pdf
Determiners.pdf
Possessives.pdf
Adjectives.pdf
Adverbials.pdf
Nouns.pdf
Verbs.pdf
Clause, phrase and sentence.pdf
Pronouns
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Pronouns are words we use in the place of a full noun.
There are many different kinds of pronouns.
personal pronouns
Topic
Pronouns - personal pronouns (I, me, you etc)
Subject
Object
me
you
you
he
him
she
her
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it
it
we
us
you
you
they
them
We use he/him to refer to men, and she/her to refer to women. When we are not sure if we are talking about a man or a woman
we use they/them.
This is Jack. Hes my brother. I dont think you have met him.
This is Angela. Shes my sister. Have you met her before?
Talk to a friend. Ask them to help you.
You could go to a doctor. They might help you.
Subject pronouns
We use subject pronouns as subject of the verb:
I like your dress.
You are late.
He is my friend
It is raining
She is on holiday
We live in England.
They come from London.
Warning
Remember: English clauses always have a subject:
His father has just retired. Was a teacher. > He was a teacher.
Im waiting for my wife. Is late. > She is late.
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Object pronouns
We use object pronouns:
as the object of the verb:
Can you help me please?
I can see you.
She doesnt like him.
I saw her in town today.
We saw them in town yesterday, but they didnt see us.
after prepositions:
She is waiting for me.
Ill get it for you.
Give it to him.
Why are you looking at her?
Dont take it from us.
Ill speak to them.
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it and there
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English clauses always have a subject:
His father has just retired. Was a teacher. > He was a teacher.
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It
We use it to talk about:
times and dates:
Its nearly one oclock.
Its my birthday.
weather:
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Its raining.
Its a lovely day.
It was getting cold.
to give an opinion about a place:
Its very cold in here.
It will be nice when we get home.
Its very comfortable in my new apartment.
to give an opinion followed by to-infinitive:
Its nice to meet you.
It will be great to go on holiday.
It was interesting to meet your brother at last.
to give an opinion followed by an -ing verb:
Its great living in Spain.
Its awful driving in this heavy traffic.
It can be hard work looking after young children.
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Task 1
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WARNING:
We dont say These are John and Michael.
We say This is John and this is Michael.
- to introduce ourselves to begin a conversation on the phone:
Hello, this is David, Can I speak to Sally?
Why do we use that and those?
We use that (singular) and those (plural):
- to talk about things that are not near us:
Whats that?
This is our house, and thats Rebeccas house over there.
Those are very expensive shoes.
- We also use that to refer back to something someone said or did:
- Shall we go to the cinema?
- Yes, thats a good idea.
- Ive got a new job.
- Thats great.
- Im very tired.
- Why is that?
this, these, that, those with nouns
We also use this, these, that and those with nouns to show proximity
We use this and these for people or things near us:
We have lived in this house for twenty years.
Have you read all of these books?
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and that and those for people or things that are not near us:
Who lives in that house?
Who are those people?
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questions
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Which question word to use?
We use who to ask questions about people:
Who is that?
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Activities
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reflexive pronouns
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The reflexive pronouns are:
Singular:
Plural:
amuse
blame
cut
dry
enjoy
help
hurt
introduce
kill
prepare
satisfy
teach
Some verbs change their meaning slightly when they have a reflexive pronoun as direct object:
Would you like to help yourself to another drink?
= Would you like to take another drink.
I wish the children would behave themselves.
= I wish the children would behave well.
He found himself lying by the side of the road.
= He was surprised when he realised that he was at the side of the road.
I saw myself as a famous actor.
= I imagined that I was a famous actor.
She applied herself to the job of mending the lights.
= She worked very hard to mend the lights.
He busied himself in the kitchen.
= He worked busily in the kitchen.
I had to content myself with a few Euros.
= I had to be satisfied with a few Euros.
We do not use a reflexive pronoun after verbs which describe things people usually do for themselves, such as wash, shave,
dress:
He washed [himself] in cold water.
He always shaved [himself] before going out in the evening.
Michael dressed [himself] and got ready for the party.
We only use reflexives with these verbs for emphasis:
He dressed himself in spite of his injuries.
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Warning
But we use personal pronouns, not reflexives, after prepositions of place...
He had a suitcase beside him.
and after with when it means "accompanied by":
She had a few friends with her.
Activities
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indefinite pronouns
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The indefinite pronouns are:
somebody
someone
something
anybody
anyone
anything
nobody
no one
nothing
everybody
everyone
everything
We use indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things without saying exactly who or what they are. We use pronouns ending in body or -one for people, and pronouns ending in -thing for things:
Everybody enjoyed the concert.
I opened the door but there was no one at home.
It was a very clear day. We could see everything.
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relative pronouns
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Subject
Object
Possessive
who
who(m)
whose
which
which
whose
that
that
We use who and whom for people, and which for things.
Or we can use that for people or things.
We use relative pronouns:
after a noun, to make it clear which person or thing we are talking about:
the house that Jack built
the woman who discovered radium
an eight-year-old boy who attempted to rob a sweet shop
to tell us more about a person or thing:
My mother, who was born overseas, has always been a great traveller.
Lord Thompson, who is 76, has just retired.
We had fish and chips, which is my favourite meal.
But we do not use that as a subject in this kind of relative clause.
We use whose as the possessive form of who:
This is George, whose brother went to school with me.
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We use a specific determiner when we believe the listener/reader knows exactly what we are
referring to:
Can you pass me the salt please?
Look at those lovely flowers.
Thank you very much for your letter.
Whose coat is this?
General determiners:
The general determiners are:
or you can use a singular noun with the indefinite article a or an:
A woman was lifted to safety by a helicopter.
A man climbing nearby saw the accident.
We use the general determiner any with a singular noun or an uncount noun when we are talking
about all of those people or things:
Its very easy. Any child can do it. (= All children can do it)
With a full licence you are allowed to drive any car.
I like beef, lamb, pork - any meat.
We use the general determiner another to talk about an additional person or thing:
Would you like another glass of wine?
The plural form of another is other:
I spoke to John, Helen and a few other friends.
Quantifiers
We use quantifiers when we want to give someone information about the number of something:
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how much or how many.
1. We use the indefinite article, a/an, with count nouns when the hearer/reader does not
know exactly which one we are referring to:
Police are searching for a 14 year-old girl.
2. We also use it to show the person or thing is one of a group:
She is a pupil at London Road School.
Police have been searching for a 14 year-old girl who has been missing
since Friday.
She was last seen wearing a blue jacket, a blue and white blouse and dark
blue jeans and blue shoes.
3. We do not use an indefinite article with plural nouns and uncount nouns:
She was last seen wearing a blue jacket, a blue and white blouse and dark
blue jeans and blue shoes.
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0800349781.
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quantifiers
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We use quantifiers when we want to give someone information about the number of something:
how much or how many.
Sometimes we use a quantifier in the place of a determiner:
all
any
enough
less
a lot of
more
most
no
none of
lots of
some
plenty of
heaps of
a load of
loads of
tons of
etc.
both
each
either
(a) few
fewer
neither
several
a couple of
hundreds of
thousands of
etc.
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a little
(not) much
a bit of
And, particularly with abstract nouns such as time, money, trouble, etc:, we often use:
a great deal of
a good deal of
Members of groups
You can put a noun after a quantifier when you are talking about members of a group in
general
Few snakes are dangerous.
Both brothers work with their father.
I never have enough money.
but if you are talking about a specific group of people or things, use of the as well
Few of the snakes are dangerous.
All of the children live at home.
He has spent all of his money.
Note that, if we are talking about two people or things we use the quantifiers both, either and
neither:
One supermarket
The supermarket
was closed
The supermarket
wasn't open
I dont think the
supermarket was
open.
Two supermarkets*
Neither of the
supermarkets was open.
None of the
supermarkets were open
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Singular quantifiers:
We use every or each with a singular noun to mean all:
We often use every to talk about times like days, weeks and years:
When we were children we had holidays at our grandmothers every year.
When we stayed at my grandmothers house we went to the beach every day.
We visit our daughter every Christmas.
BUT: We do not use a determiner with every and each. We do not say:
The every shop was decorated with flowers.
The each child was given a prize.
Activities
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Possessives
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possessive nouns
possessive adjectives
possessive pronouns
questions
reciprocal pronouns
possessives: nouns
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possessives: adjectives
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Can you match these possessive adjectives to the right personal pronouns?
its, your, my, their, our, her, his
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Subject
Object
me
You
you
He
him
She
her
It
it
We
us
They
Possessive
them
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possessives: pronouns
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Can you match these possessive pronouns to the right personal pronouns and possessive
adjectives?
yours, mine, theirs, ours, hers, his, its
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Subject
Object
Possessive adjectives
me
my
You
you
your
He
him
his
She
her
her
It
it
its
We
us
our
They
them
Possessive pronouns
their
Is it [your coat]?
> Is it yours?
mine is brown.
or
I am one of Susan's friends.
or
I am a friend of Susan's.
but not
I am a friend of Susan
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possessives: questions
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We use whose to ask questions:
Pattern A
Whose coat is this?
Pattern B
or
or
or
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Adjectives
We use adjectives to describe nouns.
Most adjectives can be used in front of a noun:
They have a beautiful house.
We saw a very exciting film last night.
or after a link verb like be, look or feel:
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shocking
surprising frightening
tiring
worrying
annoying
boring
terrifying
bored
frightened
worried
tired
closed
excited
delighted
disappointed
If something annoys you, you can say you feel annoyed. If something interests you, you can say
you are interested.
The children had nothing to do. They were bored.
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order of adjectives
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Opinion adjectives:
Some adjectives give a general opinion. We can use these adjectives to describe almost any
noun:
good
bad
lovely
strange
beautiful
nice
brilliant
excellent
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awful
important
wonderful
nasty
Some adjectives give a specific opinion. We only use these adjectives to describe particular
kinds of noun:
Food: tasty; delicious
Furniture, buildings: comfortable; uncomfortable
People, animals: clever; intelligent; friendly
We usually put a general opinion in front of a specific opinion:
Nice tasty soup.
A nasty uncomfortable armchair
A lovely intelligent animal
Usually we put an adjective that gives an opinion in front of an adjective that is descriptive:
a nice red dress; a silly old man; those horrible yellow curtains
We often have two adjectives in front of a noun:
a handsome young man; a big black car; that horrible big dog
Sometimes we have three adjectives, but this is unusual:
a nice handsome young man;
a big black American car;
that horrible big fierce dog
General Specific
opinion opinion
3
Size
4
Shape
Age
Colour Nationality
Material
alive
alone
asleep
content
glad
ill
ready
sorry
sure
unable
well
Some of the commonest -ed adjectives are normally used only after a link verb:
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north
south
east
west
northern
southern
eastern
western
countless
occasional
lone
eventful
indoor
outdoor
We say:
He lives in the eastern district.
There were countless problems with the new machinery.
but we do not say:
The district he lives in is eastern
The problems with the new machinery were countless.
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Activities
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intensifiers
Intensifiers:
(Intermediate)
We use words like very, really and extremely to make adjectives stronger:
exceptionally
incredibly
remarkably
particularly
unusually
We also use enough to say more about an adjective, but enough comes after its adjective:
If you are seventeen you are old enough to drive a car.
I cant wear those shoes. Theyre not big enough.
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totally
utterly
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Warning!
Intensifiers with particular adjectives:
(Advanced)
Some intensifiers go with particular adjectives depending on the meaning of the adjective:
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We use the intensifier bitterly with the adjectives disappointed, unhappy and cold:
I was bitterly unhappy at school.
We were bitterly disappointed to lose the match.
It can get bitterly cold in winter.
You need to use your dictionary to find what sort of nouns these intensifiers go with.
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far
a lot
quite a lot
a fair bit
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Adjectives as intensifiers:
(Advanced)
We use some adjectives as intensifiers with nouns:
absolute
total
complete
utter
perfect
real
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We say:
Hes a complete idiot.
They were talking utter nonsense.
but we do not say:
The idiot was complete.
The nonsense they were talking was utter.
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mitigators
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Mitigators are the opposite of intensifiers. When we want to make an adjective less strong
we use these words:
fairly - rather - quite
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We use slightly and rather as mitigators with comparative adjectives in front of a noun:
This is a slightly more expensive model than that.
This is rather bigger one than that.
Adjectives as intensifiers:
We use some adjectives as intensifiers:
absolute
total - complete
utter - perfect
real
We say:
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Task 1
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Task 2
noun modifiers
We often use two nouns together to show that one thing is a part of something else:
the village church; the car door; the kitchen window; the chair leg;
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Task 1
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Adverbials
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He spoke angrily.
They live just here.
We will go in a few minutes.
or after the object or complement:
He opened the door quietly.
She left the money on the table.
We saw our friends last night.
You are looking tired tonight.
But adverbials of frequency (how often) usually come in front of the main verb:
We usually spent our holidays with our grandparents.
I have never seen William at work.
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adverbs of manner
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Adverbs of manner are usually formed from adjectives by adding ly:
bad > badly; quiet > quietly; recent > recently; sudden > suddenly
but there are sometimes changes in spelling:
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But we do not use other adverbials of manner after link verbs. We use adjectives instead:
They looked happily happy.
That bread smells deliciously delicious.
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adverbials of place
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Direction
We use adverbials to to talk about the direction where someone or something is moving.
Examples:
Walk past the bank and keep going to the end of the street.
The car door is very small so its difficult to get into.
Distance
We use adverbials to show how far things are:
Examples:
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adverbials of location
Location
We use prepositions to talk about where someone or something is:
above
among
at
behind
below
beneath
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beside
between
by
in
in between
inside
near
next to
on
opposite
outside
over
round
through
under
underneath
at the top of
at the bottom of
at the end of
on top of
at the front of
in front of
in the middle of
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adverbials of direction
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Direction
We also use prepositional phrases to talk about direction:
across
along
back
back to
down
into
onto
out of
past
through
to
towards
away
anywhere
downstairs
downwards
everywhere
here
indoors
inside
nowhere
outdoors
outside
somewhere
there
upstairs
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adverbials of distance
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Distance
We use adverbials to show how far things are:
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adverbials of time
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Adverbials of time
We use adverbials of time to say:
when something happened:
I saw Mary yesterday.
She was born in 1978.
I will see you later.
There was a storm during the night.
for how long :
We waited all day.
They have lived here since 2004.
We will be on holiday from July 1st until August 3rd.
how often (frequency):
They usually watched television in the evening.
We sometimes went to work by car.
We often use a noun phrase as a time adverbial:
yesterday
last
week/month/year
tomorrow
next
week/month/year
next Friday
today
this
week/month/year
the other
day/week/month
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how long
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We use for to say how long:
We have been waiting for twenty minutes.
They lived in Manchester for fifteen years.
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We use since with the present perfect or the past perfect to say when something started:
I have worked here since December.
They had been watching since seven oclock in the morning.
We use from to/until to say when something starts and finishes:
They stayed with us from Monday to Friday.
We will be on holiday from the sixteenth until the twentieth.
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how often
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The commonest adverbials of frequency are:
always
never
normally
occasionally
rarely
seldom
sometimes
often
usually
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We use the adverbial a lot to mean often or frequently. It comes at the end of the clause:
We go to the cinema a lot.
but before another time adverbial:
We go to the cinema a lot at the weekend.
We use much with a negative to mean not often:
We dont go out much. (= We dont go out often)
We use how often or ever to ask questions about frequency. How often comes at the
beginning of the clause:
How often do you go to the cinema?
How often have you been here?
ever comes before the main verb:
Do you ever go to the cinema at the weekend?
Have you ever been there?
Longer frequency phrases, like every year or three times a day usually come at the end of the
clause:
I have an English lesson twice a week.
She goes to see her mother every day.
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We use already to show that something has happened sooner than it was expected to happen.
Like still, it comes before the main verb:
The car is OK. Ive already fixed it.
It was early but they were already sleeping.
We use yet in a negative or interrogative clause, usually with perfective aspect (especially in
British English), to show that something has not happened by a particular time. yet comes at
the end of the sentence:
It was late, but they hadnt arrived yet.
Have you fixed the car yet?
She wont have sent the email yet.
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adverbials of probability
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Adverbials of probability
We use adverbials of probability to show how certain we are about something. The most
frequent adverbials of probability are:
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comparative adverbs
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We can use comparative adverbs to show change or to make comparisons:
I forget things more often nowadays.
She began to speak more quickly.
They are working harder now.
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superlative adverbs
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We can use superlative adverbs to make comparisons:
His ankles hurt badly, but his knees hurt worst.
It rains most often at the beginning of the year.
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Intensifiers:
When we intensify a superlative adverb we often use the in front of the adverb, and we use these
words and phrases as intensifiers:
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Nouns
This Nouns sections brings together information about
count nouns
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uncount nouns
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Some nouns in English are uncount nouns.
We do not use uncount nouns in the plural and we do not use them with the indefinite article,
a/an.
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baggage
equipment
furniture
homework
information
knowledge
luggage
machinery
money
news
traffic
pieces of...
a bit of...
bits of...
an item of...
items of...
death
industry
marriage
power
tax
time
victory
use
property
work
Some uncount nouns end in -s so they look like plurals even though they are singular nouns.
These nouns generally refer to:
Subjects of study:
Activities:
Games:
Diseases:
5: Group nouns
Some nouns, like army, refer to groups of people, animals or things, and we can use
them either as singular nouns or as plural nouns.
army
audience
committee
company
crew
enemy
family
flock
gang
government
group
herd
media
public
regiment
staff
team
We can use these group nouns either as singular nouns or as plural nouns:
The names of many organisations and teams are also group nouns, but they are usually
plural in spoken English:
6: Two-part nouns
A few plural nouns, like binoculars, refer to things that have two parts.
glasses
jeans
knickers
pincers
pants
pliers
pyjamas
scissors
shorts
spectacles
tights
trainers
trousers
tweezers
proper nouns
Add new comment
Names of people, places and organisations are called proper nouns. We spell proper nouns
with a capital letter:
Mohammed Ali; Birmingham; China; Oxford University, the United Nations
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Verbs
Verbs in English have four basic parts:
Base form
-ing form
Past tense
Past participle
work
working
worked
worked
play
playing
played
played
listen
listening
listened
listened
Most verbs have past tense and past participle in ed (worked, played, listened). But many of
the most frequent verbs are irregular.
irregular verbs
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Most verbs have past tense and past participle in ed ( worked, played, listened). But many of
the most frequent verbs are irregular:
Base form
Past tense
Past participle
be
begin
break
bring
buy
build
choose
come
cost
cut
was/were
began
broke
brought
bought
built
chose
came
cost
cut
been
begun
broken
brought
bought
built
chosen
come
cost
cut
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do
draw
drive
eat
feel
find
get
give
go
have
hear
hold
keep
know
leave
lead
let
lie
lose
make
mean
meet
pay
put
run
say
see
sell
send
set
sit
speak
spend
stand
take
teach
tell
think
understand
wear
win
write
did
drew
drove
ate
felt
found
got
gave
went
had
heard
held
kept
knew
left
led
let
lay
lost
made
meant
met
paid
put
ran
said
saw
sold
sent
set
sat
spoke
spent
stood
took
taught
told
thought
understood
wore
won
wrote
done
drawn
driven
eaten
felt
found
got
given
gone
had
heard
held
kept
known
left
led
let
lain
lost
made
meant
met
paid
put
run
said
seen
sold
sent
set
sat
spoken
spent
stood
taken
taught
told
thought
understood
worn
won
written
question forms
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We make questions by:
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>>
>>
He might come
>>
3: The present simple and the past simple have no auxiliary. We make questions by adding
the auxillary do/does for the present simple or did for the past simple:
They live here
>>
>>
Everybody laughed
>>
verb phrases
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The verb phrase in English has the following forms:
1) a main verb:
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Verb
We
I
Everybody
We
are
like
saw.
laughed.
here.
it
the accident
The verb may be in the present tense (are, like) or the past tense (saw, laughed). A verb phrase
with only a main verb expresses simple aspect
Auxiliary "be"
is
were
Everybody
We
Verb (-ing)
watching
laughing
Auxillary "have"
They
have
Everybody has
He
had
themselves.
hard.
work.
A verb with "have" and the past participle expresses perfect aspect. A verb with have/has
expresses present perfect, and a verb with had expresses past perfect.
4) an auxiliary verb ("have" + "been") and a main verb in the ing form:
Verb (-ing)
has been
had been
working
singing
hard
He
had been
singing
A verb with "have" and "been" and the present participle expresses perfect continuous
aspect. A verb with have/has expresses present perfect continuous, and a verb with had
expresses past perfect continuous.
5) a modal verb (can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would) and a main verb:
Modal Verb
They
He
Main verb
will
might
come.
come.
6) We can use modal verbs with the auxiliaries "be", "have", and "have been":
Modal
They
He
She
Activities
Auxiliary
Verb
will
might
must
be
have
have been
listening
arrived
listening
"be"
English
The windows
Lunch
The work
They
Past participle
is
have been
was being
will be
might have been
spoken
cleaned
served
finished
invited
present tense
Add new comment
There are two tenses in English past and present.
The present tenses in English are used:
I work
Present continuous:
I am working
Present perfect:
I have worked
present simple
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The present tense is the base form of the verb: I work in London.
But the third person (she/he/it) adds an -s: She works in London.
Use
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With the present tense, we use do and does to make questions. We use does for the third
person (she/he/it) and we use do for the others.
We use do and does with question words like where, what and why:
present continuous
Add new comment
The present continuous tense is formed from the present tense of the verb be and the present
participle (-ing form) of a verb:
Use
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When we are summarising the story from a book, film or play etc.:
present perfect
Add new comment
The present perfect is formed from the present tense of the verb have and the past participle
of a verb:
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The present perfect continuous is formed with have/has been and the -ing form of the verb:
Use
We use the present perfect tense:
for something that started in the past and continues in the present:
Theyve been married for nearly fifty years.
She has lived in Liverpool all her life.
for something we have done several times in the past and continue to do:
Ive played the guitar ever since I was a teenager.
He has written three books and he is working on another one.
Ive been watching that programme every week.
We often use a clause with since to show when something started in the past:
Theyve been staying with us since last week.
I have worked here since I left school.
Ive been watching that programme every week since it started.
for something that happened in the past but is important at the time of speaking:
I cant get in the house. Ive lost my keys.
Teresa isnt at home. I think she has gone shopping.
Im tired out. Ive been working all day.
We use the present perfect of be when someone has gone to a place and returned:
WARNING:
We do not use the present perfect with an adverbial which refers to past time which is
finished:
I have seen that film yesterday.
We have just bought a new car last week.
When we were children we have been to California.
past tense
Add new comment
There are two tenses in English past and present.
The past tense in English is used:
to talk about the past
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to talk about hypotheses things that are imagined rather than true.
for politeness.
I worked
Past continuous:
I was working
Past perfect:
I had worked
In conditions, hypotheses and wishes, if we want to talk about the past, we always use
the past perfect:
I would have helped him if he had asked.
It was very dangerous, What if you had got lost?
I wish I hadnt spent so much money last month.
We can use the past forms to talk about the present in a few polite expressions:
Excuse me, I was wondering if this was the train for York.
I just hoped you would be able to help me.
past simple
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Forms
With most verbs the past tense is formed by adding -ed:
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call >> called; like >> liked; want >> wanted; work >> worked
But there are a lot of irregular past tenses in English. Her are the most common irregular verbs in
English, with their past tenses:
infinitive
irregular
past
be
begin
break
bring
buy
build
choose
come
cost
cut
do
draw
drive
eat
feel
find
get
give
go
have
hear
hold
keep
know
leave
lead
let
lie
lose
make
mean
meet
pay
put
run
say
sell
send
set
sit
speak
was/were
began
broke
brought
bought
built
chose
came
cost
cut
did
drew
drove
ate
felt
found
got
gave
went
had
heard
held
kept
knew
left
led
let
lay
lost
made
meant
met
paid
put
ran
said
sold
sent
set
sat
spoke
spend
stand
take
teach
tell
think
understand
wear
win
write
spent
stood
took
taught
told
thought
understood
wore
won
wrote
Use
We use the past tense to talk about:
something that happened once in the past:
I met my wife in 1983.
We went to Spain for our holidays.
They got home very late last night.
past continuous
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The past continuous is formed from the past tense of be with the -ing form of the verb:
We use the past continuous to talk about the past:
for something which continued before and after another action:
past perfect
Add new comment
We use the verb had and the past participle for the past perfect:
I had finished the work.
She had gone .
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The past perfect continuous is formed with had been and the -ing form of the verb:
I had been finishing the work
She had been going.
The past perfect is used in the same way as the present perfect, but it refers to a time in the
past, not the present.
We use the past perfect tense:
for something that started in the past and continued up to a given time in the past:
When George died he and Anne had been married for nearly fifty years.
She didnt want to move. She had lived in Liverpool all her life.
We normally use the past perfect continuous for this:
She didnt want to move. She had been living in Liverpool all her life.
Everything was wet. It had been raining for hours.
for something we had done several times up to a point in the past and continued to do
after that point:
He was a wonderful guitarist. He had been playing ever since he was a teenager.
He had written three books and he was working on another one.
I had been watching the programme every week, but I missed the last episode.
We often use a clause with since to show when something started in the past:
They had been staying with us since the previous week.
I was sorry when the factory closed. I had worked there since I left school.
I had been watching that programme every week since it started, but I missed the last
episode.
when we are reporting our experience and including up to the (then) present:
My eighteenth birthday was the worst day I had ever had.
I was pleased to meet George. I hadnt met him before, even though I had met his wife
several times.
for something that happened in the past but is important at the time of reporting:
I couldnt get into the house. I had lost my keys.
Teresa wasnt at home. She had gone shopping.
We use the past perfect to talk about the past in conditions, hypotheses and wishes:
I would have helped him if he had asked.
It was very dangerous. What if you had got lost?
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perfective aspect
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We use the present perfect to show that something has continued up to the present
Theyve been married for nearly fifty years.
We use other modals with perfective aspect when we are looking back from a point in time
when something might have happened, should have happened or would have happened.
The point of time may be in the future:
Well meet again next week. We might have finished the work by then.
I will phone at six oclock. He should have got home by then.
the present:
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continuous aspect
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Both tenses have a continuous form. These continuous tenses are formed with the verb be and
the ing form of the verb:
We use continuous aspect:
passive
Someone has cleaned the windows >> The windows have been cleaned
The passive forms are made up of the verb be with a past participle:
be
past participle
English
is
spoken
The windows
have been
cleaned
Lunch
was being
served
The work
will be
finished
soon
They
invited
to the party
passive
>>
>>
active
passive
>>
Some verbs very frequently used in the passive are followed by the to-infinitive:
be supposed to
be expected to
be asked to
be scheduled to
be allowed to
be told to
to + infinitive
Add new comment
We use the to-infinitive:
to express purpose (to answer "Why...?"):
He bought some flowers to give to his wife.
disappointed
glad
sad
happy
anxious
pleased
surprised
proud
unhappy
difficult
easy
possible
impossible
hard
right
wrong
kind
nice
clever
silly
foolish
Its easy to play the piano, but its very difficult to play well.
He spoke so quickly it was impossible to understand him.
We use the preposition for to show who these adjectives refer to:
difficult
easy
possible
impossible
hard
ability
desire
need
wish
attempt
failure
opportunity
chance
intention
-ing forms
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We can use the -ing form of the verb:
as a noun:
I love swimming.
as an adjective:
The main problem today is rising prices.
That programme was really boring.
He saw a woman lying on the floor.
Because the -ing noun or adjective is formed from a verb it can have any of the patterns which
follow a verb, for example:
... an object:
I like playing tennis.
I saw a dog chasing a cat.
... or an adverbial:
You can earn a lot of money by working hard.
There were several people waiting for the bus.
... or a clause:
I heard someone saying that.
The -ing noun can be used:
admit
like
hate
start
avoid
suggest
enjoy
dislike
begin
finish
in front of a noun:
I read an interesting article in the newspaper today.
We saw a really exciting match on Sunday.
The commonest ing adjectives used in front of the noun are
amusing
interesting
worrying
shocking
disappointing
boring
surprising
exciting
terrifying
frightening
tiring
annoying
after a noun:
Who is that man standing over there?
The boy talking to Angela is her younger brother.
and especially after verbs like see, watch, hear, smell etc.
I heard someone playing the piano.
I can smell something burning.
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for something happening regularly in the present before and after a given time:
Im usually getting ready for work at eight oclock.
When I see George hes always reading his newspaper.
when we are talking about an event that happened at a particular time in the past
We arrived home before dark
The film started at seven thirty.
when we are talking about something that continued for some time in the past
Everybody worked hard through the winter.
We stayed with our friends in London.
When we are talking about something that happened several times in the past we use
or used to
Most evenings we used to stay at home and watch DVDs.
We used to go for a swim every morning.
... or would
Most evenings he would take the dog for a walk.
They would often visit friends in Europe.
WARNING: We do not normally use would with stative verbs.
We use the past continuous:
when we are talking about something which happened before and after a given time in
the past
It was just after ten. I was watching the news on TV.
At half-time we were losing 1-0.
when we are talking about something happening before and after another action in the
past:
He broke his leg when he was playing rugby.
She saw Jim as he was driving away.
2 The past in the past
When we are looking back from a point in the past to something earlier in the past we use the
past perfect:
Helen suddenly remembered she had left her keys in the car.
When we had done all our shopping we caught the bus home.
They wanted to buy a new computer, but they hadnt saved enough money.
They would have bought a new computer if they had saved enough money.
3 The past and the present:
We use the present perfect:
when we are talking about the effects in the present of something that happened in the
past:
I cant open the door. Ive left my keys in the car.
Jenny has found a new job. She works in a supermarket now.
When we are talking about something that started in the past and still goes on:
We have lived here since 2007. (and we still live here)
I have been working at the university for over ten years.
4 The future in the past
When we talk about the future from a time in the past we use:
was/were going to
John was going to drive and Mary was going to follow on her bicycle.
It was Friday. We were going to set off the next day.
in conditional clauses with if or unless we often use the present tense forms to talk
about the future:
We wont be able to go out if it is raining.
If Barcelona win tomorrow they will be champions.
I will come tomorrow unless I have to look after the children.
We use the past tense forms to talk about the future in clauses with if:
it is too expensive.
I would look after the children for you
at the weekend if I was at home
If the main clause is about the past we use a modal with have:
If you had seen him you could
have spoken to him.
If the main clause is about the present we use a present tense form or a modal without have:
If I had got the job we would be
living in Paris now.
We use past tense modals would and could to talk about wishes for the future:
I dont like my work. I wish I could get a better job.
Thats a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop.
I always have to get home early. I wish my parents would let me stay out later.
We use past tense forms to talk about wishes for the present:
I dont like this place. I wish I lived in somewhere more interesting.
These seats are very uncomfortable. I wish we were travelling first class.
Everyone wishes they had more free time.
John wishes he wasnt so busy.
I wish it wasnt so cold.
We use the past perfect to talk about wishes for the past:
I wish I had worked harder when I was at school.
Mary wishes she had listened to what her mother told her.
I wish I hadnt spent so much money last month.
We use present tense forms after phrases like what if, in case and suppose to talk
about the future if we think it is likely to happen:
Those steps are dangerous. Suppose someone has an accident.
We should leave home early in case we are late.
We use a past tense form to talk about the future after suppose and what if to suggest
something is not likely to happen:
It might be dangerous. Suppose they got lost.
What if he lost his job. What would happen then?
We use would in the main clause and the past in a subordinate clause to talk about the
imagined future:
I would always help someone who really needed help.
I would always help someone if they really needed it.
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We use modals with have to talk about something that did not happen in the past:
I did not see Mary, or I might have spoken to her.
Its a pity Jack wasnt at the party. He would have enjoyed this party.
Why didnt you ask me. I could have told you the answer.
the verb be
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Present
simple:
I am
We are
You are
Affirmative
You are
He/She/It
They are
is
Question
form:
Am I?
Are we?
Are you?
Are you?
Is he/she
Are they?
it?
Negative:
I am not/
Im not
You are
not/
arent
He/She/It
is not/
isnt
We are
not/arent
You are
not/arent
They
are not/aren't
Past
simple
I was
You
We were
were
You were
He/She/It They were
was
The past
participle:
been.
Present
perfect:
has/have
been
Past
perfect:
had
been
link verbs
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N+V+N
N + V + Adj.
He became headmaster.
N+V+N
He became angry.
N + V + Adj.
These verbs are called link verbs. Common verbs like this are:
be
become
appear
feel
look
remain
seem
sound
Some link verbs are followed by an adjective. Common verbs like this are:
get
go
grow
taste
smell
Delexical verbs:
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take
make
give
have
We use have with:
Food and drink: a meal, breakfast, lunch, dinner, a snack, a cup of tea
Talking: a chat, a conversation, a discussion, a talk
Washing: a bath, a shower, a wash, a scrub
Resting: a break, a holiday, a rest
Disagreeing: an argument, a dispute, a fight, a quarrel
I had a good breakfast before I left home.
We had a long talk about the problem.
The kids should have a bath before they go to bed.
She generally had a short holiday in July or August.
They had a serious quarrel about their fathers will.
We also use have with nouns formed from verbs:
I think you should have a look at this.
She had a bite of the cake.
Im thirsty. Im going to have a drink of water.
I had a listen to that new CD in the car.
They are going to have a swim.
take
We use take with:
Washing: a bath, a shower, a wash
Resting: a break, a holiday, a rest
I always take a cold shower in the morning.
You look tired. You need to take a break.
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care
a turn
trouble
a chance
a decision
care of
turns
the trouble
a risk
a photograph
give
We use give with:
Noises: a cry, a laugh, a scream, a shout, a whistle
Facial expressions: a smile, a grin, a look, a glance
Hitting: a kick, a punch, a slap, a push, a knock, a blow
Affectionate actions: a hug, a kiss, a stroke
Talking: some advice, an answer, some information, an interview,
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make
We use make with:
Talking and sounds: a comment, an enquiry, a noise, a point,
a promise, a sound, a speech, a suggestion
Plans: arrangements, a choice, a decision, a plan, plans, an appointment, a date
Try not to make a noise.
They made arrangements to meet the next day.
go
We also use go and do as delexical verbs:
Shall we go swimming this afternoon? Or shall we go for a walk?
Its your turn to do the cooking.
Ill have to do my hair before the party.
We use go with ing verbs for common activities:
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a ride
a swim
a run
a stroll
a walk
do
We use do the with ing nouns to do with work, especially work in the house:
Its your turn to do the cooking.
You do the washing up and Ill do the drying.
and with other nouns to do with work:
I need to do a few jobs around the house.
I cant come out this evening. I have a lot of work to do.
We use do with nouns when it is obvious what the action is:
Ill have to do my hair before we go out. = Ill have to brush my hair.
Have you done your teeth? = Have you cleaned your teeth?
A question like
Have you done the car?
could mean
Have you washed the car?
Have you mended the car?
Have you put petrol in the car?
depending on the context.
Modal verbs
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The modal verbs are:
can
could
may
might
shall
should
will
would
We use modal verbs to show if we believe something is certain, probable or possible (or not).
We also use modals to do things like talking about ability, asking permission making requests
and offers, and so on.
The modal verbs are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would.
The modals are used to show that we believe something is certain, probable or possible:
Possibility:
We use the modals could, might and may to show that something is possible in the future, but
not certain:
They might come later. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come later.)
They may come by car. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come by car.)
If we dont hurry we could be late. (= Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)
We use could have, might have and may have to show that something was possible now or
at some time in the past:
Its ten oclock. They might have arrived now.
They could have arrived hours ago.
We use the modal can to make general statements about what is possible:
It can be very cold in winter. (= It is sometimes very cold in winter)
You can easily lose your way in the dark. (= People often lose their way in the dark)
We use the modal could as the past tense of can:
It could be very cold in winter. (= Sometimes it was very cold in winter.)
You could lose your way in the dark. (= People often lost their way in the dark)
Impossibility:
We use the negative cant or cannot to show that something is impossible:
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Ability:
We use can to talk about someones skill or general abilities:
She can speak several languages.
He can swim like a fish.
They cant dance very well.
We use can to talk about the ability to do something at a given time in the present or future:
You can make a lot of money if you are lucky.
Help. I cant breathe.
They can run but they cant hide.
We use could to talk about past time:
She could speak several languages.
They couldnt dance very well.
We use could have to say that someone had the ability/opportunity to do something, but did not
do it:
She could have learned Swahili, but she didnt have time.
I could have danced all night [but didn't].
Permission:
We use can to ask for permission to do something:
Can I ask a question, please?
Can we go home now.
could is more formal and polite than can:
Could I ask a question please?
Could we go home now?
may is another more formal and polite way of asking for permission:
May I ask a question please?
May we go home now?
We use can to give permission:
You can go home now if you like.
You can borrow my pen if you like.
may is a more formal and polite way of giving permission:
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modals + have
Add new comment
We use a modal verb with have and the past participle:
Subject
Modal
Have
Past Participle
They
will
have
arrived
by now
You
might
have
seen
the film
would
have
been
late
to show that something is possible now or was possible at some time in the past:
Its ten oclock. They could have arrived now.
They could have arrived hours ago.
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can or could
Add new comment
Possibility
We use the modal can to make general statements about what is possible:
Page 192 of 279
Permission:
We use can to ask for permission to do something:
Can I ask a question, please?
Can we go home now?
could is more formal and polite than can:
Could I ask a question please?
Could we go home now?
We use can to give permission:
You can go home now if you like.
You can borrow my pen if you like.
We use can to say that someone has permission to do something:
We can go out whenever we want.
Students can travel free.
Instructions and requests:
We use could you and as a polite way of telling or asking someone to do something:
Could you take a message please?
Could I have my bill please?
can is less polite:
Can you take a message please?
Offers and invitations:
We use can I to make offers:
Can I help you?
Can I do that for you?
We sometimes say I can ... or I could ... to make an offer:
I can do that for you if you like.
I can give you a lift to the station.
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will or would
Add new comment
We use will:
to talk about the future to say what we believe will happen
to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do
to make promises and offers
would is the past tense form of will. Because it is a past tense it is used:
to talk about the past.
to talk about hypotheses things that are imagined rather than true.
for politeness.
Beliefs
We use will
to talk about something that we did often in the past because we wanted to do it:
When they were children they used to spend their holidays at their grandmothers at the
seaside. They would get up early every morning and theyd have a quick breakfast then
they would run across the road to the beach.
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Conditionals
We use will in conditionals with if and unless to say what we think will happen in the future or
present:
Ill give her a call if I can find her number.
You wont get in unless you have a ticket.
We use would to talk about hypotheses, about something which is possible but not real:
to talk about the result or effect of a possible situation:
It would be very expensive to stay in a hotel.
in conditionals with words like if and what if. In these sentences the main verb is usually in
the past tense:
would you like ...; would you like to ..., for offers and invitations:
Would you like to come round to morrow?
Would you like another drink?
I would like ; Id like (you)(to) ..., to say what we want or what we want to do:
Id like that one please.
Id like to go home now.
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I would think, I would imagine, I'd guess, to give an opinion when we are not sure or
when we want to be polite:
Its very difficult I would imagine.
I would think thats the right answer.
Verb
Indirect object
Direct object
My wife
sent
me
an email
He
brought
his mother
some flowers
He
cooked
a delicious meal
Verb
Direct object
Prepositional phrase
My wife
sent
an email
to me
He
brought
some flowers
He
cooked
a delicious meal
These clauses have the structure : V + N (direct object) + Prepositional phrase (indirect object)
3. Common verbs with for and an indirect object are:
book
buy
get
cook
keep
bring
make
pour
save
find
give
lend
offer
pass
post
read
sell
send
show
promise
tell
phrasal verbs
Add new comment
Some verbs are two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases). They consist of a verb
and a particle:
grow + up
>> The children are growing up.
take + after
>> She takes after her mother
= She looks like her mother, or She behaves like her mother.
count + on
>> I know I can count on you
= I know I can trust you, or I know I can believe you.
Some transitive two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) have only one pattern:
N (subject) + V + p + N (object)
[Note: N = noun; V = verb; p = particle]
N (Subject)
Verb
Particle
N (Object)
She
I
My father
takes
can count
comes
after
on
from
her mother
you
Madrid
Some transitive two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) are phrasal verbs.
Phrasal verbs have two different patterns:
The usual pattern is: N + V + N + p
N (Subject)
Verb
(N) Object
Particle
She
He
We
gave
knocked
will be leaving
the money
the glass
our friends and neighbours
back
over
behind
Verb
Particle
N (Object)
She
He
We
gave
knocked
will be leaving
back
over
behind
the money
the glass
our friends and neighbours
When the object is a personal pronoun,these verbs always have the pattern:
N + V +N + p:
Phrasal verbs are nearly always made up of a transitive verb and a particle. Common
verbs with their most frequent particles are:
bring:
buy:
out, up
call:
off, up
carry:
off, out
cut:
give:
hand:
behind, out
let:
pass:
point:
out
push:
put:
read:
out
set:
shut:
take:
think:
over, through, up
Singular:
Plural:
We use a reflexive pronoun after a transitive verb (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)
when the direct object is the same as the subject of the verb:
I am teaching myself to play the piano.
Be careful with that knife. You might cut yourself.
These are the verbs most often found with reflexive pronouns:
cut
dry
enjoy
hurt
introduce
kill
prepare
teach
Some verbs change their meaning slightly when they have a reflexive pronoun as direct
object:
amuse
apply
busy
content
behave
blame
distance
express
find
help
see
= lights.
NOTE: We do not use a reflexive pronoun after verbs which describe things people usually do
for themselves:
He washed in cold water.
He always shaved before going out in the evening.
Michael dressed and got ready for the party.
We only use reflexives with these verbs for emphasis:
He dressed himself in spite of his injuries.
Shes old enough to wash herself.
Ergative verbs
1. Ergative verbs are both transitive and intransitive:
Transitive: N + V + N
Intransitive: N + V
Transitive: N + V + N
Intransitive: N + V
begin
break
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change
close
drop
crack
dry
end
finish
grow
improve
increase
move
open
shake
start
stop
tear
turn
bake
boil
cook
defrost
freeze
melt
roast
choose
decide
expect
forget
hate
hope
intend
learn
like
love
mean
plan
prefer
remember
would like
would love
Verbs of saying:
agree
promise
refuse
arrange
attempt
fail
help
manage
tend
try
want
advise
ask
encourage
invite
order
persuade
remind
tell
warn *
expect
intend
would
prefer
want
would like
allow
enable
force
get
teach
3. Passive infinitive
Many of these verbs are sometimes followed by a passive infinitive
(to be + past participle):
I expected to be met when I arrived at the station.
They wanted to be told if anything happened.
I dont like driving myself. I prefer to be driven.
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Activity 1:
detest
dislike
enjoy
hate
fancy
like
love
admit
consider
deny
imagine
remember
suggest
avoid
begin
finish
keep
miss
practise
risk
start
stop
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catch
find
imagine
leave
prevent
stop
say
admit
argue
reply
agree
claim
deny
mention
answer
complain
explain
promise
suggest
tell
convince
persuade
inform
remind
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We tried to tell them that they should stop what they were doing.
The police informed everybody that the danger was over.
advice
belief
claim
feeling
argument
hope
promise
report
guess
opinion
idea
fact
advantage
effect
possibility
chance
danger
evidence
problem
difficulty
She pointed out the danger that they might be left behind.
There was a chance that we would succeed
Note: We often use a that clause to define one of these nouns after the verb be :
danger
problem
chance
possibility
fact
after some adjectives which describe feelings to give a reason for our feelings:
pleased
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sorry
happy
unhappy
sad
excited
glad
disappointed
afraid
[An unlucky student almost lost a 17th century violin worth almost 200,000]
[when he left it in the waiting room of a London station.]
[William Brown inherited the 1698 Stradivarius violin from his mother]
[and had just had it valued by a London dealer at 180,000.]
Clauses are made up of phrases:
[An unlucky student] + [almost lost] + [a 17th century violin worth almost 200,000]
[when] + [he] + [left] + [it] + [in the waiting room of a London station.]
[William Brown] + [inherited] + [the 1698 Stradivarius violin] + [from his mother]
[and] [had just had it valued] + [by a London dealer] + [at 180,000.]
We can join two or more clauses together to make sentences.
An unlucky student almost lost a 17th century violin worth almost 200,000 when he left it in
the waiting room of a London station.
William Brown inherited the 1698 Stradivarius violin from his mother and had just had it
valued by a London dealer at 180,000.
clause structure
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All clauses in English have at least two parts: a noun phrase and a verb phrase:
Verb phrase
The children
All the people in the bus
laughed
were watching
Verb phrase
The children
John
All of the girls
This soup
Mary and the family
She
laughed
wanted
are learning
tastes
were driving
put
a new bicycle
English
awful
to Madrid
the flowers
in a vase
Stop!
Go away.
and for "soft imperatives" like invitations and requests:
Please come to dinner tomorrow.
Play it again please.
If we have no other subject we use "there" or "it" as subject. We call this a dummy subject:
verb patterns
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The structure of the clause depends on the verb. For example:
An intransitive verb has the structure: N(=noun) + V(=verb): (John) + (smiled).
A transitive verb has the structure: N + V + N: (We) + (had been playing) + (football)
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intransitive verbs
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Intransitive verbs have the pattern N + V (noun + verb). The clause is complete without anything
else:
Noun Phrase (Subject)
Verb Phrase
John
Nothing
The baby
smiled
happened
was sleeping
(John) (smiled).
(Nothing) (has happened).
(The baby) (was sleeping).
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transitive verbs
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Transitive verbs have a noun phrase as object:
Noun phrase (Subject)
Verb phrase
John
wanted
a new bicycle.
We
Some of the children
football.
English.
link verbs
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Some verbs are followed by an adjective phrase. The adjective phrase is called the
complement:
Verb phrase
I
Everyone
This soup
The milk
am feeling
looked
tastes
has gone
hungry
very happy
awful
sour
Verb phrase
Our neighbour
He
She
was
became
seems
a strange man
a geologist
a nice girl
Prepositional
phrase
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She
They
gave
brought
some money
a lot of food
>>>>
<<<<
Noun Phrase
Noun Phrase
(Indirect object) (Direct object)
She
They
gave
brought
some money
a lot of food
These verbs are called double object verbs. When we have two noun phrases after the verb the
first noun phrase is the indirect object and the second noun phrase is the direct object.
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Some verbs introduce a report, an idea or a summary. These verbs have the pattern:
N + V + (that) + clause
When we want to say what someone says or thinks we can use a clause with that;
He said that I had to see a doctor.
I thought that he was being silly.
We can leave out the word that:
He said I had to see a doctor.
I thought he was being silly.
With some verbs we can mention the hearer as the object of the verb:
She reminded him that it was time to go.
He told me he was a friend of yours.
These verbs have the pattern;
N + V + N + (that) + clause.
Reporting verbs with wh- and if clauses
Some verbs introduce summaries, reports, questions or problems:
She explained what we had to do.
He asked if I was ready
I didnt know what to do.
These verbs have the pattern:
N + V + wh- + clause:
She wondered where she was.
or
N + V + if + clause:
Ken asked if we wanted to go.
With some verbs we can mention the hearer as the object of the verb:
She asked me if I was ready.
He told me what I had to do.
These verbs have the pattern:
N + V + N + wh- + clause:
I told them what he was doing.
or
N + V + N + if + clause:
Ken asked us if we wanted to go.
Reporting verbs 1
Put the words and expressions in the correct order to make sentences.
about an hour.
said
the journey
would take
Check Answer
Submit
10
Next
Reset
Reporting verbs 2
Can you remember the sentences from the last activity? Type in the correct words.
2. I
3. Jeff's secretary
4. Our accountant
7. Would you
we met. (2 words)
8. Can I
9. I was
Submit
Reset
(N + V + Adv + Adv)
Last year Mary and the family were driving to Madrid in an old bus.
(Adv + N + V + Adv + Adv)
She put the flowers carefully in a vase.
(N + V + N + Adv + Adv)
when the answer is yes we add so (I expect so, I hope so, etc.).
if the answer is no we say I dont think so, I dont suppose so, etc..
but with hope we say I hope not.
Cup of coffee?
Coffee?
And someone could reply:
Yes, please. I would like a cup.
Yes, please. I would.
Yes please.
Please.
2. We often leave words out if we think they are just repeating things that don't need repeating:
I asked him to come but he wouldnt. = ... he wouldnt come.
Jack wanted to come but Jill didnt. = ... Jill didnt want to come.
Jack can come but Jill cant. = ... Jill cant come.
I asked him to come but he didnt want to. = ... he didnt want to come.
He didnt come even though she asked him to. = ... she asked him to come.
3. We leave words out in compound sentences if we think people will still understand the idea:
relative clauses
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Subject
Object
Possessive
who
whom, who
whose
which
which
whose
that
that
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We use who and whom for people, and which for things.
We use that for people or things.
We use relative pronouns to introduce relative clauses, which tell us more about people and
things.
2. Relative clauses to postmodify a noun
We use relative clauses to postmodify a noun - to make clear which person or thing we are
talking about. In these clauses we can have the relative pronoun who, which, whose or that
a person or thing.
as subject (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)
My uncle, who was born in Hong Kong, lived most of his life overseas.
I have just read Orwells 1984, which is one of the most frightening books ever
written.
WARNING:
The relative pronoun is the subject of the clause.
We do not repeat the subject:
My uncle, who [he] was born in Hong Kong, lived most of his life overseas.
I have just read Orwells 1984, which [it] is one of the most frightening books ever written.
as object of a clause :
He finally met Paul McCartney, whom he had always admired.
We are going back to Venice, which we first visited thirty years ago.
We can also use who as the object.
He finally met Paul McCartney, who he had always admired.
WARNING:
The relative pronoun is the object of the clause.
We do not repeat the object:
He finally met Paul McCartney, whom he had always admired [him].
We are going back to Venice, which we first visited [it] thirty years ago.
as object of a preposition:
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He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, who he had read about in the newspaper.
Thats the programme which we listened to last night.
- We sometimes use whom instead of who:
He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, whom he had read about in the newspaper.
- The preposition sometimes comes in front of the relative pronoun whom or which:
He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, about whom he had read in the newspaper.
Thats the programme to which we listened last night.
5. Quantifiers and numbers with relative pronouns
We often use quantifiers and numbers with relative pronouns:
many of whom - most of whom - one of which - none of whom
some of which - lots of whom - two of which - etc.
We can use them as subject, object or object of a preposition.
She has three brothers two of whom are in the army.
I read three books last week, one of which I really enjoyed.
There were some good programmes on the radio, none of which I listened to.
6. Using "which" to give more information
We often use the relative pronoun which to say something about a clause:
He was usually late, which always annoyed his father.
Weve missed our train, which means we may be late.
to-infinitives:
We all agreed to do as much as we could.
Who told you to come?
2. We very rarely try to report exactly what someone has said. We usually give a summary:
Mary: Oh dear, weve been walking for hours. I am exhausted. I dont think I can go any
further. I really need to stop for a rest.
Peter: Dont worry. Im not surprised that youre tired. Im tired too. Ill tell you what. Ill see if
I can find a place to sit down, and then we can stop and have our picnic.
>>>
When Mary complained that she was tired out after walking so far, Peter said they could
stop for a picnic.
3. Tense forms in reports and summaries.
When we are reporting what people say or think in English we need to remember:
that the tense forms in reports and summaries are the same as in the rest of the language:
This is a letter that Andrew Brown wrote ten years ago:
I am twenty-two years old and I am at University studying engineering. I
take my final exams next month and I will finish university in July.
I want to take a year off and travel round the world. I will need to make
some money while I am travelling so I would like to learn to teach
English as a second language so that I can make some money while I
am abroad. A friend of mine has recommended your course very highly.
She also gave me some details, but I would like to ask a few more
questions.
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What courses do you have in the summer and when do they start? How
much do the courses cost? Is there an examination at the end?
I look forward to hearing from you.
Regards,
Andrew Brown.
If you were telling a story about Andrew might write something like this.:
When Andrew was 22 he was an engineering student in his last month at
the university. He wanted to travel abroad after he had finished his
course at the university, but he would need to earn some money while
he was abroad so he wanted to learn to teach English as a foreign
language. A friend had recommended a course but Andrew needed
more information. So he wrote to the school and asked them when their
courses started and how much they were. He also wanted to know if
there was an examination at the end of the course.
You would use past tense forms to talk about something that happened ten
years ago.
If you were reporting or summarising what Andrew wrote you might start off
by saying:
Andrew told me that when he was 22 he was an engineering student in
his last month
... and you could go on in the same way. You would use past tense forms to
talk about something which happened ten years ago. So tense forms in
reports and summaries in English are the same as in the rest of the
language.
Sometimes you have to choose between a past tense form and a present tense form.
If you are talking about the past but you mention something that is still true you could use
a present tense form to show you agree that it is true:
John said he had stayed at the Shangri-la because it is the most comfortable hotel in
town.
Mary said she enjoyed the film because Robert de Niro is her favourite actor.
Helen said she loves visiting New York.
... or a past tense form:
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John said he had stayed at the Shangri-la because it was the most comfortable hotel in
town.
Mary said she enjoyed the film because Robert de Niro was her favourite actor.
Helen said she loved visiting New York,
If we are talking about something that everybody knows is true we normally use a
present tense:
Michael said he had always wanted to climb Everest because it is the highest mountain
in the world.
Mary said she loved visiting New York because it is such an exciting city.
4. to-infinitives in reports and summaries:
We often use the to-infinitive after verbs of thinking and feeling to report or summarise actions:
decide - hope - intend
After some verbs we use a direct object and the infinitive (see verbs followed by infinitive):
advise - ask - encourage - invite - order - remind - tell - warn expect - intend - want - would like - would prefer
3. Questions and negatives with present simple and past simple forms:
For all verbs except be and have we use do/does and did with the base form of the verb to
make Yes/No questions for the present simple and past simple forms:
They work hard >>> Do they work hard?
He works hard >>> Does he work hard?
They worked hard >>> Did they work hard?
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For all verbs except be and have we make negatives by putting not after do/does and did for
the present simple and past simple forms:
They work hard >>> They do not (dont) work hard
He works hard >>> He does not (doesnt) work hard
They worked hard >>> They did not (didnt) work hard.
Here are the question forms and negative forms for the verb be in the present simple and past
simple:
I am
(Im)
Am I?
I am not
(Im not)
He is
(hes)
Is he?
He is not
She is
(shes)
Is she
She is not
It is
(its)
Is it
It is not
You are
(youre)
Are you
They are
(theyre)
Are they
and negatives:
I dont have much time.
She doesnt have any money.
They didnt have any advice to offer.
but we can make questions by putting have, has or had in front of the subject:
Have you plenty of time?
Had they any useful advice?
and we can make negatives by putting not or nt after have, has or had:
We havent much time.
She hadnt any money.
He hasnt a sister called Liz, has he?
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4. Wh-questions
Wh-questions are questions which start with a question-asking word, either a Wh- word
(what, when, where, which, who, whose, why) or questions with the word how.
Questions with: when, where, why:
We form wh-questions with these words by putting the question word in front of a Yes/No
question:
Where are they working?
Why have they been working hard?
Where does he work?
Where will you go?
When did they arrive?
etc.
Sometimes who or what takes the place of the subject (see Clauses, Sentences and
Phrases) of the clause:
Who gave you the chocolates? >>> Barbara gave me the chocolates.
Who is looking after the children? >>> My mother is looking after the children
Who mended the window? >>> My brother mended the window
Who could have done this? >>> Anybody could have done this.
Everyone will have read the book >>> I wonder if everyone will have read the book.
or with wh-words:
I wonder how much this dress is.
Can you tell me where she comes from?
Do you know who lives here?
wh- clauses
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Wh-words are what, when, where, who, which, why and how.
We use clauses with a wh- word:
In wh-questions (see Questions and Negatives):
tell and some other verbs of saying must always have a direct object (see clauses,
sentences and phrases):
tell - remind
We tried to tell them what they should do.
She reminded me where I had left the car.
after some verbs of thinking and saying we use wh-words and the to-infinitive:
We didnt know what to do.
We will ask when to set off.
Nobody told me what to do.
Can anyone suggest where to go for lunch?
-- When the subject of the to-infinitive is the same as the person spoken to:
Nobody told me what to do. >>> Nobody told me what I should do.
Can anyone suggest where to go for lunch? >>> Can anyone suggest [to us] where we
should go for lunch.
noun phrase
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Noun Phrases
Often a noun phrase is just a noun or a pronoun:
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Some words and phrases come after the noun. These are called postmodifiers. A noun phrase
can be postmodified in several ways. Here are some examples:
with a prepositional phrase:
a man with a gun
the boy in the blue shirt
the house on the corner
with an ing phrase:
verb phrase
See "Verbs - the verb phrase"
adverbial phrases
See "Adverbials"
prepositional phrases
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sentence structure
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Simple sentences:
A simple sentence has only one clause:
The children were laughing.
John wanted a new bicycle.
All the girls are learning English.
Compound sentences:
A compound sentence has two or more clauses:
(We stayed behind) and (finished the job)
(We stayed behind) and (finished the job), then (we went home)
The clauses in a compound sentence are joined by co-ordinating conjunctions:
Reason clauses
because; since; as
Place clauses
Time clauses
Conditional
clauses
adjective phrases
See Adjectives
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