal l y. Destroy
badly affected plants. Prevent t he disease by
using sterilized soil or pl ant i ng mix, and
always plant verti ci l l i um and fusari um re-
sistant varieties. Seed catalogs i ndi cat e whi ch
varieties are resistant.
Tomato stem rot {Didymella lycopersici)
causes a sudden wi l ti ng of mat ure plants.
A brown or black canker devel ops on t he
Pests and diseases 6
stem, usually at ground level, and small black
specks, whi ch are the frui ti ng bodies of the
fungus, can just be seen wi t h the naked eye all
over the diseased tissues. These produce
many spores whi ch over-wi nter and act as a
source of i nfecti on the fol l owi ng season. It is
essential, therefore, to burn all debris and to
sterilize the greenhouse and equi pment at the
end of the season if this disease has occurred.
Destroy badly affected plants and spray the
stem bases of the rest of the crop wi t h beno-
myl or captan. Less severely diseased plants
may be saved by cutti ng out affected tissues
and applying a paste of captan mixed wi t h a
little water, or by painting t hem wi t h a solu-
tion of benomyl .
Flowers dropping
Tomato flower drop is almost always due to
dry conditions at the roots. The flowers may
open, but break off from the stalk at the
joint and fall to the ground. Prevent this
trouble by adequate but careful wateri ng.
Fruits failing to develop normally
Withering of young cucumbers starting at
the blossom end is due to uneven growt h
resulting from irregular wateri ng. Remove all
the fruits from an affected plant to rest it, and
spray t he foliage wi t h foliar fertilizer if a poor
color. Later-developing fruits should be nor-
mal once the plant regains its vigor, provi di ng
there is no root disease present. Prevent fur-
ther troubl e by wateri ng cucumbers carefully
and regularly.
Chats (small t omat o fruits) may form on
plants whi ch are dry at the root, but poor
pol l i nati on caused by cold nights and a dry
atmosphere may also be responsible. Encour-
age pol l i nati on by syringing the foliage in the
morni ng and again duri ng t he day when t he
weather is hot.
Dry set of tomatoes is also due to poor pol -
l i nati on. It is caused by the atmosphere being
too hot and t oo dry. The fruits remain 1/8 in
across and become dry and brown. Syringe
t he foliage as described for chats above.
Fruits discolored
Blossom end rot of tomatoes shows as a
circular and depressed brown or green-black
patch on the skin at the blossom end of the
frui t (the end farthest away f rom t he stalk). In
most cases it is due to a shortage of water at a
critical stage in the devel opment of young
fruit. Prevent this by seeing that the soil is
never allowed to dry out compl etel y. All the
frui t on one truss may be affected but those
devel opi ng later should be normal if the
pl ant has a good root system and is looked
after carefully.
Greenback and blotchy ripening of tomatoes
show as hard green or yellow patches on the
fruits. The former occurs on the shoulder of
t he frui t and t he latter on any part. Both may
be encouraged by high temperatures and a
shortage of potash; greenback is also caused
by exposure of the shoulder to strong sun-
light, and bl otchy ripening may occur where
ni trogen is deficient. Prevent these troubles
by adequate and early venti l ati on, by ensur-
ing t hat plants have sufficient shade, and by
correct feeding and wateri ng. Crow t omat o
varieties resistant to greenback. Consult seed
catalogs for lists of t omat o varieties resistant
to greenback.
Bronzing of tomatoes is caused by tobacco
mosaic virus. Brown patches develop be-
neath the surface, usually at the stalk end,
and give a bronzed patchy appearance to the
young fruit. When cut open the patches
show as a ring of small dark spots beneath
the skin. Wi t h severe i nfecti on depressed
streaks whi ch fail to ripen may radiate from
the stalk end. The internal tissues of such
fruits show large brown corky areas. Plants
bearing bronzed tomatoes woul d have shown
other symptoms such as stunted growth
or mottl ed foliage earlier in the season and
should have been destroyed when these
symptoms first appeared.
Fruits rotting
Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) can attack
various crops. For details, see page 38.
Fruits bitter
Bitter cucumbers can be due to an excess of
ni trogen in the soil or irregular growth. Avoi d
excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers, and
mai ntai n even growth by wateri ng carefully.
Since pollination of the fruit can also result
in bitterness, grow varieties having mostly
female flowers.
VINES
The most serious disorder to affect vines
grown under glass is powdery mi l dew.
Leaves, shoots and fruits with fungal growth
Powdery mildew (Uncinula necatof) shows a
soft whi t e fl oury coati ng of f ungus spores on
the leaves, young shoots and frui ts. Affected
berries drop if attacked early, but in later
attacks become hard, di storted and split,
and are then affected by secondary fungi
such as gray mol d. Vent i l at e careful l y since
the disease is encouraged by humi di ty.
Avoi d overcrowdi ng the shoots and leaves
and provi de some heat if t he greenhouse is
col d. Avoi d also dryness at t he roots. At t he
first sign of mi l dew spray or f umi gat e wi t h
di nocap, spray or dust wi t h sulfur, or spray
wi t h benomyl . Up to four appl i cati ons may be
needed. In wi nter, after removi ng the loose
bark, pai nt t he vine stems wi t h a sol uti on of
sulfur made up as f ol l ows: mi x equal parts
of flowers of sulfur and soft soap to form
lumps the size of golf balls. Put one l ump i nto
a j am jar wi t h a little water and stir well wi t h
t he brush used to pai nt t he stems.
Leaves discolored
Scorch is due to t he sun's rays striking
t hrough glass ont o moi st tissues on a hot day.
It shows as large brown patches whi ch soon
dry out and become crisp. Prevent this by
careful venti l ati on i n order to reduce t he
humi di t y, and carefully remove all the
affected leaves.
Pests and diseases 7
Magnesium deficiency shows as a yellow-
orange discoloration between the veins,
but in some varieties t he blotches may be
purple. Later t he affected areas t urn brown.
Spray wi t h 1/2 lb of magnesium sulfate in 21/2 gal
of water plus a spreader such as soft soap
or a few drops of mild washi ng-up l i qui d.
Repeat applications once or t wi ce at t wo-
week intervals.
Leaves with small globules
Exudation of small round green or colorless
droplets from t he leaves is qui te natural and
usually goes unnot i ced. However, in the
spring the transparent globules may become
very noticeable on t he young foliage. The
symptoms are most obvious on plants grow-
ing in a very humi d atmosphere and they
indicate t hat t he root acti on is vigorous and
the plant is in good health. Nevertheless,
venti l ate carefully to reduce t he humi di ty
and prevent other troubles.
Vine dying
Honey fungus (Armillaria mellea) frequentl y
kills indoor and outdoor vines. Whi t e fan-
shaped growths of fungus develop beneath
the bark of the roots and t he main stems at
and just above ground level. Dark brown
root-like structures known as rhizomorphs
develop on the affected tissues, grow out
through the soil and spread the disease. Dig
out dead and dyi ng plants together wi t h as
many roots as possible. If t he greenhouse is
vacant, sterilize the soil wi t h 2 per cent
formal i n, or change t he soil compl etel y before
replanting. Sterilizing is a potentially danger-
ous process. Wear gloves, protecti ve cl othi ng
and a mask.
Fruit failing to develop normally
Shanking is due to one or more unsuitable
cultural conditions. The stalks of the grapes
shrivel gradually until compl etel y girdled.
Odd berries or small groups of berries then
fail to color and develop naturally at the
early ripening stage. The berries are watery
and sour, black varieties t urn red, whi t e
varieties remain translucent. Ensure over- or
under-wateri ng or stagnant soil are not re-
sponsible. Reduce the crop for a year or t wo
until the vine regains its vigor.
When shanking occurs early in the season,
cut out the wi thered berries and spray the
foliage wi t h a foliar fertilizer.
Splitting of berries most commonl y occurs as
a result of powdery mildew (see above).
However, it is sometimes due to irregular
wateri ng. Remove affected berries before
they are attacked by secondary organisms
such as gray mol d, and water before the soil
dries out .
Scald is caused by t he sun's rays striking
t hrough glass ont o moi st tissues on a hot
day. Venti l ate carefully to reduce the humi d-
ity. Remove affected berries showi ng sunken
discolored patches.
Oedema occurs when t he roots of an affected
plant take up more water than t he leaves
can transpire and is due to extremely moist
condi ti ons in the soil, the atmosphere, or
bot h. It shows as small warts or pimples on
t he stalks and someti mes on t he berries and
even on t he lower leaf surface. These out -
growths may break open and then have a
blister-like or whi t e powdery appearance, or
they may become rusty-col ored and show
as brown scaly patches. Do not remove t he
affected parts as this will make matters worse.
Mai ntai n drier condi ti ons bot h in t he air and
soi l ; wi t h correct cultural t reat ment t he
affected pl ant should eventually recover.
PEACHES
The fol l owi ng remarks on split stone also
apply to nectarines.
Fruit failing to develop normally
Split stone shows as a cracki ng of the frui t at
the stalk end, f ormi ng a hole large enough for
t he entry of earwigs. The stone of such a frui t
is split and t he kernel is either rotti ng or
absent. Affected fruits are susceptible to
secondary rotti ng. This troubl e can be due to
t he soil being t oo acid. Lime to bri ng the pH
up to 6.7-7.0. Poor pol l i nati on can also cause
split stone, therefore hand-pol l i nate flowers
by passing cot t on-wool or a soft camel hair
brush from flower to flower. The commonest
cause of this troubl e, however, is an irregular
water supply. Prevent this by wateri ng in dry
periods and mul chi ng to conserve moisture.
In particular, ensure t hat the soil is never
allowed to dry out .
Greenhouse red spider mite (Tetranychus
urticae) are ti ny, eight-legged creatures
t hat can occur in large numbers on the
undersides of leaves. They are just visible
to t he naked eye but a hand lens is neces-
sary to see t hem clearly. Despite their
common name, these mites are yellow-
green" wi t h black markings; they only
become orange-red i n t he aut umn when
they hibernate. Their sap feeding causes
the upper surface of the leaves to become
discolored by a fine mottl i ng. In severe
infestations leaves dry up and t he plants
become festooned wi t h a silken webbi ng
produced by the mites. Mai ntai ni ng a
damp atmosphere helps to check this pest
but treatment wi t h insecticides such as
mal athi on or di methoate will also be
needed at seven day intervals until the
pest has been control l ed. Take care when
appl yi ng these chemicals to cucumbers
and melons as they may be damaged by
insecticides. Avoi d this risk by spraying in
t he eveni ng when temperatures are
cooler, and by maki ng sure the plants are
not dry at t he roots. As an alternative to
insecticides this pest can be control l ed
by i nt roduci ng a predatory mite, Phyto-
seiulus persimilis.
Peach-potato aphid and mottled arum
aphid (Myzus persicae and Aulacorthum
circumflexum) are bot h species of greenfly
t hat suck sap from a wi de range of plants.
The former is either pink or yel l ow-green,
bot h types often occurri ng together on t he
same plant, whi l e t he latter is yel l ow-green
wi t h a dark horseshoe marki ng on its back.
Both types of aphi d excrete honeydew
upon whi ch, i n humi d condi t i ons, sooty
molds may grow and cause t he leaves
and frui t to bl acken (see page 35). As t he
aphids grow they shed thei r skins, whi ch
become stuck on t he leaf surface where
they are held by t he sticky honeydew.
These skins are whi t e and are someti mes
mistaken for whi tefl y or some ot her pest.
Control aphids by appl yi ng pi ri mi phos-
methyl or pyrethroi d compounds. Use
the l ast-menti oned if t he crops are ready
for eating.
Greenhouse whitefly (Thaleurodes vapor-
ariorum) is a maj or pest of greenhouse
plants. Both t he small, whi t e, mot h-l i ke
adults and thei r flat, oval , whi t e-green,
scale-like larvae feed by sucki ng sap f r om
the underside of leaves. Like aphids, adul ts
and larvae excrete honeydew, whi ch
allows t he growt h of sooty mol d. Whi t e-
fly eggs and i mmat ure stages are not very
susceptible to insecticides, maki ng wel l
established infestations difficult to con-
trol . Early t reat ment wi t h pi ri mi phos-
met hyl or a pyrethroi d compound such as
pyret hrum will prevent damage occurri ng
if applied early. Spray heavy infestations
several times at three to four day inter-
vals. Greenhouse whi tefl y can be con-
trol l ed by i ntroduci ng a parasitic wasp,
Encarsia formosa.
COMMON GREENHOUSE PESTS
Feeding and fertilizers
Plants require certain basic (hemic .lis in order
to grow. In nature these arc present, to a
greater or lesser extent, in the soil, contri -
buted by the base rock and by the growt h
and decay of plant and animal life. A balance
between the nutrients available in a given
envi ronment and the plants that will grow
soon forms and is mai ntai ned. Gardening
conditions, under glass or outside, upset this
balance. In the greenhouse, the plants are in a
closed envi ronment. The only nutrients avail-
able are those in the soil and those supplied
by the gardener.
An explanation of the nutri ent needs of
plants and a list of the essential elements is
given on page 45.
Properly formul ated soil mixes contai n
nutrients needed for at least the initial stages
of plant growth. At some point, however,
these nutrients will become depleted and
more must be added in the form of fertilizer.
This process is called feeding.
Types of fertilizer
Balanced fertilizers contai n nitrogen, po-
tassium and phosphorus. They are used for
Applying fertilizer
1 Mix liquid or powdered fertilizer wi t h
water i n the proporti ons given on t he pad
Do not make solutions stronger t han t he
recommended rate.
2 Apply t he dilute fertilizer to the surface of
t he soil or pot t i ng mix wi t h a wateri ng can.
3 Apply top-dressings to beds, borders and
large containers in granule f orm. Sprinkle
the granules ont o the soil or potti ng mix
and rake or fork in.
Mix foliar fertilizers accordi ng to t he
maker's i nstructi ons. Appl y to t he leaves of
t he pl ant unti l run-off, using a wat eri ng can
fi tted wi t h a fine rose.
general cul ti vati on of most plants. Some
plants require larger proporti ons of one
element, and fertilizers are available whi ch
provi de higher concentrati ons of potassium
for tomatoes, for example. Special formul a-
tions are sold designed for carnations, chrys-
ant hemums and various fruits and vegetables.
Fertilizers contai ni ng several elements are
called compound fertilizers, simple fertilizers
contai n only one element. They are applied
when specific deficiencies are diagnosed, but
must be used wi t h care in the greenhouse as
it is easy to build up large concentrati ons
of elements in soil mixes, damagi ng the
plants. In addi ti on to the three basic ele-
ments, many commerci al l y available com-
pound fertilizers also contai n trace elements
needed for plant growth.
Using fertilizer
Whi l e nutrients are necessary, too great a
concent rat i on can be harmful . Nutri ent salts
can bui l d up in the soil mix and damage
roots. Plants must be ted at the rate they can
take up f ood. Fast-growing crops such as
tomatoes need heavy feeding, slow-growing
plants such as cacti and alpines need very
little. Feed plants when they are growing,
not when they are dormant. Plants t hat are
suffering from over-watering, incorrect en-
vi ronmental conditions, pests or diseases will
not be cured by feeding. Establish the cause
of the troubl e and take steps to correct it.
When the plant has recovered and is growi ng
normal l y it will benefit f rom feeding. Follow
the feeding instructions given for individual
crops and carefully adhere to the instruc-
tions on the fertilizer pack. When using
liquid feeds, dilute to the proporti ons in-
structed and do not use too strong a mixture.
Liquid feeding Liquid feeds are watered ont o
t he growi ng medi um and taken up by t he
roots of plants. Because nutrients have to be
dissolved before they can be taken up by the
roots, application in liquid form speeds the
process of absorption and allows the nu-
trients to reach the plant qui ckl y. Nutrients
applied to the soil or a mix in a solid form
are dissolved by water applied as irrigation
and are then taken up by the roots.
Because liquid feeds are fast-acting, they
are applied at frequent intervals, especially
when a plant needs a nut ri ent boost, such as
just before it flowers.
Solid feeds Fertilizers in solid formgranul es
or powdercan be added to soil mixes.
The John Innes formul ae call for t he addi ti on
of certai n amounts of John Innes base
fertilizer, whi ch is made up as a powder. Solid
fertilizers can also be added in t he form of
t op dressings to plants whi ch are kept
permanentl y in pots. Solid feeds are also
added to soil beds. The larger amount of
rooti ng medi um in a bed makes it possible for
solid fertilizers in slow-release f or m to be used.
These fertilizers are specially f ormul at ed to
release t he elements t hey cont ai n over a
peri od. When using solid fertilizers around
plants, take care not to scorch t he foliage.
Appl y t he t op dressing as close to the soil
surface as possible and water in i mmedi atel y.
Foliar feeding Some l i qui d ferti l i zersbut
not al l and some special compounds, can
be watered or sprayed ont o t he leaves of
plants. Foliar appl i cati ons are very effective
in cont rol l i ng deficiency sympt oms, parti-
cularly of magnesium and t he mi nor elements,
as t he elements are qui ckl y absorbed.
Foliar feeding
Soil and mixes 1
Plants growi ng under glass, whether in a con-
tainer or in a bed in a greenhouse or frame,
have access to lower levels of soil nutrients
than do plants in open ground. Therefore soil
in beds needs to be enri ched, and special
soils or mixes are required for pots or con-
tainers. An understandi ng of the nutrients
necessary to plant growt h is i mportant in
order to judge what needs to be added to
basic soils and growi ng mixes to ensure
health (see page 45).
Beds provide a larger root run than do
containers, and therefore need less enri ch-
ment. But the soil in the bed must be in good
condi ti on and well drained and aerated. Also,
soils in beds may become infested wi t h bui l d-
ups of pests and diseases, especially if t he
same crop is grown year after year. Con-
sequently the soil must be changed, or
sterilized, regularly if beds are used.
Beds
Ground level beds or borders created f rom
the soil on whi ch the greenhouse is placed
can provide t he best possible rooti ng condi -
tions and may contai n good reserves of
nutri ents. The bed must be well drained and,
unless it was previously part of a fertile
garden, extra organic matter should be
added. Wel l -decayed manure, garden com-
post, l eal -mol d, peat or other organics should
be dug at a rate of one 2 gallon bucketful per
square yard, ideally some weeks before plant-
ing. Spread balanced fertilizer over the bed
just before pl anti ng. Appl y at a rate of 3- 4 oz
per square yard. If the top-soil was stripped
f rom the area prior to the erection of t he
greenhouse, the existing sub-soil should be
removed f rom the border site to at least one
spade dept h. Replace it wi t h good top-soil or
a mi xture of loam and one of the organic
matter sources ment i oned above.
Mixes
Apart f rom natural soil beds, plants can be
grown in special mixes or composts, or in
inert media to whi ch are added nutrients in
fluid f orm (see Hydroponi cs, page 49). The
root systems of plants growi ng in containers
are confi ned to a very much smaller vol ume
Plants growi ng in open ground have room
to expand thei r root system in order to
search out water and nutrients.
Contai ner-grown plants have thei r root
systems confi ned and therefore nutri ents
must be added to t he soil available.
1 Improve a greenhouse or frame bed by
digging in organics such as well decayed
manure or garden compost at a rate of
2 gallons per square yard.
2 Just before planting, rake in a balanced
fertilizer at a rate of 3- 4 oz per square yard.
1 If good top-soil is lacking, remove
exposed sub-soil to at least one spade's
dept h. Deal wi t h any drainage problems.
2 Add good top-soil or a mi xture of l oam
and organics to bring t he bed back to t he
original level. At intervals add organi cs and
general fertilizer to mai ntai n soil ferti l i ty.
Greenhouse beds Replacing soil
ROOT SYSTEMS
Soil and mixes 2
of soil than they woul d normal l y occupy in a
bed or border (see box). If ordinary garden
soil is used in containers, vigorous plants in
particular rapidly use up the available
nutrients. This can be corrected by the
application of extra minerals in the form of
solid or liquid fertilizers, but plants will be
more successful if they can be kept growi ng
at a steady rate from the beginning. To this
end it is necessary to create a richer, wel l -
balanced soil for contai ner-grown plants.
Compost formulae In the past, professional
gardeners devised their own formul ae for
contai ner soil, using in varying proporti ons
such basic ingredients as turfy l oam, decayed
manure and leaf-mold, plus various ferti -
lizers. These pot t i ng media were known as
composts, not to be confused wi t h the de-
cayed vegetable matter known as garden
compost. The Ameri can t erm mix or pot t i ng
mix is now commonl y used. The need for a
reliable standardized mix became i mperati ve
for research purposes as horti cul ture de-
veloped. In the 1930s the John Innes Institute
in England devised such a formul a. It proved
Making loam
1 Cut sods 4- 6 in deep f rom good pasture.
Stack t hem grass side down in a sheltered
position, adding a 2 in layer of strawy
manure between each 10 in of sod.
to grow a wi de variety of plants well, soon
became popular, and is still widely used.
Any good pot t i ng medi um must be well
aerated and free-draining, but moisture-
retentive. It must contai n sufficient fertilizers
to supply all the needs of the plants for as long
as possible. In addi ti on, it should be free f rom
weed seeds, pests and disease organisms.
These can be present in the basic loam whi ch
is an ingredient of most mixes. The John
Innes f ormul a demands t hat the loam be
sterilized to destroy harmful organisms. Al -
t hough the term "steri l i zed" is widely used
in connect i on wi t h soil and mixes, the loam
is actually heat-pasteurized, because it is
not desirable to kill all life in t he soil.
Loam The key ingredient of t he John Innes
formul a is loam, the subtl y-bl ended soil com-
posed of clay, fine sand, humus and minerals
t hat is f ound under long-established valley
pastures. To create the finest loam the t op
4- 6 in layer of pasture turf is removed and
stacked in layers. Between each 10 in layer of
turf a 2 in layer of strawy manure is laid. The
stack should not exceed 6 ft high and wi de
2 Water the stack, whi ch shoul d be no
more t han 6 ft high and wi de, and cover
well wi t h heavy-duty plastic sheeting. Leave
tor six months until the sods have rotted.
STERILIZATION
Commercially, loam is pasteurized in
specially constructed f l at -bot t omed bins
or troughs injected wi t h steam from
below. There are also electric sterilizers,
small versions of whi ch can be bought and
used by amateurs who garden on a
moderate scale. Small quantities of soil
can be pasteurized in the ki tchen, using a
steamer saucepan. Pass the loam, whi ch
should be almost dry, t hrough a1/2 in mesh
sieve and place a 6 in layer in the steamer.
Bring 2 in of water to the boil in t he sauce-
pan. Then put the lid on t he steamer and
allow the loam to heat up. A thermometer
must be used t hroughout the operati on (a
candy thermometer is suitable) and once
the surface of the loam reaches 82C/
180F it must be kept as steady as possible
for 10 minutes. As soon as the 10 minutes
are up the loam must be turned out to cool .
Loam can be steamed in large amounts
by passing steam from a boiler into a pile
of soil covered wi t h a tarpaul i n.
1 Pass good-quality, dry, fi brous l oam
t hrough a 1/2 in mesh sieve. Prepare sieved
l oam to f orm a 6 in layer in t he steamer.
2 Place the loam in t he steamer and bring
t he water i n the lower port i on to t he boil.
Keep at 82C/180F for 10 mi nutes.
Alternatively, use a purpose-made soil
sterilizer, whi ch heats wat er by means of
an electric el ement.
Soil and mixes 3
and the sods must be moist or made so as
the work proceeds. Ideally, the stack should
be made in an open shed to protect it from
the rain. Alternatively, cover the t op wi t h
heavy duty plastic sheeting. The stacked
sods will turn i nto high qual i ty loam in about
six months. Suitable pasture turf is in short
supply and some of the commerci al pot t i ng
mixes sold are made wi t h inferior loam.
Generally speaking, however, such com-
posts are still superior to garden soil and
equal to other substitutes. Test a mix
before purchase by handling a sample. A
mix made wi t h good loam will have a high
fiber content.
How to make soil mixes The first stage in
maki ng soil mixes to one of t he John Innes
formul ae is to sterilize the loam (see page 43).
The mix should be made up as soon as t he
loam cools. Ingredients must be mixed well
to obtai n an even and uni form end product.
It is helpful to have a bushel or half-bushel
box in whi ch to measure the ingredients, as
lime and fertilizers are normal l y added at a
bushel rate. A bushel is the amount t hat will
fit into a box 22 in x 10 in x 10 in wi t hout
compacti ng. Evenly layer the ingredients i nto
a pile on a clean concrete floor. Sprinkle some
of the lime and fertilizers ont o each sand
layer. When the heap is compl ete it will
clearly show layers of the various ingredients
as they are of varying colors. The whole
should be well mixed wi t h a clean shovel.
John Innes formulae The basic potti ng mix
formul a is: 7 parts by bulk l oam, 3 parts
of coarse washed sand, and 2 parts of moist
moss peat. To each bushel of this mi xture add
4oz of John Innes base fertilizer and | o z of
ground limestone. This is a No. 1 compost
or mix. For a No. 2 mix add twi ce as much
fertilizer, and for No. 3, three times as much.
For lime-hating plants a neutral to acid loam
should be used if possible and the limestone
omi t t ed.
John Innes base fertilizer is rarely available
commerci al l y but can be made up as fol l ows:
2 parts superphosphate, 2 parts bl ood meal
and 1 part sulfate of potash.
For t he seed-sowing mix t he proporti ons
are: 2 parts loam, 1 part peat and 1 part sand,
adding to each bushel 11/2oz of superphos-
phate and 3/4 oz of ground limestone, whi ch
1 Prepare a bushel box for measuring
ingredients. The box should measure 22 in
by 10 in. Mark the 10 in dept h on t he inside.
2 Fill the box wi t h the first of t he ingredients
to the 10 in level. Do not compact t he
ingredients.
3 Spread the first of t he i ngredi ents on a
hard, dry surface.
4 Sprinkle lime and fertilizer, accordi ng to
the formul a being fol l owed, ont o t he pile.
5 Add further ingredients in layers,
sprinkling lime and fertilizers between
each layer.
6 When all the ingredients have been
added, mix t he resulting heap wi t h a clean
shovel unti l the mix is an even col or.
Preparing mixes
Soil and mixes 4
is omi tted for lime-hating subjects. It is recom-
mended that, except for very fine or slow
germinating seeds, sowing is made direct
i nto John Innes potti ng compost No. I, thus
doing away wi t h seed-sowing mixes.
Al though there is plenty of experimental
evidence to show the benefits of properly
sterilized loam, it must be clearly stated t hat
good plants can be grown wi t hout it. Weeds,
pests and diseases will occur and have to be
dealt wi t h, but everythi ng else considered,
the risks are not high. Weeds are a probl em
when seed sowing and it is advisable to use
one of the non-l oam mixes menti oned below.
A particularly annoyi ng possible result of
using non-sterilized loam is t he i nt roduct i on
of earthworms. Their tunnel i ng activities can
slow down plant growt h and render t he
mix so well drained that most of the water
applied runs straight t hrough. Kill the worms
by wateri ng affected pots wi t h solutions of
potassium permanganate.
Soilless mixes
Sources of good loam have been in short
supply for many years and much experi-
mental work has been carried out to find
alternative growi ng media. The most success-
ful substance of all has been peat, in both its
sedge and sphagnum moss forms. Soil mixes
consisting purely of peat wi t h mineral
nutrients added are now the most popular of
all for t he amateur market. Professional
opi ni on, however, favors the adding of at
least some loam to peat-based mixes.
Peat mixes Al l -peat mixes have t he advan-
tage of being comparati vel y sterile and of
being light and fairly clean to handle. They
have proved remarkably successful for a wi de
range of contai ner-grown plants provi di ng
they are used to makers' instructions. They
must not be firmed when potti ng in the way
loam-based mixes are and wateri ng must
be done wi t h care. If the plant's rootball
becomes t oo dry and shrinks away from t he
sides of t he pot, subsequent wateri ng is less
effective even when wet t i ng agents are used.
As much for this reason as any other, all-peat
mixes are best used for qui ck-growi ng short-
term plants whi ch require regular wateri ng.
A disadvantage of peat is the lack of
wei ght a peat rootball has. Tall plants soon
become top-heavy. To overcome this factor
and to render dryish peat more readily wet-
table, it is an advantage to add a small
percentage of coarse washed sand.
U.C. mixes A series of simple standardized
peat and sand media has been devised at the
University of California. They are known as
U.C. mixes. There are three vari ati ons: 3 parts
by bulk moss peat and 1 part sand; equal parts
peat and sand and 3 parts sand to 1 of peat.
To this is added a special fertilizer.
Soil mixes for special purposes Lime-hating
plants such as azaleas must be grown in lime-
free mixes. These can be bought, or normal
John Innes formul ae can be used wi t h
the lime omi tted. The formul a for John Innes
acid compost, i ntended for aci d-l ovi ng plants,
is: 2 parts loam, 1 peat, 1 sand, wi t h 1 1/2-oz
cal ci um superphosphate and 3/4 oz flowers of
sulfur added per bushel. To give a mix for
plants whi ch require sharp drainage, add
gravel or grit to the mixture. Plants whi ch
need large amounts of water may benefit
from t he addi ti on of charcoal, whi ch helps
prevent souring of the saturated mix. Steri-
lized leafmold can be used in mixes.
PREPARING SOILLESS MIXES
Follow t he bushel proport i ons listed on
t he left, wi t h a quarter-bushel box (81/2 x
8 1/2 x 73/4 in) substi tuted if smaller quantities
are requi red. The necessary chemi cal s can
be applied one by one or in t he f orm of
ready-mixed compounds available com-
mercially. The nutri ents can be added
as t he mix is used to save pri or mixing.
If a commerci al compound is to be used,
ensure t hat it includes t he necessary trace
elements as well as t he basic nutri ents.
Slow-release forms of potassi um and
ni trogen can be added to soilless mixes
to provi de for pl ant needs for three
mont hs or longer, removi ng t he need for
feedi ng. Trace el ements can also be
applied in fri tted slow-release f or m. Fritted
trace elements are released over a period
of months. Mixes shoul d be used as soon
as slow-release fertilizers have been added,
or they will build up in t he mix before
plants are present, leading to levels pos-
sibly damagi ng to plants.
SOIL NUTRIENTS
Balanced feeding is the key to successful
plant growth al though plant groups vary
widely in their requirements of each
nutrient. If a plant is to thri ve, its soil must
contai n both the maj or and mi nor mineral
elements. The macro or maj or nutrients
are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
magnesium, cal ci um, sulfur, carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. Of these, nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium (abbreviated
to N, P and K) are required in large quant i -
ties. In addi ti on to these nine mineral
elements, plants also need mi nut e
amounts of the minor, or trace elements
such as iron, manganese, boron, mol yb-
denum, zinc and copper.
All balanced fertilizers contai n nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium wi t h some
of t he trace elements occurri ng as i m-
purities. Some balanced fertilizers are
compounded so as to include balanced
amounts of trace elements.
The functi ons of the various nutri ent
mineral elements are summarized here.
Nitrogen Essential for the f ormat i on of pro-
teins whi ch in t urn make up protopl asm,
t he life-stuff of plants, ni trogen encourages
leafy growt h and promotes rapid growt h
in t he spring and summer. Insufficient nitro-
gen results in a general suppression of
growt h.
Phosphorus Phosphorus is a consti tuent of
protopl asm whi ch plays a part in phot o-
synthesis, t he compl ex process by whi ch
plants use light energy to make their own
f ood. Deficiency shows as t hi n shoots and
narrow leaves.
Potassium (Potash) Essential to t he f unct i on-
ing of enzymes active in the formati on of
fibrous tissue, sugars and starches, potassium
makes plants more disease-resistant. De-
ficiency shows as thi n growt h.
Magnesium Magnesium is a consti tuent of
chl orophyl l , t he i mportant green matter
normal l y present in most plants. It is essen-
tial to those enzymes i nvol ved in the trans-
porti ng of phosphorus wi t hi n the plant.
Deficiency shows as severe chlorosis of t he
leaves.
Calcium A maj or element but required in
very small amounts, cal ci um is i mportant
for t he movement of carbohydrates in the
plant and aids in the entry of phosphorus,
nitrogen and sulfur wi th whi ch it combines.
Deficiency is rare but can show as wi l ti ng of
shoots, leaves and flower stalks.
Sulfur Sulfur takes part in the formati on
of protopl asm and proteins. Deficiency is very
rare in well-prepared soil mixes but when
it occurs symptoms are similar to those of
ni trogen.
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen These ele-
ments are available f rom water and the
atmosphere. Oxygen is absorbed from t he
atmosphere and helps to convert the plant's
f ood (sugar) i nto energy. Hydrogen is taken
up f rom t he water by t he plant' s roots and
combi nes wi t h carbon di oxi de, absorbed
f rom t he atmosphere, to f orm a sugar
compound whi ch i s t he plant' s f ood.
Iron In its mineral f orm i ron enters i nto
the maki ng of chl orophyl l and t heref ore is
vital to all green plants. Defi ci ency shows
as yellow to whi ti sh shoot tips whi ch often
t urn brown and die back.
Manganese Manganese is a trace el ement
needed for t he f unct i oni ng of various
enzymes and cell chloroplasts. Deficiency
symptoms vary but usually show as
chlorosis.
Boron Deficiency of boron, a trace ele-
ment mainly concerned wi t h cell di vi si on,
results in a cri ppl i ng or death of devel opi ng
tissues.
Molybdenum, copper and zinc All three
are vitally i mportant, in small quanti ti es,
to t he proper growt h of t he pl ant. They
are often present in soil mixes.
Growing systems 1
Greenhouse growi ng systems are basec
either on open beds or some f orm of con-
tainer to restrict root run. The size, type and
site of the greenhouse and t he choi ce of
plants to be grown will di ctate t he ki nd of
growi ng system used. Anot her factor is the
manner in whi ch the greenhouse is to be run.
Container, or restricted, systems lend them-
selves more readily to automated watering
than do soil beds, for instance. If mist units or
soil-heating cables are to be installed, then
a bench or staging system wi t h containers or
raised soil beds will be needed.
Containers are the best growi ng system if
a large number of different plants is to be
grown in a greenhouse, for they can be
moved and re-sited as t he plants grow, thus
freeing space for further propagati on and
plant raising. Soil beds, on the other hand, do
very well if only one maj or crop is to be grown
at any one ti me. If, for instance, tomatoes or
carnations grown for cut flowers are to be the
main crop, then soil beds are preferable. Soil-
level beds do not make use of t he vertical
dimension of t he greenhouse except when
tall crops are being grown. The use of con-
tainers allows staging and high-level shelves
to be installed to maximize the use of growi ng
space, t hough the space below the staging is
to a large extent wasted. The decision must
depend upon t he crops chosen.
Open beds
If t he greenhouse is sited upon good soil, and
that soil is free of pests, diseases and per-
ennial weeds, open beds are the simplest
growi ng system. Open beds must contai n a
good-qual i ty soil or mix. If the soil is i n-
adequate, modi fy or replace it (see page 42). If
the site is wet and difficult to drain, a raised
bed is t he best sol uti on. Construct one 9-12 in
deep wi t h t he sides retained by boards or a
brick or concrete wall. Fill the space above
the cul ti vated garden soil wi t h good-qual i ty
top-soil up to the level of the t op of the wall.
Beds may also be f ormed on stagings, but t he
stagings must be specially built to support t he
weight. Bench beds have t he advantage of
bringing small plants nearer to t he light and
to a level whi ch makes cul ti vati on easier.
They are especially appl i cabl e to t he growi ng
of alpines (see page 88). Melons, and to a
lesser extent cucumbers and tomatoes, are
tradi ti onal l y grown on ridges or mounds of
soil on benches. This system not only gives
the plants more light than ground-level beds,
but also enables t he rooti ng medi um to be
mai ntai ned at a beneficially higher tempera-
ture than is possible at ground level wi t hout
soil heati ng cables. This is because air can
circulate below the bench as well as above
t he soil surface.
Al t hough open soil beds are the most
suitable growi ng system for such early crops
as l ettuce, they are not economi c of room
where ornamental s are concerned. Climbers
and shrubs gi ven a free root run make strong
growt h, but often at t he expense of blooms.
A further disadvantage of soil-level beds,
particularly if tomatoes are to be t he main
crop, is t he possible bui l d-up of soil-borne
pests and diseases. This is inevitable if t he
same crop is grown year after year. The only
remedy is replacement or sterilization of t he
soil. Removing all the affected soil to 1ft
depth and replacing it wi t h fresh, or sterilizing
it (see page 43), is a laborious task. There are
methods of sterilizing t he soil in situ wi t h
Empty t he greenhouse and open venti l a-
tors. Then, weari ng gloves, appl y a for-
mal dehyde sol uti on (one part of 38- 40
per cent formal i n to 49 parts water) at
5 gal per square yard. Leave for 4 weeks.
STERILIZING BORDER SOIL
Raised bed Bench bed Ring culture
On wet sites, raise the soil by bui l di ng a
9-12 in deep raised bed. Use boards, a
brick wall or concrete as sides.
Beds can be placed on benches at waist
level. The benches must have extra-strong
supports and drainage must be adequate.
Ring culture consists of a bed of aggregate,
placed in a trough or a plastic-lined trench,
wi t h plants grown in bottomless pots or rings
cont ai ni ng soil. Roots penetrate i nt o t he
inert aggregate, where they absorb moisture
and nutri ents.
Growing systems 2
steam or chemicals, but in the main they are
not convenient for the amateur. The easiest
techni que is to soak the soil wi t h formal de-
hyde (see page 46). The greenhouse must be
empty when this is done, and t he soil cannot
be used for at least one mont h after treat-
ment. Formalin will give fair control of fungal
diseases but has no effect on eelworms.
Cresylic aci d, D-D and methyl bromi de are
used commerci al l y against eelworms, the
latter control l i ng fungi also, but these chemi -
cals should never be used by amateurs. The
work can be done by skilled contractors, but
it is costly and only wort hwhi l e on a large
scale where other growi ng systems cannot
be used.
Restricted growing systems
This term is used to describe growi ng systems
where t he plants' roots are in some way
restricted by a container.
Ring culture The ring cul ture system was de-
vised for, and is mainly used for, growi ng
tomatoes (see illustration, page 46). The aim
of the ring cul ture system is to eliminate t he
problems of the build-up of pests and diseases
in open soil wi t hout restricting the plants'
roots to the confines of a pot. Each plant is
grown in a bottomless pot stood on a bed,
or substrate, of gravel about 6- 9 in deep.
The substrate is laid in a t rough lined wi t h
plastic sheeting to prevent it comi ng i nto
cont act wi t h t he soil. Thus t he roots are able
to pass out of t he bottomless pot and enter
t he substrate. Wat er is applied to the sub-
strate only, not to t he pots, as soon as roots
begin to penetrate t he substrate. Dig out a
trench in the border soil at least 6 in deep and
16 in wi de. Line the base and sides of the
trench wi t h heavy gauge plastic sheeting and
fill it wi t h the substrate. For the substrate
a mi xture of three parts gravel to one of ver-
mi cul i te is recommended. Other suitable
substrata are formed f rom perlite, stone
chips or coarse sand. The substrate must be
chemi cal l y inert.
Place fiber rings or bottomless pots at least
8 in deep on t he substrate and fill t hem wi t h a
sterilized rooti ng medi um such as John Innes
pot t i ng compost No. 2 or 3. Soil-less media
can also be used. Because of the small amount
of growi ng medi um contai ned wi t h the ring,
feeding has to be begun early in the plant's
growt h. Proprietary liquid fertilizer, or a mix-
ture consisting of 2 parts nitrate of potash,
3 parts sulfate of ammoni a and 5 parts
super-phosphate (all by weight) should be
applied to each ring weekly. Appl y at the
rate of 1 oz of t he mi xture to 1 gal of water.
The main disadvantage of the ring cul ture
met hod is the need for precision in the
appl i cati on of water and fertilizer. Wat er
loss can be high, especially early on when the
roots have not yet penetrated the substrate.
Ring cul ture means devoti ng the whol e
greenhouse, or a large part of it, to tomatoes.
Pot plants such as chrysanthemums can be
stood on the substrate later in the year.
Plastic growing bags Crowi ng bags provi de
restricted root runs but a larger t han average
amount of growi ng medi um. They are plastic
sacks usually the size of pillows, filled wi t h
an all-peat growi ng medi um. They are laid
flat in t he growi ng position and sections of
the t op cut away so t hat plants can be i n-
serted. Drainage is provi ded if necessary by
maki ng slits along the edges near ground
level. Wat eri ng must be carried out wi t h care
as it is easy to over-water a large vol ume of
all peat mix. The mix also dries out qui ckl y
and it can be hard to re-wet. Feeding is
necessary to suppl ement nutri ents.
This met hod can be used f or a wi de range
of plants but is parti cul arl y useful for t oma-
toes, peppers and small squash. It keeps plant
roots away f rom t he possible cont ami nat i on
of diseased soil in greenhouse beds. Growi ng
bags can also be used in concrete-fl oored
greenhouses as t emporary beds, and smaller,
lighter growi ng bags can be placed on the
staging. Supporti ng tall plants such as t oma-
toes is not very easy. The tradi ti onal cane
stake cannot be used, for it wi l l not sup-
port itself in t he growi ng bag. It is necessary to
fix strings or wires to t he greenhouse frame
above t he plants and to t rai n t he plants.
The advantages of growi ng bags are free-
dom f rom disease, a growi ng medi um t hat
warms up fast, and conveni ence. Against
these advantages must be set t he difficulties
of accuratel y assessing feedi ng and wateri ng
needs, and t he possible bui l d-up of mineral
salts in t he peat. Crowi ng bags can also only
be used once.
1 Place the bag on a flat surface in t he
growi ng position. Slit t he t op to provi de
planting spaces.
2 Add water to wet t he peat-based
growi ng medi um.
3 Water and feed t he growi ng plants wi t h
care, for it is easy to over-wet the peat in
the bag. Make drainage slits in the sides if
needed. Feeding will be necessary as t he
plants grow, al though t he peat in t he bags
has some nutrients added to it.
Growing bags
Growing systems 3
Straw bales The growi ng of plants under glass
on slowly decomposi ng bales of wheat straw
can be considered a modern devel opment of
the old hot bed system. The reason for its
devel opment, however, is qui te different. Its
aim is t hat of ring cul ture, to provi de a disease-
free root run, primarily for tomatoes and
cucumbers. It is thus a restricted system,
al though containers are not used. The straw
bales are thoroughl y wet t ed and fermentati on
is triggered by applying nitrogen, thus bui l d-
ing up heat and giving off carbon dioxide.
Both are beneficial to t he young plants, whi ch
are placed in soil mounds on the bales as t he
temperature in the bales starts to fall. The
temperature in the center of the bale wi l l ,
under t he right condi ti ons, reach at least
43C/110F. Due to t he difficulty in obtai ni ng
straw and the relatively intensive care needed,
the system is a difficult one for the amateur. It
also restricts t he use of t he greenhouse as
the ammoni a given off duri ng fermentati on
can damage some plants.
Preparation Wheat straw bales are usually
used as they do not decompose qui ckl y;
barley and oat straw are inferior substitutes.
Bales of 40- 60 lb wei ght should be used. If
possible, they should be bound wi t h wi re
rather than string, whi ch can rot. They are
put on pol yethyl ene sheet end to end in rows
where the plants are to be grown. The bales
can be placed in a shallow trough lined wi t h
polyethylene, whi ch helps to save water
whi ch runs through the bale. The ventilators
should be kept closed, and the greenhouse
temperature should ideally be around 10C/
50F to promote fermentati on.
There are t wo alternative methods, one
fast, one slow. Choose t hat whi ch fits t he
period during whi ch the greenhouse is free of
other crops. The slower met hod first involves
thoroughl y wateri ng the bales. Then water in
1 1/2 lb nitro-chalk (ammoni um nitrate-lime mix-
ture) per bale. Four days later, apply a further
1lb of nitro-chalk, again wateri ng in. Four
days after that, add 3/4 lb of a general fertilizer
and water in. Keep t he bales damp at all
times. This met hod takes about 18 days.
The second met hod takes 7-10 days.
Thoroughly wet the bales and then apply 1 lb
of nitro-chalk, 6oz of triple superphosphate,
6oz of magnesium sulfate, 12 oz of potas-
sium nitrate and 3oz of ferrous sulfate, all
rates per bale. Wat er the nutrients in. The
second met hod is t hat favored by com-
mercial growers of tomatoes.
Fermentation Whi chever regime is applied,
the straw will heat up t hrough fermentai on
and should reach 43
o
-54C/110
o
-130F.
Check the temperature wi t h a soil t hermo-
meter every few days. When it drops to
about 38C/100F and is still falling, planting
can take place.
To plant, pile a ridge of John Innes No. 3
compost or equi val ent mix along the t op of
t he bales and set the plants i nto this. Sub-
sequent wateri ng and liquid feeding must be
carried out regularly and thoroughl y as the
bales are very free-draining. Plants should be
supported wi t h strings tied to the greenhouse
roof (see page 50). Do not make the strings
t oo ti ght as t he bales will settle.
Straw bale cul ture has the advantage of
provi di ng heat and carbon dioxide whi ch aid
plant establishment, but bales take up a lot
of greenhouse space. Care must be taken not
to use straw sprayed wi t h hormone weedkiller.
The straw bale system
Preparing the bales
The straw bale system is used for t oma-
toes, cucumbers and other f ood crops.
Plants are grown in ridges of soil mix.
placed on f erment i ng wheat straw bales,
i nto whi ch t he roots penetrate. Do not use
straw sprayed wi t h hor mone weedki l l er.
1 Add fertilizers as listed in the text to the
tops of the wet bales. Wat er the fertilizers
in.
2 Check the temperature every few days
duri ng fermentati on. Plant when it drops
to 38C/100F.
3 Sprinkle soil or mix in a ridge al ong the
tops of t he bales and plant. The roots will
enter t he straw.
Growing systems 4
HYDROPONICS
Hydroponi cs is the techni que of growi ng
plants in water and dissolved mineral nutrients
wi t hout soil or other solid rooti ng medi um.
I he fluid used has to contai n all the nutrients
necessary to plant growt h, and some kind of
support system is necessary to replace t he
anchori ng acti on of roots in soil.
The use of a hydroponi c system does take
away t he skilled chore of wateri ng and vi rt u-
ally eliminates diseases and pests of the root
system. However, for success regular chemi -
cal analysis of t he nutri ent is essential. There
are several nutri ent formul ae whi ch t he
amateur can try, some being available pre-
mixed. If mixing is necessary, great care must
be taken. An excess or a deficiency of any
one or more minerals coul d spell disaster to
the plants. None of the commerci al systems
now available can be recommended to
amateurs except to those interested in ex-
peri menti ng for its own sake. Experiments
conti nue and a system whol l y suitable for
amateurs may be devel oped. Meanwhile, kit
systems may interest enthusiasts.
Nutrient film technique
Nutrient film technique
The nutri ent film techni que is a system of
growi ng plants in troughs of shallow re-
ci rcul ati ng nutri ent sol uti on. Polyethylene
troughs or pre-formed open gullies are laid
on flat surfaces in t he greenhouse to a slope
of not less t han 1 in 100. A narrow strip of
non-toxi c capillary matti ng is laid al ong t he
base of t he gully beneath each plant con-
tainer. This ensures t hat no pl ant dries out in
the early stages of growt h and it leaves most
of t he roots uncovered allowing good, in-
expensive aerati on. The nutri ent solution,
cont ai ni ng a compl et e range of pl ant foods,
and if possible warmed to 25C/77F, is con-
ti nual l y ci rcul ated by a submersible pump
t hrough t he troughs to a cat chment tank at
a fl ow rate of about 31/2 pints per mi nut e per
gully. The systems available in kit f orm for
amateurs are based upon modifications of
this t echni que.
Other hydroponics systems
The other systems developed for commerci al
horti cul ture are of mostly academic interest
The warmed nutrient solution is pumped
from a storage tank al ong gentl y sloping
gullies. The gullies contai n a strip of capillary
mat t i ng and are covered by "t ent s" of
black pol yethyl ene to reduce evaporati on.
Amat eur systems are smaller.
to the gardener. However, some details of
t hem are given so t hat the basic techni que
may be understood.
Pure solution This met hod uses nutrients
contai ned in tanks about 8 in deep wi t h fine
wi re mesh stretched across t he t op to hold
t he stems of t he plants upright. The nutri ent
solution needs to be artificially aerated and
regularly tested for pH, and must be changed
every t wo weeks. Among t he disadvantages
of t he pure solution met hod are t he difficulty
of supporti ng plants adequately, and t he fact
that only a limited range of species will
tol erate the permanent i mmersi on of roots.
Flooded substrate Similar tanks to those used
for t he pure solution met hod are required for
this system, but they must be protected wi t h
a layer of bi tumi nous paint. Plastic-lined tanks
or troughs are an alternative. The tank or
trough is filled wi t h an inert aggregate, ideally
washed gravel or grit, t hough coarse vermi -
culite, perlite, polystyrene chips, lignite or
weathered coal ash may also be used. This
substrate is regularly fl ooded wi t h t he nutri ent
sol uti on, the surplus being recycled. The
sol uti on must be tested regularly for con-
centrati on and pH, and adjustments or
repl acement made when necessary. Replace-
ment of the solution is more costly than
adj ustment, but is more reliable, as the
correct concentrati on is assured. The fl ood-
ing and draining operati on ensures that
sufficient air gets to the roots and the sub-
strate gives t he plants adequate support.
Drainage tank The drainage tank system is
a simplified version of t he fl ooded substrate
met hod. The system can be adapted to a
variety of situations. Dig a trench and line it
as described under Ring Cul ture (page 46).
Make drainage holes in t he sides about 3 in
above t he base. Alternatively, any tank of
similar depth and wi dt h wi t h the same pat-
tern of drainage holes can be used. Ideally,
use an absorbent substrate, such as vermi -
culite, perlite or lignite, t he last being recom-
mended. Washed sand t hat is not t oo coarse
and thus has good capillarity is also suitable.
Add nutri ent solution to t he substrate regu-
larly, t he surplus draining away, a reservoir
remaining below t he drainage holes. Less
nutri ent is needed than for other methods,
and checks are less frequent.
Hydroponics systems
The pure solution system uses tanks of
sol uti on, wi t h pl ant stems support ed by
hori zontal wire mesh.
The flooded substrate system uses troughs
filled wi t h an inert aggregate whi ch supports
t he roots.
The drainage tank system is similar to the
above. A t rench lined wi t h perforated
plastic sheet is used.
Plant supports
Many greenhouse plants require some ki nd
of support to control and direct thei r growt h.
Examples are tomatoes, frui t trees and orna-
mental climbers. The plants t hat require sup-
port outdoors, such as certain shrubs and
annuals, will also need support under glass,
t hough the supports need not be as strong as
those used in t he open. Permanent systems
are needed for some plants such as grape
vines. Such supports are attached to t he
framework of t he greenhouse, by nails or
screws in the case of wooden frames, or by
clips or bolts to metal frames. Other crops
such as tomatoes require temporary props.
These are similar to those used outdoors, but
use is often made of t he greenhouse frame-
work t o anchor t hem.
Canes Bamboo or wooden canes can be
used in borders where there is sufficient soil
to anchor t hem securely. Use one cane per
plant, of a height suitable for t he mature
plants. Insert t hem on planting. Tie t he plants
to t he canes wi t h soft garden string at 12 in
intervals.
Strings Where canes are i mpracti cabl e, be-
cause for instance pots or growi ng bags are
being used, drop lengths of strong string from
secure fixings in t he greenhouse roof to t he
base of each plant. At t ach the string loosely
around t he pl ant beneath t he lowest true
leaf. Twist t he string gently around the plant
as it grows. Do not allow t he string to become
t oo ti ght.
Netting Plastic or plastic-covered wire net-
ti ng can be draped f rom t he greenhouse
structure along t he line of t he plants. Support
t op and ends of t he net securely to the frame-
work. Gently gui de t he plants t hrough t he
netti ng as they grow, t yi ng in wi t h soft string
as necessary. Netti ng of varyi ng mesh sizes
can be used. Some crops, such as melons and
cucumbers, require large-mesh nets.
Wires Fruit trees and climbers can be trai ned
up permanent or t emporary systems of wires
stretched hori zontal l y al ong greenhouse
walls. In lean-to greenhouses, screw eyes can
be attached to rear walls and 14 gauge gal-
vanized wi re fixed between t hem. Al terna-
tively, fix vertical battens to t he wall and drill
t hem for bolts, to whi ch t he wires are
attached. Wires should be kept taut by the
use of a straining bolt at one end of the wire.
Fix wires for frui t trees 15-18 in apart. Crapes
need wires at a 10 in spacing.
Wires can be used vertically to support
cl i mbi ng crops such as beans and ornamental
climbers. In all cases, attach the plants to t he
wires wi t h soft string as necessary. Some
forms of plastic netti ng are perishable and
rot after a season or t wo. Do not use such
netti ng for perennial plants. Rigid wire or
plastic-covered wire netti ng can be fixed,
using battens, to walls or greenhouse frames
to provi de support for cl i mbi ng plants.
Fastenings Metal -framed greenhouses need
drilling, or t he addi ti on of special bolts, be-
fore wire or other support systems are
erected. Special bolts are available wi t h T-
shaped ends whi ch slot i nto the glazing bars
of most al umi num greenhouses. To these
bolts attach drilled brackets between whi ch
the wires can be fixed. Wooden battens can
be attached to the bolts to provide easy
permanent or temporary fixing points for
strings, nets or wires. Ordi nary screws or bolts
can be used in wooden-f ramed houses.
Supporting plants in growing bags It is not
possible to drive supports i nto the growi ng
bag, as t he small amount of soil will not
hold a stake or cane and t he plants whi ch
grow up it. Self-supporting metal frames can
be obtai ned whi ch stand over t he bag.
Al ternati vel y, drop strings f rom t he green-
house framework to t he plants or at t ach
plants to wall wires or nets.
Supporting plants in pots Li ghtwei ght wi re
frameworks can be bought whi ch are inserted
into t he pot t i ng mix. Several light canes
tied together in a fan-shape achi eve t he same
result. Bushy twigs, as used out doors for peas,
are useful for supporti ng small cl i mbers and
other ornamental plants. If fl oweri ng plants
such as carnati ons are being gr own for
cut t i ng in large numbers, plastic or wire
netti ng can be stretched hori zontal l y above
the bed or staging and t he plants al l owed to
grow t hrough it.
Perennials Fruit trees and cl i mbers need
robust support systems to cont rol and di rect
their growt h. Avoi d perishable materials.
Canes Strings Netting Tall crops Grape vines Lean-to walls
Tie t he plants to bamboo
canes at 6-12 in intervals,
using soft garden string.
Loosely tie strings below t he
plant's first true leaf, wi nd
t hem around t he stems and
t hen run t hem to t he frame.
Wi re or string netting
at t ached to t he greenhouse
frame can be used to
support plants.
Tall or heavy crops need
stronger strings or wires
and strong fixings to avoi d
collapse.
Vines require a rigid system
of hori zontal wires at 10 in
spacings, firmly attached to
t he greenhouse frame.
Climbers can be t rai ned up
a f ramework of wi re mesh
fixed to battens.
Pots and potting 1
Until the advent of methods such as ring
culture and growi ng bags, most greenhouse
plants were grown in containers. There were
primarily a range of plastic or clay flower pots,
wi th tubs being used for larger, semi-
permanent plants. Containers are still the
main tool for propagati on, and they find
favor wi t h gardeners who want to concen-
trate on ornamental greenhouse plants. They
provide the most versatile way of growi ng a
wi de range of plants in a small greenhouse.
Pots come in a wi de range of sizes, and tubs
extend the size range upwards. There are also
several types of disposable pot, i ncl udi ng
those formed from organic material whi ch
can be planted wi t h the plant.
Whatever container is used, there are
certain principles whi ch must be fol l owed
when potti ng, re-potti ng and pot t i ng on
plants. These operations are covered in
detail on pages 52-54.
Clay and plastic pots It was once asserted
that only clay pots coul d be used to grow
plants successfully. Plastic pots, when first
i ntroduced, were viewed wi t h suspicion,
mainly because they did not have the porous
quality of clay. However, as clay pots become
more and more expensive, and often difficult
to obt ai n, the controversy fades into the
background. It has been wi del y proved that
plastic pots will grow plants just as well as
clay, and it had become clear t hat they have
certai n advantages. The first advantage is t hat
plastic pots are much cheaper than clay. They
are also more durable and easier to clean, for
they do not harbor dirt. Clay pots need
soaking, scrubbi ng and sterilizing between
use, whereas plastic pots can be wi ped clean
wi t h water and detergent. Plastic pots are
also lighter than clay, whi ch makes for easier
handl i ng. However, because they are lighter,
plastic pots when used wi t h light soilless
mixes may be top-heavy.
Plants in plastic pots need wateri ng less
frequentl y than those in clay, because clay
pots are porous. The difference is mi ni mal
when plants are well rooted and growi ng
vigorously. Plants in plastic pots therefore
need less day-to-day care than those in clay,
but there is a danger of overwateri ng.
Drainage All pots should have adequate
drainage holes in the base. Lack of drainage
leads to saturated soil and rotti ng roots.
Good drainage also allows capillary wateri ng
systems to be used efficiently. The drainage
holes allow water to rise up into the soil
f rom t he capillary medi um below. Many
plastic pots have a raised rim around the
base. This lifts the drainage holes clear of the
bench or shelf on whi ch t he pot is standing,
allowing water to drain away through gaps
in t he rim. Wi t hout such a rim, water can be
prevented from draining away.
Size and shape Pots are tradi ti onal l y round,
and round pots have advantages in display-
ing plants. They are also easier to fill wi t h
soil, especially in the smaller sizes, than
rectangular pots. Square pots do have the
merit of being economical on space. More
can be fitted onto a shelf or i nto a propagating
case. They contai n a greater vol ume of soil
than round pots of the same diameter.
Pots are measured by their diameter at t he
rim in inches. Two sizes should be acquired
as t he basis of a stock of pots: 2-21/2 in and
5- 6 in. Pots are normal l y about as deep as
they are wi de, but half pot shal f as deep as
their wi dt hare also used. They are often
called alpine pots as one of t hei r mai n uses is
for alpines and other l ow-growi ng plants.
Half pots can also be used for raising seed
and for other propagati on wor k when only a
small quant i t y of material is bei ng raised. The
broader t he base of t he pot, t he more stable
it will be when it contai ns a possibly t op-
heavy plant.
Alternatives to pots
The illustration below left shows t he range of
alternatives to t he tradi ti onal pot t hat is avail-
able. Clay pots (a) have been j oi ned by plastic
pots (b), also available as half pots (c). Shallow
seed pans (d) are useful for sowi ng in small
amounts. Non-ri gi d pots such as black plastic
sleeve containers (e) are of t en used for trans-
pl anti ng and for plants for sale. Disposable
pots i ncl ude peat rectangles (f), individual
peat pots (g), paper pots (h), peat pellets (i)
and soil blocks (j). Flats in wood and plastic
compl et e t he range (k and I).
Potting bench Soil blocking
A potting table or bench wi t h sides and a
back keeps soil mix away from growi ng
areas.
Moisten special peat-based bl ocki ng
mix and press t he bl ocki ng machi ne i nto
it. Use t he blocks 24 hours later.
CONTAINERS
Pots and potting 2
Disposable pots
Several alternative systems have been de-
veloped to avoid the problems of root dis-
turbance that result from growi ng in pots or
flats. Seedlings grown in flats, for instance,
are traditionally pricked out into small pots,
then moved again into individual pots or i nto
the open garden. Sowing in soil blocks or peat
pots makes these moves unnecessary. The
block or pot is planted wi t h the young plant,
and provides it wi t h extra humus as it is
becomi ng established in its new pot or bed.
Paper and papier mache pots have t he same
effect. Bedding plants are often raised f rom
seed commerci al l y in strips of expanded
polystyrene whi ch contai n holes for seed and
soil mix. This material is heat-retentive and
easily broken to release the plants on pl anti ng
out. However, the strips can only be used
once. Plastic sleeve pots, also widely used
commerci al l y, can be used for pricking on
seedlings whi ch are later to be planted out.
When filling such non-rigid containers wi t h
soil mix care must be taken to fill all the
corners to avoid air pockets.
Peat pots and soil blocks Peat pots can be
bought individually or in strips and blocks.
Whi l e they have the advantages in cut t i ng
t he amount of root disturbance described
above, they are relatively expensive. They
are useful for sowing large seeds such as
beans. Soil blocks also involve expense, for a
special machi ne must be bought. However,
the cost of the bl ocki ng machi ne can be set
against t he saving in pots, whether of plastic
or peat, t hat soil blocks bring. Special soil
mix is needed, but soil mix or its ingredients
has to be purchased anyway, and its cost is
t he only factor once the machi ne is paid for.
The bl ocki ng machines produce either
square or hexagonal blocks about 2 in high,
wi t h a depression in the t op for the seed to be
sown or t he seedling pricked on. To make a
batch of soil blocks, moisten some special
bl ocki ng mix in a bucket or bowl . Test
the moisture cont ent by squeezing. If t he
mix crumbles a little, it is ready. If it falls
apart, it is t oo wet. If it does not start to
crumbl e, it is t oo moist. Push the moul d i nto
the damp mix and when it is full depress
the plunger a little to consolidate the soil
mix. Place the soil blocks on a flat so that
they are t ouchi ng and leave for 24 hours to
consolidate. Then insert the seed or seedling.
Pot on or plant out when the roots begin to
emerge from the sides of the block. Keep the
block moist at all times as the peat-based
bl ocki ng mix is difficult to re-wet.
Substitutes for pots Plastic dairy produce
containers, paper or plastic cups and similar
substitutes can be used in place of pots when
expense is a major consi derati on. Punch
adequate drainage holes in the base of t he
pots, and use the correct mix, and good
results should be obtai ned.
Seed flats
Just as plastic pots have replaced clay ones,
so wooden seed flats have been superseded
by plastic. Flats are vital for raising larger
numbers of seedlings. Many propagating
cases are designed to take the standard-sized
seed flat, whi ch measures 14in x 81/2in x 21/2in.
Half-sized flats, 6 in x 81/2 x 21/2, are also used.
Plastic flats must be well drained and rigid,
even when filled wi t h damp soil mix. Make
sure also that the seed flats chosen are of
good qual i ty plastic: some sorts become
bri ttl e when exposed to sunlight for any
length of ti me.
One advantage of wooden flats is that a
side or end can be easily prized away to allow
seedlings to be slid out in a block. If wooden
flats are used, they must be careful l y (l eaned
between use. Wi t hout careful mai nt enance
they rot easily and thus have a shorter lift'
than plastic flats.
Substitute flats may be created by press-
ing i nto service such things as frui t boxes,
plastic and polystyrene cartons and ki tchen
foil or plastic f ood containers. Cleanliness and
good drainage are the mai n condi t i ons; when
they are achi eved just about anyt hi ng will do.
There is, however, no substi tute for t he neat
appearance of a bank of clean plastic or
wooden flats.
Other equipment
A sieve wi t h a 1/2 in mesh, a further fine sieve,
and a supply of labels will be requi red.
Potting
Crock the pot to provi de adequate drainage.
Moisten a supply of pot t i ng soil and water
the plants to be pot t ed.
Hold the plant in t he pot by a leaf and pour
in compost wi t h a circular mot i on. Tap t he
pot to di stri bute t he soil.
Firm gently wi t h the finger tips to avoid air
pockets around t he roots of t he plant.
Place t he pot t ed plants in a posi ti on wi t h
good light and water to settle t he soil
around t he roots.
Pots and potting 3
Potting procedure
Potting, re-potti ng and potti ng on are some
of the most frequent tasks the greenhouse
gardener faces. Whi l e they are not difficult,
the basic techniques should be mastered, for
if plants are not potted properly, no amount
of subsequent care will make t hem grow to
their full potenti al .
Potting is the initial transfer of a seedling,
rooted cutti ng or bought-i n plant to a pot or
other container. Potting on is its transfer to a
larger pot as it grows. Re-potting is move-
ment to a new pot of the same size as the old,
the prime obj ect being to renew some of the
soil mix around the rootball.
The potting bench The first step is to have a
proper work surface for potti ng. A bench or
table wi t h a back and sides allows t he soil
mix to be piled up. If there are never more
than a few plants to pot at a ti me, construct a
portable bench from a 2 ft square board wi t h
a retaining rim 3- 4 in high around three sides.
This board can be rested on the greenhouse
bench when required. A permanent pot t i ng
bench should be at waist height, 3 ft wi de and
Potting on
2 ft deep. The sides and back can be 6-12 in
high. The bench can be placed in the green-
house or in a shed or outhouse, wherever
there is space. If the bench is in t he green-
house, be sure not to leave surplus soil
lying on it or on the floor, where it will attract
pest and disease organisms.
Preparation Assemble t he pots, drainage
material such as crocks if needed, and t he
soil mix. Carefully choose pots no larger
than necessary: most plants grow and look
better in small rather than large pots. Use
a soil mix suitable for the plant being grown,
and make sure t hat it is well mixed. Soil
should be damp but not wet. It should be
possible to pour it cleanly i nto the pot by
hand or wi t h a t rowel .
Potting
Seedlings or cuttings growi ng in flats or pots
should be watered. Loosen t hem from their
contai ner by knocki ng t he sides. Remove
seedlings carefully, holding t hem by the seed
leaves, not the stem. Keep t he rootball as
large as possible. Use a di bbl e to help free
the seedling and roots from t he soil. Place
the plant in the pot and pour fresh soil
around the roots. Make sure that the plant is
not potted too deepl ythe base of the stem
should be level wi t h the surface of the soil.
Di stri bute the soil around t he roots wi t h a
circular mot i on of the hand or trowel . Tap
the pot gently on the bench to settle the soil
around t he roots. Make sure t hat the plant
is centered in the pot. If roots still show
after tappi ng, add more pot t i ng soil, then
firm lightly wi t h the fingertips. A further tap
on t he bench will level the soil leaving it
ready for watering. The degree of firming
can vary wi t h the type of plant and soil
type. All-peat mixes require little firming,
tappi ng fol l owed by wateri ng will settle the
medi um amongst t he roots. Loam-based
mixes, particularly when used for vigorous
plants, can be made firm wi t h light finger
pressure. The former practice of rammi ng
soil firm wi t h a potti ng stick is now con-
sidered unnecessary.
When the potti ng operati on is compl eted
there must be a space between t he soil
surface and t he pot rim to al l ow for efficient
wateri ng. As a guide, ai m at a space equal to
one-seventh or one-ei ghth of t he depth of
t he pot. As much water as will fill this space
should t horoughl y wet all t he soil wi t h a
l i ttl e surplus tri ckl i ng out at t he bot t om.
Potting on
When the young plant has filled its container
wi t h roots it will need pot t i ng on, that is,
removi ng f rom its contai ner and placing in a
larger one. First water t he pl ant, but do not
soak it. Invert t he pot ont o an open hand
wi t h the plant stem hangi ng down between
t he mi ddl e and index fingers. Gentl y rap t he
pot rim on a firm wood surface, or tap it wi t h
a light hammer, and lift t he pot off. If this
operat i on does not wor k t he first ti me, t he
plant may be t oo dry and wat eri ng should be
repeated before t ryi ng again. Prepare a new
pot whi ch should be large enough to allow
about an inch gap all round t he rootball to
t he right level, then fill t he gap wi t h fresh soil,
t appi ng and fi rmi ng as descri bed above.
Wat er t o settle t he soil.
PEAT PELLETS
Peat blocks and pellets al l ow seedlings to
grow and be transpl anted wi t hout root
di sturbance. The plants shoul d be potted
or pl anted out when t he roots emerge
f rom t he block. The net t i ng wi l l decom-
pose in t he soil.
Water the plant. Select a pot 1 in larger than
the present pot and crock it if necessary.
Hold the plant stem between t he fingers
and i nvert t he pot, tappi ng gently so t hat
t he rootbal l slides out.
Place the rootball in t he new pot and
sprinkle moist soil around it. Firm
carefully.
Pots and potting 4
Re-potting
Re-potting is carried out when the plant has
reached as large a size as is required and
the status quo needs to be mai ntai ned. The
aim is to replace some of the spent soil
around the rootbal l . Re-potting is necessary
every year or every other year. Check t he
cultural instructions for t he plant concerned
for advice on t he frequency of re-potti ng.
Some species resent disturbance, in whi ch
case they should be top-dressed (see below).
It is best done when t he plant is resting or
dormant in late aut umn. Remove the plant
from its pot and reduce the size of the root-
ball by up to a quarter, using a small hand fork
and a sharp knife or shears to prune any
thi ck roots. On larger perennial plants such
as frui t trees and bushes, prune the t op
growt h by the same amount as the roots. This
ensures t hat t he plant remains bal anced. If
necessary, tease out the roots from the root-
ball using a fork or stick. Remove some of t he
old spent soil from the rootbal l , wi t hout
damaging the roots if possible. If the same
pot is to be used, clean it well. Place some
Re-potting
Remove the plant f rom its pot as described
under potti ng on. Remove some of t he
spent soil from the rootball by loosening.
fresh soil in t he base of the pot and put
the plant back in position. Push more fresh
soil in around the sides, maki ng sure there
are no air pockets left and that the soil is
pushed around t he roots. Firm t he surface
of t he soil, and water.
Top-dressing
Top-dressings of fresh soil are applied to
beds, borders and containers. When used
on pot plants the process of top-dressing
serves t he same f unct i on as re-potti ng. It is
more practical than re-potti ng on very large
plants whi ch are difficult to re-pot, and is
essential for those plants whi ch resent the
di sturbance of re-potti ng. Duri ng the dor-
mant season, strip away the t op layer of
soil and any small roots. This must be done
carefully and any of the thi cker roots en-
countered should be left. On compl et i on,
fill the gap wi t h a rich mix such as John
Innes No. 3. Firm the mix carefully and
water lightly. Top-dressing is usually carried
out in early spring, just before the plant
begins to grow again.
Hanging baskets
Baskets made from wire, wi t hout a drip-tray,
must be lined wi t h sphagnum moss before
the mix is added. Black pol yethyl ene is a
more conveni ent but less tradi ti onal and less
attracti ve lining. It must be perforated.
Use John Innes No. 2 potti ng compost for
hanging baskets, as its loam base holds
moi sture wel l . Peat-based mixes can be used
but they tend to dry out in the exposed
envi ronment of a basket and are hard to
re-wet. Place a layer of moss in t he bot t om
of the basket and weigh it down wi t h moist
mix. Add one or t wo trailing plants and firm
more mix around their roots. Proceed by
building up layers of plants and mix, pushing
the trailing plants through the basket so that
they can hang down the sides. Build up t he
layer of moss around the sides, keeping it
above t he level of mix at all times. Place up-
right plants in the final layer of mix so that
they grow upwards from the basket. Hanging
baskets shoul d be replanted wi t h fresh
material each year so pot t i ng on and re-
potti ng do not arise.
MAINTENANCE OF CONTAINERS
If l ooked after, pots, tubs, boxes and other
containers will last for many years. Once
plants are removed f rom t hem they shoul d
be washed in a mild di si nfectant, dried and
stored in a dry place. Wooden cont ai ner!
should be treated wi t h a non-toxic: pre-
servative, ideally coat ed inside wi t h .in
asphalt paint. If metal cans are used as
substitute containers, make sure that they
are pai nted wi t h non-toxi c pai nt to pre
vent rust. Some i mprovi sed plastic; con-
tainers will tend to become bri ttl e under
the effects of t he ul tra-vi ol et component
of sunlight.
Clay pots are expensive to replace and
should be wi red or ri veted to prevent
breakage. Unless compl et el y shattered,
broken pots can be repai red very satis-
factori l y wi t h waterproof cerami c glue.
Those based on epoxy resin are strong and
permanent. It is rarely possible to repair
broken plastic pots. Wooden contai ners
can often be mended using screws or
nails. Use greased brass screws when
assembling large wooden contai ners.
To strengthen a cracked clay pot , wrap
galvanized wi re around t he pot and twist
the ends gentl y together. Keep cracked
pots scrupulously clean, for t he cracks
can harbor dirt and pest and disease
organisms.
Trim the roots wi t h sharp scissors, knife or
shears. On larger plants, prune t op
growt h I n proport i on.
If the old pot is to be used, clean it well.
Replace t he rootball and add fresh soil,
firming wel l .
Growing from seed 1
One of the most satisfying aspects of garden-
ing under glass is raising plants from seed,
cuttings or by other propagati on methods.
Many plants can be raised wi t h a mi ni mum of
equi pment and skill, while wi t h practice and
patience the ability to cope wi t h the more
difficult plants grows qui ckl y.
The main methods of propagati ng green-
house plants are by seeds and stem cuttings.
Less i mportant methods are layering, offsets,
bulbils, root cuttings and leaf cuttings.
Propagation equi pment ranges f rom t he
most basic improvised tray to the sophistica-
ti on of a mist unit. Equipment is described on
page 30, containers on page 51. The purpose
of propagation equi pment is to provi de t he
opt i mum envi ronment, in terms of t empera-
ture, irrigation and humi di ty, for the plants.
Hygiene Wi t h all aspects of propagating,
hygiene is vital. The seed sowing or rooti ng
medi um should be sterilized and all con-
tainers scrubbed clean before use. Between
each batch of propagati on, the case or frame
should be washed inside wi t h disinfectant.
(See page 32.) Check all cuttings regularly and
remove all leaves t hat are fallen and any
whi ch are yel l owi ng or browni ng. Take pre-
cautions against damping-off disease of seed-
lings (see page 33). Make sure that t he stock
plants are free from pests and diseases.
Seed sowing
Growing from seed
In t he wi l d, all flowering plants reproduce
themselves by seed and in the garden too this
is an i mport ant method of increase. It must be
borne in mi nd, however, t hat many garden
plants are of mut ant or hybri d origin and
may not come true to type f rom seeds. For
such plants, vegetative propagati on methods
are required. Make sure t hat home-saved
seeds are f rom healthy plants.
Growing conditions In order to germinate
successfully, seeds must have moisture, air
and a suitable temperature. The temperature
they need varies widely, dependi ng upon t he
species or variety. The maj ori ty of greenhouse
plants will germi nate at 15-18
o
C/60
o
-65F, a
t emperat ure easy to mai ntai n in a home
propagator. Some of the plants raised under
glass for setting outside will germi nate at
lower temperatures, around 10C/50F or
less, whi l e many tropi cal plants need
24
o
-26C/ 75
o
-80F. As a rough guide, a
suitable germi nati ng temperature is at least
five degrees above the mi ni mum required by
t he plants when growi ng.
When to sow The best ti me to sow seeds
varies wi t h the species, but in general early
spring suits most plants. The seeds of many
hardy plants need a cool period after sowing
before they will germi nate properly. This is
an example of t he often compl ex dormancy
factors t hat are inherent in some seeds. The
seeds of a few plants benefit from a dry warm
period because, t hough superficially ripe,
they are not fully mature wi t hi n. Some seeds
have chemical inhibitors in the seedcoat
whi ch normally leach out duri ng heavy rain-
fall. Seeds in this category should be soaked
in cold water for 24 to 48 hours before sowing.
This simulates the natural leaching process. In
general, most tropical and sub-tropical plants
do not have these dormancy problems. If
there is any doubt as to when to sow seeds,
particularly if home-saved, sow half when
gathered or received and t he other half the
fol l owi ng spring if the first batch has not
already germi nated. Alpines grown f rom seed
need special treatment. See pages 88- 90 on
the alpine house.
Soil and containers Pre-mixed seed sowing
mixes (composts) are available commerci al l y,
some contai ni ng loam, as in the John Innes
formul a, while others are all peat. Both sorts
are suitable for most greenhouse plants. For
details and mixtures see page 42. When a few
plants only of each species are needed, small
pots or pans of 3- 4 in diameter are ideal.
Sowing Fill each contai ner above the rim, tap
it gently on the potti ng bench, then strike
off t he surplus soil wi t h a straight-sided
board so t hat t he soil comes level wi t h t he
rim. Firm t he soil down wi t h a presser, then
sow t he seeds evenl y and t hi nl y.
Seeds whi ch are large enough to handle
either wi t h t he fingers or f l at -t i pped forceps
are best space-sown, t hat is, each seed should
be placed in position sufficiently far apart
each way t hat subsequent seedlings can
devel op wi t hout crowdi ng. Larger seeds such
as sweet peas can be sown singly in batteries
of small pots, soil blocks or peat pellets to
save bot h initial pricking-off and pot t i ng. Use
the presser again to push t he seeds into the
surface so they are not moved duri ng the
coveri ng operat i on.
Very fine seeds such as those of begonia
and lobelia are difficult to sow evenl y and are
best mixed wi t h some fine dry sand to aid
dispersal. Fine seeds of this sort do not need
coveri ng. Larger seeds shoul d be covered
wi t h a layer of fine soil equal in dept h to the
longest diameter of t he seed. This is best done
t hrough a fine mesh sieve.
Aftercare Wat eri ng shoul d be carried out as
soon as t he seeds are sown, using a fine-rosed
can or by i mmersi on. Immersi on is best for
very fine seeds as overhead wateri ng may
disturb or cl ump t hem. Place t he pot in a
bowl or deep tray filled wi t h wat er so that it
comes at least halfway up t he pot. As soon
1 Fill a container wi t h
soil mix, tap it, then
strike off surplus soil
wi t h a board.
2 Firm the soil wi t h a
presser to wi t hi n \ in of t he
rim. Sow t he seed thi nl y
and evenly.
3 Space-sow seeds whi ch
are large enough to handle
wi t h t he fingers or a pair of
forceps.
4 Press the seeds i nto t he
surface of t he soil. Cover
wi t h a t hi n layer of sieved
soil.
5 Water by immersion,
placing the contai ner in
water until t he t op of t he
soil darkens.
6 Cover containers wi t h a
sheet of glass or plastic
and keep t hem away f rom
di rect sunl i ght.
Growing from seed 2
as the surface of the soil darkens and glistens
remove the pot and place in t he appropri ate
germi nati ng temperature.
To prevent undue dryi ng out of the soil
during the germi nati ng period the pots
should be kept out of di rect sunlight and
placed either in a propagati ng case or
covered wi t h sheets of glass. If di rect sunlight
is likely to fall on t hem, they must be shaded
wi t h sheets of cardboard or newspaper to
prevent scorching. This coveri ng is i mportant,
for if t he soil surface dries out just as t he
seeds are germi nati ng it can be fatal, especi-
ally to very small seeds.
Germination Inspect t he seed containers
regularly and either wi pe off the condensati on
or t ur n t he glass over. After t he first week to
ten days, examine daily to catch t he first
signs of germi nati on. Once t he seedlings are
seen pushing t hrough t he soil, remove t he
coveri ng and bring i nto good light, but shade
from direct sunlight for the first week or so.
If t he seed was sown t oo densely or more
seedlings appear than were expected, it is
advisable to spray wi t h captan or zineb as
a precautionary measure against dampi ng-
off disease.
Feeding If seedlings are to be kept in the con-
tainer for some time, they should be given a
liquid fertilizer accordi ng to the manufac-
turer's instructions. Addi ti onal feeding is
necessary because many seed mixes con-
tai n onl y a phosphate fertilizer, and other
nutri ents are necessary for healthy plant
growt h.
Pricking off
Once t he seedlings are seen to be ready for
pri cki ng off, fill pots, pans or boxes wi t h t he
chosen pot t i ng mix as described for seed
sowing. Lift t he seedlings wi t h care. If in quan-
ti ty, small clumps should be dug out wi t h a
dibble or a stout wooden label, then teased
apart, taki ng care to handle t hem by t he seed
leaves onl y; damaged seedlings should be
discarded.
Wher e a f ew seedlings are growi ng in a
small pot it is best to tap out all t he seedlings
and soil, and t hen to shake or tease t hem
apart. If there is little or no root branchi ng,
seedlings can be left to make small plants for
direct pot t i ng later.
Make pl anti ng holes wi t h a dibble, a cyl i n-
drical stick like a bl unt -poi nt ed pencil and
thi ck enough to make a hole large enough to
take the seedling root comfortabl y. Dibbles
of differing thickness will be needed for seed-
lings of varyi ng size. Each seedling should be
inserted at t he same dept h or a little deeper
t han i t was when growi ng i n t he original con-
tainer. Push the soil gently around the root
and firm each seedling lightly wi t h the dibble.
The distance apart at whi ch seedlings
should be set varies wi t h its size. Very small
seedlings such as those of begonias can be
set about 1 in apart, larger ones to 2 in or
more. Bedding lobelia seedlings may be
pricked off in groups of t wo or four to make
handling easier. The equally small begonias
can be treated in t he same way but are best
kept singly. To aid handling, each ti ny seed-
ling can be picked up wi t h a notched-ti pped
flat stick or plant label.
Once pri cki ng off is compl eted, each pot,
pan or box must be watered carefully wi t h a
fine-rosed can and returned to t he same en-
vi ronment . When t he seedlings have grown
to the stage when their leaves start to over
lap, they are ready lor pot t i ng or hardenning,
off and pl anti ng out.
Hardening off
After t he seedlings have been pri cked off,
they have to be gradually weaned to a stage
at whi ch they can be pl anted out and survive
cool temperatures, f l uct uat i ng water condi -
tions and t he effects of wi nd wi t hout their
growt h rate being affected. This process is
called hardeni ng off.
Once the pri cked-out seedlings have re-
established, move t hem to a col d frame,
whi ch should be kept firmly closed. Gradually
air the frame duri ng the day by raising the lid,
unti l t he frame is open cont i nual l y.
GERMINATION
On germi nati on, each seed produces one
pri mary root or radicle, a stem known as a
hypocot yl , and one or t wo seed leaves or
cotyl edons. Flowering plants are classi-
fied by t he number of seed leaves they
produce. The monocotyl edons, whi ch i n-
cl ude all members of t he lily, amaryllis,
oni on and agave families, produce one
usually grassy seed leaf. The di cotyl edons,
whi ch include most other vegetable and
flower families and all the broad-leaved
trees and shrubs, have t wo, usually
rounded or oval seed leaves.
There are some anomalies to this appar-
ently straightforward classification. Some
members of bot h groups retain their seed
leaves as f ood stores below ground, t he
first leaves to appear being true ones.
Familiar examples are broad bean, sweet
pea, oak and pal m.
The germi nati on of seeds covers t he
entire process, from subj ecti ng a resting
seed to suitable conditions to cause it to
develop to the stage at whi ch the seedling
produces true leaves and establishes as a
young plant. If a seed is subjected to t he
condi ti ons required for germi nati on, and
it fails to germinate, despite the fact that
it is alive, then the seed is described as
being dormant .
Wat er is vital to allow plant growth to
get under way. So, if t he seed has not been
soaked before sowing, it is i mport ant that
the soil should be wat ered i mmedi at el y
after sowing.
Once the seed has sufficiently i mbi bed,
the embryo inside t he seed begins to
produce root and stem systems, whi ch
eventually break out of t he seed.
To grow, the embryo uses its f ood
reserves. When oxygen is combi ned wi t h
carbohydrates in these f ood reserves, t he
energy necessary for gr owt h is produced.
All growt h processes wi t hi n t he seed are
chemical reactions acti vated by t he addi -
ti on of water. To devel op successfully, the
seed needs an increasing quant i t y of
water, and the soil used must be capabl e
of hol di ng these amount s.
As all the processes i nvol ved are basic-
ally chemi cal reactions t hey wi l l obey
normal physical rules, t he simplest of
whi ch implies t hat t he higher t he t em-
perature is raised, the faster will be t he
rate of t he reacti on. In practi ce, this
means t hat t he warmer seeds are kept,
the qui cker they will germi nate. As all
these reactions are t aki ng place in a
biological context, there are biological
limitations as to how high the t emperat ure
can be raised. Higher temperatures are
also more costly to mai nt ai n.
Pricking off
1 Lift seedlings in clumps wi t h a wooden
label or a dibble, then tease t hem apart,
taki ng care to handle t hem by the seed
leaves only.
2 Make planting holes in fresh soil wi t h a
dibble, and insert t he seedlings to t he
correct dept h. Firm t he soil lightly around
t he roots wi t h t he dibble.
Cuttings 1
Growi ng from cuttings is the most popular
method of vegetative propagation. Cuttings
are severed pieces of stem, leaf or root i n-
duced to form roots and shoots and develop
i nto young plants. The advantage of this
met hod of vegetative propagati on is that
every young plant will be identical wi t h its
parent and often will flower and frui t sooner
than a seedling. The severed piece of t he
plant is detached from its parent and has to
survive while it develops a root and shoot
system and becomes a compl ete plant.
Therefore, it is vital to provi de an envi ron-
ment that will i nduce the product i on of new
root and shoot growt h as fast as possible.
Stem cuttings
Dependi ng on t he species and variety and t he
age of t he plant, stem cuttings take anythi ng
from about t en days to several weeks to pro-
duce roots and start to grow. The younger t he
parent, the faster t he cut t i ng will root. This is a
factor often overl ooked and it must be a
maj or influence on t he choi ce of pl ant
material when taki ng cuttings. Duri ng this
period they must be kept alive and in a
healthy condi t i on. To cut down water loss as
much as possible, all leafy cuttings must be
kept in a "cl ose" or humi d propagati ng case
or improvised container.
The rate at whi ch a stem cut t i ng develops
its roots is dependent on t he temperature
around it. The higher t he temperature, wi t hi n
reason, the faster the root-triggering chemi cal
reaction and thus root product i on. However,
if the whol e cut t i ng is kept warm, t he ti p
should begin to grow and food will be di verted
from t he i mport ant f unct i on of f ormi ng roots,
thus weakeni ng t he cut t i ng. Therefore, a stem
cutti ng ideally requires cool air to retard the
growi ng tip, and warm soil to encourage root
producti on.
The exact temperatures vary wi t h t he con-
di ti on of the stem and how susceptible it is
to water loss. Softwood and greenwood cut -
tings require bot t om heat of about 21C/ 70F
and as cool an aerial temperature as practi c-
ablea mist uni t wi t h soil heating is ideal.
Semi-ripe and evergreen cuttings may be
rooted in a similar envi ronment, al though
less bot t om heat is required. Some may also
be rooted successfully in col d frames or
closed cases if a mist unit is not available.
A moist but well-aerated rooti ng medi um
must be used in all cases. John Innes seed
compost, all-peat seed and cut t i ng mixes, and
t he 50/50 sand and moss peat mi xture (see
page 42) are all suitable. For difficult plants
use pure sand, whi ch must be coarse and
well washed. There are no nutri ent minerals
in sand and al most none in peat, so once t he
cutti ngs start to root a proprietary liquid ferti -
lizer should be used at each wateri ng until
pot t i ng is carried out. Potting should be
done as soon as the cut t i ng is well rooted.
Selecting and taking cuttings
Cuttings shoul d always be taken f rom vigor-
ous plants, whi ch are young and healthy in
themselves. If possible, t he parent plant
shoul d be severely pruned to encourage it to
produce faster-growi ng shoots f rom whi ch
cutti ngs can be made. If it is anti ci pated t hat a
large number of cutti ngs will be taken from
one parent, t he parent plant should be pruned
hard to encourage t he growt h of new shoots.
Growt h-cont rol l i ng chemicals called hor-
mones are responsible for t he rooti ng of
cutti ngs. In many cutti ngs enough natural
hormone is present to initiate rooti ng but it is
recommended t hat one of t he proprietary
hormone rooti ng powders is used as a stan-
dard procedure. These powders also usually
contai n a fungi ci de to combat rotti ng.
The ability of t he propagati ng material to
regenerate roots and shoots depends on its
stage of devel opment. This is particularly
true of woody-st emmed plants. Some root
best f r om soft shoots, others as t he shoots
begin to get woody at the base, and yet others
when t hey are ful l y woody. Four categories of
devel opment are generally recognized. These
are softwood, greenwood, semi-ripe and
hardwood stem cuttings. The box right illus-
trates some of the ways of taki ng cuttings.
Heel cutti ngs are short stems pulled away
from t he main plant. The heel is the thi n sliver
of pl ant material t hat tears away f rom t he
main stem. Mal l et cuttings i ncorporate a
section of main stem on either side of t he
side-shoot chosen for propagati on. Softwood
and other cutti ngs are often taken f rom t he
tips of branches. Leafbud cuttings consist of
a whol e leaf, bud, and short piece of stem.
TYPES OF CUTTINGS
Heel cuttings can be made from soft,
green, semi-ripe or hardwoods. Strip a
young side-shoot away from t he main
stem so that a strip of bark comes away.
Mal l et cutti ngs consist of a side-shoot and
a section of the main stem. They are taken
f rom semi-ripe and hardwoods. The plug
of mature wood helps prevent rot t i ng.
Softwood stem cuttings are taken from the
tips of the current season's growth. Hor-
mone powder is not needed, but it is good
practi ce to dip the cut t i ng in fungicide.
Leaf-bud cutti ngs can be t aken f rom any
t ype of wood. They consist of a short piece
of stem wi t h a leaf and a bud in its axil. The
leaf chosen must be ful l y mat ure.
Cuttings 2
Softwood stem cuttings Vigorously growing
shoots of non-woody plants, or fast-growing
tips of potentially woody stems, are used as
softwood cuttings. Softwood cuttings are
taken in spring or early summer. The stems
are best gathered in early morning when at
maximum turgidity. If the cuttings are not to
be used immediately, place them in a bucket
of water. An exception is the zonal geranium
which roots better after cuttings have been
left exposed and shaded for a period of
24 hours.
Trim each shoot to 3 in long, cutting cleanly
just beneath a node or leaf. All leaves on the
basal third to one half should be removed.
Place a 4-6 in layer of t he chosen rooting
medium in the bottom of the propagating
case, or fill boxes or pots. If there are only a
few cuttings of each species, 3-4 in pots
make best use of propagating room. This is
particularly useful if several species are being
propagated which have a wide range of
rooting times. Insert the cutting into the
rooting medium so that about one-third of
its length is in the soil, water and place
in a propagating case, ideally with bottom
heat. Softwood cuttings are extremely
susceptible to water loss. A mist unit thus
provides a very high quality environment.
Aim for a rooting medium temperature of
21-24C/70
o
-75F. Spray with fungicide on
insertion and weekly thereafter.
Greenwood stem cuttings Greenwood cut-
tings are taken in early summer from the soft
tips of t he stems, just as the main flush of
growth slows down but before any sort of
woodiness is observable. They differ from
softwood cuttings only in their speed of
growth. Treat them in the same way as
softwood cuttings, rooting them in a mist
unit or a heated propagating case.
Semi-ripe stem cuttings This category is a
stage further from green wood, each cutting
being made from shoots which are hardening
at the base. Such cuttings are taken in late
summer. Semi-ripe cuttings can be rooted in
poorer light and lower temperatures than
softwood or greenwood cuttings, and can
thus be grown in a cold frame.
Cuttings should be 4- 6 in long, and it is
often advantageous for them to have a heel
of older wood at the base. To obtain a heel,
choose lateral shoots as cuttings, each one
being either sliced or gently pulled off with a
downwards movement so that a sliver or heel
of the parent stem is attached. If a tail of
tissue extends from the heel this should be cut
away cleanly. If the tip of the semi-ripe cut-
ting is soft it should be removed. Cut off the
lower foliage, leaving about a third of the
cutting bare. Insert them in the same way as
softwood cuttings. Semi-ripe cuttings taken
in late summer should be left in the cold
frame until t he end of the following growing
season. Feed regularly to encourage vigor-
ous growth. Lift and transplant the new
plants in autumn.
Hardwood stem cuttings This method is sel-
dom used under glass, though it is suitable for
bougainvillea and a few other shrubs and
climbers that have a fully dormant period.
Growth will have then ceased and t he stems
will be fully mature. Use 6 in pieces of mature
wood which have dropped their leaves. Treat
with hormone powder and insert them in a
closed frame within the greenhouse. Leave
about half the length of the cutting above soil
level. Hardwood cuttings, although leafless,
will still lose some water by evaporation from
their surface. The commonest reason why
these cuttings may fail to develop roots is
because they are allowed to dry out. To avoid
water loss, expose as little of the cutting ,is
possible above the ground. However, it the
cutting is planted too deep, the buds will not
grow properly. Thus it is vital to expose
sufficient of the cutting above ground for
about three buds to develop. Keep the
cuttings cool to prevent dormant buds
developing and diverting energy from the
developing roots.
Leaf-bud cuttings
Leaf-bud cuttings may be taken from any of
the types of stem. Each cutting consists of a
leaf, a bud in its leaf axil and a very short piece
of stem. The leaf supplies food to support the
cutting and t he regenerative processes; the
bud is the basis for the new stem system; and
the piece of stem is where t he first roots are
produced.
New stems produced by pruned plants
have t he best chance of success. Select one
of these new stems with an undamaged
Softwood cuttings
1 Gather shoots from the
tips of vigorously-growing
plants. If possible, take
cuttings in the early
morning.
2 Trim each shoot to 3 in
long, cutting below a node
or leaf. Remove leaves from
the bottom third of the
cutting.
3 Fill pots or trays with
soil mix. Make planting
holes with a dibble and
insert the cuttings.
4 Water the cuttings and
place in a propagating case
or mist unit. The rooting
medium should be kept at
21
o
-24C/70
o
-75F.
5 Spray the cuttings with
a dilute fungicide on
planting and weekly
thereafter. Label the
containers.
6 When the cuttings have
rooted, gradually reduce
bottom heat and when they
have hardened off pot using
John Innes No. 1 compost.
Cuttings 3
mature leal, insure that there is a viable bud
in the leaf axil.
Cut close above t he bud so that as small a
snag as possible is left. This minimizes t he
likelihood of rotti ng and die-back. Make the
basal cut about 1-11/2 in below the t op cut so
that sufficient stem is available to anchor t he
cutti ng firmly in the growi ng medi um. Appl y
a rooting hormone. Insert t he cut t i ng wi t h
its bud level wi t h the soil surface. Place
cuttings of t he more hardy plants in a col d
frame and cutti ngs of less hardy plants in a
well-lit protected envi ronment such as a mist
uni t or closed case. It may be necessary to
support large-leaved plants such as Ficus
elastica wi t h a short length of cane inserted
next to each cut t i ng to prevent it toppl i ng.
The cane can be inserted t hrough t he rolled
leaf, whi ch is itself secured by a rubber band.
Vine eyes Vi ne eyes are t he hardwood
equivalent of leaf-bud cutti ngs taken whi l e
the grape vine, or other woody plant, is leaf-
less. Prepare t he vine eyes as described above.
Insert t hem horizontally wi t h the bud just
above the soil surface. If this met hod is chosen
it will aid rooti ng if a sliver of bark is removed
Evergreen cuttings
on the opposi te side of the stem from the bud.
Label the pot and stand it on a greenhouse
bench or in a closed casethe higher t he
temperature, the faster will be t he rate of
regeneration.
Wat er the cut t i ng to prevent i t dryi ng out.
Do not overwater during the wi nter when
t he cut t i ng is dormant, as the soil will
readily waterl og, causing t he cutti ng to rot
and die. Harden off the cut t i ng once it has
rooted, and transplant in spring. Label it.
Stem sections
A few greenhouse plants, notabl y Dietlen-
bachia (dumb cane), Dracaena and Cordyline,
become leggy wi t h age, t he lower stem be-
comi ng leafless. When t he pl ant becomes
unat t ract i ve i t can be cut back to just above
soil level. Sever t he t op of t he removed stem
and use it as an evergreen cut t i ng. Cut the
remai ni ng bare stem i nto 11/2-2 in lengths
and insert these stem section cuttings verti -
cally wi t h t he t op flush wi t h t he soil, or
hori zontal l y and compl etel y covered by
about 1/2 in of t he rooti ng medi um. It is advis-
able to dip t he sections i nto a fungi ci de before
insertion. If they are inserted vertically, make
sure they are t he same way up as when
growi ng on the plant. Each cut t i ng will have
several incipient buds, one to three of whi ch
may grow i nto aerial shoots.
Evergreen cuttings
Evergreen cutti ngs are taken f rom stems of
very ripe wood. Unlike hardwood cuttings
they are not leafless and are not fully dormant
because of their evergreen habit. Because
they have leaves, the cuttings need extra care
to prevent excessive water loss.
Take evergreen cuttings, f rom a pruned
plant if possible, duri ng later summer to early
aut umn; rooti ng will normal l y take place
duri ng winter. Evergreen cutti ngs taken in
late summer should be 4- 6 in long. Take a
heel wi t h t he cut t i ng if it is to be propagated
in unsterilized soil in a col d frame or poly-
ethyl ene tunnel . Neaten any tail on the heel.
Leave on t he cut t i ng any termi nal bud t hat
may have f ormed. If, however, growt h is con-
ti nui ng, cut out t he soft ti p wi t h a knife. Strip
the leaves off t he bot t om thi rd of t he cutti ng.
Make a shallow vertical wound about 1 in long
in t he bot t om of t he stem of plants that are
difficult to root. Di p t he base of t he cut t i ng i n
root i ng hormone powder. Ensure t he cut
surface is covered wi t h t he powder.
Plant t he cut t i ng up to its leaves in a col d
frame or mist unit. Al l ow t he leaves of cuttings
t o t ouch but not t o overl ap.
Ai m for cool , moi st condi t i ons by shading
t he frame unti l light i ntensi ty becomes lower
in wi nter. Leave f rame-grown cutti ngs in place
for t he whol e of t he next gr owi ng season. Pot
on mi st-uni t cutti ngs i n spring, t aki ng care not
to damage t he roots.
Evergreen plants can be propagated f rom
softer wood earlier i n t he growi ng season.
Treat these cutti ngs accordi ng to the con-
di ti on (soft, green wood or semi -ri pe wood) of
thei r stems.
Conifers
Some conifers, but not most spruces, pines
and firs, can be propagat ed f r om cuttings.
Either a warm envi ronment such as a propa-
gati ng case or a col d f rame can be used.
Select young, act i vel y-growi ng shoots and
take cutti ngs i n aut umn and wi nter.
1 In late summer, take heel
cuttings of t he current
season's growt h, f rom a
pruned pl ant if possible.
Rooting is in winter.
2 Trim the heel, pi nch out
t he growi ng t i p and remove
leaves f rom t he lower t hi rd
of t he cut t i ng.
3 Make a shallow 1 in cut
at t he base of t he stem.
Di p t he cut area in rooti ng
hormone powder.
4 Mix peat, grit and sand
i nto col d-frame soil. Plant
t he cutti ngs in the frame up
to thei r leaves. Do not
allow leaves to overlap.
5 Shade t he frame and
water well. In wi nter,
insulate t he frame against
frost if necessary.
6 The following autumn,
transpl ant t he rooted
cutti ngs, t aki ng care not to
damage t he fragile roots.
Label t he plants.
Leaves 1
Some greenhouse and house plants will
develop plantlets on their leaves. In some
cases this is done naturally, in others leaves
are detached, treated in much the same way
as cuttings, and the plantlets whi ch develop
grown on. Al t hough only a small range of
plants can be grown from leaves, this range
includes many of the most popular such as
Begonia rex and the African violet Saintpaulia
ionantha.
Types of leaf cuttings
The simplest form of leaf cut t i ng is a compl ete
leaf wi t h a stalk. Such leaf-petiole cuttings
can be taken at any season when a compl ete
young leaf is available. Mi dri b cuttings make
use of the fact t hat a leaf mi dri b is an exten-
sion of a leaf-stalk and is able to regenerate
in the same way. Propagation by midrib
cuttings is most successful from plants
having leaves wi t h a single central vein,
such as Streptocarpus. Lateral vein cuttings
develop on the side-veins of a leaf after t he
midrib has been cut out. Leaf slashing
involves the growt h of plantlets from cuts
made in a leaf wi t hout a central main vein.
Taking leaf-petiole cuttings
Leaves of plants such as Begonia rex can be
cut i nto squares whi ch wi l l , given correct
condi ti ons, each produce a plantlet. Succu-
lents and some bulbs have t he capacity to
produce plantlets from leaf sections.
Foliar embryos
A few plants develop plantlets naturally.
Examples are Tolmiea menziesii, the pig-a-
back plant, and Mitella. Some plants release
their plantlets naturally, on others the plant-
lets have to be separated f rom the parent
plant.
Propagation conditions
Leaf cuttings of all sorts are vulnerable to
moisture loss and therefore must be kept in
a closed propagator, or under a glass sheet
or pol yethyl ene tent. Bottom heat best
provides the warm, humi d condi ti ons re-
qui red The most common cause of failure in
leaf propagati on is rotti ng of t he leaf before
it has a chance to become established.
Hygiene is thus vital. All propagati ng equi p-
ment and containers should be clean, and
soil shoul d be sterile.
Choice of leaves Young yet fully developed
leaves should be chosen. If the leaf is still
growing, its energy will go into developing
fully. This will delay the generation of new
plant life in the form of plantlets. Since a
leaf is unsupported by a root system, any
delay can be a source of problems. Select
leaves t hat are compl ete, normal and un-
damaged, and free from pests and diseases.
It is possible to take leaf cuttings all the year
round, so long as young compl ete leaves are
available.
Planting and aftercare Use a cuttings mix
made up of equal parts of sand and grit.
When taki ng t he leaves from the parent
plant, use a sharp knife or razor blade. Always
spray or water leaf cuttings wi t h a fungicide
on planting. If the plantlets are slow to
develop, foliar feeding may be necessary.
Do not feed until plantlet growt h has begun.
Taking leaf-petiole cuttings
Leaf-petiole cuttings can be taken at any
ti me of t he year when new leaves are avail-
able. Choose an undamaged leaf whi ch has
recently expanded to its mature size. Make
up a mix of equal parts silted peat and grit
Fill a contai ner and firm the mix to within
1/4 - 3/4 in of the rim. Cut t he chosen leal from
the parent plant wi t h a clean sharp knife
About 2 in of stalk should be attached to the
leaf. Using a dibble, insert the peti ol e at a
shallow angle in t he mix. Firm t he mix gently
around the petiole. The leaf shoul d be almost
flat on the surface of the mix so that the
stalk is in t he t opmost layer of t he cutti ngs
mix, where air can penetrate. Insert the
remaining cuttings, label t hem and water with
a dilute fungi ci de.
The leaf cutti ngs will need an at mospher e
of high humi di ty, such as t hat produced in a
heated propagati ng case. Bottom heat,
mai ntai ni ng a t emperat ure of 20*C/68*F, is
ideal. The cuttings must have sufficient light
to devel op, but should be shaded from direct
sunlight.
In about 5- 6 weeks, pl antl ets shoul d begin
to devel op on t he leaf stalk. Several may
appear on each stalk, t hough t he number is
variable. The number of pl antl ets that appear
on each stalk is smaller t han t he number that
each leaf will produce using leaf squares of
1 Cut an undamaged, fully
grown young leaf from t he
parent plant. Cut near t he
base, and tri m t he stalk to
about 2 in.
2 Insert t he stalk at a
shallow angle in a flat of
cutti ngs mix. Firm the
mix gently around t he
stalk.
3 Spray t he cuttings wi t h a
di l ute fungi ci de as soon as
they are inserted.
4 Place the flat of cuttings
in a propagati ng case at
20C/68F. Shade lightly to
protect t he cuttings f rom
di rect sun.
5 Alternatively, place a f ew
cuttings in a 3 in pot.
Cover wi t h a pol yethyl ene
bag supported on wire.
Place in a warm, light room.
6 Pot on t he pl antl ets once
they are large enough to
handl e. Harden off by
reduci ng heat and increasing
venti l ati on.
Leaves 2
leal slashing. When the plantlets are suffi-
ciently large to be handled, pot t hem on i nto
|ohn Innes No. 1 or equivalent. Liquid
feeding may be necessary if the plantlets
have to remain in the original cuttings
mix for any length of ti me. The popular
African violet, Saintpaulia ionantha, is often
propagated from leaf-petiole cuttings. Ot her
plants that respond to the met hod are
begonias (other than Begonia rex), Peperomia
caperata, and P. metallica.
Taking leaf square cuttings
Unlike the leaf-petiole met hod, the leaf
square cuttings techni que allows a large
number of plants to be propagated from a
single leaf. It is mainly used to propagate
Begonia rex and related species.
Take a fully expanded, undamaged young
leaf from the parent plant. Lay it face down on
a sheet of clean glass and cut the leaf into a
series of squares. Each piece should be
roughly 3/4 in square. Be careful not to crush
the leaves when cutti ng. Prepare a flat of
cuttings soil and firm it to wi t hi n 1/4-3/8 in of
the rim, water it well and lay the leaf squares
on the soil surface, face upwards and about
j in apart. Label and spray wi t h a dilute
fungicide. Do not water leaf squares, but
irrigate if necessary by standing t he flat in
a bath of water.
Place the flat of cuttings in a closed
propagating case wi t h bot t om heat and
keep t hem at a temperature of 18-21C/ 65-
70F. Avoi d direct sunlight, but allow t he
cuttings enough light to begin devel opment.
Plantlets should begin to appear after 5- 6
weeks. They should not be detached f rom
the leaf square and potted on until they are
large enough to handle. Gradually harden off
the plantlets by admi tti ng air to the pro-
pagating case and reducing the temperature.
Leaf slashing Begonia rex can also be pro-
pagated by leaf slashing, a techni que similar
to propagation from leaf squares. Choose a
large mature leaf, lay it on a sheet of glass,
and instead of cut t i ng it into squares, make
3/4 in cuts across the leaf veins. Ai m for one cut
every square inch. Place the leaf face up on
damp soil, and secure it wi t h a wire staple.
Treat as leaf squares above. Plantlets will
develop at t he cuts.
Monocot leaves
Some plants have monocot yl edonous leaves,
that is, leaves wi t h a series of parallel veins
runni ng along the length of the leaf. Such
plants include bulbous species such as
hyaci nth and snowdrop, and succulents
such as Sansevieria (mother-in-law' s tongue).
Leaves f rom bulbous plants are delicate and
should be handled as little as possible.
Take a mature leaf and cut into 1 in sections
across t he veins, using a sheet of glass and a
sharp blade as described above for leaf
squares. Insert t he cuttings vertically in
cuttings soil or mix. Spray wi t h fungi ci de and
place in a warm (21C/70F), humi d envi ron-
ment.
New leaves used for propagati on from
bulbs in spring will take four to six weeks to
produce plantlets. Pot up t he plantlets once
they are large enough to handle.
Grafting
Grafting is not a common met hod of pro-
pagation in the amateur greenhouse, t hough
it is used by professionals and in the open
garden to propagate shrubs, roses and frui t
trees. The main purpose of grafting is to
replace the rootstock of a given plant wi t h
another, compati bl e rootstock. This can
have t he effect of restricting the growt h of
the plant, conferri ng resistance to disease, or
promot i ng vigorous growt h. The process is
not techni cal l y difficult, and grafting can
form an enj oyabl e area for experiment. Full
details may be f ound i n t he compani on
vol ume in this series, Plant Propagation.
MIDRIB CUTTINGS
Leaves wi t h pronounced central ribs can
be used as propagati on material in t he
same way as whol e leaves wi t h stalk
attached. The midrib is an extension of
the stalk, and when cut into sections
plantlets will develop from the cut sur-
faces of the rib, given t he correct condi -
tions. Cut leaves of Gloxinia, Streptocarpus
and similar plants i nto 1 1/2 in sections.
Insert vertically in flats of soil and treat
as leaf square cuttings. Plantlets should
appear in 5- 6 weeks.
Taking leaf square cuttings
1 Carefully cut a large fully
grown young leaf from the
parent plant, cut t i ng near
the base.
2 Lay the leaf face down on
a sheet of clean glass. Cut
t he leaf i nto squares, each
about 3/4 in across.
3 Place the leaf squares 1/2 in
apart on t he surface of a
flat of damp soil in a warm,
humi d envi ronment .
4 Spray the cuttings wi t h
di l ute fungicide. Shade f rom
di rect sunlight.
5 Harden off young
plantlets by increasing
venti l ati on and reduci ng
temperature.
6 Pot on t he pl antl ets
when t hey are large enough
to handl e John Innes No. 1
or equi val ent.
Other propagation methods 1
Air layering
1 In spring, tri m leaves and side-shoots
f rom t he chosen stem. Girdle by cut t i ng
off a 1/3 in ring of bark wi t h a sharp knife.
2 Apply hormone power to t he cut.
Squeeze a ball of wet sphagnum moss
around t he girdled stem.
3 Wrap a square of black pol yethyl ene
around the moss ball. Secure t op and bot t om
wi th tape. Leave for a growi ng season.
4 Towards the end of the fol l owi ng dormant
season, prune any new growt h above the
layered port i on.
5 Then cut t he stem bel ow t he pol y-
ethyl ene. Remove t he pol yethyl ene, taki ng
care not to damage t he delicate new roots.
6 Pot i nt o John Innes No. 1 or equi val ent,
firm in gentl y and place in t he greenhouse
unti l new gr owt h begins.
Air layering
Whi l e cuttings are induced to form roots after
being detached from the parent plant, air
layering is a techni que whi ch induces the
growth of roots on stems still attached to the
parent. Its main use in the greenhouse is to
propagate Ficus elastica, t hough it can also be
used on citrus trees and on shrubs.
Air layering is carried out in spring or late
summer on growths of the current season
that are becomi ng woody. The necessary
condi ti ons for root formati on are restriction
of the chosen stem and the exclusion of light.
The roots thus stimulated are encouraged by
damp, moist conditions.
Preparing a stem Trim off the leaves and side-
shoots of a straight stem to between 6 and
12 in from t he ti p. Girdle t he stem wi t h a sharp
knife and apply hormone powder.
Applying the rooting medium Sphagnum
moss, whi ch is well aerated and holds mois-
ture, is the best rooti ng medi um. Soak a hand-
ful of moss thoroughl y and squeeze it to
remove excess moisture. Wor k it i nto an
i nterwoven ball of fibers 2- 3 in in diameter,
split and place around the girdled stem. Hold
the moss in place wi t h a square of black
pol yethyl ene wrapped around to f orm a tube
and fixed in place wi t h tape. The black poly
ethylene will keep in moi sture, keep out light
and mai ntai n the correct warm, moist en
vi ronment for root f ormat i on and growt h,
Aftercare and potting Ai r-l ayered plants will
normal l y take at least a growi ng season to
establish themselves. Towards the end of the
dormant season after the first growi ng season,
prune back any new gr owt h above the
layered section. Cut t he stem just below the
bot t om of the pol yethyl ene-cl ad section and
carefully remove the pol yet hyl ene and the
tape. The moss should be combi ned wi t h
the new roots to f orm a root bal l . Cut away
t he section of stem bel ow t he new roots,
slightly loosen t he rootbal l and plant < art-
fully in a pot of John Innes No. 1 or equivalent
Firm gentl y to avoi d damagi ng t he roots.
Bulb scaling
Bulbs increase naturally by pr oduci ng bulb-
lets or offsets but this met hod is slow. A faster
met hod of propagati on is bul b scaling. This
can be done wi t h lily and f ritillary bulbs. These
Other propagation methods 2
bulbs have relatively narrow scale leaves
whi ch can be readily pulled off the bulb's
basal plate,
lake scales from fresh, healthy bulbs,
preferably in Oct ober or November. Cut only
a few scale leaves from each bulb. Treat all
scales wi th a fungicide such as captan by
shaking t hem in a bag wi th fungicide powder.
Place the scales in sterile cuttings mixture or
damp vermi cul i te and seal the whol e in a
plastic bag. Store at 21C/70F until, in about
6- 8 weeks, bulblets develop at the base of
the detached scales. When the bulblets
appear, plant the scale leaves, wi t h the bul b-
lets, in pots of potti ng mix or soil. Plant t hem
vertically wi t h the tips just above t he soil
mix. Water sparingly, and keep at 21C/70F
until leaves are produced. At t he end of t he
season, after the leaves have died down, lift
and separate the new bulbs, pot t i ng on or
replanting t hem at once.
Division
I he garden techni que of propagati ng peren-
nials by division is practi ced in the green-
house. Mature plants whi ch have become too
large can be di vi ded, as can those fibrous-
crowned plants whi ch become woody i n the
center and onl y produce new growt h at t he
edges. Dahlias and tuberous begonias can be
divided but grow better from cuttings or seed.
Greenhouse plants that can be divided i n-
cl ude arums, ferns, and some orchids. Plants
wi t h fibrous crowns should be divided i m-
medi atel y after flowering. Remove the plant
from its pot and dip the rootball in a bucket
of water. Then gently pull the crown i nto
pieces of the required size. Tough crowns can
be cut wi t h a knife. Make sure that each piece
has a good eye or bud. Trim the long snoots
on t he divided segments to balance the t op-
growt h and roots and lessen water loss. Plant
in pots and water well.
All material propagatedseeds, leaves or
cutti ngsmust be labeled. Otherwi se it is
very easy to lose track of what plants are.
The label should show the date of sowing
or propagati on, the species and t he variety.
Other i nformati on such as the source of
the propagating material or reminders of
t he condi ti ons required may be added.
Labels can simply be wood, plastic or
metal tags (a). Data can be wri tten on these
tags using a soft lead pencil or wax crayon.
Al ternati vel y, paint a strip at t he end of a
seed flat whi t e to form a wri ti ng surface
(b). When the flat is re-used a new layer of
whi t e paint can be applied to obliterate
t he label and provi de a new wri ti ng sur-
face.
Mat ure plants can have labels attached
to t he stem. These can be made of plastic
or light metal (c). Hand machines are avail-
able whi ch pri nt labels on strips of plastic
or punch letters ont o lead strips (d).
Bulb scaling
1 In autumn, remove scale leaves f rom t he
outside of bulbs. Cut onl y a few scale leaves
f rom each bulb. Dust wi t h fungicide powder.
2 Place the scale leaves in a plastic bag
cont ai ni ng damp vermi cul i t e or an equal
mi xture of damp peat and gri t. Blow up t he
bag, seal it and put it in a war m dry place.
3 Six-eight weeks later, when bulblets
appear at t he base, plant t he scales upright
in John Innes No. 1 or equivalent and
cover the mix wi t h grit.
4 Place the pots in a war m (21C/70F) wel l -
lit place. New leaves wi l l appear in spring.
Harden off, and in aut umn lift and separate
t he bulbs. Replant as soon as possible.
The year in a cold greenhouse 1
The year in a cold greenhouse
This calender details sowing and harvesting
times for basic col d greenhouse crops and
lists planting, sowing and pot t i ng on times
for ornamentals.
Regular tasks such as wateri ng, feeding,
dampi ng down, shading and ventilating are
not listed every mont h. The t i mi ng of these
procedures is to a large extent dependent
upon day to day condi ti ons and on t he crops
being grown. Follow t he instructions given
under individual crops, and act accordi ng to
the basic principles discussed in the first t wo
sections of this book.
Pest and disease control is another regular
task that must be attended to whenever
problems arise. The worst period for pests is
f rom Apri l to October, but problems such as
whitefly and red spider mite can appear in
any of t he 12 months. Follow the instructions
on pages 33-40 for the control of pests and
diseases.
Using a cold greenhouse
A cold greenhouse is one whi ch possesses no
form of artificial heat. It is, in effect, no more
than a protecti ve coveri ng against extremes
of col d, wet and wi nd. A col d greenhouse can
f orm a vital and interesting adj unct to t he
garden provi ded its limitations are recognized
and t he plants to be grown carefully selected.
The most i mport ant l i mi tati on of the col d
greenhouse is t hat of temperature. In winter,
if the outside temperature drops to around
7C/20F it is likely t hat there will be several
degrees of frost inside the greenhouse. It is
wise to recognize this and to avoid tryi ng
to over-wi nter plants whi ch are not frost-
hardy. It is possible to give protecti on against
frost by pl ungi ng pots and coveri ng plants
wi t h pol yethyl ene or burlap, but these pro-
vide l i mi ted defense against severe frosts.
Conditions and choice of plants
A col d greenhouse will suit those plants t hat
are hardy outdoors, and will in most cases
allow t hem to be grown better. It also suits
annuals, i ncl udi ng fruits and vegetables,
whi ch are half-hardy outdoors. A cold green-
house can extend t he growi ng season at
either end, al l owi ng crops to be taken earlier
and later t han outdoors. Ornament al annuals
and biennials can be raised f rom seed in the
predi ctabl e conditions a cold greenhouse
offers, and various propagati on techniques
carried out.
Despite t he lack of artificial heat, t he
gardener has various techni ques available to
allow hi m to alter t he envi ronment of a col d
greenhouse. The basic principles explained
in the section on Running the Greenhouse
(pages 32-33), apply here, t hough wi t h the
narrow tol erance of many col d greenhouse
plants extra care is needed.
Ventilation The most effective met hod of
temperature control available is venti l ati on.
In very cold conditions it can be colder in t he
greenhouse than outside if t he doors and
lower ventilators are not opened for a few
hours in t he mi ddl e of t he day. Cold air is
heavy and collects in a pool at ground level,
but will fl ow out if given t he chance.
Most venti l ati on is concerned wi th trap-
ping solar heat. Once outside temperatures
start to rise in spring, ventilators should be
opened a little in the morni ng and closed
some hours before sunset. This regime may
well cause the thermometer to rise five
degrees above nor mal ; this heat surplus not
only acts as a cushi on against t he rapid drop
in t emperat ure as ni ght falls, but also i m-
proves t he growi ng atmosphere. Some of the
surplus heat is absorbed by t he soil, paths
and structure generally, moderat i ng night
temperatures as it is given off i nto t he cool i ng
air. This mechani sm is expl oi ted by several
solar heati ng systems
At all times the aim is to produce a buoyant
atmosphere, one i n whi ch t he air wi t hi n the
greenhouse is movi ng up and around rather
t han l yi ng stagnant.
Air movement The ci rcul at i on of air is a vital
factor in col d greenhouse management . Even
in a cl osed-up col d house in wi nter, imperfec-
tions in glazing can allow air to escape suf-
ficiently fast to give t wo compl et e air changes
per hour. In high summer wel l -venti l ated
greenhouses can have 120 air changes per
hour, whi ch helps to keep i nternal t empera-
tures close to those outsi de. If t hrough a
deficiency in venti l ati on air changes drop to
30- 40 per hour, summer greenhouse t em-
peratures can rise as high as 43C/110F, to
t he det ri ment of plants.
January
Plan the year's crops and order
seeds and seedlings. Ventilate the
greenhouse on sunny days.
Sow onions for transplanting. Sow
early radishes in soil borders or
peat pots.
Bring in plunged bulbs to flower in
the greenhouse (Babiana,
Chionodoxa, Crocus, daffodils,
Fritillaria, Iris, Leucojum,
Ornithogalum.)
Bulbs which have finished flowering
can be planted out into frames.
Sow lily seed. Begin sequence of
chrysanthemum cuttings later in
the month.
February
Ventilate as necessary. Water
sparingly.
Sow lettuce, early bunching turnips,
carrots, parsnips and early beets
(until March), bulb onions (until
April). Sow tomatoes in heat later
in the month.
Bring potted strawberries in to crop
in late spring.
Bring in remaining plunged bulbs to
replace those which have finished
flowering.
Pot on and divide ferns if necessary.
Pot on over-wintered coleus,
fuchsias and pelargoniums.
Sow and place in a propagating
case: Abutilons, tuberous and
fibrous begonias, Coleus, Celosias,
Gloxinias, Streptocarpus.
Pot on annuals sown in autumn.
Re-pot evergreen azaleas.
March
Sow lettuce, celery, carrots,
mustard and cress.
Sow in heat: eggplants, sweet
peppers, dwarf beans, tomatoes if
not sown in February.
Prick out lettuce seedlings. Pot out
late in month.
Sow for transplanting: broad beans,
runner beans, brassicas, leeks,
celery, peas, sweetcorn, chives,
thyme.
Continue to bring in pot
strawberries.
Sow half-hardy annuals and alpines.
Pot on over-wintered annuals. Take
pelargonium and dahlia cuttings.
Plant out rooted cuttings taken in
winter. Plant hippeastrum bulbs in
pots.
April
Sow according to needs: lettuce,
radish, mustard and cress, beets,
endive, parsley. Sow sweetcorn,
celeriac, dwarf French beans,
cucumbers.
Harvest early radishes and lettuce,
chicory, seakale and rhubarb.
Complete sowing half-hardy
annuals. Sow biennials for spring
flowering under glass. Prick out
March-sown seedlings. Begin to
harden off bedding plant seedlings.
Take fuchsia cuttings, pot rooted
dahlia and other cuttings. Pot up
tuberoses for flowering. Start
feeding camellias.
May
Plant eggplants, sweet peppers,
okra and cucumber, melons.
Harvest early carrots, early
bunching turnips, beets.
Plant out tomatoes after last
frost.
Harden off bedding plants and
plant out after frosts have ended.
Take cuttings from regal
pelargoniums. Sow Calceolaria,
Freesia, Schizanthus for winter
flowering.
June
Harvest lettuce, radish, endive,
mustard and cress, beans, parsley.
Continue to sow biennials. Pot on
cyclamen seedlings.
Take cuttings of pinks. Plunge
azaleas outside and feed every
14 days.
The year in a cold greenhouse 2
Excessive summer temperatures can be
reduced by dampi ng down floors and walls
wi th city water, whi ch rarely rises above a
temperature of 10
L
C/50"F. Dampi ng down
also promotes a degree of humi di ty enj oyed
by most plants. Excessive transpi rati on caused
by very dry, hot conditions gives a severe
check to plant growth. Shading, used in con-
j unct i on wi t h venti l ati on, is also i mport ant in
control l i ng summer condi ti ons. For full de-
tails of shading and venti l ati on practice, see
pages 14-16.
Thus the management of a col d green-
house is an amalgam of attenti on to venti l a-
ti on, atmospheric moisture, warmt h and
light. Holding the envi ronmental balance is a
compl i cated art in whi ch experience is an
i mportant factor.
Plants for the cold greenhouse
Most annuals, biennials and shrubs, provi ded
they are hardy, can be successfully over-
wi ntered in a cold house. The advantage of
doing so is that they flower t wo to three weeks
earlier than plants grown outdoors. Their
condi ti on, not having had to cont end wi t h
wi nter weather, is better than that of outdoor
plants. Blooms are more spectacular as wi nd
and rain damage is not a probl em.
Alpines and similar plants can also be
grown in an unheated greenhouse, but they
require condi ti ons whi ch precl ude t he growt h
of many other plants. The runni ng of an
alpine house is described on pages 88- 90.
Many food crops can be grown in a col d
house, provi di ng cash saving over shop
prices and often produce of a higher quality.
Tomatoes, t he most popular crop, are covered
in detail on pages 70-71. The fol l owi ng pages
also detail t he cul ti vati on of fruits and other
salad and vegetables. Anot her aspect of
garden food product i on t hat a greenhouse
can assist is t he raising of seedlings for trans-
pl anti ng outdoors. This frees the gardener
from dependence on commerci al l y raised
plants, and makes the growi ng of unusual
vegetables, and t he obscurer varieties of
common ones, possible. As wi t h flowers, the
qual i ty of crops grown under glass will be
higher t han those grown outdoors, due to
t he lack of weather damage. This is especially
true of salad crops and strawberries.
Over-wintering Successful over-wi nteri ng is
more likely if certain precautions are taken.
Duri ng the coldest spells, plants must be kept
on the dry side. It is best t hat the roots do not
freeze for these are often more tender than
the tops. Ground level beds should be deeply
mul ched wi t h bracken or straw and t he bases
of shrubs and climbers wrapped. Large pots
and tubs must be wrapped either wi t h straw,
glass fiber, or any other approved insulating
material t hat can be secured in place wi t h
netti ng or burlap and wi re twi ne. Smaller
pots are best plunged in peat or sand.
Wi nt er sets limitations on what can be
grown permanentl y in the unheated green-
house. From about mid-spring to late aut umn
the full range of cool greenhouse plants thri ve
happily. From late spring to early or mi d-
aut umn even warm greenhouse plants suc-
ceed. Wi t h a heated propagating case, such
plants can be over-wi ntered.
Flowering plants from seed
A wi de range of hardy and tender annuals
and biennials is readily available to provide
color and interest in the cold greenhouse
for a large part of t he year. These plants can
be used as t he main display or to fill in gaps
between non-fl oweri ng per manent plants or
frui t and vegetable crops. Hardy annuals can
be sown in late summer or early aut umn. They
will over-wi nter well in a col d greenhouse and
flower late t he fol l owi ng spring, well ahead of
thei r normal season. This t echni que can be
used for hardy biennials, but these need to be
sown in early summer and may be grown
outsi de or in an open col d frame until late
aut umn. Routine seed sowi ng and pricking
off i nto flats or pans is all t hat annuals and
biennials initially require (see pages 55-56).
Thereafter place t he young plants singly i nto
5 in pots, or space three out i nto 6 or 7 in con-
tainers. A fairly rich soil mix is recom-
mended, a John Innes pot t i ng No. 2 being
very satisfactory. Once t he young plants are
3- 4 i n tall, pi nch out thei r tips to encourage
branchi ng and a more bushy habi t. As soon
as they are growi ng more strongl y, in late
wi nter or early spring, commence liquid
feedi ng and repeat at 10-14 day intervals.
At about this ti me, insert t wi ggy sticks or
canes for support. For full details, see page 55.
July
Harvest sweet peppers, lettuce,
radishes, mustard and cress,
parsley, tomatoes left in the
greenhouse.
Take hydrangea cuttings.
Take half-ripe cuttings.
August
Sow lettuce, radishes, mustard and
cress, winter endive.
Sow cyclamen seeds. Take fuchsia
cuttings, pot on half-ripe cuttings.
September
Sow lettuce, radishes, mustard and
cress, alpine strawberries.
Plant late in month: apricots,
peaches, grape vines.
Harvest lettuces, parsley, radishes,
mustard and cress.
Lift seakale roots late in month,
pot up and blanch.
Sow hardy annuals for spring
flowering under glass.
Pot on hardy biennials for spring
flowering.
Bring in evergreen azaleas, pot-
grown chrysanthemums. Plant
bulbous irises and hyacinths in
pots.
October
Sow lettuce for crops in spring.
Plant fruit trees.
Continue to pot up and blanch
seakale.
Bring in tender bedding perennials
for over-wintering.
Repeat sowings of annuals. Prick
out annuals sown in September.
Pot on biennials. Sow sweet peas.
Over-winter chrysanthemum stools
and dahlia tubers.
November
Sow onions for transplanting.
Box up rhubarb crowns, chicory
and remaining seakale. Insulate
boxes if necessary.
Bring in pots of herbs for winter
supply.
Plant grape vines.
Cut back chrysanthemums to 6 in
after flowering to encourage
growth for cuttings. Prick out
October-sown sweet peas. Pot on
annuals. Bring plunged bulbs into
the greenhouse as shoots appear.
December
Harvest chicory.
Bring in remaining plunged bulbs
for spring flowering.
Take advantage of quiet period to
do cleaning and maintenance jobs
on greenhouse and equipment.
Fruits
A t ol d greenhouse can be used to grow a
variety of fruit (Tops, the best choke being
melons, strawberries, grapes, peaches, apri-
cots and nectarines. The more stable envi ron-
ment of the greenhouse, and t he protecti on
it affords, allows the product i on of earlier,
more reliable fruit crops compared wi t h out-
door culture, especially in districts wi t h
cooler than average summer temperatures.
The greatest l i mi tati on of the col d green-
house for growing fruit is that many of t he
crops, but particularly grapes, peaches, apri -
cots and nectarines, take up a great deal of
space. If possible, it may be best to devote a
whol e greenhouse to frui t cul ture but if this
is not practical, select frui t that will not
occupy the whol e house or block light from
other plants. Alternatively, cul ti vate plants
in pots to restrict their growt h to manageable
proporti ons.
Choosing a greenhouse
I or small-growing crops such as melons and
strawberries a house of conventi onal di men-
sions will be suitable but a larger house is
necessary to accommodat e other frui t ade-
quately unless they are grown in pots. When
choosing a greenhouse for growi ng frui t
remember that a vigorous grape vine will
need a border at least 8 ft long and t hat a
peach, apri cot or nectarine will require a
greenhouse wi t h a wall or glass sides at least
12 ft high. When selecting a greenhouse for
fruit growing follow all the general principles
described on pages 12-13. Fruit trees should
be grown against a south-faci ng wal l .
Planting
Vines, peaches and their relations and melons
can all be planted direct i nto the border soil
of the greenhouse, whi ch should be prepared
according to the individual requirements of
each crop. Strawberries, however, are best
cultivated in pots or barrels. If space is
limited it is also possible to cul ti vate grapes,
peaches, apricots and nectari nesand even
plums, apples, pears and cherriesin pots,
al though for the last four of these it is essen-
tial to select varieties grown on dwarfing
rootstocks. Container cul ture has the added
advantage that it is possible to provide
exactly the right type of soil but it is i mport ant
to give plants the maxi mum possible light. It
will be difficult for plants to thrive, and for
fruit to ripen, if plants in pots are shaded b)
a thi ck vine or a vigorous peach.
Training and support Except for strawberries
all the types of fruit suggested for the cold
greenhouse will need some system of wi re;
on whi ch they can be trained and this should
be combi ned wi t h a support system. Al ways
remember to arrange t he trai ni ng system
before pl anti ng because inserting wires be-
hind growi ng plants is not only difficult but
can lead to damage.
Ventilation
The exact needs of fruit crops vary in detail
but good venti l ati on is essential. Peaches, for
example, ideally need venti l ati on f rom the
roof and sides of t he house. When growi ng a
crop that takes up a good deal of space in
the greenhouse always make sure t hat the
growt h of the plant does not interfere with
the venti l ati on system or make wi ndow;
difficult to open.
For full details of cultural practices see the
vol ume Fruit in this series.
CULTIVATION
Grapes Construct a trai ni ng system of
hori zontal wires 9 in apart and 15 in f rom
the glass. Plant in November in wel l -
drai ned porous border soil contai ni ng
l oam, peat and grit wi t h added base
fertilizer and limestone. Wat er to give a
t horough soaking in early spring. Mul ch.
Keep t he soil thoroughl y damp, wateri ng
every 7-10 days in hot weather, and re-
duce wateri ng as frui t ripens. Venti l ate
f rom January to March then close t he
vents unti l May or when t he air tempera-
t ure exceeds 18C/64F.
Peaches, apricots and nectarines Con-
struct a trai ni ng system of wires placed
10 in apart and 10 in f rom the glass. Plant
in Oct ober in border soil enriched wi t h
peat and add lime at 1 lb per sq yd. Mul ch.
Wat er well after pl anti ng and from the
ti me growt h starts. Venti l ate during the
day onl y after frui t has set. Close the house
at night.
Melons
1 Prepare a soil mix of 2 oz steamed
bonemeal and 2 oz compound fertilizer to
one 2 gal bucketful of soil. Place this on t op
of t he border soil in a ridge 1 ft high.
2 Stretch wires al ong t he sides 1 ft apart
and 15 in f rom t he glass. Tie in t wo canes
per plant, one f rom soil to eaves, t he other
f r om t he eaves to t he house ridge. In May
pl ant t he seedlings raised in heat.
3 As the plants grows tie stems to canes
and laterals to t he horizontal wires. Pinch
out t he growi ng poi nt when plant is 6 ft
tall. Pinch back side shoots to t wo leaves
beyond each flower. Increase venti l ati on.
4 Thin the fruit to f our of t he same size per
pl ant when fruits are wal nut-si zed. Wat er
t he plants very wel l and l i qui d feed t hem
every 7-10 days. As fruits enl arge support
t hem wi t h netti ng slings.
Tomatoes 1
Tomatoes are an excellent choi ce of crop for
a col d greenhouse for they are tender plants
t hat profit greatly f rom t he protecti on glass
affords. A heated propagati ng case can be
used in a col d greenhouse to provi de t he
added heat necessary for raising plants f rom
seed. All greenhouse-grown tomatoes need
careful attenti on to wateri ng, feedi ng and
care in control l i ng pests and diseases.
Raising tomato plants
Wi t hout the use of a heated propagating case
it is usually best to purchase t omat o plants
rather than raise t hem f rom seed. Choose
strong plants wi t h no trace of disease.
Seed sowing Seed may be sown in a heated
propagating case in early January for pl ant-
ing eight weeks later. Sow seed thi nl y in
John Innes No. 1 compost placed directly in
the case or in flats or pans whi ch are placed
in it. Seeds sown too thi ckl y are likely to
suffer from damping-off diseases. Set the
propagator thermostat to 18C/65F. At this
temperature germi nati on and emergence
should take place in 7-10 days. Keep t he
seedlings evenly moist but not waterl ogged.
Raising from seed
Pricking out When the seedlings have de-
veloped thei r first t rue leaves 10-12 days after
sowing, carefully prick t hem out singly i nto
individual 3 in peat or plastic pots filled wi t h a
propri etary pot t i ng soil or mix. Insert a small
dibble beneath t he roots of each seedling and
hold t he seedling by its leaves to prevent
damage. Use the dibble to make a hole big
enough to take each seedling wi t hout re-
stri cti ng its roots. Wat er t he seedlings gently
to firm t he soil round their roots and replace
t hem i n t he propagator.
Temperature control Keep the seedlings at
18C/65F until they begin to shade each
other, t hen t ur n t he thermostat down t o
16C/60F. About a week before planting,
reduce t he t emperat ure to 10C/50F. Appl y
a bal anced liquid feed (see page 41) and sup-
port plants wi t h a small cane if they become
t oo tall to support themselves.
Planting
Whi l e seedlings are maturi ng, decide whi ch
growi ng system will be used. The main choices
are between greenhouse soil, ring cul ture,
9 in pots placed di rect on greenhouse soil,
growi ng bags or straw bales (for full details
see page 46). If plants are to be grown directly
in greenhouse soil, doubl e dig and enrich
the lower spade depth wi t h wel l -rotted com-
post or manure. For pot or ring cul ture fill pots
wi t h John Innes No. 2 or 3 or an equivalent
mix. Plant tomatoes when the young plants
are 6 to 9 in tall. This is usually when the
flowers on t he first truss are just openi ng.
Immedi atel y before planting, water plants
thoroughl y and destroy any plants that show
signs of disease. Make a hole in t he chosen
growi ng medi um big enough to accom-
modate t he roots wi t hout crowdi ng. Place
the t op of each rootball level wi t h the soil
surface. Plants raised in peat pots should be
made t horoughl y wet before pl anti ng (tear
down one side of t he pot wall if necessary to
prevent dryi ng out) and planted compl ete
wi t h t he pot. Space plants about 18 in apart
each way. Give planted tomatoes a t horough
wateri ng in and keep t hem moist to make
sure t he roots become well established.
Support In t he greenhouse t omat o plants are
usually best supported on soft garden string
tied to a horizontal wire near the greenhouse
Planting
roof at one end and to the stem of t he plant,
under the lowest true leaf, at t he other, Each
plant is t hen twi sted loosely r ound t he string
as it grows. Take care not to damage t he plant
stem by pul l i ng t he string t oo ti ght. Alter
natively, plants in pots or gr own entirely in
greenhouse soil may be loosely tied to
bamboo canes for support.
Watering and feeding
The success of greenhouse-grown tomatoes
depends on meti cul ous at t ent i on to wateri ng
and feedi ng t hr oughout t he life of t he plant.
Plants will be damaged by dryi ng out whi ch
causes flower drop, or waterl oggi ng whi ch is
a particular hazard for plants gr own in iso-
lated systems such as growi ng bags, for it
qui ckl y kills off plant roots. Plants in growi ng
bags will only t hri ve if t he growi ng medi um is
kept uni forml y moist, whi ch may mean water-
ing three or four times a day in hot weather.
Ring cul ture also demands much water be-
cause drainage is very rapi d. The most stable
water supply is achi eved wi t h plants grown
directly in greenhouse soil. In all systems,
irregular wateri ng will cause frui t to split.
1 Early January Sow 2- 3 seeds per sq in
in propagator filled wi t h sieved soil.
Sprinkle over 1/8 in layer of soil and
cover wi t h newspaper.
2 Prick out seedlings 10-12 days after
sowing using a small dibble. Transfer to
3 in pots filled wi t h John Innes No. 1 or
an equi val ent mix.
3 Place pots in propagator and set
thermostat to 18C/65F. Wat er sparingly
but often. Liquid feed before pl anti ng.
4 Mi d-l ate April When flowers on first
truss are just openi ng water plants wel l .
Remove plants f r om pots and pl ace 18 in
apart i n chosen growi ng medi um.
Tomatoes 2
Greenhouse grown tomatoes should he
liquid fed wi t h a proprietary fertilizer mixed
wi th the water accordi ng to the manufac-
turer's instructions. A balanced fertilizer will
provide nitrogen to encourage vegetative
growth and potassium to i mprove quality.
Trimming and de-leafing
As t omat o plants grow they develop side
shoots in t he j uncti ons (axils) between leaf
and stem. These must be removed while they
are small or they will use up water and
nutrients needed by the producti ve parts of
the plant. Snap off each side shoot cleanly
between finger and t humb, preferably in early
morni ng when t he plants are turgi d. Avoi d
pulling whi ch leaves scars t hat are easily
invaded by disease-causing fungi .
When plants are 45 ft tall, remove t he
lower leaves up to the first truss. Use a sharp
knife and cut cleanly leaving no snags. De-
leafing allows more light to reach the plant
base, improves air ci rcul ati on and helps to
combat fungal diseases. As t he trusses crop
make sure any yel l owi ng or diseased leaves
are removed.
Pollination and fruit setting
If frui t setting is a probl em it can be i mproved
by assisting pollen dispersal. Spray t he plant
wi t h a fine dropl et spray, shake the plant
gently or tap t he flower trusses.
Stopping
In a col d greenhouse tomatoes will not
usually produce more t han six or seven fruit
trusses per season so it is best to snap off the
growi ng poi nt t wo leaves beyond the sixth
or seventh truss. Conti nue to remove further
sideshoots, whi ch will often be stimulated
i nto growt h by the stoppi ng process.
Harvesting
Ripe frui t should be ready for picking in mi d-
May f rom seed sown in early January. Harvest
t i me depends upon sowing ti me. If climate
allows, crops can for instance be sown in
|une for Sept ember-December crops.
Pests and diseases
Greenhouse tomatoes are notoriously sus-
cepti bl e to pests and diseases whi ch are
described in detail on pages 38- 40.
Support
1 Bamboo canes can be
used for support. Tie t he
plant on loosely wi t h soft
garden string so t hat stems
are not damaged.
2 Snap off side and basal
shoots between t humb and
forefinger. If possible de-
shoot in early morni ng
when t he stems are turgi d.
3 Spray the flowers wi t h a
fine dropl et spray or shake
t he pl ant gentl y to disperse
pol l en and i mprove frui t
setti ng.
4 Liquid feed growi ng
plants fol l owi ng manu-
facturer' s instructions.
Wat er t hem as necessary.
5 Snap off growing point
2 leaves above t op truss
when 6- 7 trusses have set
fruit. Remove any lower
leaves t hat t urn yel l ow.
6 Pick ripe fruit by snap-
pi ng t he stalk, leaving t he
calyx on t he frui t. Ripe frui t
left under hot sun will soon
lose its firmness.
Vertical training Plants are carefully
twisted round soft string attached below
lowest true leaf and to a horizontal wire
6- 8f t above ground level.
V-training Plants are twi sted round strings
set alternately at 60 to t he ground. This
system is good for straw bale cul ture wi t h
plants placed closer t han 18 in.
TRAINING SYSTEMS
Stopping
Vegetables and salads 1
The greatest advantage of the cold green-
house in salad and vegetable growi ng is that
it can be used to extend t he growi ng season
at both ends of the year. In warmer parts of
the country, an unheated greenhouse can
also provide winter crops. Those summer
crops normally grown outside, such as t omat o
and cucumber, can be grown under glass for
faster maturi ng and protecti on against rain,
hail and wi nd. Wi t h good pl anni ng a green-
house can provi de food for the ki tchen
almost all the year round. It is also very
useful for raising young vegetable plants
whi ch are later pl anted out i nto t he garden.
The most significant l i mi tati on of the col d
house is implicit in its descri pti onbecause
it is unheated, t he gardener must wai t unti l
the house temperature reaches a suitable
poi nt before certain seeds can be sown.
Also, the winter temperature i n t he col d
house precludes the growi ng of many out of
season crops. When considering whi ch crops
to grow, make maxi mum use of space. Catch
crops such as carrots and radishes can be
grown between tall crops before they develop.
Leaf crops
Good choices for the cold house include salad
greens, seakale and herbs.
Lettuce Sow l ettuce seed in pots then prick
t hem out into peat blocks or pots before
pl anti ng t hem in greenhouse soil. If seed is
sown in small quantities at fortni ghtl y inter-
vals from early spring until aut umn, a
constant supply can be assured. To prevent
diseases, particularly botrytis, it is i mportant
to venti l ate t he house well in all but the worst
weather. The crop needs adequate light and
attenti on to wateri ng. Give a few t horough
waterings rather t han many small ones. The
crop will be i mproved by a t horough soaking
about 10 days before harvesting.
Mustard and cress As long as t he greenhouse
temperature is 10C/50F or above, mustard
and cress can be sown at weekly intervals.
Sow seed on a moist tissue in a shallow dish
and place it in the dark under a bench, lightly
covered wi t h a dark cl oth or newspaper if
necessary to exclude light. Once t he seeds
have germi nated, move the dish up into a
lighter place and keep the seeds well watered.
Winter endive Sow seed as for lettuce in
late August to early September and put in a
well-lit position. Venti l ate the house and
water the seedlings regularly. When plants
are fully grown, tie them round loosely wi t h
raffia and place a large plastic pot over
selected plants to blanch t he leaves. Cover
the drainage hole of t he pot and support it
on crocks to allow free air ci rcul ati on.
Seakale From late September to late
October, lift seakale crowns f rom t he garden
and tri m off the side roots and any yel l owi ng
foliage. Trim the main roots to about 6 in.
Al l owi ng 3 crowns per pot, plant t he crowns
in 9 in plastic pots filled wi th rich soil mix
such as John Innes No. 3. Cover each pot wi t h
another of t he same size turned upside down
and place under the greenhouse staging.
Ideally the crowns need a temperature of
about 10C/50F, so if t he house gets t oo cold
insulate the pots wi t h newspaper or burlap.
Herbs Many herbs will conti nue growi ng
through the wi nter if plants are potted up and
brought into the cold house for protecti on
duri ng winter. Herbs that benefit most from
such prot ect i on include parsley, chives, mint,
French tarragon, pot marj oram, rosemary,
t hyme and sage. Wat er plants wel l and venti -
late t he house duri ng t he day in all but the
worst weather. In spring, begin sowi ng seeds
of annual and biennial herbs as soon as the
greenhouse t emperat ure is high enough.
Root crops and bulbs
Small quanti ti es of root crops can be raised in
t he col d house for harvesti ng weeks before
t he mai n out door crops. Seed sowi ng can
begin in February-March in peat pots or
di rectl y i nto slightly acid greenhouse border
soil prepared accordi ng to crop requi rements.
If t he vegetables are to be eaten really young
and tender, make more sowings at three or
four week intervals. Thoroughl y water and
well venti l ate t he house once t he tempera-
tures begi n to rise i n Apri l .
Pods
Select dwarf varieties of bush beans for cold
greenhouse cul ti vati on and make t wo sow-
ings, one in spring for early summer croppi ng,
Lettuces
1 Sow seed in 31/2 in pots filled wi t h pot t i ng
soil. Cover t he seeds lightly and water
using a fine rose. Repeat sowings every
2 weeks.
2 Prick out as many seedlings as required
i nto small i ndi vi dual peat blocks or pots.
Wat er wel l and increase t he venti l ati on
accordi ng to t he weather.
3 When plants have 4- 5 true leaves plant
t he peat blocks or pots 8 in apart i nto
t he greenhouse border soil. Wat er well
and ensure good venti l ati on.
4 Harvest lettuce by careful l y pul l i ng up
whol e plants and t r i mmi ng off t he roots,
or cut plants bel ow l ower leaves. Remove
discarded matter f rom greenhouse.
the other in July for aut umn harvesting. Pre-
germinate the seeds and sow four or five
seeds round the edges of a pot filled wi t h John
Innes No. 2 or equi val ent mix. For t he spring
sowing wait until early April in cool areas, or
germinate the seeds indoors. Water t he
plants well once flowers appear and venti l ate
the house in warm weather.
Vegetable fruits
Cucumbers, sweet peppers and eggplants,
as well as tomatoes whose cul ture is des-
cribed in detail on pages 70- 71, can all be
grown in the cold greenhouse.
Cucumbers Pre-germinate cucumber seeds
then sow t hem singly in 3 in pots filled wi t h
|ohn Innes No. 1 or a similar mix. Al l ow
4 to 5 weeks from sowing to pl anti ng and
ti me t he operati on so t hat pl anti ng can take
place in late May, if necessary germi nati ng
the seeds indoors. Preferably, plants should
be planted in growi ng bags (2 plants per
standard bag) or singly on straw bales. At
planting ti me or before, erect a system of
supporti ng strings tied to horizontal wires
near the greenhouse roof, or insert bamboo
canes on to whi ch plants can be loosely ti ed.
Developing plants should be well watered
and given liquid feed and the atmosphere in
the house should be kept as humi d as pos-
sible. Pinch and tri m the plants as shown in
the illustrations and remove any male flower.
Sweet peppers These vegetable fruits are
best grown in the cold greenhouse in pots.
Because the seed needs a temperature of
21C/70F for germi nati on, seeds must be
germinated in a propagating case and t he
seedlings hardened off, or the gardener can
buy plants from a nursery. Al l ow 10 to 12
weeks between sowing and pl anti ng in late
May. Sow seed thi nl y on moi stened soil
covered wi t h 1/8 in of compost and then wi t h
glass and newspaper. When seedlings are
large enough to handle, prick t hem out i nto
3 in pots filled wi t h John Innes No. 3 compost
or plant 3 plants in a standard sized growi ng
bag. Place pots 18 in apart on the border soil
or greenhouse staging. When plants are
about 6 in tall, remove the growi ng poi nt to
encourage bushy growth, and support and
tie them to bamboo canes if necessary. Keep
plants well watered and liquid fed and venti -
late the house in warm weather. Wat ch
for aphids and red spider mites. Spray wi t h
mal athi on or derris if pests are seen.
Eggplants These need very similar cultural
condi ti ons to peppers, and plants can be
raised f rom seed in the same way or pur-
chased from a nursery. Ai m for planting in
early May and allow t wo plants to a standard
size growi ng bag. Pinch out the growi ng
points when plants are 9-12 in high and
allow onl y 5 or 6 frui t to develop on each
plant. Remove any extra fruits, leaving t he
remaining ones well spaced, and pi nch off
any extra flowers t hat f orm. Wat er and feed
often but sparingly and venti l ate the house in
hot weather. Wat ch out for pests and spray
against those t hat appear as for peppers.
Raising seed
Seeds of many vegetables can be raised in
t he col d house for planting out once t he
weather is suitable to provi de earlier, more
reliable crops. Sow seed in peat blocks or
pots for easy planting later on and keep
house well venti l ated. See pages 55- 6.
Cucumbers
WI TLOOF CHICORY
In November, lift wi tl oof chi cory roots
f rom t he garden and cut off t he leaves to
wi t hi n \ in of the crown. Trim the roots to
9 in and take off any side shoots. Store the
roots horizontally in boxes of dry sand
outsi de under a north wall unti l t hey are
needed. From mi d-November onwards
plant 3 or 4 chi cory roots at weekly
intervals in a 9 in plastic pot filled wi t h
sand so t hat each cr own is 1/2 in above t he
t op of t he soil. Wat er sparingly and cover
wi t h pot to keep out light. Place under
t he bench and keep well vent i l at ed. The
chi cons will be ready after 4 weeks.
1 Late May Plant seedlings raised in heat in
9 in pots filled wi t h pot t i ng soil. Wat er
and l i qui d feed regularly. Keep t he
greenhouse humi d.
2 June-July Tie growi ng plants to canes for
support. Pinch out growi ng points as main
stems reach t he roof. Venti l ate frequently,
but carefully, as humi di ty is i mportant.
3 June onwards Keep single laterals in each
leaf axil and stop t hem at 2 leaves. Remove
male flowers if appropri ate. Harvest by
cut t i ng t he stems wi t h a sharp knife.
Vegetables and salads 2
The year in a cool greenhouse 1
A cool greenhouse, one provi ded wi t h a heat-
ing system that ensures t hat temperatures do
not fall below 4.5C/40F, provides an en-
vi ronment suitable for a vast range of plants.
Nearly all the plants from the world' s t em-
perate zones can be cul ti vated, and t he
choi ce extends into those from the sub-
tropi cal and tropi cal regions. A di sti ncti on is
made between those plants that can be
grown in wi nter in a cool house, such as
salads and chrysanthemums, and those such
as sub-tropical bedding plants whi ch are
dormant at cool greenhouse temperatures
but survive the wi nter undamaged, when
they woul d die in the open garden or an
unheated house. In addi ti on, all those plants
whi ch will tolerate cold greenhouse condi -
tions can be grown in a cool house. In many
cases their growi ng seasons will be longer. It
is possible to raise a wi der range of out-of-
season food crops and ornamentals given t he
mi ni mum temperature of a cool house.
To many gardeners, t he cool greenhouse
is the norm and a col d or warm house is a
devi ati on from it. When gardening literature
and catalogs are consul ted, it will be noti ced
t hat "greenhouse pl ants" tends to mean
those to be grown in a cool house.
Whi l e there are very many plants to choose
f rom for growi ng in a col d house, it is often
wort h experi menti ng to try to wi den t he
range still further. Plants rarely have an
absolute mi ni mum temperature whi ch kills
t hem, unless it be frost level whi ch, by
freezing the cells, can cause physical damage.
Many plants t hought to need higher t em-
peratures than the cool house mi ni mum can
in fact be accl i mated to t he prevailing con-
ditions. A lot depends upon avoi di ng ex-
tremes and sudden changes. If t he balance
of the envi ronment heat , humi di ty and
venti l ati oni s carefully wat ched, plants
t hought tender may survive and go on to
flourish. Among those wort h experi menti ng
wi t h are t he many house plants available, and
sub-tropical flowering plants such as those
fostered by Vi ctori an conservatory gardeners
for wi nter blooms.
Management
The principles of cool greenhouse care are
those outl i ned earlier in this book for t he
runni ng of any greenhouse. The one main
difference in the running of a cool house is
t he need to mani pul ate t he heating system.
An inefficient heating system is undesirable
for three reasons. First, if the system is not
runni ng correctl y it will not be able to mai n-
tain the necessary temperature and plants
will suffer. The second reason is that i n-
efficiency in the use of fuel will lead to
rapidly escalating bills. Heating a greenhouse
is expensive, and if the system used keeps
the temperature unnecessarily high, or burns
fuel inefficiently, the cost will be magnified.
Third, certain kinds of heating system, those
whi ch burn gas or oil, can harm plants if
they are not adj usted correctl y. Badly set
wicks and burners can cause the heater to
give off poisonous fumes.
Thermostats The sensible management of a
heating system centers around t he use of
thermostats. These devices sense tempera
ture changes and act as switches, t urni ng the
heati ng system on and off as requi red. They
are most often used wi t h el ectri cal systems,
whi ch are easily control l abl e and capabl e "I
produci ng heat qui ckl y. Gas and oil systems
can also be fitted wi t h thermostatsas are
domesti c central heati ng boilers.
A thermostat is only useful if t he system it
control s has sufficient capaci ty. The heaters
must be capable of mai nt ai ni ng t he desired
t emperat ure wi t hout runni ng constantl y. The
section on heati ng (pages 18-23) shows how
to calculate the size of heati ng installation
necessary. Once a large enough system has
been installed, t hermost at i c cont rol will
January
Check draft-proofing, insulation
(if fitted) and heating system. Set
thermostats to night minimum of
4.5C/40F. Water plants in flower,
water others sparingly. Maintain a
dry atmosphere to discourage
mildew.
Sow canna, fuchsia, pelargonium.
Bring in bulbs for flowering as they
show growth.
Take cuttings of winter-flowering
chrysanthemums and carnations.
February
Ventilate when possible and
gradually increase watering. Day
length will increase. Maintain
minimum temperature.
Sow bedding plants with long
germination/growing periods, half-
hardy annuals, sweet peas, begonia,
calceolaria, salvia, schizanthus, and
germinate in a propagating case.
Continue to take chrysanthemum
cuttings.
Sow brassicas and onions for
transplanting outdoors. Sow early
bunching turnips, carrots, parsnips,
beets, okra, tomatoes, cucumbers.
Plant tomato plants from middle
of the month.
Begin re-potting of ferns and palms.
Bring in more bulbs for flowering.
March
Increase watering, ventilate well on
sunny days and maintain a more
humid atmosphere. Be alert for and
combat insect pests such as aphids.
Sow sweet pepper, squash, half-
hardy annuals, tomato, bedding
plants, basil.
Transplant rooted cuttings taken in
winter.
Repot orchids and other perennials
as necessary.
Begin to take softwood cuttings.
Pot up tuberous begonias.
April
Pay attention to ventilation and
watering as temperatures increase.
Keep heating switched on, setting
thermostat for minimum night
temperature.
Sow cucumbers, squashes,
pumpkins, dwarf French beans,
runner beans for transplanting
outdoors, primulas, half-hardy
annuals such as stocks and zinnias,
and Campanula pyramidalis.
Continue re-potting and potting on.
Move bulbs which have flowered
to a frame. Move over-wintering
pot plants outdoors into a
sheltered position.
Transplant seedlings from seed
sown earlier in the spring. Take
further softwood cuttings.
Dust tomato flowers to encourage
pollination.
Move half-hardy plants into a
frame to harden off.
May
Water freely, shade as necessary in
sunny weather and encourage a
more humid atmosphere.
Sow cineraria, primula. Plant
chrysanthemums and move
outside. Pot on carnations, zonal
pelargoniums, tuberous begonias,
annuals raised from spring-sown
seed. Feed all plants in active
growth. Take precautions against
insect pests.
Pinch out young fuchsias when
4-5 in high.
Remove cucumber laterals and all
male flowers.
Tie in tomato plants and pinch out
side shoots.
June
Turn off and overhaul heating
system. Ventilate freely, shade
whenever necessary and damp
down and spray to raise humidity.
Water as required, twice a day if
necessary.
Sow calceolaria, Primula nialamides,
zinnia, all for autumn and winter
flowering.
Feed tomato plants and all other
plants in growth. Pot on plants
raised from seed as necessary.
Plant out bedding plants into their
flowering positions in the open
garden.
Plunge azaleas, hydrangeas and
other pot plants which have
finished flowering.
Cut back shoots of regal
pelargoniums.
The year in a cool greenhouse 2
ensure that it only operates when the tern
perature falls below the pre-set level. The
heater will raise t he temperature, triggering
the thermostat again and cut t i ng off t he
system. Thermostats must be placed away
from drafts and cold spots, where they will
give an artificial reading.
Balance Whi l e the main stress of cold green-
house management is on mai ntai ni ng the
wi nter mi ni mum, t hought must be given to
the other components of greenhouse
management. Shading, venti l ati on and humi -
dity control are all crucial, especially in
summer. Just as plants have a mi ni mum
temperature for healthy growt h, so they have
maxi mum levels of temperature whi ch will
harm t hem. Problems caused by high air
temperatures are often magnified by failure
to ensure adequate humi di ty. If there is not
enough water vapor in t he atmosphere,
plants will transpiregive out water f rom
their leaves i nto t he ai rtoo quickly. Increase
humi di t y by regular dampi ng down and the
installation of damp sand beds under benches.
Whi l e summer heat and wi nter col d have
to be countered by active management, the
most difficult times of the year for the runni ng
of the cold greenhouse can be spring and
aut umn. Duri ng these seasons the sun has
power to qui ckl y heat the greenhouse, while
t he nights are cool. Cold dayti me tempera-
tures can easily occur due to sudden weather
changes. This combi nat i on can be particularly
tryi ng in the late wi nter and early spring. Sun
heat is becomi ng more powerful , and the
effect of the sun combi ned wi t h artificial
heating can qui ckl y raise t he temperature,
often above t he level required, unless ventila-
t i on is prompt l y given. Under these con-
ditions automati c ventilators (see pages 15-
16) show their wor t h. A col d house will not
suffer so much from this probl em because it
does not have t he reservoir of artificially
generated heat t hat a cool house has. More
sun heat is thus needed to raise the t em-
perature to unwanted levels.
Growing plants
The fol l owi ng pages deal wi t h the cul ti vati on
of ornamentals, including bedding plants
whi ch are covered in detail, and f ood crops.
All t he ornamentals and f ood crops covered
in the preceding cold greenhouse section,
such as annuals, tomatoes and salad crops,
can be added to the list. The difference comes
mainly in ti mi ng of sowing and croppi ng.
Tomatoes, for instance, can be planted f rom
mid-February onwards in a cool greenhouse,
while in a cold house late Apri l is the earliest
possible date. Annuals will flower earlier in
t he spring in a cool house t han in a col d one.
Lettuce, radish and other salad crops can be
sown in late summer and aut umn for aut umn
and wi nter croppi ng.
Other plants Many more plants than those
described in detail on the fol l owi ng pages can
be grown in a cool greenhouse. The plants
chosen, especially those i l l ustrated in t he
step-by-step sequences, are t he most re-
wardi ng for t he relatively i nexperi enced and/
or those whi ch illustrate a key growi ng prin-
ciple. The i nformati on gi ven can be adapted
to cover t he cul ti vati on of many other plants.
There are other categories of plants of
interest whi ch are less popul ar but still wort h
consi deri ng if greenhouse space is available.
For example, many shrubs can be grown in
contai ners under glass and brought i nto
flower earlier t han outsi de. Examples are
lilac, forsythi a and hydrangea. Fruits such as
citrus can be grown in t ubs in cool green-
house condi ti ons. Most ci trus trees will
tol erate a wi nt er mi ni mum of 7C/45F,
t hough t he lime needs 10C/50F. Summer
temperatures should be mai nt ai ned at 13-
16C/55
0
-61F for successful croppi ng. Full
details of the cul ti vati on of war m temperate
fruits are given in Fruit in this series.
July
Maintain a moist atmosphere and
attend to watering. Ventilate well
and shade as required. Sow
sapiglossis and make a repeat
sowing of Primula malacoides
and calceolaria.
Take hydrangea cuttings.
Stake plants, especially annuals
growing in pots, and train climbers
Pot on pelargoniums reared from
spring cuttings and plunge
outdoors. Pot on carnations, and
repot freesias.
August
Continue summer shading,
watering and damping down
regime. Watch for cool nights
towards the end of the month as
days shorten.
Sow annuals for spring flowering,
cyclamen, cineraria.
Prick out calceolarias and other
seedlings from earlier sowings.
Take cuttings of pelargoniums.
Pot on primulas, cinerarias.
Plant bulbs for winter and spring
flowering, such as freesias, tulip,
hyacinth, narcissi.
Feed chrysanthemums standing
outdoors and water well.
Repair any structural damage to
the greenhouse and repaint if
necessary.
September
Reduce watering and damping
down as temperatures drop.
Restart the heating system to
check it and switch on if necessary
towards the end of the month.
Check winter fuel supplies if
necessary. Reduce shading.
Sow more annuals for spring
flowering.
Pot up remaining bulbs.
Bring in azaleas, camellias,
chrysanthemums and other pot
plants that have spent the summer
in the open.
Pot on cyclamen, cinerarias and
primulas into final pots and move
onto greenhouse shelves.
Take cuttings of bedding plants
before they are discarded, and of
coleus, heliotropes and fuchsias.
October
Switch on the heating system and
set the thermostat to maintain a
minimum night temperature of
4.5C/40F. Ventilate freely on
warm days but exclude fog and
damp. Reduce watering and
remove shading completely.
Pot up the last of the bulbs.
Feed cyclamen, cinerarias, primulas
and camellias.
If possible, remove all plants and
fumigate the house against fungal
diseases.
Scatter pellets to combat slugs.
November
Maintain minimum winter
temperature as October and
ventilate sparingly. Further reduce
watering of all except plants in
flower.
Pot on annuals. Keep in good light
and give minimum water.
Bring in the first batch of bulbs for
winter flowering.
Prune shrubs.
Sow lettuce.
Bring in fuchsias, begonias and
hydrangeas and store under the
staging. Keep almost dry.
December
Fit insulation to greenhouse sides if
possible and stop up all drafts.
Cover the house with burlap or
mats in very severe weather.
Protect tender plants with paper,
polyethylene or burlap if severe
frost is forecast. Cut watering to
the minimum.
Ventilate a little when possible and
run a fan heater to circulate the
atmosphere.
Bring in more bulbs.
Box up seakale and witloof chicory
for forcing.
Cut down chrysanthemums after
they have flowered and start to
take cuttings of soft growth.
Keep cineraria, cyclamen, primulas
and other plants required for
Christmas flowering in a warm part
of the house. Water them with
care, avoiding the foliage.
Clear debris, dead leaves and used
pots from the greenhouse. Clean
all pots, trays and propagating
equipment.
Bedding plants 1
The cool greenhouse is an ideal place for
raising summer bedding plants. Using the
greenhouse in this way shortens the pro-
pagation period and, as long as plants are
properly hardened off and precautions taken
against disease, ensures the product i on of
sturdy plants. The other advantages to the
gardener of raising his own plants from seed
compared wi th buyi ng plants direct from t he
nursery are that he knows exactly what he is
growi ng and that there is less risk of plants
being damaged as they do not have to be
transplanted from overcrowded seed flats.
Seed sowing
One of the most critical aspects of raising
bedding plants from seed in the greenhouse
is timing. As a general rule, t he sequence of
sowing is determi ned by the speed at whi ch
seeds germinate and by the growt h rate of
the developing seedlings. For this reason
slow-growing species required for summer
bedding are sown in February and March
and a monthl y sowing plan adopted accord-
ing to the scheme shown above. Even wi t h
Growing bedding plants from seed
the artificial heat provi ded by the cool
greenhouse, devel opment of seeds sown in
t he first t wo months of the year is slow
because of low wi nter light intensity.
Seeds of beddi ng plants may be sown in
flats or pans (dwarf pots). Fill the chosen
containers wi t h a good seed-growing mix-
ture whi ch should be damp. There is no need
to avoi d peat-based soils, wi t h their low
nutri ent reserves, because t he seeds will
germi nate relatively rapidly in the frost-free
envi ronment of t he greenhouse. Once t he
containers are full, press down t he soil wi t h
the fingers or a presser board to wi thi n 1/4 in
of t he top, but be careful not to press t oo
hard as this will restrict the drainage and
tend to encourage dampi ng off diseases and
attack by sciarid flies.
The best met hod of sowing seed depends
on t he size of individual seeds. For small seeds
such as those of Begonia semperflorens, mix
t he seeds wi t h fine dry sand in the seed packet
then sow t hem by broadcasting, keeping t he
hand close to t he soil surface. Larger seeds
can be broadcast in the same way, but
wi t hout the addition of sand. The larger
seeds, such as those of zinniasand small
seeds that have been pelletedare best
planted singly by hand. Cover sown seed
wi t h soil but be careful not to make this
coveri ng layer t oo thick. Label t he con-
tainer clearly then water in the seeds wi t h a
dilute mi xture of Captan or a copper-based
fungicide to help prevent dampi ng off disease.
Use a rose on the wateri ng can so that seeds
are not dislodged from their planting
positions by t he water.
Germination
Even in a cool greenhouse, devel opi ng seeds,
particularly those sown in mi d-wi nter, will
benefit f rom extra warmt h. This is best pro-
vided by a propagating case. When using
such a case, place the seed containers i n-
side it and set t he thermostat to 21C/71F.
If a propagati ng case is not available, either
take t he seed containers indoors and put
t hem in a warm place or cover t hem wi t h
a sheet of glass. A piece of newspaper may
be placed on t op of the glass as light is not
i mport ant unti l after germi nat i on.
As soon as the seeds germi nat e (this may
take one to three weeks dependi ng on
temperature and the species) remove any
coveri ng and put the contai ners in a well lit
place but be careful that t hey do not risk
being scorched by strong sunlight. Water
wi t h di l ute Captan to combat damping oil
and other seedling diseases. If possible
mai ntai n the t emperat ure at 21*C/70*F to
promot e speedy devel opment . The seedling)
also need good venti l ati on and t he green
house ventilators shoul d be opened for at
least an hour a day except in very severe-
weather condi ti ons.
Pricking out
Seedlings should be pri cked out as soon as
they are large enough to handl e. If left in
their original containers they will become
overcrowded and their roots will become so
entangl ed t hat t he gardener will be unable to
avoid damagi ng t hem when t hey are re-
moved. Prick out seedlings i nto individual
pots or flats filled wi t h John Innes No. 1 or a
1 Fill a seed flat wi t h seed-sowing soil.
Firm the soil wi t h the fingertips or a
presser board to wi t hi n 1/2 i n of t he t op.
2 Sow the seeds thinly. Small seeds can
be mixed wi t h fine dry sand and broadcast
ont o t he soil to make sowing easier.
3 Sieve soil over medium-sized or large
seeds so t hat they are just covered. Do
not cover small seeds.
4 Water the seed flat wi t h a di l ut e mi xture
of Captan or ot her fungi ci de to combat
dampi ng off and other diseases.
Bedding plants 2
similar potti ng soil, taking care to handle
then) by one leaf and between finger and
t humb. Use a dibble to pry out the seed-
lings and to make a hole in the soil big
enough to accommodat e each plant. If seed-
lings are pricked out i nto flats, allow at least
11/2 in between them each way to prevent
overcrowdi ng. Firm the soil round each
seedling wi t h the dibble, label and give
another wateri ng wi t h dilute fungicide to
guard against dampi ng off.
Even in ideal conditions t he seedlings will
suffer some check to their growt h after
pricking out but careful handl i ng and trans-
planting when the root system is small and
unbranched will help to reduce this to a
mi ni mum. After pricking out the temperature
can be reduced to 18C/65F but good vent i -
lation is still essential to healthy seedling
devel opment. When seedlings are big enough
and when there is no chance of frost, seed-
lings should be hardened off in a col d frame
(see page 91) or by turni ng off the greenhouse
heating system and gradually increasing the
venti l ati on first by day and then at night.
Propagation
Whi l e most beddi ng plants are raised from
seed, several i mportant plants can be propa-
gated by cuttings or division. Full details of
these methods of propagati on are given on
pages 57-63.
Cuttings can be taken in aut umn when
the plants are lifted, or in spring f rom tubers
kept dormant over t he wi nter. Geraniums are
one of many beddi ng plants t hat can be
propagated by cuttings. Keep the cuttings at
a mi ni mum temperature of 4C/40F over
wi nter, and water sparingly. Pot on as neces-
sary i nto 4 or 5 in pots, harden off and plant
out i n t he normal way.
Overwintering
Some beddi ng plants can be overwi ntered in
a cool house for re-use t he next season. Lift
t he plants in aut umn and pot or box up. Cut
back t he foliage by about one-half, water
very sparingly and venti l ate freely to guard
against gray mol d. Plenty of light is neces-
sary to avoi d the product i on of drawn, weak
growt h. Plant out as normal in spring.
Larger seeds can be sown in peat blocks
formed from damp peat-based soil wi t h
a bl ocki ng device, or in peat pots. Both
have the advantage of being planted
wi t h the young plant in the flowering
position. The seedlings are therefore not
subject to the disturbance of pricking out.
Sow 2- 3 seeds in each block and water
well. Provide the condi ti ons described in
the capti on sequence below. When t he
seedlings have reached first true leaf
stage, thi n to the strongest per block.
When seedlings are ready to be planted
out and have been hardened off in a frame
or been placed outsi de duri ng t he day,
plant in t he fl oweri ng posi ti ons. If possible,
remove bot h plants and soil, allowing
t he roots to be gentl y teased out and t he
young plants to be i nserted wi t h an
adequate rootbal l . Make pl anti ng holes
wi t h a trowel and water wel l after firming
in. Wat er well unti l t he plants have be-
come established. Pot -grown greenhouse
perennials can be used as dot plants.
PEAT BLOCKS PLANTING OUT
5 Place the flat in a propagati ng case at
21C/70F, or in a warm place indoors if a
case is not available.
6 As soon as the first seedlings emerge,
place t he flat in good light. Keep t he
t emperat ure at 21C/70F.
7 Spray seedlings wi t h Captan or another
dilute fungi ci de to combat dampi ng off
disease. Ensure t hat venti l ati on is adequate.
8 Prick out seedlings i nt o flats, boxes or
i ndi vi dual pots as soon as t hey are large
enough t o handle.
Fruits and vegetables 1
The cool greenhouse can be used to best
effect in growing food crops if it is used to
cul ti vate not only tomatoes, cucumbers and
the other vegetable fruits described on
pages 70-73 but also more tender vegetables
such as okra. Melons and early strawberries
are also good subjects for the cool house and
so, if space allows, are peaches and nec-
tarines whi ch often fail to do well in the open.
Early strawberries
The cool house will enable the gardener to
pick crops of strawberries in March or Apri l .
Propagation In late June, peg down the
runners of plants growi ng in the open garden
i nto 3 in pots filled wi t h John Innes No. 1
potti ng compost buried wi t h their rims level
wi t h t he soil surface. After four to six weeks,
when the new plants are well established,
sever t hem from the parents and place the
pots on well-drained soil or in an open cold
frame. Water t hem well and as plants grow
pot t hem on i nto their final 6 in pots using
John Innes No. 2 or an equi val ent peat-based
mix. Until September, liquid feed the plants
once a week and water frequentl y.
Leave the plants undisturbed until Novem-
ber then bury the pots up to their rims in peat
or well-drained soil to prevent frost from
reaching their roots. Ideally, this should be
done in a col d frame but a sheltered corner
of the garden (not a frost pocket) will suffice
if necessary. If there is any risk of frost damage,
close t he frame or cover t he plants wi t h straw.
Greenhouse cultivation In mi d-December
take the pots into the greenhouse and place
them well apart on a sunny shelf to allow good
air circulation and maxi mum light. For a fort-
night keep t he temperature just above freez-
ing then raise it to 7C/45F. Do not be
t empt ed to t urn the heating up any higher as
this will create t oo much foliage at t he
expense of frui ti ng capacity. When the flower
trusses appear in February, raise the mi ni mum
temperature to 10C/50F and ventilate t he
house a little during the dayti me if the green-
house air temperature exceeds 21C/70F.
At this stage plants will benefit if the house
is damped down once a week and if they are
given a high potash liquid feed twi ce a week.
When the flowers are open, increase t he
mi ni mum temperature to 13C/55F but do
not open the ventilators until the temperature
reaches 24C/75F. As t he flowers open,
carry out a daily pol l i nati on routine, trans-
ferring pollen from flower to flower wi t h a
small paint brush. Duri ng this pol l i nati on
period do not damp down the house as this
may prevent frui t f rom formi ng. To obtai n
fewer, but larger fruit, remove the smallest
flowers as soon as their petals have fallen off
and leave eight to ten fruits on each plant.
Once frui t begins to set, resume t he
dampi ng down routi ne and water the plants
very well in sunny weather. Conti nue feedi ng
until the fruits begin to t urn pink in order to
i mprove frui t flavor.
Melons
In the cool house, melons can be cul ti vated
as described for the col d house on page 69
except t hat by mai ntai ni ng a mi ni mum
springtime temperature of 21C/70C frui t
will be produced much earlier. In the cool
house mel on seed can be planted in February
and March to give earlier frui t in June and
July respectively. Remember to damp down
t he house well except duri ng pol l i nati on and
when t he fruits start to ripen.
Okra
Also known as gumbo and ladies' fingers,
okra are unusual vegetable fruits parti cu-
larly good for cooki ng in curries and other
oriental dishes. They are not hard to grow
but bei ng tropi cal plants they need fairly
high temperatures, particularly for germina-
ti on and plant raising.
Raising from seed Sow seed thi nl y in a seed
flat filled wi t h moist soil mix or sow t hem
singly in peat pots f rom February onwards.
Cover the seeds wi t h a thi n layer of mix,
water t hem in, then cover the pots or flats
wi t h a sheet of glass and one of newspaper.
Turn the glass once a day and maintain a
temperature of 18-21
o
C/65
o
-70F. The seeds
will take f rom one to three weeks to ger-
minate, dependi ng on the temperature. As
soon as they are big enough to handle, prick
out the seedlings i nto 3 in peat or plastic pots
filled wi t h John Innes No. 1 potti ng compost.
Greenhouse cultivation In early spring, plant
out okra di rect i nto the greenhouse border
soil or transpl ant t hem i nto 10 in pots of
Early strawberries
1 Mid-December Bring rooted plants in 6 in
pots i nto t he cool house. Make sure they
are well spaced. Keep t he temperature just
above freezing. Liquid feed t wi ce a week.
2 Two weeks later raise t he t emperat ure to
7C/45F. When flower trusses appear raise
i t to 10C/50F. Venti l ate and damp down
when t he t emperat ure exceeds 21C/70F.
3 When the flowers open stop dampi ng
down and increase t he temperature to
13C/55F. Venti l ate t he house at 24C/75F.
Pollinate t he flowers daily wi t h a brush.
4 When fruit has set resume dampi ng
down. Support f rui t trusses wi t h f orked
twigs inserted in t he pots. Stop feedi ng
when frui t begins to col or.
Fruits and vegetables 2
John Innes No. 2 compost. Whi chever met hod
is chosen, plants should be provided wi t h
canes for support and placed 21-24 in apart
in each di recti on. Throughout the growi ng
season, water plants well and when they are
9-12 in high, pi nch out the growi ng points to
encourage a bushy habit and a good suc-
cession of flowers and fruit. Wat ch out for
signs of whitefly and red spider mi te.
Okra should be harvested when they are
young and t he seeds inside their pods still
soft. Harvest between June and September.
Peaches
In a large greenhouse, especially a lean-to,
it is possible to grow a fan-trained peach or
nectarine. Both these fruits will crop more
reliably in the cool house than in t he garden.
The best sort of peach to choose for a cool
house is the common pl um rootstock St
Julien A whi ch is semi-dwarfing and so more
manageable.
Soil The border soil of the greenhouse can be
used but should be enriched wi t h plenty of
organic matter before a peach is pl anted.
Alternatively, the border soil may be re-
placed wi t h a preparati on made from sods
of fibrous chalky loam stacked for six months
then mixed wi t h one part of rubble to every
ten parts of l oam. A fortni ght before planting
in spring, mix in 8oz of John Innes base
fertilizer to every 2 gal bucketful of soil.
Care of plants A peach will need a mi ni mum
temperature of 7C/45F f rom late wi nter
until frui t is f ormed. Onl y venti l ate the house
when t he temperature rises above 18C/65F.
Until t he flowers open, damp down the house
on sunny days and spray the foliage wi t h
clean water daily. In early summer, mul ch
plants well wi t h rotted manure or garden
compost and apply a liquid t omat o feed
every 10 days f rom bud burst to the start of
frui t ripening.
When t he flowers open hand pollinate
t hem wi t h a small paint brush and when
fruitlets f orm thi n t hem to about t wo per
cluster when they are about 1/2 in long. Thin
again at the 1 in stage to leave fruits evenly
spaced 8-10 in apart.
Care after harvesting After the fruits have
been pi cked, open the ventilators and leave
t hem open unti l spring.
1 March Transplant young plants raised in
heat di rect i nto greenhouse soil or transfer
t hem to 10 in pots. Space plants 21-24 in
apart and provi de canes for support.
2 Pinch out t he growi ng poi nts to
encourage bushy gr owt h and a good
succession of fruits when pl ants are 9-12 in
tall. Guard against pests.
3 Through the growing period water plants
regularly. If necessary spray against red
spider mi te using mal athi on or a similar
low-persistence pesticide.
4 June onwards Cut young pods as soon as
they are ready, using sharp scissors, to give
a l ong croppi ng peri od. Remember t hat old
pods are stringy and unpal at abl e.
If space allows a fan-trained peach may be
grown against the back wall of a lean-to
greenhouse or under the roof of a doubl e
or single-span cool house. Ideally an area
of 15 ft x 10 ft is needed. Plant the tree
direct into greenhouse soil enriched wi t h
organic matter and provi de wires 6 in
. apart for support. For early frui ti ng mai n-
tai n a mi ni mum temperature of 7C/45F
from late wi nter until fruits are formed and
venti l ate only when t he temperature
exceeds 18C/65F.
FAN-TRAINED PEACH
The year in a warm greenhouse 1
In theory, raising the greenhouse temperature
to bring it into the warm cat egorymi ni mum
night temperature 13C/55Fgreatly i n-
creases the range of plants that can be
grown. However, t wo i mportant factors must
be set against this benefit. First, the cost of
heating a greenhouse to warm level is very
high. Second, the range of plants easily
available to gardeners and suitable for warm
greenhouse conditions is relatively small.
The character of a wel l -stocked warm
greenhouse is qui te different from t hat of
col d and warm houses. Many of t he plants
are grown for their foliage, whi ch is often
large and handsomely patterned. A warm
greenhouse full of foliage plants, ferns and
orchids has a lush, tropical feeling. The
gardener's response to this markedl y different
atmosphere is a matter of taste, but t he
contrast between a warm house, whi ch
reproduces a different climate, and the cool
house, whi ch moderates an existing one,
must be appreciated.
Before deciding on a warm greenhouse,
the gardener should consider the plants to be
grown. If the main use for a greenhouse is
considered to be raising food crops such as
t omat o, mel on and l ettuce, wi t h a few sub-
tropi cal foliage plants to add interest, a cool
house will suffice, wi t h the foliage plants
kept in a large propagati ng case heated to
warm greenhouse levels. Similarly if a large
number of seeds are to be raised in t he early
spring, a propagati ng case of soil-heated
bench bed will be more economi cal .
A medi um sized greenhouse can also be
fitted wi t h a parti ti on and used as a combi ned
cool and warm house. The inner section can
then be double-glazed and fitted wi t h a hi gh-
powered heati ng system, while t he outer
part of the house is run as a cool house. This
allows plants to be moved from one to
another when they are needed for flowering
or forci ng. Bulbs can be placed in t he cool
section after flowering, and plants raised
from seed in t he warm house can be moved
i nto the cool section as the first stage in
hardening off.
The routi ne management of a warm
greenhouse follows much the same pattern
as any other heated house. In general,
venti l ati on problems are fewer than under a
cool regime. Ventilators will not need open-
ing until the temperature reaches 21-24"C/
70-75F. If, on days of cool winds, hot sun
and passing cl oud banks the temperature
briefly rises to 38C/100F, there need be no
cause for alarm. Shading, however, is vital
especially as many of t he plants grown come
from forest or jungle envi ronments where
shade is dense and light intensity low.
Heating
The heating system will need careful design
to ensure t hat it is capable of mai ntai ni ng t he
mi ni mum temperature necessary. See pages
20- 21. Whi chever fuel is chosen for the main
heating system, failures can occur. Electricity
is subject to power cuts, whi ch can affect
gas and oil systems as well as electric ones
by cutti ng power to pumps and igniters.
Solid fuel and oil systems may be forced out
of acti on by fuel supply problems. A back-up
system whi ch uses another fuel is vital, for if
the wi nter night temperature is allowed to
fall many valuable plants may be lost. A
kerosene heater, kept well mai ntai ned and
wi t h a full fuel tank, is a good insurance.
Electric fan heaters are also useful back ups
for solid fuel systems. Fan heaters also have
the beneficial effect of ci rcul ati ng air, Pests
and diseases, especially fungal diseases ,and
mildew, can be a probl em all the year round
in a warm greenhouse. A buoyant at mo-
sphere, such as that produced by a fan
heater, helps to prevent such troubl es.
Foliage plants
Many of the foliage plants cul t i vat ed in warm
greenhouses are wi del y grown as house
plants. Some houses plants require a higher
mi ni mum temperature t han even a warm
greenhouse provides, but most will thri ve in
the better light and more even envi ronment
of a greenhouse. The many books on house
plants describe t he gr owi ng condi t i ons
needed. Bear in mi nd t hat whi l e wi nter
condi ti ons in a warm greenhouse may be
ideal for some house plants, t hey may find
summer temperatures there t oo hot. Shading
must be considered an essential when
growi ng foliage plants. Among fol i age plants
suitable for warm greenhouse condi t i ons are:
Aphelandra squarrosa (zebra plant). Deep
January
Restrict watering to those plants
in flower or active growth.
Keep humidity low and ventilate
only around noon, maintain a
buoyant atmosphere.
Sow begonia, gloxiana,
strepocarpus in heat, also those
seeds listed under Cold and Cool
greenhouses for sowing in a
propagator.
Bring in bulbs for forcing. Force
early-flowering azaleas and other
flowering shrubs. Force seakale,
witloof chicory and rhubarb boxed
up in the autumn.
Take softwood cuttings of begonia
and geranium.
Root succulents, coleus,
philodendron, tradescantia and
other plants which develop aerial
roots.
Check perennials and re-pot those
that are getting pot-bound.
Clear out unwanted, sickly or
overcrowded plants.
Prepare pots, flats and benches
for seed sowing and propagation.
February
Water more freely and ventilate in
sunny weather.
Keep up cold weather precautions
such as insulation and draft
proofing.
Sow half-hardy annuals and begin
sowing bedding plants. Sow celery
and brassicas for transplanting into
the open garden. Sow tuberous
begonia seeds in a propagating
case.
Take cuttings of chrysanthemum,
fuchsia, salvia and perpetual -
carnations.
Box up dahlia tubers in peat to
promote growth for cuttings next
month.
Continue re-potting and pot up
rooted cuttings.
Bring more bulbs and shrubs in for
flowering.
Bring in batches of primula, and
cineraria.
Force lily of the valley.
March
Ventilate freely on warm days and
maintain a more humid
atmosphere. Shade susceptible
plants from bright sun. Increase
humidity by syringing, spraying and
damping down, keeping plants in
flower dry. Begin feeding plants in
active growth and those due for
spring flowering.
Sow tomato, cucumber, pepper,
eggplant, melon stocks, aster,
zinnia, coleus. Prick off seedlings
grown from previous month's
sowing.
Take cuttings of dahlia, fuchsia,
hydrangea, solanum, salvia.
Continue re-potting. Divide ferns
and cannas if necessary.
Stop decorative chrysanthemums
and perpetual carnations
propagated from cuttings taken
earlier in the year.
Move orchids and camellias into
shady areas of the greenhouse.
Bring in begonia tubers, place in
flats of peat and start into growth.
Pot up as leaves appear.
April
Ventilate for most of the day, but
beware of night frosts, which can
still be sharp. Water freely,
increase humidity by damping
down and syringing, and shade
when necessary. Where most
plants require shade permanent
summer shading can be applied
this month. Continue feeding and
be on the alert for increasing pest
and disease problems. Fumigate
the greenhouse against pests if
possible.
Take softwood cuttings of
camellia, fuchsia, osmanthus and
other suitable plants.
Repot azaleas, camellias and other
shrubs after they have finished
flowering. Trim plants into shape
at the same time. Pot on fuchsia,
petunia and zonal pelargonium.
Re-pot orchids.
Move seedlings of half-hardy
annuals and bedding plants to a
frame to harden off before planting
out. Move winter-flowering bulbs
to a frame and plunge.
May
Increase watering, damping down
and shading as temperatures rise.
Continue feeding and pest and
disease control.
Continue to sow primula and sow
cineraria for winter flowering. Sow
Begonia semperflorens for winter
flowering.
Take cuttings of most plants,
especially euphorbia, azalea,
heaths, and begonia. Pot on
rooted cuttings and prick on
seedlings. Harden off seedlings as
necessary in a frame.
Move remaining potted bulbs into
the open garden or frame for
plunging.
Pot on gloxiana, celosia, begonia.
Pot on chrysanthemums and stand
the pots outdoors in full sun.
June
Turn off and overhaul the heating
system. Use a fan or kerosene
heater if unseasonal weather
occurs. Ventilate freely and shade
the house. Water twice a day if
necessary. Maintain humidity by
damping down, spraying and
syringing frequently.
Continue to sow primula,
calceolaria, cineraria, and zinnia
for early autumn flowering in pots.
Sow gloxiana and begonia for
flowering the following year.
Take cuttings of fuchsia, hydrangea,
tuberous begonia, rockea and other
succulents.
Pot chrysanthemums into flowering
pots. Pot on as necessary young
plants grown from seeds and
cuttings.
Hand-pollinate melons.
Feed tuberous begonias.
The year in a warm greenhouse 2
green, broadly whi te-vei ned leaves wi t h
spikes of yellow bracts and flowers. 2- 3f t .
( alathea spp. Many plants in this genus are
grown as house plants. They need a mi ni mum
temperature of 16"C/60"F. C. Makoyana (pea-
cock plant) is one of the most striking, wi t h
oval leaves yellow-green above wi t h a bold
patterning of large and small dark green ovals.
The same pattern is reproduced in red on t he
undersides of the leaves. 3 ft.
Cyperus altemifolius (umbrella grass). Not
botanically a grass, this plant provides a
valuable contrast to broad-leaved plants. It
requires plenty of moisture. 2- 4f t .
Dieffenbachia (dumb cane). Species include
D. amoena, wi t h whi te spotted leaves and
D. picta wi t h smaller, deep green ivory
flushed leaves. The variety D. p. ' Rudolph
Roehrs' has longer, almost entirely yellow
leaves wi t h whitish blotches and green
mid-rib and leaf margins. All thri ve best at
above 16C/60F. 3 ft or more.
Fittonia verschaffelti. This trailing pl ant has
olive-green leaves wi t h an elaborate net-
work of red veins.
Gynura (velvet plant). Two species are grown
as foliage plants, both having dark green
leaves felted wi t h purple hairs. C. aurantiaca
is shrubby, C. sarmentosa has a trailing habit.
Iresine spp. Several members of this genus
are grown as short-term foliage plants in pots.
The beefsteak plant (/. herbstil) has deep red-
purpl e oval leaves on red stems.
Maranta leuconeura (prayer plant). This low-
growi ng spreading plant can be used at the
front of a bench bed. Species have varied-
col ored leaves.
Peperomia spp. Plants f rom this genus grown
for thei r foliage have shrubby, trailing and
cl i mbi ng habits. Many are epithytes, and all
need a free-draining soil mix.
Pilea. Two species are grown as foliage plants.
P. cadierei is a bushy plant wi t h elliptic leaves
patterned wi t h silvery blotches. P. microphylla
has sprays of small leaves. The inconspicuous
flowers shed pollen explosively, hence t he
vernacular name of artillery plant.
Flowering plants
Plants listed below are perennials. Other
fl oweri ng plants appear in t he bulbs list, and
orchids and begonias are discussed on the
succeeding pages. Annuals and the other
flowering plants listed in the cool greenhouse
section can be grown in a warm house.
Coleus Thyrsoideus. This sub-shrub carries
clusters of blue flowers in wi nter. It is best
raised annually from cuttings in spring. 3 ft.
Columnea. These trailing plants are very well
suited to hanging baskets. C. glorosa has
pendant chains of small reddish leaves and
tubul ar red flowers in wi nter and spring.
Crossandra infundiluliformis. A shrubby peren-
nial, this plant carries fan-shaped pink to red
flowers for much of the year. The foliage is
attracti ve. 2- 3 ft.
lusticia spp. Several are grown as annuals
from spring cuttings. /. carnea has pink to
purple tongue-l i ke flowers in aut umn. It can
reach 4- 6 ft if regularly pot t ed on. J.. rizzenii
has an arching habit and clusters of scarlet
and yel l ow flowers for much of the year.
Rhoeo spathaca (boat lily). Small whi te flowers
are carried on boat-shaped bracts in the leaf
axils. Becomes cl ump-f ormi ng wi t h age. 1ft.
Saintpaulia ionantha (African violet). Easy to
propagate, and compact, this plant has
become very popular. Mai ntai n 16C/60F,
light shade and moderat e humi di ty. For
propagati on, see pages 60- 61.
Streptocarpus (cape primrose). S. rex/7 and its
hybrids have dark wri nkl ed leaves and clusters
of funnel -shaped flowers in a variety of
colors. Shade tol erant.
Shrubs and climbers
The fol l owi ng species whi ch survive at a
wi nt er mi ni mum of 13C/55F.
Acalphya hispada. This shrub has large oval
leaves and cri mson tassel like fl ower clusters.
It will grow to 6 ft, but can be kept to half this
height by pruni ng.
Antigonon leptopus (coral vine). Fast-growing
and needing pl enty of space, this twi ni ng
cl i mber has narrow leaves and small bright
pink flowers in clusters. 10 ft or more.
Coffea arabica ' Nana' (dwarf coffee). The
coffee tree has shiny dark green leaves,
fragrant whi t e flowers and red berry-like
fruits. 3- 6 ft.
Dipladenia spendens. A vi gorous twi ni ng
cl i mber wi t h large pink fl owers. Tuberous-
rooted, it should be cut back hard each
wi nter. 10 ft.
July
Ventilate night and day according
to temperature. Maintain a moist
atmosphere and keep all plants
well watered. Shade as necessary.
If necessary, repaint the greenhouse
interior, choosing a spell of settled
weather for the task and moving
the plants outside or into a frame.
Maintain the pest control
program. Look out for and combat
fungal diseases.
Continue to sow primula,
cineraria, calceolaria, also first
batches of annuals for winter and
spring flowering.
Take cuttings of hydrangeas and
other plants not propagated in
June.
Re-pot freesias and pot on cuttings
and seedlings planted earlier in the
year as necessary. Pot on perpetual
carnations and place them in an
open frame.
Move remaining winter-flowering
shrubs to a frame or outdoor
plunge bed.
August
Prepare heating system for autumn
operation. Order fuel if necessary.
Use a fan or kerosene heater to
maintain night temperature in
unseasonal weather. Continue
watering, shading and pest and
disease control.
Sow more annuals for spring
flowering. Sow cyclamen.
Take cuttings of half-hardy
bedding plants such as geranium,
also take softwood cuttings such
as coleus, begonia, tradescantia,
regal and fancy pelargoniums.
Feed and water chrysanthemums
placed outdoors. Tie them in to
stakes to prevent wind damage.
Pot up first batch of bulbs for
winter flowering. Pot on cineraria
and primula grown from seed.
September
Remove permanent shading and
start the main heating system,
setting the thermostat to maintain
the necessary minimum night
temperature. Continue to water
and damp down freely and
ventilate when necessary.
Temperatures may range from
very warm to freezing, so control
ventilation carefully.
Pot up more bulbs for winter
flowering. Place cyclamen,
cineraria and primula into
flowering pots.
Bring into the greenhouse azaleas,
camellias and other perennials
which have spent the summer in
the open garden. Bring in
chrysanthemums for autumn
flowering.
Spray and wipe down the leaves of
foliage plants.
Prune woody climbers. Pinch out
the flower buds on fibrous begonias
to encourage winter flowering.
October
Reduce watering and cut humidity.
Continue to ventilate and provide
heat as necessary. Do not allow air
to become stagnant through
inadequate ventilation, or mildew
may occur. Wash down the glass,
inside and out, to permit
maximum light penetration during
winter.
Pot up tulips and further batches
of other bulbs for winter and
spring flowering. Bring in remaining
chrysanthemums.
Re-pot all plants that have outgrown
their pots during the summer.
Bring in any perennial bedding
plants and tub or pot fruit trees
and shrubs needing winter
protection.
Plant climbers and fruit trees and
bushes. Feed cyclamen, camellia,
cineraria and primula.
November
Cut ventilation to the minimum,
opening the house only in the
middle of the day. Water sparingly
and reduce humidity. Keep
temperature above the minimum
but not too warm.
Re-pot lilies. Bring in early bulbs
from the frame.
Bring primulas and calceolaria in
from the frame or cool house for
early flowering.
Lift and store begonia tubers.
Box up seakale, witloof chicory and
rhubarb for forcing.
December
Maintain minimum temperatures,
ventilate carefully and water
sparingly. Only those plants in
bloom or about to bloom will need
much water. Cure drafts and
insulate wherever possible.
Bring in more bulbs for forcing. Cut
back chrysanthemums as they
finish flowering, and place the
stools in a frame. Bring in azaleas,
deutzia, primula, cineraria and
cyclamen for winter flowering.
Force seakale and witloof chicory.
Using frames 1
A frame is a versatile piece of equipment
which can be used as an extension <>l the
greenhouse or on its own. A frame is parti-
cularly useful for a gardener wi t hout a green-
house, especially if it can be heated, for given
the restrictions in size, a heated frame can be
used for most of t he plants t hat can be grown
in a greenhouse. Both heated and unheated
frames can be used for raising new plants,
i ncl udi ng early vegetables; for extendi ng the
growi ng season; for hardening off green-
house-grown plants before they are pl anted
out i n t he garden; for overwi nteri ng plants
such as chrysanthemums and for pl ungi ng
potted bulbs t hat will later be taken indoors
to bl oom. The soil, mix or other growi ng
medi um placed in t he frame will depend on
the exact use to whi ch the frame is put.
The main shapes and sizes of frames are
described in detail on page 7. The frame
should be deep enough to accommodat e t he
plants to be grown in it.
Siting
A frame can be placed abut t i ng a greenhouse
or on its own. If one wall of t he frame is
placed against t he greenhouse wall t he frame
will benefit f rom i mproved insulation and re-
duced heat loss. Anot her advantage is t hat
the heating system of t he greenhouse can
usually be extended to serve t he frame. Place
a frame t hat is to be used on its own in an
open, sunny, easily accessible posi ti on that
affords plenty of light and some shelter f rom
high winds. Never place a frame in a corner
of the garden known to be a frost pocket. The
general rules for siting frames and green-
houses are further explained on pages 12-13.
Heating
A cold frame, t hat is a frame wi t h no f orm of
heating, is less useful t han a heated frame
whi ch will allow a wider range of plants to be
grown. In a heated frame, early vegetables
will be ready for croppi ng sooner and there
is less chance of tender plants failing to sur-
vive the wi nter. A heating system for a frame
works by heating t he soil and/or t he air. Soil
heating can be provi ded by electric cables or,
if the frame is abut t i ng a heated greenhouse,
by hot water pipes. The air in a frame can be
heated by electric cables or hot water tubes
placed round the walls. Whi chever heating
system is chosen (see also pages 18-23) it
should always i ncl ude an accurate t hermo-
stat to aid careful regulation of t he growi ng
condi ti ons wi t hi n the frame.
Insulation To help conserve t he heat built up
in a frame duri ng t he day, t he frame lights can
be covered on cold nights wi t h burlap sack-
ing or a roll of ol d carpet. Place blocks of
wood carefully on t op of t he sacking or carpet
to prevent i t f rom bl owi ng away. Alter-
natively, buy a special sheet wi t h eyelet
holes and ti e it to wooden pegs placed in t he
soil. The sides of the frame can also be
insulated by lining t hem wi t h bales of straw
encased in chi cken wire.
Ventilation
Plants grown in heated and col d frames need
good venti l ati on to encourage free air ci rcu-
l ati on. Poor venti l ati on increases air humi di ty
wi t hi n t he frame and encourages t he growt h
of disease-causing organisms. Make sure t hat
t he lights of t he frame can be opened at
several different levels and t hat they can
easily be removed altogether. For venti l ati on
t he lights may be propped open wi t h a block
of wood, or a brick, or pushed back entirely
off t he f rame and placed at an angle over t he
frame wi t h one end on t he ground, as long
as they will not bl ow away. In very wi ndy
weather secure t he lights wi t h cord wound
round cleats screwed to the frame wall, or
by hooks and eyes.
Watering
To water t he plants in a frame t he lights can
simply be lifted or removed. Always water
plants wi t h a rose fi tted to t he wateri ng can
or hose so t hat soil is not washed away f rom
around pl ant roots. Semi -automati c wateri ng
wi t h a perforated hose or capillary wateri ng
as used in t he greenhouse (see pages 24-26)
are also effective and time-saving. In t he
capillary system, water is supplied via a tri ckl e
irrigation line whi ch ensures a slow, steady
water supply to t he growi ng medi um i n the
frame. When t he frame is not in use and in t he
summer, remove t he lights so t hat t he soil can
get a good natural wateri ng f rom t he rain.
This will also help to prevent a damaging
bui l d-up of mineral salts in t he soil.
Growing early carrots in a heated frame
1 February Dig garden soil in t he frame.
Place heati ng cables in t he frame and cover
t hem wi t h 6 in of good garden soil.
2 Rake in 2- 3 oz of general fertilizer then
water wel l . Close t he frame.
3 A week later Sow seed in drills 4 in apart
or broadcast at 1/12 oz per square yard. Set
thermostat to 18C/65F. Keep frame shut.
4 March As seedlings devel op t hi n (if
necessary) to 111/2 in apart. Remove all
thi nni ngs. Wat er to fi rm. Replace lights.
5 As weather warms open lights on sunny
days but close t hem at night. Plants will
now need more water.
6 April Remove lights compl et el y when all
chance of frost is past. Store lights in a
safe place. Harvest carrots as needed.
Using frames 2
Light and shading
To ensure maxi mum entry of light, keep frame
lights clean at all times and renovate and
clean t hem in summer. As in t he greenhouse,
plants in a frame risk being scorched and
badly damaged by hot sun. To prevent this,
apply a shading compound to t he inside of
the frame lights as necessary, or place a sheet
of muslin or small mesh plastic netti ng over
the frame on hot, sunny days. The coveri ng
can be rolled back in cl oudy weather.
Raising seed
Seed of all kinds can be sown in a heated or
unheated frame in pots, boxes or flats or
directly i nto prepared soil. Turn on t he heat-
ing system, if there is one, for a day or t wo
before sowing to warm t he soil. Seeds of
hardy plants can be sown in a heated frame
as early as February, seeds of tender plants
from late February to March. For an un-
heated frame, add on another mont h to six
weeks in each case, and more if the spring
is a cold one. Seedlings in pots or boxes are
best placed in the frame on a 3 in layer of
gravel or weathered ashes to allow good
Hardening off in an unheated frame
drainage or, if a capillary wateri ng system is
used, on a 2 in layer of coarse sand placed on
a thi ck sheet of pol yethyl ene. Note that seeds
pl anted in pots or boxes will need more care
in wateri ng as they dry out more qui ckl y t han
those pl anted di rect i nto t he soil. Seedlings of
tender or hal f-hardy plants raised in a heated
frame will also need hardening off before
they are pl anted out i nto t he garden.
Early crops in a heated frame
Carrots, radishes, lettuces, beets and spring
onions are among t he many vegetables t hat
can be grown in a heated frame for early
croppi ng and for eating when young and
tender. Mont hs of pl anti ng for heated frames
are shown in t he list above.
Soil Most early crops can be sown in the
frame di rect i nto good wel l -dug garden soil
enri ched wi t h wel l -rotted manure, compost
or peat, plus 2- 3 oz of a general wel l -bal anced
fertilizer per square yard. If t he garden t op
soil is very stony or shallow, it may be prefer-
able to replace t he t op 1-11/2 ft wi t h new
good-qual i ty t op soil or to replace t he soil
compl etel y wi t h good sterilized soil placed
on a perforated pol yethyl ene sheet placed in
t he frame. If necessary, make provision for
any parti cul ar needs of the crop to be grown
l ettuces for example do best in humus-ri ch
soil whi l e carrots prefer soil t hat has not been
freshly manured.
Care of seedlings Freshly sown seed of most
vegetable crops will germi nate best at a t em-
perature of 18C/65F so this is t he ideal
t hermost at setting for seed pl anted in late
wi nter or early spring. On col d nights, insu-
late the frame wi t h burlap or similar material.
The frame should be venti l ated duri ng the
day as long as t he weather is not very col d or
wi ndy. In bad weather ensure maxi mum
entry of light by washing all debris off the
lights regularly. As t he weather warms the
lights can be opened wider duri ng t he day
and closed at night. Once all risk of frost is
past and plants are well established, the
lights can be removed altogether, cleaned
and stored and t he heating system t urned off.
Crops in a cold frame
For vegetables, a col d frame provides similar
protecti on to cloches (see page 94) but re-
tains heat better and is cool ed less by the
wi nd. Vegetables sown in a cold frame will
still crop earlier than those sown outdoors
wi t h no prot ect i on. Among t he best crops for
the col d frame are cucumbers, zucchinis,
melons, smaller squashes and out door tom
atoes. Cucumber and similar seeds are best
pre-germi nated at a t emperat ure of 21C
70F before bei ng pl anted in t he col d frame
i n early May. Venti l ate t he frame as necessary
duri ng t he day and close it down at night
until plants are established t hen remove the
lights in June.
For out door t omat oes, raise seeds indoors
and pl ant t hem out i n t he col d f rame i n May
or early June. Venti l ate t he f rame as neces-
sary but do not remove t he lights compl etel y
until t he plants are well established, by
whi ch t i me t hey will have probabl y out gr own
the hei ght of t he frame. The lights can be
replaced at t he end of t he season to help
ripen t he last fruits and combat frost.
Cuttings
Cuttings of all types can be gr own in a frame.
Use a heated frame for cutti ngs of tender
1 Spring As air temperature rises, place
boxes or pots of greenhouse-reared
seedlings or cuttings in t he frame.
2 During first week (weather permitting)
leave lights half open duri ng t he day for
venti l ati on but close down each night.
3 During second week leave lights open a
little at night. Towards end of week remove
lights compl etel y except in wi ndy weather.
4 In third week remove plants f r om t he
frame and pl ant i n thei r permanent
positions in t he garden.
Using frames 3
Softwood shrub cuttings can be pl anted in a
cold frame in June, semi-hard ones in July
and August. See pages 57-59 for details.
Hardening off
Many tender or half-hardy plants raised in t he
greenhouse need to be put t hrough a "t ough-
eni ng-up" process called hardening off before
they are pl anted out i nto t he garden. A col d
frame is ideal for this purpose. In spring, when
there is no risk of tender or half-hardy plants
being exposed to frost once they are in their
permanent positions in t he garden, take pots
or boxes of young plants f rom t he greenhouse
and place t hem in t he frame. For one week
leave t he lights open duri ng t he day (as long
as the weather is not col d or wi ndy) but close
them at night. Duri ng t he second week, leave
the lights open a little at night. Towards the
end of t he second week open t he frame as
wi de as possible at night. In t he t hi rd week
the plants can be pl anted in thei r permanent
positions in t he garden.
Plunging bulbs in an unhealed frame
Overwintering and storage
A frame can act as a useful protected storage
site for plants duri ng the wi nter and, at the
same t i me, save valuable space in t he green-
house. A heated frame will be needed for
tender plants such as pelargoniums and
fuchsias whi ch shoul d be placed in the frame
in September. In t he same mont h, freesias
can be pot t ed up and placed in a heated
frame. Out door chrysanthemums can be
overwi nt ered in an unheated frame after they
have been cut back and boxed in a pro-
prietary pot t i ng mix. The frame should be well
venti l ated except in very severe weather to
help prevent diseases such as botrytis, whi ch
are encouraged by stagnant air.
Storage A col d frame can be empl oyed to
store dormant bulbs and tubers t hat are
susceptible to frost damage. After lifting
dahlia tubers, for example, pack t hem in
boxes of dry peat before storing t hem in a
heated frame. Store bulbs in a col d frame
loosely packed in wooden boxes wi t h plenty
of room for air to ci rcul ate between t hem.
Make sure the frame is well venti l ated but
guard against damp whi ch can cause rot.
The plunge bed
A plunge bed is a bed of damp sand, peat or a
mi xture of gravel and weathered coal ashes
1ft deep i nto whi ch pots are buri ed or
plunged up to their rims. A plunge bed in a
col d frame is useful for accommodat i ng
plants t hroughout t he year. From spring on-
wards, as alpines finish flowering in the alpine
house, transfer t hem to t he plunge bed.
Plunge t he pots up to their rims and keep the
bed damp but never let it become dry or
waterl ogged. The cool moist envi ronment of
t he plunge bed will produce good strong
growt h. Similarly, pot -grown greenhouse
plants can be plunged in summer, whi ch will
prevent t hem f rom dryi ng out t oo qui ckl y.
Duri ng t he summer there is no need to place
the lights on t he frame.
Bulb forcing In wi nter, use t he plunge bed for
forci ng bulbs. Plant bulbs in pots, plunge t hem
and cover t he pots wi t h a 3 in layer of peat.
Place t he lights over t he frame, leaving t hem
open a little for venti l ati on. After eight weeks
the bulbs will have f ormed good root systems
and can be taken indoors in succession for
flowering.
OVERWINTERING
Heated and unheat ed frames are very use-
ful for stori ng and prot ect i ng flowering
plants in wi nter, so freei ng val uabl e green-
house space. Use a heat ed frame for
tender plants such as pel argoni ums. Lift
plants f rom t he garden i n aut umn, cut
t hem back and pl ant i n boxes before
pl aci ng t hem i n t he f rame. Similarly, make
chrysant hemum "st ool s" by cut t i ng back
plants t o wi t hi n 4 - 6 i n of t he ground
before boxi ng t hem up and pl aci ng t hem
i n an unheat ed frame. Vent i l at e well..
1 October Fill frame wi t h a 1 ft layer of sand,
peat or a mi xture of gravel and weathered
coal ashes. Wat er and allow to settle.
2 Plant hyacinth bulbs in pots t hen plunge
up to thei r rims in t he frame. Cover wi t h
a 3 in layer of peat to exclude light.
3 Place lights over frame to protect pots
f rom heavy wi nter rainfall. Keep the frame
well venti l ated.
4 After eight weeks Remove pots f rom
frame and take indoors in sequence for
fl oweri ng.
Using cloches
Cloches provi de plants wi t h virtually the same
protecti on as cold frames, except t hat they
retain heat rather less well and t hat t he air
inside t hem is cool ed more qui ckl y by t he
wi nd. The advantage of cloches is t hat they
are more mobi l e and versatile to use. Cloches
can be empl oyed in many wayst o warm
the soil before seeds are sown; for raising
seedlings, especially half-hardy annual bed-
di ng plants and vegetables to extend the
growi ng season at each end of t he year; to
protect individual plants, particularly alpines,
from col d and wet and to save bl ooms f rom
splashing and spoiling by mud; to provi de
shelter f rom col d and wi nd and to ripen off
onions and similar crops in poor weather.
Cloches can also be used to spread t he season
of cut flowers. Rows of gladioli, for example,
tend to flower at t he same ti me, but if half is
cl oched, the cutti ng peri od is lengthened.
Using cloches
Cloches should be placed in an open position
away f rom the shade of trees. Never put t hem
in a very wi ndy place where they will cool
qui ckl y and risk being damaged or bl own
Year-round uses for cloches
1 January Place cloches over soil prepared
for seed sowing. Leave for 2- 3 weeks to dry
and warm soil. Do not close cl oche ends.
over. Any cloches likely to be overturned by
strong wi nds shoul d have fittings to anchor
t hem to t he ground or should be secured
wi t h string ti ed to pegs placed in t he ground.
Leave pl enty of room between rows of
cloches for easy access and wateri ng.
Ventilation
Venti l ati on is essential to prevent t he bui l d-
up of stagnant, over-moi st ai rt hat encourages
disease. If single cloches are placed in rows,
always leave a small gap between each one
if t he cloches have no bui l t-i n venti l ati on
system such as adj ustabl e t op or sides. In the
case of a pol yethyl ene tunnel sides can be
lifted and supported wi t h a pot or wooden
block. The gaps between t he cloches can be
increased if necessary to let in more air, but
to avoid t oo much draft, and consequent
heat loss, close t he ends wi t h purchased
cl oche ends or wi t h a sheet of glass or thi ck
plastic held in place wi t h a wooden stake.
Soil preparation
Before placing cloches in position, prepare
t he soil for t he plants or crop t hat is to be
protected accordi ng to its specific needs and
make sure t hat t he same crop is not grown
in t he same soil t wo years runni ng. Before
sowing seed or planting out seedlings raised
in a greenhouse or heated frame, put the
cloches in posi ti on and leave t hem for t wo
to three weeks to dry and warm the soil. A
dressing of balanced fertilizer can be raked in
before cloches are posi ti oned.
Watering
Cloches need only be removed for wateri ng
if they are coveri ng small seedlings whi ch
need a very even sprinkling of water. Other-
wise, water can be applied to cloches f rom
overhead wi t h a wateri ng can or hose if there
is insufficient rain. The water runs down t he
sides of t he cloches and is absorbed i nto t he
soil, reaching t he roots of t he plants whi ch
grow naturally towards sources of f ood and
water. For l ong rows of cloches it is also
possible to supply water via a sprinkler or
irrigation t ubi ng placed between t he rows.
On light soil make a shallow channel on t he
outside of each cl oche in whi ch water can
easily collect and drain into t he soil.
STORING CLOCHES
Store cloches not in use by stacki ng t hem
on their ends in a sheltered corner of the
garden where they will not get broken or
bl own over by strong wi nds.
2 Early spring Use cloches to protect newly
sown seed and seedlings. Close cl oche ends
but venti l ate well accordi ng to type.
3 Autumn In rainy weather place harvested
onions under cloches to dry out before
storage. Venti l ate wel l . Leave ends open.
4 Winter Single cloches can be put over
alpines such as cushi on plants susceptible
to rotti ng i n wet soil.

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