Marine Energy Glossary

Marine Energy Challenge
Marine Energy Glossary

July 2005

Disclaimer
Whilst the Carbon Trust has taken reasonable steps to ensure
that the information contained in this Glossary is correct, it gives
no warranty and makes no representation as to its accuracy and
accepts no liability for any errors or omissions.
The information in the Glossary is being made available to you
as part of the Carbon Trusts general activity of promoting
deployment of, and investment in, low carbon technology. The
Carbon Trust does not give investment advice and you must take
your own view on the merits of, and the risks attached to, any
investment decision you may undertake. You may wish to obtain
professional advice.
An independent company set up the Government to help the UK
meet its climate change obligations through business-focused
solutions to carbon emission reduction, the Carbon Trust is
funded by Defra, the Scottish Executive, the Welsh National
Assembly and Invest Northern Ireland.
This document is compiled by Entec UK Ltd. The information is
provided by a number of parties. It is a working document that
may be revised and published fromtime to time.
The Carbon Trust 2005

i

Foreword
The Marine Energy Challenge (MEC) was established in response to the
Carbon Trusts strategic work highlighting the potential for wave and tidal
stream development in the UK. The main driver was to establish in the
medium term if these technologies can become cost competitive. Through
partnering large engineering design organisations with existing wave and
tidal stream technology developers, the Challenge aims to accelerate the
development of marine energy in the UK.
By carrying out detailed engineering assessment in the MEC, it has
become evident that the Carbon Trust and the marine energy stakeholders
have a need to compare many different technologies and applications that
could significantly benefit from a common set of terms and definitions. With
this in mind the Carbon Trust has worked with Entec UK Ltd. to produce
this Glossary as both a permanent record of the MEC understanding and a
possible starting point for the wave and tidal stream sectors to further
develop a Marine Energy language understandable by all.
The terms in this Glossary are mostly adapted or borrowed from other fields
of engineering but we have attributed meanings to them specifically for use
in Marine Energy. This has given us the means to discuss complex ideas
and varied options clearly and reduced misunderstandings of some crucial
terms.
Whilst this glossary is very useful to the Carbon Trust we hope that much of
the industry would benefit from it too. Of course not all terms can be
defined clearly and certainly new terms will be formed and others adapted
as time passes, but the Carbon Trust has chosen to publish our
understanding of the terms to date and welcome others to use, improve
and extend the Glossary.
The Marine Energy Industry offers a path to a more sustainable future and
this Glossary represents one clear marker along that path.

Paul Jordan
Programme Manager
Marine Energy Challenge
The Carbon Trust

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Contents
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Using the glossary 1
2. Glossary 2
3. Symbols and abbreviations 24
3.1 Symbols 24
3.2 Abbreviations 24
3.3 Units 25
4. Notes 27
5. Acknowledgements 29
6. Figures 30

Figure 1 Wave nomenclature, wave crest and direction 30
Figure 2 Definition of amplitude and phase of a wave 30
Figure 3 Wave nomenclature 31
Figure 4 Wave nomenclature 31
Figure 5 Example of a time series of wave positions showing the significant wave height in red 32
Figure 6 Example of a power spectral density function showing the three main average periods and
frequencies 32
Figure 7 Example of an un-smoothed time-series transformed using Fast-Fourier Transforms into the
frequency domain. This shows the spectral density of the wave train showing which
frequencies contain the most energy. Also shown is a Pierson Moskowitz spectrum that
best describes the data. 33
Figure 8 An example of a wave rose 33
Figure 9 Example scatter diagram (joint probability distribution of significant wave height and energy
period) showing occurrence of sea states in parts per thousand. Also shown are contours
of constant mean wave power level [kW/m] 34
Figure 10 Depth of water and circular water motions for deep-water approximations of wave 35
Figure 11 An example of a power surface (power matrix), for illustration the scatter diagram in Figure 9
is overlaid. The product of these two matrices gives the energy output. 36
Figure 12 Example of a wide and narrow-band spectral response of an untuned device. The red curve
has a wide (half-peak power) bandwidth and the blue has a narrow (half-peak power)
bandwidth. Not that by tuning the peak frequency can also be moved. 37

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iii

Figure 13 Comparison of Pierson Moskowitz and J ONSWAP spectral density functions for the same
peak frequency 37
Figure 14 Definition of water-plane area 38
Figure 15 From left to right: Cross-flow tidal turbine, horizontal axis axial-flow turbine, the straight arrows
indicate the tide flow direction 38
Figure 16 Darrieus turbine showing rotation and incident fluid flow 39
Figure 17 Cross-axis turbine; water flows through the centre of the turbine. Only three blades are shown
here but other designs can have many more blades 39
Figure 18 An example of a duct, in this simple example the water flow from left to right is enhanced by
the duct and speeds up 40
Figure 19 Principal axes in wave energy 40

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1

1. Introduction
1.1 Background
The Marine Energy Challenge has studied a wide cross-section of marine energy technologies.
During the studies it became clear that there was an increasing need for clarity on the terms used
to describe the technology. The Carbon Trust thus developed a set of terms as understanding
improved. This glossary is intended primarily for use by the Carbon Trust but it is recognised
that it might have benefit to technology developers, investors and other stakeholders.
The terms contained are not exhaustive, but reflect those that have found most value on the
Challenge thus far. Many engineering terms are not included since we believe that these are
covered adequately in other texts.
1.2 Using the glossary
The definitions in this glossary are intended to provide a useful tool for all involved in the
marine energy sector to communicate. Many of the terms are borrowed from other fields. The
definitions provided here though are specific to Marine Energy. Some technical terms that are in
common usage in other industries and have the same meaning in marine energy are omitted
from this glossary. This glossary is intended for readers with a good technical knowledge.
Where units are suggested these can always be changed for their International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) or imperial equivalents. The magnitudes of the units are chosen as the
ones most likely to be used in the industry for a given task. Thus kilowatt-hours [kWh] are
given as a measure of energy when terawatt-hours [TWh] or J oules [J ] could be used instead.
Where applicable, units and fundamental dimensions are given in squared brackets. Units are
written in plain text e.g. [m], whereas fundamental units are written in serif text e.g. [ ]. L
Equations follow as far as possible standard notation. Variables are shown in italic serif font e.g.
+ = A m y .
Terms used in definitions that are defined elsewhere in the glossary are shown in bold.

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Accumulator - Alternating current
2

2. Glossary
Term Definition
Accumulator A device for storing energy for long or short periods and which can
release the stored energy in the same form as it was supplied.
There are several forms of accumulator. Mostly the term is used to
describe a device that stores pressurised hydraulic or pneumatic
fluids. Other types of accumulator include a battery.
Added mass An equivalent mass, which represents the component of the wave
excitation force that is in phase with the acceleration of the device.
The hydrodynamic forces due to waves on an immersed object vary
with time. The response of the device to those forces is not exactly in
phase with the force itself. (The object either leads or lags the
waves). This is because to move the device must impart some kinetic
energy to the fluid. This hydrodynamic force can be expressed in
terms of two complex components, one in phase with the
acceleration of the device and one in phase with the velocity of the
device (i.e. 90 lagging). These two force components can be
expressed in terms of two useful quantities. The force in phase with
the acceleration of the device can be expressed in terms of an extra
point mass fixed to the device. This is known as the added mass.
The force in phase with the velocity of the device can be expressed in
terms of a velocity force as an applied damping. This is known as
added damping, or since it is also the force that causes waves to be
generated by the device, it is also known as the radiation damping.
Both added mass and radiation damping are dependent on the
frequencies of the waves creating the hydrodynamic forces. The
effect of frequency on the added mass and damping is also related
to the shape of the device. Added mass and radiation damping for an
object can be calculated from computer diffraction codes or
calculated from wave tank tests.
Because of this frequency dependency, added mass cannot simply
be interpreted as the mass of water moving with the structure in the
fluid.
Alternating current
(AC)
An electrical current which periodically changes or reverses its
direction of flow.

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Amplitude - Attenuator
3

Amplitude The maximum extent or magnitude of a vibration or other oscillating
phenomenon, measured from the equilibrium position or average
value.
From the equation for simple harmonic motion, the displacement x
at time from the equilibrium position is given by: t
( ) ) cos( + = t A t x
A =amplitude, =angular frequency, t =time, =phase
constant
This can also be written in complex form and an amplitude quantity
can be a complex number.
Anchor To fix to a point of support.
Wave energy devices are often anchored to the seabed by means of
a strong cable or chain, which is attached to a heavy anchor object.
This anchor can provide its support through its own mass alone
(gravity anchors), by being grouted into the seabed or embedded
(dragged) into the seabed.
Array An arrangement of similar devices.
In renewable energy devices this means a number of similar devices
arranged into a single group to provide a combined energy output.
Also known as a farm.
Attenuator A device that reduces the amplitude of a vibration or other oscillating
phenomenon.
A term borrowed from radio theory attenuator describes the way that
a wave energy device may extract energy from the waves. An
attenuator can produce a wave field that is highly focussed in one
direction; conversely it can absorb energy from a focussed direction.
An attenuating wave energy device is aligned horizontally and in the
direction of the wave field. As waves pass the device they are
focussed in on the device. In calm water if the device were run
backwards it would produce a directionally focussed wave field from
both the front and back of the device. A modern ultra-high-frequency
(UHF) terrestrial television aerial behaves similarly to a water wave
attenuator at absorbing radio waves. It is postulated that a perfect
attenuator could achieve a capture width of 2 3 compared to a
point absorbers capture width of 2 (where is the wave
length).

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Availability - Bathymetry
4

Availability The degree to which a system is free from degradation or interruption
in its output resulting from component failures, maintenance or
operational scheduling. Availability is often expressed as a annual
percentage derived from the following equation:
period in time Total operation for available Time ty Availabili =
The time available for operation is regardless of whether the
prevailing conditions are suitable for energy production. So it includes
all times when the machine is turned off during storms for example,
but when no fault is present.
Availability Reliability
Maintainability
(ARM)
A formal analysis process conducted to determine the likely
availability, reliability and maintainability of a system.
This process recognises the connections between all these aspects.
This allows a traceable analysis that can be used to predict the life
costs of any system.
Bandwidth Bandwidth describes the range of wave frequencies over which a
wave energy device responds.
In wave energy different devices respond differently to different
ranges of wave frequencies. Some might have a high response in a
small range of frequencies and others might have a lower response
over a wider range of frequencies. In either case these ranges can
be changed by tuning the device. However, the width of the range is
known as the bandwidth of the device. Bandwidth is defined variously
depending on how it is most useful in a given context.
For example if we tune two devices to the same natural frequency
and then compare the difference between the two frequencies that
give half the maximum response for each device we get a frequency
band; the half-response bandwidth. Figure 12 shows two devices
tuned to the same natural frequency (the peaks of the response
curves are at the same frequency). The red curve is said to have a
wide bandwidth and the blue curve has a narrow bandwidth. Both
devices have the same response at their natural frequency.
Whether a wave energy converter designer chooses a wide or
narrow bandwidth solution depends on their view of the economics of
their device, (e.g. the choice between say lower energy capture with
less capital cost or higher energy capture with greater costly technical
complexity). However, to explain the importance we will use an
example. Taking the two devices in Figure 12 and assuming that they
are tuned optimally for a given sea state to give maximum energy
capture; the narrow bandwidth device would give a lower overall
energy production. This is because its average response across all
frequencies is lower than for the wide bandwidth device. (Note than
in some circumstances a narrow bandwidth device might be the right
economic solution), thus bandwidth alone is not a good differentiator
between devices in terms of economics.
Bathymetry The measurement of water depth and the shape of the seabed
often as shown on a map of the sea or hydrographic chart.

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Bretschneider spectrum - Constructive interference
5

Bretschneider spectrum A theoretical power spectral density function that has been found to
be suited to some well developed (long-fetch) deep-water seas.
The Bretschneider spectrum has two parameters of significant wave
height ( ) and zero-up-crossing period ( ). The spectral
density [m
S
H
Z
T
S
/Hz] for a given frequency is f

( ) ( )
4 5
exp

= Bf Af f S where
4 2
4
Z S
T H A = and
4
1
Z
T B =
The Bretschneider spectrum is a two-parameter extension of the
Pierson Moskowitz spectrum. This is more useful since most
historically recorded scatter diagrams are presented in terms of
significant wave height ( ) and zero-up-crossing period ( )
S
H
Z
T
Buoys An anchored floating device.
Traditionally these have served as navigation marks or for mooring
but now can be incorporated to wave energy devices. They are
typically small compared to the incoming wavelengths, thus are a
common form of point absorber.
Capacity factor The ratio of the mean generation to the peak generation on a
renewable energy generator.
The capacity factor, sometimes referred to as the load factor, of a
renewable energy farm is the energy produced during a given period
as a proportion of the energy that would have been produced had the
device been running continually and at maximum output, e.g.
[h] period in time [kW] capacity Installed
[kWh] period the during production y Electricit
factor Capacity
=
Capture width Energy in a uni-directional wave is expressed in terms of power per
unit wave crest, i.e. per unit width (see wave power level). The
capture width of a device is the width of wave front containing the
same energy as the device can capture in that same wave field. For
some devices the capture width can be wider than the device itself.
Capture width ratio The maximum theoretical capture width of a device can be defined
by proposing an analogy that approximates the device operation. In a
sense this defines the radiation field generated by the device when
oscillated at a given frequency in calm water. The capture width ratio
is the ratio of the devices actual capture width to the maximum
theoretical capture width.
This measure is only useful if the device is described correctly by the
analogy in the first place. For example approximating an attenuator
as a point absorber could give capture width ratios of greater than
one. This would mean that more energy left the far field than entered
through it thus not conserving energy. Clearly in such an example it is
the analogy that is incorrect.
Constructive
interference
The phenomenon of superposition where several waves travelling
through the same point combine to increase the resultant wave
amplitude above that of any of the original individual waves.

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Conversion efficiency - Cross axis tidal turbine
6

Conversion efficiency
The conversion efficiency () of a device is the proportion of energy
converted to a useful form (e.g. electricity) compared to the total
energy available to the device. The definitions differ greatly between
wave energy converters and tidal stream energy converters
devices.
AVAILABLE
OUT
E
E
=
It is sometimes difficult to define the energy available since it
depends on how the device is best described mathematically. See
discussion on capture width of wave devices. Also since it is the
cost of energy produced (in both monetary and environmental terms)
that is of primary importance the conversion efficiency of the waves
or tides to useful power is of less interest. The conversion efficiency
of different components in the power train however (power take-off)
is of interest.
The conversion efficiency of the power take off can often be
described by a conversion efficiency, e.g. an average electrical
generator efficiency for all normal operating conditions can be given
as say 95%. This would mean that 95% of the mechanical power
transmitted to the generator is converted to electricity.
The total conversion efficiency of a chain of can often be
expressed conveniently as the product of their individual efficiencies
(
N
n
is the conversion efficiency of the -th component). n
N
= ...
3 2 1

Coriolis An effect whereby a mass moving in a rotating system experiences a
force perpendicular to the direction of motion and to the axis of
rotation. In tidal energy the coriolis force is important. The main
forces acting on the water masses on earth are gravitational. Since
the earth also spins relative to these forces coriolis acceleration is
also felt. This enhances the tidal ranges and flows at certain
locations.
Cross axis tidal turbine A configuration of tidal stream turbine rotor that rotates such that
blades move around an axis perpendicular to the flow.
The blades at different rotational positions travel with the flow, across
it and again into the flow. The flow of water thus passes a series of
upstream blades then through the middle of the rotor and leaves
through the downstream blades. See Figure 17. (Similar in principle
to the Banki turbine used in hydropower).

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Damping - Displacer
7

Damping A mechanism for bringing about a reduction in the amplitude of a
vibration or oscillation by extracting energy.
In a power plant the damping is the part of the load that acts in phase
with the velocity. Damping is usually expressed as the force per unit
velocity [N/(m/s)]. Where a system operates in a quasi-stable state
the damping is directly proportional to the load and thus the power
produced. In an oscillating system the damping is specifically the
component of the applied load that acts in phase with the velocity of
the power-producing component. Damping can arise from methods to
produce useful work, (such as in a generator) or by losses and
friction forces. For most power systems the power-producing
damping must be adjusted to achieve maximum energy conversion
efficiency. If the damping is too high then the motions are limited and
little power is produced. If the damping is too light then little power is
absorbed by the damper and little power is taken off.
Darrieus turbine A cross-axis turbine type common in early wind turbine designs,
which may have application in tidal stream energy.
The original wind turbine design was a vertical axis cross-axis
turbine with curved blades (see Figure 16). These blades were given
a troposkein (spinning rope) shape and are commonly referred to as
egg-beaters.
Destructi ve interference The combination of two waves such that one wave in some part
cancels the other.
Diffraction The phenomenon, when waves are obstructed by a still object, of the
wave disturbance spreading beyond the limits of the geometric
shadow of the object. The spreading effect of waves passing a still
object in water.
The frequency response of a wave energy device can be broken
into three parts; the incoming wave field, the radiation problem and
the diffraction problem.
Computer codes and tank testing can be used to predict the radiation
and diffraction relationships for a particular object. The diffraction and
radiation characteristics are a function of the size and particularly
shape of the object.
Diffraction program A computer code used to calculate the frequency-dependent
diffraction and radiation characteristics of a floating body. Used
also to calculate added mass and damping functions.
Dimensional analysis An analysis that can be performed on an equation, to describe the
resultant quantity with respect to elementary dimensions, e.g. length
[ ], time [T], mass [ ]. For example power has fundamental units
of .
L M
3 2
T ML

Direct current An electric current flowing in one direction only.
Displacer The part of a wave energy device that moves in response to the
waves. Power is usually taken off (see power take-off) from the
relative motions of the reactor and displacer.

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Distribution system - Equation of motion
8

Distribution system An electrical grid network that is used to distribute power to a number
of loads. The system can be composed of cables operating at several
set voltages. In England and Wales the electricity distribution is
composed of cables operating below 275kV and in Scotland, below
132kV.
Drag The retarding force exerted on a body moving relative to a fluid. Drag
is usually an energy loss process. It can arise in water movements as
friction on wetted surfaces or as vortex shedding from fluid flowing
past solid object corners.
Duct With particular application to tidal stream turbines; a duct is a
cowling placed around a turbine to enhance the flow through the
rotor.
The intention is to increase the flow such that a smaller rotor can be
used for the same power production, or to gain more power from the
same size rotor. Ducts can also be used to adjust the direction of a
flow. These advantages must be balanced against possible increased
flow direction sensitivity of the device and possible pressure drop
across the duct. See also Figure 18.
The term duct can also apply to the part of oscillating water
columns where the air turbine is placed.
Eigenfrequency See natural frequency.
Energy frequency
( )
e
f
The frequency corresponding to the energy period,
e e
T f 1 = [Hz].
Energy period
( )
e
T
Real sea waves can be described as a series of superimposed
waves of different periods and amplitudes. The energy period is the
period of a monochromatic (single frequency) wave containing the
same energy as the real sea state. It can be described
mathematically as
0 1
M M
where is the -th spectral moment

of the power spectral density function. See Figure 7. The energy
period is usually measured in seconds.
n
M n
See also energy frequency.
Energy storage Storing energy in a form so that it can be used at a time after it was
originally generated.
Equation of motion An equation that can be used to describe the motion of an object.
These are typically derived from fundamental equations such as
Newtons laws of motion. A simplified example of the equation of
motion for a single-degree-of-freedom vibrating system is:
t F kx x c x m sin
0
= + + & & & where x is the displacement from the
mean position, is the effective mass of the system, c is the
effective linear damping of the system, is the stiffness of the
system, is the modulus of the applied harmonic force,
m
k
0
F is the
frequency of the applied force and is the time. t

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Equivalent linearization - Fast Fourier Transform
9

Equivalent linearization Many problems can be simplified by only considering situations
where the describing functions are linear. Non-linearities might be
ignored or approximated. Equivalent linearization is a process of
approximating a non-linearity so that it can be included as a linear
term.
An example of such an approach is to produce an equivalent
constant damping force to approximate drag on a floating buoyant
body. In a real sea drag is not constant and is proportional to the
square of the velocity and thus is not linear. However equivalent
linearization can be used to produce a constant value of drag. In
such an example the energy lost due to drag can be used for
equivalence. So the average energy lost due to drag in the real sea
equals the energy lost due to drag in the linearized model.
This technique is especially useful in the frequency domain where
time-averaged values are required.
Excursion The distance moved relative to the instantaneous water surface level
is the excursion. The excursion of a device is the distance between a
floating devices mean water position and the surface of the water.
The mean water position is the point on the device level with the
water surface in calm water and when the device is at rest in
equilibrium. Since the device will not always move in phase with the
waves it is possible for the device to move relative to the water
surface.
Far field In a wave field a boundary distant from a certain point can be
defined. The energy passing through this boundary must be in
equilibrium. This boundary is known as the far field. Describing
energy fluxes in the far field is much simpler than describing those
near the body (see near field).
Farm See array.
Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT)
Fast Fourier Transforms are a computationally efficient means of
transforming large quantities of data. They have particular application
in analysing water waves. FFTs are used to convert time-series wave
position information (such as wave height) into power spectral density
functions. Thus from the time-domain into the frequency domain.
The full process retains information about the energy and frequency
content of the waves, but loses the phase-relationships between the
waves. Whilst complex Fourier transforms can be reversed, their
presentation of power or amplitude spectra normally cannot be
reversed. This means that a time-series of wave positions can be
transformed into the frequency domain, but can only be transformed
back into the time-domain if the original intermediate calculations (the
complex imaginary parts of the FFT) are available. In such cases it is
highly likely that the original wave train data are available anyway.

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Fast tuning - Froude number
10

Fast tuning Fast tuning requires changing characteristics of a device to adjust (or
ideally to maximise) the energy capture. Fast tuning means
adjustments for each wave or loosely over a period of around
1 second for real-sea waves. Also known as wave-by-wave tuning
or better event-to-event tuning.
Fast tuning requires that the device has a characteristic mode that
can be altered to change its response. This may mean changing the
effective system stiffness, or delaying or locking device against its
natural motion. Fast tuning is required for systems that use stiffness
modulation and latching to control their response to real sea
waves.
Fast tuning can be either predictive (feed-forward) or reactive
(feedback) and usually requires complex software algorithms,
sensors and controllers.
Fetch The distance travelled by wind or waves with no obstruction.
Free surface In marine energy often this means the surface of the water. It is free
to move. Often it is approximated by assuming that it is only affected
by incoming wave fields and gravitational forces. The effects of the
air above are ignored.
Frequency In particular application to wave energy the frequency is the
water/sea wave frequency. It is measured in Hertz [Hz] or [radians/s].
Frequency domain When analysing periodic information it is sometimes beneficial to
consider using the frequency domain. Such analyses transform the
problem into one of frequency components. An example of a
frequency-domain presentation is the power spectral density
function. The Power Spectrum Density (PSD) function shows the
energy contained in each frequency of wave. The PSD was created
by averaging a great number of waves in real time. (See time
domain.)
Frequency response An oscillating system such as a resonant wave energy device can be
excited by a varying force such as that from interactions with waves.
The degree to which the system is affected by the force is its
response. The frequency response of a system is particularly the
extent to which that system is affected by particular frequencies of
forcing. Thus it can be said that a wave energy device responds
differently to different frequencies of waves. The relationship between
the devices response and the frequency of the incoming waves is its
frequency response. Also referred to as the Response Amplitude
Operator (RAO).
Froude number The Froude number is a non-dimensional scaling parameter used by
hydrodynamicists. It is the ratio of the modulus of the inertia force to
the gravity force. It is often expressed as lg u where u is a
reference velocity, is a reference length and is a reference
gravitational force (i.e. approximately 9.81m/s on earth). See also
scaling.
l g

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Generator - JONSWAP
11

Generator A device that converts mechanical power into electrical power.
There are several forms of generator including synchronous,
asynchronous, permanent magnet, linear and hydraulic types.
Gravity foundation A foundation design that holds a structure in place primarily using the
force of a mass under gravity.
Grid A network of interconnected cables for transmitting and/or distributing
electricity.
Harmonic A harmonic is a single frequency that is an exact integer multiple of
the fundamental or natural frequency of a system.
Heave Vertical motions of a buoyant body (see Figure 19).
Horizontal axis turbine A tidal stream turbine mounted such that it rotates about a horizontal
axis. See Figure 15.
Hydraulics The use of fluids to convert motions from one form to another.
Installed capacity The installed capacity of a device is the total power that the device
can produce when operating correctly and at full power output.
Traditionally this is the installed capacity of the electrical generator in
a device. Installed capacity is usually measured in kilowatts [kW] or
megawatts [MW].
Joint-probability
distribution
See scatter diagram.
JONSWAP A theoretical power spectral density function suggested by the J oint
North Sea Wave Project (from the acronym of which J ONSWAP
derives) that has been found to be suited to some short-fetch seas,
particularly the North Sea for which is was developed. This is an
adaptation of the Pierson Moskowitz spectrum where the peak
frequency is enhanced. One formulation of the J ONSWAP spectrum
is below in terms of the peak frequency:
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
2
2
exp
4
5 4 2
4
5
exp 2
P
P
f
f f
P
f
f
f g f S

= [m
/Hz]
Where is the spectral density at a given frequency , and ( ) f S f
is the peak-enhancement factor chosen to best suit the prevailing
conditions and has different values above and below the peak
frequency ( ). Various values for
P
f and have been proposed in
the literature for different conditions e.g. 2 = and 07 . 0 =
( ) and for
P
f f 09 . 0 = ( ).
P
f f >
In this formulation the J ONSWAP represents a Pierson Moskowitz
distribution with an extra enhancement of the peak and adjustments
to the high and low-frequency tails. Thus the spectrum has a
narrower band of high-energy frequencies than a Pierson
Moskowitz distribution of the same peak period. See Figure 13.

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Keulegan-Carpenter number - Monopile
12

Keulegan-Carpenter
number
The non-dimensional Keulegan-Carpenter number is defined as
D
T U
KC
M
=
Where [m/s] is the amplitude of the harmonically varying velocity
of the water relative to a cylinder of diameter
M
U
D [m] and where T [s]
is the period of the velocity oscillations. The Keulegan-Carpenter
number provides a basis for comparing the relative dominance of
drag and inertia forces and is useful in the prediction of the onset of
vortex shedding.
Latching Latching is a method of control. The aim is to deliberately hold back
or latch a device in a particular position during a wave cycle. For
example one might hold a heaving buoy lower in the water for part of
the cycle than it would naturally assume under wave action alone.
The aim is to make the device which is not naturally tuned to the sea
state behave more like one that is. Latching is a form of fast tuning.
Linear In mathematical descriptions of oscillating systems such as wave
energy devices the term linear means that all oscillating variables are
sinusoidal and proportional (in the case of waves) to wave height.
Linear often implies relatively small motions or amplitudes
Load factor The ratio of the mean load to the peak load on a generator.
Often used in the place of capacity factor. Load factor is traditionally
used to describe the duty on a conventional power generation system
where it is the load on the system that varies rather than the fuel. In
renewable energy it is assumed that it is the fuel (the waves or tides)
that varies and the load remains present at all times. Thus capacity
factor is the term normally used.
Marine current See tidal stream.
Mean wave power Mean power is the average power in a real (polychromatic) sea. It is
usually measured in kilowatts or megawatts. Even over relatively
short periods such as the length of a persisting sea state (minutes to
hours) it is common to use average powers rather than instantaneous
powers.
The mean power output over the year is a useful measure of a wave
energy device performance since it gives a single figure by which the
device can be compared with others. (Conventionally the mean
power output is calculated as the installed capacity multiplied by the
capacity factor). See also wave power level.
Monochromatic Consisting of a single wavelength or frequency.
In the real sea exists a set of waves in a range of different
frequencies. However, during design and testing of wave devices it is
often useful to analyse the device at a single known frequency and
thus a much simpler wave train. Such a wave would be described as
a monochromatic wave.
Monopile A foundation design consisting of only one pile to support a structure.

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Natural frequency - Panchromatic
13

Natural frequency The frequency of vibration of an oscillating system when vibrating
freely.
If an oscillating system is moved out of the equilibrium position and
then allowed to return to that equilibrium position over time then the
frequency of the oscillations it produces during that time is the
natural frequency of the system.
Also the natural frequency of any oscillating system is the frequency
of forcing that gives rise to the highest response from the device.
Also known as the eigen-frequency.
Near field The region near to a point where calculation of energy flux can be
complex and difficult to determine. The near field contrasts with the
far field, which is much simpler to describe mathematically.
Nearshore The region of sea between but not including the shoreline and the
offshore. Nearshore is typically defined in terms of water depth,
distance to shore or both. The precise definition of nearshore in terms
of water depth, distance to shore and other parameters is flexible to
allow it to be used for different marine energy technologies. Thus the
nearshore definition for one particular application might differ from
another.
Ocean thermal energy
conversion
(OTEC)
Ocean thermal energy conversion technologies exploit large
temperature gradients (where there is sufficient temperature
difference between the surface and the depths) to extract power from
the oceans.
Offshore The offshore zone is usually the area of sea that is either distant from
land, in deep water or both. Its precise definition is flexible, see
nearshore.
Operation and
maintenance
(O&M)
A term used to describe the combined activities for operating and
maintaining a system.
Also refers to the manuals supplied by the technology supplier to the
system operator to provide all the necessary information on the
proper, efficient and safe operation of a system or device.
Oscillating water column
(OWC)
A hollow, open-ended inclined or vertical tube partially submerged in
a body of water. As waves arrive at the partially submerged open-
ended column the water in the tube is forced to oscillate. This
movement is used to drive a power take-off. Most Oscillating Water
Columns to date have used the water column to pressurise and
depressurise an air volume that is passed back and forth through a
turbine. Power is extracted then by a torque applied to the turbine.
Overtopping As used in marine energy: Overtopping is the method by which
energy from the sea is extracted by allowing waves to impinge on a
structure such that they force water up over that structure thus raising
its potential energy (hydraulic head), kinetic energy or both. An
overtopping device may or may not include a reservoir to contain the
overtopped water. Often high specific-speed water turbine-generators
(e.g. Kaplan turbines) are used to convert the hydraulic head to
electricity.
Panchromatic See polychromatic.

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Peak frequency - Phase
14

Peak frequency
( )
P
f
The frequency corresponding to the peak period,
P P
T f 1 = [Hz].
Peak period
( )
P
T
waves of different periods and amplitudes. The peak period is the
period of the wave containing the most power. This is also the peak
of the power spectrum (see Figure 7). The peak period is usually
measured in seconds.
Some real sea states do occur where two wave trains caused by
different conditions meet. These can produce bi-modal seas that
appear to have two (localised) peak frequencies. Clearly in such
circumstances peak period can be of limited use and is often more
meaningful in spectra that have a single peak frequency.
See also peak frequency.
Period
(T )
The interval of time between successive occurrences of the same
state in an oscillatory or cyclic phenomenon. In wave energy there
are several different periods that can be used to describe a wave
train. In monochromatic waves all periods are the same, but in real
sea conditions where we often describe average conditions several
different periods are required. Three useful average wave periods are
the zero-up-crossing period, the energy period and the peak
period. See Figure 7. The period of a wave is the inverse of its
frequency, f T 1 = [s].
Phase See also amplitude.
Phase is a relative position of two parts of the same wave or between
two waves. It is measured as an angle [either degrees or radians].
For example waves are considered in phase when two corresponding
parts of the wave e.g. their peaks, coincide at the same time. Another
example is a simple wave with a crest and a trough. The trough
follows the crest and is out of phase with the crest. The trough in a
simple sinusoidal wave (see Figure 2) is 90180 out of phase with the
crest; it lags the crest by 90180.
Since many of the other quantities in wave energy also vary with time
such as forces, accelerations and velocities, phases are often used to
describe the relationship between them. For example we often talk
about a device accelerating out of phase with its velocity. Imagine
forcing a mass to oscillate on a spring. At the top of the movement
the mass is stationary and has no velocity and yet it is accelerating
downwards fully. As the mass passes the halfway point it begins to
decelerate and thus the acceleration is zero, at this time though the
velocity is maximum. We say that the velocity lags the acceleration
by 90 phase.

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Pierson Moskowitz spectrum - Polychromatic
15

Pierson Moskowitz
spectrum
A theoretical power spectral density function that has been found to
be suited to some fully developed (long-fetch) deep-water seas. It
does not strictly apply to all sea states in a real sea.
The Pierson Moskowitz spectral density spectrum for a given
frequency was originally defined as
S
f
( )

=

4
5 . 19
5 4
2 3
2
74 . 0 exp
2
10 1 . 8
) (
fU
g
f
g
f S

where is the wind speed at 19.5m above the mean sea level.
(The wind measurements in Pierson and Moskowitzs original study
were made using weather ships whose instruments were mounted at
19.5m above mean sea level.) For the sea states that represent fully
developed seas can be related to the significant wave height
.
5 . 19
U
5 . 19
U
S
H
Since the original Pierson Moskowitz definition does not apply to all
sea states it is common to use the multi-parameter equivalent called
the Bretschneider spectrum instead.
Pile A heavy post driven into the ground to support the foundations of
structure.
Pitch A motion about an axis in the horizontal plane and perpendicular to
the wave propagation. See Figure 19. (Note that in naval architecture
the ship direction is used in the place of wave direction).
Point absorber A wave energy device that is small compared to the incident wave
length.
It can be sized in various ways to tune it to the sea conditions. One
crucial aspect of a point absorber is its ability to focus energy onto
itself. To do this the device radiates waves, which in part cancel the
incoming waves. In the case of a heaving point absorber the radiated
waves are circular when viewed from above whereas the incoming
waves are straight. Under such conditions and in a monochromatic
sea a point absorber can capture energy from a width of wave equal
to 2 where is the incoming wavelength. What is important
here is that the capture width relates to the shape of the wave and
not the size of the device. Thus a point absorber can be very small
and still generate the same power. Note that to do so it would need to
move a long distance to manage this feat. In reality seas are
polychromatic and so a device needs to be able to cope with a range
of different waves arriving at the same time as well as different wave
combinations arriving at different times. In practice size is important
and point absorbers are designed in such a ways as to optimise the
power take-off, mass and more crucially the bandwidth which allows
them to capture some energy from all frequencies and not just those
to which they are tuned.
Polychromatic Composed of more than one wavelength or frequency. Real seas
contain polychromatic waves. Also known as panchromatic.

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Power chain - Radiation
16

Power chain See power train.
Power matrix See power surface.
Power spectral density
(PSD)
The power spectral density is the amount of power contained in each
frequency in a wave spectrum. In wave energy this can be calculated
by transforming a wave train from the time-domain to the frequency
domain using Fourier Transforms (see Fast Fourier Transforms). It
is presented as power per unit frequency or specifically in water
waves as m
/Hz since the power in the waves is proportional to the

square of the wave height.
Power surface Also known as a power matrix. A power surface describes the time-
averaged mean power performance of a device in each sea state. A
scatter diagram can thus be multiplied by a power surface to produce
a mean energy production. The power surface is analogous to a
power curve for wind turbines.
Power take-off
(PTO)
As defined here this is a system incorporated to a renewable energy
device that allows energy to be converted from the physical motions
of the device to a useful form such as electricity. For example an
energy extraction device might directly convert water motions to
rotating shaft power. A power take-off might then convert this torque
to electrical power via a gearbox and electrical generator. The power
take-off is thus a subset of the complete wave-to-wire power train
converting the main motions of the device to a useful form at the exit
to the farm. It does not include the prime mover, or the electricity
transmission system.
A power take-off usually interfaces with a control system that is
capable of adjusting the load to controller power extraction,
controlling the quality of the power and changing the operation of the
device for high and low energy conditions, etc. See also System
Control and Data Acquisition.
Power train See also power take-off. Also known as power chain. The power
train is a series of components that convert power from one form to
another. For example rotating mechanical power can be converted
from low-speed high torque by a gearbox, this mechanical rotation
can then be turned into electricity using a low-voltage electrical
generator and this electrical power can thence be converted to high
voltage by an electrical transformer. The combination of gearbox,
generator and transformer in this case comprise the power train.
Programmable Logic
Controller
(PLC)
A system that can be programmed to respond to different input
signals and provide control signals to other systems.
PLCs are commonly used to control a range of different industrial
plant. Can comprise part of a System Control and Data Acquisition
system and offering the system control functions.
Radiation See also diffraction for a more detailed explanation. In wave energy
radiation can be considered the energy spread away from the device
by its interaction with the water. It is the wave pattern that would be
produced by the device when oscillated in calm water.

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Radiation damping - Response amplitude operator
17

Radiation damping Radiation damping is the damping felt by a floating body as a result
of the waves generated by it as it responds out of phase to the
incoming wave field. See added mass for a more detailed
explanation.
Rated capacity See installed capacity.
Also the maximum continuous point of operation at which an item of
electrical or mechanical equipment is designed to operate.
Reaction A force exerted in opposition to an applied force. In terms of energy
extraction devices it is the reaction force that is applied to the power
take-off to produce useful energy (see reactor).
Reaction mass A means of providing a reaction force. The reaction force results from
accelerating and decelerating the reaction mass. Some reaction
masses can be very large and have large inertia and thus move little
and other reaction masses are small and move considerable
distances. Reaction masses can be incorporated inside the working
parts (such as the displacer) or outside the device. They can
comprise solid materials such as concrete or steel or sometimes
entrapped water. Reaction masses are often used where devices
cannot gain useful reaction forces directly from the land or seabed.
Reacti ve power An abstract quantity used to describe the effects of a load, which on
average neither supplies nor consumes real power. Reactive power,
, uses the unit volt-ampere reactive (VAR) and is defined as: Q
sin VI Q =
Where:
V =voltage (V)
I =current (A)
=impedance angle
Reactor A device relative to which some part of the wave energy device
moves and against which it reacts. The reaction force generated is
then used to generate useful power. Where forces arise from
interactions between two or more components that then do not
produce useful power then none of these components is considered
a reactor.
Reflection The phenomenon of propagating wave energy being thrown back
from or bouncing off a surface. Energy reflection is a special case of
diffraction.
Resonance An increase in the oscillatory energy absorbed by a system when the
frequency of the oscillations matches the systems natural
frequency of vibration.
Response amplitude
operator
(RAO)
The response amplitude operator (RAO) is a measure of the
frequency response of a device relative to the wave causing the
motion. RAOs can describe power and amplitude ratios. See
frequency response.

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Reynolds number - Scaling
18

Reynolds number A dimensionless number used in fluid mechanics to indicate whether
a fluid flow is steady or turbulent. The Reynolds number is the ratio of
the inertia force to the viscous flow force. It can be described as:
lu
Re = , where is the fluid density [kg/m], is a characteristic
length [m], u is a related characteristic velocity [m/s] and
l
is the
fluid viscosity [Pa s]. See also scaling.
Roll To move by turning on an axis in the horizontal plane and in the
direction of the wave propagation. (Note that in naval architecture the
ship direction is used in the place of wave direction).
Root-mean-square
(RMS)
In an oscillating system a useful average quantity is the root-mean-
square quantity defined as:
2
x x
RMS
=
for clarity this can also be expressed for values of N x as
=
=
=
N n
n
n RMS
x
N
x
1
2
1

(For example the RMS amplitude of an integer number of sine waves
cycles is half the amplitude squared).
Salinity gradient Between two bodies of water of different salt concentrations (salinity)
there can exist a pressure difference. This is known as the osmotic
pressure difference. Energy can be extracted from the sea where
large changes or salinity gradients exist. A semi-permeable
membrane is placed between the two bodies of water. Slowly the less
salty water moves into the salty water by osmosis. Energy can in
theory be extracted by exploiting the pressure difference across the
membrane.
Scaling The determination of the interdependency of variables in a physical
system.
Scaling is relevant to the development of marine energy systems
since most new devices will be developed as small models and
tested at part-scale. However, this presents difficulties in
extrapolating the results to full size. If one doubles the size of a
device then not all forces on it will double.
The method of scaling used can greatly affect the results and care
must be taken to confirm that the most appropriate combination of
methods is used. Some scales such as the Froude and Reynolds
numbers are commonly used. However, they both scale differently
and so predictions of forces, power output and non-linearities
predicted using Froude scaling will be different from those predicted
using Reynolds scaling. Neither approach will give truly accurate
results. Model testing, and thus scaling, is a specialist area of
knowledge.

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Scatter diagram - Shoreline
19

Scatter diagram Also known as a joint probability distribution. The scatter diagram
is a table that shows the frequency of occurrence of different sea
states. Each sea state can be defined by a representative height
(usually significant wave height ) and a representative period
( , or ). The table therefore has axes of height and period.
The number of occurrences of each combination is shown in the table
cells corresponding to each height and period. Since not all
combinations of height and period occur in a real sea some of the
cells are left empty. The remainder of the cells are distributed across
the table, thus the name scatter diagram.
S
H
Z
T
e
T
P
T
Sea
(as distinct from sea
state)
Seas are the margins of the oceans that cover most of the Earths
surface. They contain shallower water compared to oceans and have
a semi-enclosed physiography.
In wave energy a sea is a combination of sea states. Often a sea is
an average condition likely to occur during a given period, such as a
year. It is often represented as a scatter diagram.
Sea state A numerical measure of the character of the sea for a given period of
time. The sea state is typically described by its significant wave
height ( ) and period (usually either , or ). A sea-state is
assumed to persist for minutes to hours and most sea state
calculations are based on time periods of 2-4 hours. Over a year at a
given location a range of sea-states are encountered. These are
often summarised statistically in a joint probability distribution
showing the occurrence of different sea-states over a long period
(say one year or more), see scatter diagram. A sea can be
described as a combination of a number of different sea states and a
sea state can be described as a combination of waves characterised
by the two parameters of wave height and period.
S
H
Z
T
e
T
P
T
Shallow water In wave energy or wave forces shallow water is usually defined
relative to the incoming wavelength. Most of the energy in the waves
is contained in the top layers of the water. The decay in energy with
depth is a function of the wavelength . The energy reduces
exponentially with depth. Shallow water is therefore considered to be
less than 2 deep.
Shoal A shallow place in a body of water. Shoals or changes in water depth
can cause the direction of waves to change. This is known as wave
refraction. (A similar effect is observed in light waves as the light
passes into a more optically dense material it bends. This is what
happens in a lens.)
Shoreline The line along which a large body of water meets the land.

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Significant wave height - Survi vability
20

Significant wave height
( )
S
H
The significant wave height is defined here as four times the root-
mean-square water elevation. It can be calculated as it can be
describe mathematically as
0
4 M where is the zeroth
spectral moment of the power spectral density function.
0
M
The significant wave height was originally defined as the average
height of the highest one-third of waves and is sometimes written
as
3
1
H . However, as defined here is derived from the zeroth
spectral moment of the wave train. This definition is also properly
denoted as .
S
H
0 M
H
Skin friction Drag due to friction with wetted surfaces.
Slow tuning Slow tuning requires changing characteristic parameters of a device
to adjust (or ideally maximise) the energy capture. Such
characteristics could for example be the devices buoyancy or power
take-off damping level. Slow tuning means typically adjustments over
minutes to hours or sea state to sea state. Slow tuning is usually
reactive and based on peak power tracking.
Spectral moment
( )
n
M
The -th spectral moment (about n 0 = f , 0 = S ) is defined as
where is the frequency [Hz], is the
power spectral density function.
( ) f f S f M
n
n
d
0
= f ( ) f S
Stiffness The restoring force per unit displacement of a spring [N/m].
Note: A floating body can be thought of as having a buoyancy
stiffness since when displaced downwards by small distance from the
equilibrium position (such that any change in water-plane area is
negligible) the restoring force is proportional to the distance
displaced. Thus the buoyancy stiffness is the restoring force per unit
displacement.
Stiffness modulation Stiffness modulation is the means by which a wave energy converter
in step or resonance with irregular waves. The technique treats the
device as a mass/spring system in which the stiffness of the spring is
modulated to achieve resonance.
In the simplest form of the stiffness-modulation approach, the spring
stiffness can be varied between two values, the higher giving a
natural frequency and the lower a frequency , the required
bandwidth being between the two. By switching between the two
values of natural frequency at the right instants in a cycle, resonance
with the waves can be maintained.
2
f
1
f
Stiffness modulation is a form of fast tuning.
Surge Motions in and out of the direction of wave travel. See Figure 19.
(Note that in naval architecture the ship direction is used in the place
of wave direction).
Survi vability A measure of a devices ability to remain intact and operational in
extreme environmental conditions.

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Survival mode - Transformer
21

Survi val mode An operation mode for a device that reduces the likelihood of damage
being sustained during extreme/uncommon environmental conditions
such as storms.
Sway Horizontal motions perpendicular to direction of wave travel. See
Figure 19. (Note that in naval architecture the ship centreline is used
in the place of wave direction).
System Control and Data
Acquisition
(SCADA)
An automatic system that allows data collection and control of a
system. Such systems are usually accessible by users remote from
the system via telecommunications systems.
Temperature gradient In the oceans there can often be found a temperature difference
between water near the surface and that deeper down. Where this
temperature difference occurs over a relatively short distance (where
there is a noticeable temperature gradient) it can be used to capture
energy using a Rankine cycle. See also ocean thermal energy
conversion (OTEC).
Terminator A device which is long and oriented perpendicular to the wave
direction. One example of a terminator is a wall. A wall however
reflects all wave energy from it and consequently does not extract
any power. An efficient wave energy device configured as a
terminator would create waves exactly in anti-phase with those
arriving at it. As with a wall no waves would be transmitted beyond
the structure under such conditions. An imperfect terminator would
reflect some wave energy, transmit some and extract the remainder.
In theory a terminator can extract 100% of the energy in the waves.
Since a terminator is by definition long, its capture width is equal to
its length and is unrelated to wavelength. (This is unlike point
absorbers and attenuators). In reality terminators are of finite length
and the shorter they get the more they behave like point absorbers
and thus the more sensitive they become to wavelength.
Tidal stream The tides are generated by the rotation of the earth within the
gravitational fields of the moon and sun. The relative motions of these
bodies cause the surface of the oceans to be raised and lowered
periodically and the water to move. Where these moving bodies of
water meet land masses, channels or other underwater features they
can be enhanced forming a tidal stream. The processes by which
these currents are formed depend on the local topography and vary
widely. Also referred to as marine currents.
Tidal stream energy
converter
A tidal stream energy converter turns energy in tidal streams to a
useful form such as electricity.
Time-domain Calculations or control systems that make use of second-by-second
data streams operate in the time domain. A time-series of water
elevation such as shown Figure 5 is an example of data presented in
the time domain. This is to be contrasted with calculations completed
in the frequency domain.
Transformer A device that transfers energy from one electrical circuit to another
via a magnetic coupling. Transformers are often used to transfer
energy between circuits that operate at different voltages.

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Tripod foundation - Wave-by-wave tuning
22

Tripod foundation A foundation structure based upon three poles fixed to the ground in
different locations, which are all joined together at the same point.
Tuning The process of matching one oscillation to another. In oscillating
wave energy systems a device can be sized or controlled in such a
way as to change its oscillation frequency. This is known as tuning. A
device may be tuned to resonate with the incoming waves. Under
such conditions the maximum energy from the waves can be
extracted. Conversely a device can be de-tuned so that it moves little
under the influence of the waves. (For some devices this is an
important survival mode).
Vertical axis tidal stream
turbine
A tidal stream turbine mounted such that it rotates about a vertical
axis. See Figure 15.
Viscous drag Drag caused by interaction with viscous fluids such as water. See
drag.
Water-plane area When a body pierces the surface of the water the area of the
intersection between the body and the surface is the water-plane
area. See Figure 14.
Wave Ocean waves are caused by winds blowing over the earths surface.
These winds transfer energy in shear to the water in the seas and
oceans. This energy causes waves to form. It is from these waves
that carry the energy with no net transfer of water in deep water.
Energy can be extracted by marine energy technologies.
Wave crest The wave crest is the peak of the wave. Since many water waves are
wide compared with their height. The crests of successive waves
proscribe parallel lines on the surface. Measurements of wave
energy are usually related to a certain length of wave crest [kW/m].
See Figure 1.
Wave energy converter A system to convert the energy in surface water waves to a useful
form such as electricity.
Wave power level See mean wave power.
Wave rose A graphical plot describing the wave climate of a location usually in
terms of mean wave energy in given wave directions. Wave roses
can also be produced from measurements taken by wave-rider
buoys.
Wave steepness Wave steepness is a gradient used to describe the shape of a wave.
It is defined as the wave height divided by the wavelength ( H ).
Wave steepness is important when considering extreme waves or
waves that do not behave linearly and is thus is often an important
survival parameter. Note that the wave steepness is not the slope of
the water surface.
Wave tank A test facility capable of producing (wide) waves of a known shape
and type.
Wave-by-wave tuning See fast tuning.

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Wavelength - Zero-up-crossing period
23

Wavelength The distance between two successive zero-up-crossing motions.
Wavelength is usually measured in meters and is often represented
mathematically as the symbol .
Wave-rider buoy A device used to measure wave properties. The buoy rides the
waves and estimates the wave positions and directions based on
measurements of its own accelerations in different directions.
Data from wave-rider buoys can be used to form time-series for
different sea-states of water surface position in given directions and
these can then be used to create power spectral density functions
using fast-Fourier-transform techniques, wave roses and scatter
diagrams.
Wave-to-wire efficiency The conversion efficiency from the wave energy in the sea to a
useful power form e.g. electricity.
Wells turbine A turbine with a zero-pitch rotor designed to rotate in a single
direction regardless of the direction of fluid flow through it. Known for
its use in several oscillating water column designs.
Yaw Rotation of a buoyant body about the vertical axis. See Figure 19.
Zero up-crossing
frequency
( )
Z
f
The frequency corresponding to the zero-up-crossing period,
Z Z
T f 1 = [Hz].
Zero-up-crossing period
( )
Z
T
waves of different periods and amplitudes. The zero-up-crossing
period (often incorrectly called the zero-crossing period) is the
average time between successive movements of the water surface
through the mean position in the upward direction. The zero-up-
crossing period is usually measured in seconds. It can be calculated
as where
z
n D
/ D is the duration in seconds and is the number

of times in that duration that the water surface passed through the
mean position in the upwards direction. The zero-up-crossing period
can also be defined in terms of spectral moments as
z
n
2 0
M M
where is the -th spectral moment of the power spectral
density function.
n
M n
See also zero-up-crossing frequency.

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24

3. Symbols and abbreviations
3.1 Symbols

Wavelength
e
f
Energy frequency
M
f
Modal frequency, see peak frequency
P
f
Peak frequency
Z
f
Zero up-crossing frequency
H
Wave height
0 M
H
See significant wave height
S
H
Significant wave height
KC
Keulegan-Carpenter number
n
M
n -th spectral moment
( ) f S
Spectral density function
T
Period
e
T
Energy period
P
T
Peak period
Z
T
Zero-up-crossing period
x Mean of all x
x&
First time derivative of x
x& &
Second time derivative of x
3.2 Abbreviations
AC Alternating current
ARM Availability Reliability Maintainability
DC Direct current

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25

FFT Fast Fourier Transform
ISO International Organization for Standardization
O&M Operation and Maintenance
OTEC Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
OWC Oscillating water column
PLC Programmable Logic Controller
PSD Power spectral density
PTO Power Take-Off
RMS Root-mean-square
SCADA System Control and Data Acquisition
3.3 Units
Degrees (of heat)
Degrees (of angle) =0.0174533 radians
A Amperes
GW Gigawatts =1,000 Megawatts =1,000,000,000 Watts
GWh Gigawatt-hours =1,000 megawatt-hours =1,000,000,000 watt-hours
Hz Hertz (cycles per second)
J J oules
K Kelvin
km kilometres =1,000 metres
kV kilovolts =1,000 Volts
kW Kilowatts =1,000 Watts
kWh Kilowatt-hours =1,000 Watt-hours
m metres
MW Megawatts =1,000 kilowatts =1,000,000 Watts
MWh Megawatt-hours =1,000 kilowatt-hours =1,000,000 watt-hours
N Newtons [kgms)
Pa Pascals [N/m]
rad Radians =57.2958 degrees
s seconds
TW Terawatts =1,000 Gigawatts =1,000,000,000,000 Watts
TWh Terawatt-hours =1,000 Gigawatt-hours =1,000,000,000,000 watt-hours

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V Volts
VAR Volt-Amperes-Reactive
W Watt
Wh Watt-hours =3600 J oules

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4. Notes
Calculation of power from the frequency response of a wave energy device and the
spectral density of the sea-state
In wave energy a simple useful example of a frequency-domain calculation of mean wave
power is shown below:
( ) ( ) f f S f H c P d
0
2
=
where P is the mean power produced by the device in a given wave train before losses,
is the spectral density function of that wave train,
) ( f S
( ) f H is the complex response of the
displacer to a complex wave of unit amplitude and frequency ( f ), and c is the useful power-
extracting damping applied to the displacer.
In other words if we know how a device responds to waves of different frequencies we can
calculate the mean power produced by the device in a wave that contains a range (spectrum) of
different frequencies by convoluting the response function with the spectral density function.
Note that this gives a mean power.

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5. Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the following people for providing commentary and discussion
on this glossary.
Rod Rainey from Atkins engineering consultancy helped check all the draft definitions and was
particularly helpful in his discussion useful definitions of the added mass and damping terms.
Rods contribution helped shape the glossary in its early stages of development.
Tony Lewis director of University College Cork Hydraulics and Maritime Research Centre
suggested the need for this Glossary during the running of the European Commission-funded
WaveNet project. He also provided a number of tighter definitions and more precise meanings
for the glossary terms. His input is greatly appreciated since it greatly enhanced the clarity of
the glossary.
Michael French of Emeritus Professor of Engineering from Lancaster University provided
some very important insights to the engineering behind the glossary. Michaels progressive and
clear thinking is evident in many of the terms in the glossary. Many of these terms were devised
and expounded by Michael. Michael has also suggested that glossaries such as this one do not
simply record the current state of play but offer progressive terminology to help move the
industry on. I hope future revisions of this glossary will allow that to happen.

The Carbon Trust would like to thank Richard Boud for editing and compiling this glossary.

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6. Figures
Wave crest
Wave direction

Figure 1 Wave nomenclature, wave crest and direction
>

x

>
A

Figure 2 Definition of amplitude and phase of a wave

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31

wavelength
height
distance >
mean water
position
w
a
t
e
r

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

Figure 3 Wave nomenclature
upcrossing period
height
time >
mean water
position
up-crossing
w
a
t
e
r

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

Figure 4 Wave nomenclature

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Ti me [s]
W
a
t
e
r

s
u
r
f
a
c
e

l
e
v
e
l

[
m
]
h
S
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t

w
a
v
e

h
e
i
g
h
t

Figure 5 Example of a time series of wave positions showing the significant wave height in
red
fz Zero-upcrossing
frequency =1/Tz
fe Energy frequency =
1/Te
fp Peak frequency =
1/Tp
Frequency [Hz] >

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

[
m
2
/
H
z
]

>

Figure 6 Example of a power spectral density function showing the three main average
periods and frequencies

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Frequency [Hz]
P
o
w
e
r

s
p
e
c
t
r
a
l

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

[
m
2
/
H
z
]
Power spectral density
Pierson Moskowitz
approximation
Zero-upcrossing frequency
Energy frequency
Peak frequency

Figure 7 Example of an un-smoothed time-series transformed using Fast-Fourier
Transforms into the frequency domain. This shows the spectral density of the wave train
showing which frequencies contain the most energy. Also shown is a Pierson Moskowitz
spectrum that best describes the data.
360
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
135
150
165
180
195
210
225
240
255
270
285
300
315
330
345

Figure 8 An example of a wave rose

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4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0
Energy period [s]
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
S
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t

w
a
v
e

h
e
i
g
h
t

[
m
]
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
10
10
10
10 10
10
10
10
10
10
10
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
17
18
18
20
20
22
22
22
22
25
28
30
30
35

Figure 9 Example scatter diagram (joint probability distribution of significant wave height
and energy period) showing occurrence of sea states in parts per thousand. Also shown are
contours of constant mean wave power level [kW/m]

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D

Figure 10 Depth of water and circular water motions for deep-water approximations of
wave

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Figure 11 An example of a power surface (power matrix), for illustration the scatter
diagram in Figure 9 is overlaid. The product of these two matrices gives the energy output.

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Frequency [Hz]
P
o
w
e
r
Wide
Narrow
Half peak power
Peak power

Figure 12 Example of a wide and narrow-band spectral response of an untuned device.
The red curve has a wide (half-peak power) bandwidth and the blue has a narrow (half-
peak power) bandwidth. Not that by tuning the peak frequency can also be moved.
Frequency [Hz]
S
p
e
c
t
r
a
l

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

[
m
2
/
s
]
Pierson Moskowitz e.g.
North Atlantic
JONSWAP e.g. North Sea

Figure 13 Comparison of Pierson Moskowitz and JONSWAP spectral density functions
for the same peak frequency

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Water plane area
Floating body
Water

Figure 14 Definition of water-plane area

Figure 15 From left to right: Cross-flow tidal turbine, horizontal axis axial-flow turbine,
the straight arrows indicate the tide flow direction

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Aerofoil
blades

Figure 16 Darrieus turbine showing rotation and incident fluid flow
Blades
Rotation
Water flow

Figure 17 Cross-axis turbine; water flows through the centre of the turbine. Only three
blades are shown here but other designs can have many more blades

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Duct

Figure 18 An example of a duct, in this simple example the water flow from left to right is
enhanced by the duct and speeds up
Heave
Surge Sway
Pitch Roll
Wave direction
Yaw

Figure 19 Principal axes in wave energy

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Entec UK Ltd
Within Entec, our sense of purpose is captured in the phrase creating the environment for business.
And our vision is to be consultants who work with our customers to add value to their businesses by
enhancing their relationships with their environments.
Our focus is therefore to deliver services which improve organisational performance.
Our expertise is in the area of engineering, environment and safety.
Entec is a truly multidisciplinary consultancy offering both a breadth and depth of service to provide
commercial and technically robust business solutions.
Through our own endeavours and by working with partners as part of an integrated supply chain, we
have experience of large and small projects. Our aim is to be a seamless provider of high quality,
value for money, integrated services which provide solutions to environmental and engineering
issues.
To find out more about our expertise and track record please see www.entecuk.co.uk

The Carbon Trust
The Carbon Trust is an independent company funded by Government. Our role is to help the UK
move to a low carbon economy by helping business and the public sector reduce carbon emissions
now and capture the commercial opportunities of low carbon technologies.
At the Carbon Trust, we aim to deliver best practice programmes to inform and influence behaviour
and to build skills and resources; and, in developing and improving our delivery programmes, to
inform policy makers in the climate change mitigation debate.
Our objectives are therefore:
To ensure that UK business and public sector meet ongoing targets for carbon emissions;
To improve the competitiveness of UK business through resource efficiency; and
To support the development of a UK industry sector that capitalises on the innovation and
commercial value of low carbon technologies.
The Carbon Trust is developing and implementing programmes that will accelerate the transition to a
low carbon economy. These include:
Delivering independent business information and impartial advice on energy saving and carbon
management.
Investing in the development of low carbon technologies in the UK:
o Research and development funding to encourage innovation in the low carbon sector.
o Technology Acceleration Projects for specific technologies and markets with significant
carbon reduction potential and where the Carbon Trust can be material.
o Direct help for pre-commercial and commercial organisations with low carbon technologies
through the Carbon Trust's Incubator Programme and Venture Capital.
In all of this we aim to play a leading role in supporting climate change mitigation and driving forward
business awareness and action on carbon emission reduction.

Peter Hambly
Director, Marketing & Communications
020 7170 7006
For more information see www.thecarbontrust.co.uk

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/Hz] for a given frequency is f

where is the -th spectral moment

/Hz since the power in the waves is proportional to the

/ D is the duration in seconds and is the number

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