Venkata Rao
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Introduction
The process of (electronic) communication becomes quite challenging
because of the unwanted electrical signals in a communications system. These
undesirable signals, usually termed as noise, are random in nature and interfere
with the message signals. The receiver input, in general, consists of (message)
signal plus noise, possibly with comparable power levels. The purpose of the
receiver is to produce the desired signal with a signal-to-noise ratio that is above
a specified value.
7.1
filtering characteristic of the RF, mixer and IF sections of Fig. 4.75. s ( t ) is the
N0
Gaussian noise process with the two sided spectral density of . We treat
2
Heq ( f ) to be an ideal narrowband, bandpass filter, with a passband between
SSB, we take the filter passband either between fc − W and fc (LSB) or fc and
modulation schemes whereas it is W for the case of SSB). Also, in the present
context, fc represents the carrier frequency measured at the mixer output; that is
fc = fIF .
7.2
N0
spectral density SN ( f ) = over the passband of Heq ( f ) . (As Heq ( f ) is
2
treated as a narrowband filter, n ( t ) represents the sample function of a
7.2.2 Figure-of-merit
The performance of analog communication systems are measured in
terms of Signal-to-Noise Ratio ( SNR ) . The SNR measure is meaningful and
unambiguous provided the signal and noise are additive at the point of
measurement. We shall define two ( SNR ) quantities, namely, (i) ( SNR )0 and
(ii) ( SNR )r .
with the same power as the modulated wave. For the purpose of comparing
different modulation systems, we use the Figure-of-Merit ( FOM ) defined as,
7.3
(SNR )0
FOM = (7.3)
(SNR )r
envelope A ( t ) and the phase ϕ ( t ) are given by Eq. 1.56. In this chapter, we will
7.4
i) Coherent detector xc ( t )
1 d ϕ (t )
iv) Frequency detector
2π d t
x ( t ) could be used to represent any of the four types of linear modulated signals
or any one of the two types of angle modulated signals. In fact, x ( t ) could even
7.5
1 DSB-SC 0, m ( t ) > 0
Ac m ( t ) zero Ac m ( t )
Ac m ( t ) cos ( ωc t ) π, m (t ) < 0
2 DSB-LC (AM)
Ac [1+ g m m ( t )] cos ( ωc t ) , Ac [1 + g m m ( t )] zero Ac [1 + g m m ( t )] zero
Ac [1 + g m m ( t )] ≥ 0
3 SSB
Ac (t ) ⎤
m ( t ) cos ( ωc t ) Ac m ( t ) (t )
Ac m Ac 2
l (t ) −1 ⎡ m
2 ± m
2
(t ) + m tan ⎢− ⎥
A l
2 2 2 ⎣ m (t ) ⎦
± c m ( t ) sin ( ωc t )
2
4 Phase modulation
Ac cos [ ωc t + ϕ ( t )] , Ac cos ϕ ( t ) Ac sin ϕ ( t ) Ac kp m (t )
ϕ (t ) = kp m (t )
5 Frequency modulation
Ac cos [ ωc t + ϕ ( t )] , t
t
Ac cos ϕ ( t ) Ac sin ϕ ( t ) Ac 2 π kf ∫ m ( τ) d τ
ϕ ( t ) = 2 π kf ∫ m ( τ) d τ
− ∞
− ∞
Example 7.1
Let us compute and sketch the output v ( t ) of an ideal frequency detector when
s ( t ) is its input.
From Table 7.1, we find that an ideal frequency detector output will be
1 d ϕ (t )
proportional to . For the DSB-SC signal,
2π d t
7.6
⎧⎪0 , m ( t ) > 0
ϕ (t ) = ⎨
⎪⎩π , m ( t ) < 0
( )
For the example, m ( t ) = cos ⎡ 2 π × 103 t ⎤ . Hence ϕ ( t ) is shown in Fig. 7.3(b).
⎣ ⎦
7.7
Example 7.2
1
Let m ( t ) = . Let s ( t ) be an SSB signal with m ( t ) as the message
1 + t2
signal. Assuming that s ( t ) is the input to an ideal ED, let us find the expression
l (t ) = 1
m
1 + t2
1
⎧ l ( t ) ⎤ 2 ⎫ 2 , we have
As the envelope of s ( t ) is ⎨ ⎡⎣ m ( t ) ⎤⎦ + ⎡m
2
⎩ ⎣ ⎦ ⎬⎭
1
v (t ) = .
1 + t2
SM ( f ) , limited to ± W Hz.
7.8
Ac2
Rs ( τ ) = RM ( τ ) cos ( ωc τ ) (7.5a)
2
where RM ( τ ) is the autocorrelation function of the message process. Fourier
Ac2
Ss ( f ) = ⎡SM ( f − fc ) + SM ( f + fc ) ⎤⎦ (7.5b)
4 ⎣
Let PM denote the message power, where
∞ W
PM = ∫ SM ( f ) d f = ∫ SM ( f ) d f
−∞ −W
∞ fc + W
A2 Ac2 PM
Then, ∫ Ss ( f ) d f = 2 c ∫ SM ( f − fc ) d f = .
−∞
4 fc − W
2
Ac2 PM
That is, the average power of the modulated signal s ( t ) is . With the (two
2
N0
sided) noise power spectral density of , the average noise power in the
2
N0
message bandwidth 2 W is 2 W × = W N0 . Hence,
2
Ac2 PM
⎡( SNR ) ⎤ = (7.6)
⎣ r ⎦ DSB −SC 2 W N0
7.9
Assuming that the local oscillator output is cos ( ωc t ) , the output v ( t ) of the
1 1
y (t ) = Ac m ( t ) + nc ( t ) (7.7)
2 2
iii) If the noise spectral density is flat at the detector input over the passband
( fc − W , fc + W ) , then it is flat over the baseband (− W , W ) , at the
W .)
⎛ 1⎞
As the message component at the output is ⎜ ⎟ Ac m ( t ) , the average
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ A2 ⎞
message power at the output is ⎜ c ⎟ PM . As the spectral density of the in-phase
⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
noise component is N0 for f ≤ W , the average noise power at the receiver
1 W N0
output is ( 2 W ⋅ N0 ) = . Therefore,
4 2
⎡( SNR ) ⎤ =
( A 4) P
2
c M
⎣ 0 ⎦ DSB −SC
(W N0 ) 2
7.10
Ac2 PM
= (7.8)
2W N0
From Eq. 7.6 and 7.8, we obtain
(SNR )0
[FOM ]DSB −SC = =1 (7.9)
(SNR )r
7.3.2 SSB
Assuming that LSB has been transmitted, we can write s ( t ) as follows:
Ac A l
s (t ) = m ( t ) cos ( ωc t ) + c m ( t ) sin ( ωc t )
2 2
l ( t ) is the Hilbert transform of m ( t ) . Generalizing,
where m
Ac A l
S (t ) = M ( t ) cos ( ωc t ) + c M ( t ) sin ( ωc t ) .
2 2
We can show that the autocorrelation function of S ( t ) , Rs ( τ ) is given by
Ac2 ⎡
Rs ( τ ) = RM ( τ ) cos ( ωc τ ) + R
l M ( τ ) sin ( ω τ ) ⎤
4 ⎣
c ⎦
Ac2
power, Rs ( 0 ) = PM
4
Ac2 PM
and (SNR )r = (7.10)
4W N0
(Note that with respect to fc , n ( t ) does not have a locally symmetric spectrum).
1 1
y (t ) = Ac m ( t ) + nc ( t )
4 2
Ac2 PM
Hence, the output signal power is and the output noise power as
16
⎛ 1⎞
⎜ 4 ⎟ W N0 . Thus, we obtain,
⎝ ⎠
7.11
Ac2 PM 4
(SNR )0,SSB = ×
16 W N0
Ac2 PM
= (7.11)
4W N0
From Eq. 7.10 and 7.11,
( FOM )SSB =1 (7.12)
From Eq. 7.9 and 7.12, we find that under synchronous detection, SNR
performance of DSB-SC and SSB are identical, when both the systems operate
with the same signal-to-noise ratio at the input of their detectors.
In arriving at the RHS of Eq. 7.11, we have used the narrowband noise
description with respect to fc . We can arrive at the same result, if the noise
⎛ W ⎞
quantity is written with respect to the centre frequency ⎜ fc − ⎟.
⎝ 2 ⎠
s ( t ) = Ac ⎡⎣1 + g m m ( t ) ⎤⎦ cos ( ωc t )
Ac2 ⎡1 + g m
2
PM ⎤
Then the average signal power in s ( t ) = ⎣ ⎦ . Hence
2
7.12
x ( t ) = s ( t ) + nc ( t ) cos ( ωc t ) − ns ( t ) sin ( ωc t )
The various components of Eq. 7.14 are shown as phasors in Fig. 7.5. The
receiver output y ( t ) is the envelope of the input quantity x ( t ) . That is,
{ }
1
y ( t ) = ⎡⎣ Ac + Ac g m m ( t ) + nc ( t )⎤⎦ + (t )
2 2
ns2
We shall analyze the noise performance of envelope detector for two different
cases, namely, (i) large SNR at the detector input and (ii) weak SNR at the
detector input.
y ( t ) ≈ Ac + Ac g m m ( t ) + nc ( t ) (7.15)
On the RHS of Eq. 7.15, there are three quantities: A DC term due to the
transmitted carrier, a term proportional to the message and the in-phase noise
component. In the final output, the DC is blocked. Hence the average signal
7.13
to 2W N0 we have,
Ac2 g m
2
PM
⎡( SNR ) ⎤ ≈ (7.16)
⎣ 0 ⎦ AM 2W N0
It is to be noted that the signal and noise are additive at the detector output and
power spectral density of the output noise is flat over the message bandwidth.
From Eq. 7.13 and 7.16 we obtain,
2
gm PM
( FOM ) AM = (7.17)
1 + gm
2
Pm
As can be seen from Eq. 7.17, the FOM with envelope detection is less than
unity. That is, the noise performance of DSB-LC with envelope detection is
inferior to that of DSB-SC with coherent detection. Assuming m ( t ) to be a tone
µ2
. With the maximum permitted value of µ = 1 , we find that the
( 2 + µ2 )
1
( FOM ) AM is . That is, other factors being equal, DSB-LC has to transmit three
3
times as much power as DSB-SC, to achieve the same quality of noise
performance. Of course, this is the price one has to pay for trying to achieve
simplicity in demodulation.
now construct the phasor diagram using rn ( t ) as the reference phasor (Fig. 7.6).
From Eq. 7.18, we find that detector output has no term strictly proportional to
m ( t ) . The last term on the RHS of Eq. 7.18 contains the message signal m ( t )
7.14
multiplied by the noise quantity, cos ψ ( t ) , which is random; that is, the message
Fig. 7.6: Phase diagram to analyze the envelope detector for case (ii)
It is quite reasonable to assume that the detector is operating well into the
threshold region if P [R ≥ Ac ] ≥ 0.5 ; where as, if the above probability is 0.01 or
less, the detector performance is quite satisfactory. Let us define the quantity,
carrier-to-noise ratio, ρ as
average carrier power
ρ =
average noise power in the transmission bandwidth
Ac2 2 Ac2
= =
2W N0 4W N0
We shall now compute the threshold SNR in terms of ρ defined above. As R is
Rayleigh variable, we have
7.15
r2
−
r
fR ( r ) = 2 σN
2
e
σN
2
where σN
2
= 2W N0
∞
P [R ≥ Ac ] = ∫ fR ( r ) d r
Ac
Ac2
−
4 W N0
= e
= e− ρ
7.16
Example 7.3
In a receiver meant for the demodulation of SSB signals, Heq ( f ) has the
characteristic shown in Fig. 7.7. Assuming that USB has been transmitted, let us
find the FOM of the system.
7.17
Ac
Signal quantity at the output = m (t )
4
nc ( t )
Noise quantity at the output =
2
W
1
Output noise power =
4 ∫ SNc d f
−W
5
= N0 W
16
⎛ Ac2 PM ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 16 ⎟⎠
(SNR )0 =
5
N W
16 0
Ac2 PM
=
5 N0 W
Ac2 PM
(SNR )r =
4W N0
(SNR )0 4
Hence FOM = = = 0.8 .
(SNR )r 5
7.18
Exercise 7.1
In a receiver using coherent demodulation, the equivalent IF filter has
the characteristics shown in Fig. 7.9. Compute the output noise power in the
Example 7.4
In a laboratory experiment involving envelope detection, AM signal at the
input to ED, has the modulation index 0.5 with the carrier amplitude of 2 V. m ( t )
is a tone signal of frequency 5 kHz and fc >> 5 kHz. If the (two-sided) noise
PSD at the detector input is 10− 8 Watts/Hz, what is the expected ( SNR )0 of this
7.19
Ac2 gm
2
PM
(SNR )0, AM =
2W N0
2
Am
As PM = ,
2
Ac2 ( g m Am )
2
(SNR )0, AM =
4W N0
1
4⋅
(SNR )0, AM = 4
4 × 5 × 10 × 2 × 10 − 8
3
1
=
40 × 10− 5
104
=
4
= 36 dB
1
µ2 1
( FOM ) AM = = 4 =
2 + µ2 2+
1 9
4
( FOM )DSB −SC =1
7.20
The role of Heq ( f ) is similar to what has been mentioned in the context of
Fig. 7.1, with suitable changes in the centre frequency and transmission
bandwidth. The centre frequency of the filter is fc = fIF , which for the commercial
FM is 10.7 MHz. The bandwidth of the filter is the transmission bandwidth of the
angle modulated signals, which is about 200 kHz for the commercial FM.
Nevertheless, we treat Heq ( f ) to be a narrowband bandpass filter which passes
(SNR )0
as defined in section 7.2.2, namely, .
(SNR )r
7.21
where
x (t ) = s (t ) + n (t ) (7.21a)
where, on the RHS of Eq. 7.21(b) we have used the envelope ( rn ( t ) ) and phase
resultant (signal + noise) phasor and θ ( t ) , the phase angle of the resultant. As
⎪⎧ rn ( t ) sin ⎣⎡ψ ( t ) − ϕ ( t ) ⎦⎤ ⎪⎫
θ ( t ) = ϕ ( t ) + tan− 1 ⎨ ⎬ (7.22a)
⎪⎩ Ac + rn ( t ) cos ⎡⎣ψ ( t ) − ϕ ( t ) ⎤⎦ ⎪⎭
7.22
Fig. 7.12: Phasor diagram for the case of strong predetection SNR.
If we make the assumption that Ac >> rn ( t ) most of the time, we can write,
rn ( t )
θ (t ) ≈ ϕ (t ) + sin ⎡⎣ψ ( t ) − ϕ ( t ) ⎤⎦ (7.22b)
Ac
rn ( t )
Notice that the second term on the RHS of Eq. 7.22(b) has the factor . Thus
Ac
when the FM signal is much stronger than the noise, it will suppress the small
random phase variations caused by noise; then the FM signal is said to capture
the detector. v ( t ) , the output of the discriminator is given by,
v ( t ) = kd θ ( t ) (phase detector)
kd d θ ( t )
= (frequency detector)
2π d t
where kd is the gain constant of the detector under consideration.
a) Phase Modulation
For PM, ϕ ( t ) = k p m ( t ) . For convenience, let k p kd = 1. Then,
kd rn ( t )
v (t ) ≈ m (t ) + sin ⎡⎣ψ ( t ) − ϕ ( t ) ⎤⎦ (7.23)
Ac
7.23
kd rn ( t )
Let nP ( t ) = sin ⎡⎣ψ ( t ) − ϕ ( t ) ⎤⎦ (7.25)
Ac
To calculate the output noise power, we require the power spectral density
of nP ( t ) . This is made somewhat difficult because of ϕ ( t ) in nP ( t ) . The analysis
the PSD of nP ( t ) without making the assumption that ϕ ( t ) = 0 . This has been
done in Appendix A7.1. In this appendix, it has been shown that the effect of
ϕ ( t ) is to produce spectral components beyond W , which are anyway removed
kd rn ( t )
nP ( t ) = sin ⎡⎣ψ ( t ) ⎤⎦
Ac
kd
= ns ( t )
Ac
Hence,
2
⎛k ⎞
SNP ( f ) = ⎜ d ⎟ SNs ( f )
⎝ Ac ⎠
⎧ B
⎪N0 , f ≤ T
But, SNs ( f ) = ⎨ 2
⎪⎩ 0 , otherwise
BT is the transmission bandwidth, which for the PM case can be taken as the
Post detection LPF passes only those spectral components that are within
2
⎛k ⎞
( − W , W ) . Hence the output noise power = ⎜ d ⎟ 2W N0 , resulting in,
⎝ Ac ⎠
7.24
PM
(SNR )0, PM = 2
⎛k ⎞
2W N0 ⎜ d ⎟
⎝ Ac ⎠
Ac2
= k p2 PM (7.26)
2W N0
As, (SNR )r , PM =
(A ) 2 2
c
N0 W
we have,
(SNR )0
( FOM )PM = = k p2 PM (7.27a)
(SNR )r
We can express ( FOM )PM in terms of the RMS bandwidth. From Eq. A5.4.7,
Hence k p2 PM =
4 ( Brms )
2
M
( )
2
⎡B ⎤
⎣ rms PM ⎦
( FOM )PM = (7.27b)
( )
2
4 ⎡ Brms ⎤
⎣ M⎦
b) Frequency Modulation
kd d θ ( t )
v (t ) = (7.28a)
2π d t
kd d ns ( t )
= kf kd m ( t ) + (7.28b)
2 π Ac d t
7.25
kd d ns ( t )
v (t ) = m (t ) +
2 π Ac d t
kd d ns ( t )
Let nF ( t ) =
2 π Ac d t
2
⎛ k ⎞
Then, SNF ( f ) SNS ( f )
2
= ⎜ d ⎟ j 2πf
⎝ 2 π Ac ⎠
d ns ( t )
The above step follows from the fact that can be obtained by
dt
kd2 f 2
SNF ( f ) = SNS ( f )
Ac2
BT
As SNS ( f ) is flat for f ≤ , we find that SNF ( f ) is parabolic as shown
2
in Fig. 7.13.
7.26
W
kd2 f 2 N0
The output noise power = ∫ Ac2
df
−W
kd2 N0 ⎛ 2 ⎞ 3
= ⎜ ⎟W (7.29)
Ac2 ⎝ 3 ⎠
Again, as in the case of PM, we find that increasing the carrier power has
a noise quietening effect. But, of course, there is one major difference between
SNP ( f ) and SNF ( f ) ; namely, the latter is parabolic whereas the former is a fiat
spectrum.
The parabolic nature of the output FM noise spectrum implies, that high
frequency end of the message spectrum is subject to stronger degradation
because of noise. Completing our analysis, we find that
3 Ac2 PM
(SNR )0, FM = (7.30a)
2 kd2 N0 W 3
3 2 Ac2 PM
= kf (7.30b)
2 N0 W 3
⎛ Ac2 ⎞ 3 kf2 PM
= ⎜ ⎟⎟ (7.30c)
⎜ 2N W 2
⎝ 0 ⎠ W
Let us express ( FOM )FM in terms of Brms ( )FM . From Appendix A5.4, Eq. A5.4.5,
( Brms )FM = 2 kf RM ( 0 )
= 2 kf PM
( )
2
⎡B ⎤
That is, kf2 PM = ⎣ rms FM ⎦
7.27
( )FM ⎤⎥
2
⎡
Ac2 3 ⎢ Brms
Hence, ( SNR )0, FM =
2 N0 W 4 ⎢ W ⎥
⎣ ⎦
As ( SNR )r is the same as in the case of PM, we have
( )FM ⎤⎥
2
⎡
kf2 PM 3 ⎢ Brms
( FOM )FM = 3 = (7.31)
W2 4⎢ W ⎥
⎣ ⎦
For a given peak value of the input signal, we find that the deviation ratio D is
kf
proportional to ; hence ( FOM )FM is a quadratic function of D . The price paid
W
to achieve a significant value for the FOM is the need for increased transmission
bandwidth, BT = 2 ( D + k )W . Of course, we should not forget the fact that the
result of Eq. 7.31 is based on the assumption that SNR at the detector input is
sufficiently large.
7.28
( ∆ f )n ( ∆ f )n
<
( ∆ f )2 ( ∆ f )1
In other words, as the frequency derivation due to the modulating signal keeps
increasing, the effect of noise becomes less and less significant , thereby
increasing the output SNR .
Example 7.5
A tone of unit amplitude and frequency 600 Hz is sent via FM. The FM
receiver has been designed for message signals with a bandwidth upto 1 kHz.
The maximum phase deviation produced by the tone is 5 rad. We will show that
Ac2
the ( SNR )0 = 31.3 dB, given that = 105 .
2 N0
kd2 N0 ⎛ 2 ⎞ 3
⎜ ⎟ W . For the problem on hand, W = 1 kHz. Hence output noise
Ac2 ⎝ 3 ⎠
power = kd2 ⋅
1
⋅
(1000 )
3
. We shall assume kf kd = 1 so that kd =
1
.
105 3 kf
As Am = 1, we have
kf
5 = . That is, kf = 3000 . Then,
600
1
kd = .
3000
1 1 109
Output noise power = ⋅ ⋅
( 3000 )2 105 3
7.29
1
=
2700
1
Output signal power =
2
Hence ( SNR )0 = 1350 .
= 31.3 dB
Example 7.6
( )
Compare the FOM of PM and FM when m ( t ) = cos 2 π × 5 × 103 t . The
⎛ kp ⎞ '
For the case of PM, we have, ∆ f = ⎜ ⎟ mp
⎝ 2π ⎠
2 π × 50 × 103
kp = = 10
2 π × 5 × 103
Therefore,
( FOM )PM = k p2 PM
1
= × 100 = 50
2
For the case of FM,
∆ f = kf m p
As mp = 1, we have kf = ∆ f = 50 × 103
Therefore,
kf2 PM
( FOM )FM = 3
W2
7.30
( 50 × 10 )
2 1
3
= 3 2
(5 × 10 )
2
3
3
= × 100 = 150
2
The above result shows, that for tone modulation and for a given
frequency deviation, FM is superior to PM by a factor of 3. In fact, FM results in
Example 7.7
( ) (
Let m ( t ) = 3 cos 2 π × 103 t + cos 2 π × 5 × 103 t . Assuming that the )
( FOM )PM
frequency deviation produced is 50 kHz, find .
( FOM )FM
mp = 3 + 1 = 4
kp
We have m'p = kf mp = 50 × 103 . That is,
2π
kp 2 π mp 1
= =
kf mp' 2 × 103
Hence,
( FOM )PM 1 ⎛ kp ⎞
2
1 1
= ⎜ ⎟ W = ×
2
× 25 × 106
( FOM )FM 3 ⎝ kf ⎠ 3 4 × 10 6
25
= ≈ 2.1
12
7.31
This example indicates that PM is superior to FM. It is the PSD of the input
signal that decides the superiority or otherwise of the FM over PM. We can gain
further insight into this issue by looking at the expressions for the FOM in terms
of the RMS bandwidth.
(
)PM ⎤⎦ W 2
2
⎡B
( FOM )PM 1 ⎣ rms
=
( FOM )FM
⎣( rms )M ⎦ ⎣( rms )FM ⎦
3 ⎡ 2 2
B ⎤ ⎡ B ⎤
Assuming the same RMS bandwidth for both PM and FM, we find that PM is
superior to FM, if
( )M ⎤⎦
2
W 2 > 3 ⎡ Brms
⎣
( )M ⎤⎦
2
If W 2 = 3 ⎡ Brms , then both PM and FM result in the same performance.
⎣
This case corresponds to the PSD of the message signal, SM ( f ) being uniformly
( )
2
in most cases of practical interest, then W 2 > 3 ⎡ Brms ⎤ and PM is superior
⎣ M⎦
to FM. This was the situation for the Example 7.7. If, on the other hand, the
spectrum is more heavily weighted at the higher frequencies, then
( )M ⎤⎦
2
W 2 < 3 ⎡ Brms , and FM gives rise to better performance. This was the
⎣
situation for the Example 7.6, where the entire spectrum was concentrated at the
tail end (at 5 kHz) with nothing in between.
In most of the real world information bearing signals, such as voice, music
etc. have spectral behavior that tapers off with increase in frequency. Then, why
not have PM broadcast than FM transmission? As will be seen in the context of
pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in FM, the so called FM transmission is really a
7.32
3 m'p
C1) W2 > , or
4 π2 mp2
( )M ⎤⎦
2
C2) W 2 > 3 ⎡ Brms
⎣
is satisfied.
be approximated as
Ac
θ (t ) ≈ ψ (t ) + sin ⎡⎣ϕ ( t ) − ψ ( t ) ⎤⎦ (7.32)
rn ( t )
7.33
Fig. 7.14: Phasor diagram for the case of weak predetection SNR
As can be seen from Eq. 7.32, there is no term in θ ( t ) that represents
only the signal quantity; the term that contains the signal quantity in θ ( t ) is
Ac
actually multiplied by , which is random. This situation is somewhat
rn ( t )
in Fig. 7.15(a).
7.34
Fig. 7.15: Occurrence of short pulses at the frequency discriminator output for
low predetection SNR.
dθ
When such phase variations go through a circuit responding to , a series of
dt
short pulses appear at the output (Fig. 7.15(b)). The duration and frequency
(average number of pulses per unit time) of such pulses will depend on the
predetection SNR . If SNR is quite low, the frequency of the pulses at the
discriminator output increases. As these short pulses have enough energy at the
low frequencies, they give rise to crackling or sputtering sound at the receiver
(speaker) output. The ( SNR )0 formula derived earlier, for the large input SNR
7.35
noise and is said to be working in the threshold region. (To gain some insight into
the occurrence of the threshold phenomenon, let us perform the following
experiment. An unmodulated sinewave + bandlimited white noise is applied as
input to an FM discriminator. The frequency of the sinusoid can be set to the
centre frequency of the discriminator and the PSD of the noise is symmetrical
with respect to the frequency of the sinusoid. To start with, the input SNR is
made very high. If the discriminator output is observed on an oscilloscope, it may
resemble the sample function of a bandlimited white noise. As the noise power is
increased, impulses start appearing in the output. The input SNR value at which
these spikes or impulses start appearing is indicative of the setting in of the
threshold behavior).
7.36
FM: Display - 3
FM: Display - 4
FM: Display - 5
7.37
As in the case of AM noise analysis, if we set the limit that for the FM
detector to operate above the threshold as, P [Rn > Ac ] ≤ 0.01 , then we find
Ac2
that the minimum carrier-to-noise ratio ρ = required is about 5. But,
2 BT N0
experimental results indicate that to obtain the predicted SNR improvement of
Ac2
the WBFM, ρ is of the order of 20, or 13 dB. That is, if > 20 BT N0 , then the
2
FM detector will be free from the threshold effect.
Ac2
Fig. 7.16 gives the plots of ( SNR )0 vs. ( SNR )r = for the case of
2 N0 W
7.38
(SNR )0 3 2
= β .
(SNR )r 2
That is,
⎛ 3 β2 ⎞
10log10 ⎣( SNR )0 ⎦
⎡ ⎤ = 10log10 ⎣( SNR )r ⎦
⎡ ⎤ + 10log10 ⎜
⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
(7.33)
FM FM
⎝ ⎠
That is, WBFM operating above threshold provides an improvement of
⎛ 3 β2 ⎞
10log10 ⎜
⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
dB, with respect to (SNR )r . For β = 2 , this amounts to an
⎝ ⎠
improvement of about 7.7 dB and β = 5 , the improvement is about 15.7 dB. This
is evident from the plots in Fig. 7.16.
(i) Above threshold [i.e. ( SNR )r above the knee for each curve), WBFM gives
with coherent detection. For the latter, ( SNR )0 is best equal to ( SNR )r .
7.39
effect. For example with ( SNR )r about 18dB, β = 2 and β = 5 give rise to
β = 2.
7.40
original level; this implies the attenuation of the high frequency end of the
demodulated spectrum. In this process, the high frequency noise components
are also attenuated, thereby improving the overall SNR at the receiver output.
Let SNF ( f ) denote the PSD of the noise at the discriminator output. Then
the noise power spectral density at the output of the de-emphasis filter is
W
HDE ( f ) SNF ( f ) d f
2
Output noise power with de-emphasis = ∫ (7.34)
−W
SNR is due to the reduced noise power after de-emphasis. We quantify the
improvement in output SNR , produced by PE-DE operation by the improvement
factor I , where
average output noise power without PE - DE
I = (7.35)
average output noise power with PE - DE
2 kd2 N0 W 3
The numerator of Eq. 7.35 is . As the frequency range of interest is
3 Ac2
⎧ 2 kd2 N0 f 2
⎪ , f ≤ W
SNF ( f ) = ⎨ Ac2
⎪
⎩ 0 , otherwise
We can now compute the denominator of Eq. 7.35 and thereby the improvement
factor, which is given by
7.41
2W 3
I = W
(7.36)
f HDE ( f ) d f
2
∫
2
3
−W
1
s+
rC
HPE ( s ) ≈ K1 (7.38)
1
s+
RC
7.42
1
The time constant TC1 = r C normally is 75 µ sec. lf ω1 = 2 π f1 = ,
TC1
1
f2 = is not less than the highest audio frequency for which pre-emphasis
2 πTC 2
is desired (15 kHz).
Bode plots for the PE and DE networks are given in Fig. 7.18. Eq. 7.38
can be written as
RC 1+ srC
HPE ( s ) ≈ K1 (7.39a)
rC 1 + s RC
⎛f ⎞
1+ j⎜ ⎟
with s = j 2 π f , HPE ( f ) ≈ K ⎝ f1 ⎠ (7.39b)
⎛f ⎞
1+ j⎜ ⎟
⎝ f2 ⎠
R
where K = K1 .
r
⎡ ⎛ f ⎞⎤
HPE ( f ) = K ⎢1 + j ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ f1 ⎠ ⎦
−1
1 ⎡ ⎛ f ⎞⎤
Hence HDE ( f ) = ⎢1 + j ⎜ ⎟⎥
K ⎣ ⎝ f1 ⎠ ⎦
1
TP PT The choice of f1 was made on an experimental basis. It is found that this choice of f1
maintained the same peak amplitude mp with or without PE-DE. This satisfies the constraint of a
fixed BT .
7.43
The factor K is chosen such that the average power of the emphasized
message signal is the same as that of the original message signal m ( t ) . That is,
K is such that
W W
SM ( f ) d f = HPE ( f ) SM ( f ) d f = PM
2
∫ ∫ (7.40)
−W −W
This will ensure the same RMS bandwidth for the FM signal with or without PE.
Example 7.8
⎧ 1
⎪ 2
, f ≤ W
⎪ ⎛f ⎞
Let SM ( f ) = ⎨1 + ⎜ ⎟
⎪ ⎝ f1 ⎠
⎪
⎩ 0 , outside
⎡ ⎛ f ⎞⎤
and HPE ( f ) = K ⎢1 + j ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ f1 ⎠ ⎦
7.44
Let us find (i) the value K and (ii) the improvement factor I , assuming f1 = 2.1
f1 ⎛W ⎞
or K = tan−1 ⎜ ⎟
W ⎝ f1 ⎠
W
K ∫ Cf2df
−W
and I = −1
(7.41a)
W ⎡ ⎛f ⎞
2⎤
∫
2 ⎢
C f 1+ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ df
⎢ ⎝ f1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
−W ⎣
7.45
Example 7.9
Pre-emphasis - de-emphasis is used in a DSB-SC system. PSD of the
message process is,
1
SM ( f ) = 2
, f ≤ W
⎛f ⎞
1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ f1 ⎠
⎡ ⎛ f ⎞⎤
Let HPE ( f ) = K ⎢1 + j ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ f1 ⎠ ⎦
where f1 is a known constant.
∫ SM ( f ) d f = ∫ SM ( f ) K ⎢⎢1 + ⎜⎝ f1 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎥ d f
−W −W ⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎡
∞
⎛f ⎞ ⎤
2
⎢ 1 ⎥
= K ∫ ⎢ 2⎥
⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ d f
− ∞⎢ ⎛f ⎞ ⎥ ⎢ ⎝ f1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣
⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ f1 ⎠ ⎦
That is,
W
f1 ⎛W ⎞
K = ∫ SM ( f ) d f = tan− 1 ⎜ ⎟
−W
W ⎝ f1 ⎠
−1
⎡ ⎛f ⎞
2⎤
⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
W ⎢ ⎝ f1 ⎠ ⎥
N0 ⎣ ⎦
=
4 ∫ K
df
−W
7.46
N0
= W
2
1
Note that the noise quantity at the output of the coherent demodulator is nc ( t ) .
2
N0 W N0
Noise power without de-emphasis = 2W ⋅ =
4 2
W N0
Hence, I = 2 =1
W N0
2
This example indicates that PE-DE is of no use in the case of DSB-SC.
Exercise 7.2
A signal m ( t ) = 2 cos ⎡⎣(1000 π ) t ⎤⎦ is used to frequency modulate a
very high frequency carrier. The frequency derivation produced is 2.5 kHz. At
the output of the discriminator, there is bandpass filter with the passband in
Ac2
the frequency range 100 < f < 900 Hz. It is given that = 2 × 105 and
2 N0
kd = 1 .
Ans: (b) 34 dB
7.47
Exercise 7.3
Consider the scheme shown in Fig. 7.19.
Each one of the USSB signals occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz with respect to
its carrier. All the message signals, mi ( t ) , i = 1, 2, ⋅ ⋅ ⋅, 10 , have the same
M1 ( f ) , M2 ( f ) , ⋅ ⋅ ⋅, M10 ( f )
7.48
We will assume that the given PCM system uses polar signaling. Even if
the transmitted pulse is rectangular, the received pulse pr ( t ) will be distorted
7.49
(
fR ( r '1' transmitted ) is N Ap , σN
2
)
and
fR ( r '0' transmitted) is N ( − A , σ )
p
2
N
given that '0' is transmitted (area hatched in red); similarly Pe,1 (area hatched in
1 1
blue). Then Pe , the probability of error is given by Pe = Pe,0 + Pe,1 .
2 2
From Fig. 7.21, we have
∞
⎛ Ap ⎞
Pe,0 = ∫ fR ( r '0' ) d r = Q ⎜ ⎟
0 ⎝ σN ⎠
⎛ Ap ⎞
Similarly Pe,1 = Q ⎜ ⎟ , which implies
⎝ σN ⎠
7.50
⎛ Ap ⎞
Pe = Q ⎜ ⎟ (7.42)
⎝ σN ⎠
For optimum results, the receiver uses a matched filter whose output is sampled
once every Tb seconds, at the appropriate time instants so as to obtain the best
N0
received binary pulse and represents the spectral height of the, band-limited
2
⎛ Ap ⎞
white Gaussian noise process. Using the above value for ⎜ ⎟ yields,
⎝ σN ⎠
⎛ 2 Eb ⎞
Pe = Q ⎜ ⎟⎟ (7.43)
⎜ N
⎝ 0 ⎠
Assuming that there are R binary pulses per sample and 2W samples/second,
1
we have Tb = where Tb represents the duration of each pulse. Hence
( 2 RW )
Eb Sr
the received signal power Sr is given by, Sr = = 2 RW Eb or Eb = .
Tb 2 RW
Therefore Eq. 7.43 can also be written as
⎛ Sr ⎞
Pe = Q ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ RW N
⎝ 0 ⎠
⎛ γ ⎞
= Q⎜
⎜ R ⎟⎟ (7.44)
⎝ ⎠
Sr
where γ = . Eq. 7.42 to 7.44 specify the probability of any received bit
W N0
being in error. In a PCM system, with R bits per sample, error in the
reconstructed sample will depend on which of these R bits are in error. We would
like to have an expression for the variance of the reconstruction error. Assume
the following:
7.51
of R bits is negligible.
Then, it can be shown that σc2 , the variance of the reconstruction error
due to channel noise is,
σc2 =
(
4 mp2 Pe 22 R − 1 )
( )
(7.45)
3 22 R
Details can be found in [3]. In addition to the reconstruction error due to channel
∆2
noise, PCM has the inevitable quantization noise with variance σQ
2
= , where
12
2 mp
∆ = and L = 2R . Treating these two error sources as independent noise
L
σe2 = σQ
2
+ σc2
=
mp2
+
4 mp2 Pe L2 − 1 ( ) (7.46)
3 L2 3 L2
Let M 2 ( t ) = PM
PM
Then, ( SNR )0 =
σe2
3 L2⎛P ⎞
= ⎜ M⎟
( )
(7.47)
1 + 4 Pe L − 1 ⎜⎝ mp ⎟⎠
2 2
3 L2 ⎛P ⎞
(SNR )0 = ⎜ M⎟ (7.48)
⎛ γ ⎜⎝ mp2 ⎟⎠
⎞
(
1 + 4 L − 1 Q ⎜⎜
2
⎝
) ⎟
R ⎟⎠
7.52
Figure 7.22 shows the plot of ( SNR )0 as a function of γ for tone modulation
⎛P 1⎞
⎜ M2 = ⎟ . However, with suitable modifications, these curves are applicable
⎜ mp 2⎟
⎝ ⎠
even in a more general case.
Referring to the above figure, we find that when γ is too small, the
channel noise introduces too many detection errors and as such reconstructed
waveform has little resemblance to the transmitted waveform and we encounter
resulting in saturation.
7.53
⎛P ⎞
(SNR )0 ( )
= 3 22 R ⎜ M2 ⎟
⎜ mp ⎟
(7.49)
⎝ ⎠
The transmission bandwidth BPCM of the PCM system is k ( 2WR ) where k is a
constant that is dependent on the signal format used. A few values of k are
given below:
BPCM
we have R = . Using this in the expression for ( SNR )0 in the saturation
k ( 2W )
region, we obtain
BPCM
⎛P ⎞
(SNR )0 = 3 ⎜ M2 ⎟ 2
⎜ mp ⎟
kW
(7.50)
⎝ ⎠
It is clear from Eq. 7.50 that in PCM, ( SNR )0 increases exponentially with the
transmission bandwidth. Fig. 7.22 also depicts the ( SNR )0 performance of DSB-
FM is appropriate because both the schemes exchange the bandwidth for the
signal -to -noise ratio and they both suffer from threshold phenomenon. In FM,
(SNR )0 increases as the square of the transmission bandwidth. Hence,
doubling the transmission bandwidth quadruples the output SNR . In the case of
7.54
PCM, as can be seen from Eq. 7.49, increasing R by 1 quadruples the output
1
SNR , where as the bandwidth requirement increases only by . As an
R
example, if R is increased from 8 to 9, the additional bandwidth is 12.5% of that
required for R = 8. Therefore, in PCM, the exchange of SNR for bandwidth is
much more efficient than that in FM, especially for large values of R1. In addition,
TP PT
as mentioned in the introduction, PCM has other beneficial features such as use
of regenerative repeaters, ease of mixing or multiplexing various types of signals
etc. All these factors put together have made PCM a very important scheme for
modern-day communications.
The PCM performance curves of Fig. 7.22 are based on Eq. 7.48 which is
applicable to polar signaling. By evaluating Pe for other signaling techniques
(such as bipolar, duobinary etc.) and using it in Eq. 7.47, we obtain the
corresponding expressions for the (SNR )0 . It can be shown that the PCM
Example 7.10
A PCM encoder produces ON-OFF rectangular pulses to represent ‘1’ and
‘0’ respectively at the rate of 1000 pulses/sec. These pulses amplitude modulate
a carrier, Ac cos ( ωc t ) , where fc >> 1000 Hz. Assume that ‘1’s and ‘0’s are
1
TP PT Note that the FM curve for β = 2 and PCM curve for R = 6 intersect at point A . The
with β = 2 are the same. This argument can be extended to other values of R and β .
7.55
probability of error.
Y ( t ) = R ( t ) cos [ ωc t + Θ ]
7.56
{ }
1
R ( t ) = ⎡⎣ Ak + nc ( t ) ⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣ ns ( t ) ⎤⎦
2 2 2
y2
−
y
fY 0 ( y 0) = e 2 N0
, y ≥ 0
N0
(
where N0 = 0.25 × 10− 4 4 × 103 = 0.1 )
when ‘1’ is transmitted, the random variable Y is Rician, given by
⎛ y2 + 4 ⎞
−⎜
y ⎛ 2y ⎞ ⎜ 2 N ⎟⎟
fY 1 ( y 1) = I0 ⎜ ⎟ e ⎝ 0 ⎠
, y ≥ 0
N0 ⎝ N0 ⎠
1 −
(y − 2)
2
1
Pe , 1 = ∫ 2 π 0.1
e 0.2 dy
−∞
7.57
= Q ( 10 )
1 ⎡ −5
P ( error ) = Pe = e + Q ⎡⎣ 10 ⎤⎦ ⎤
2⎣ ⎦
7.58
Appendix A7.1
PSD of Noise for Angle Modulated Signals
For the case of strong predetection SNR , we have (Eq. 7.22b),
rn ( t )
θ (t ) ϕ (t ) + sin ⎡⎣ψ ( t ) − ϕ ( t ) ⎤⎦
Ac
rn ( t )
Let λ (t ) = sin ⎡⎣ψ ( t ) − ϕ ( t ) ⎤⎦
Ac
1 j ϕ( t ) j ψ(t ) ⎤
Im ⎡⎢e
−
= rn ( t ) e
Ac ⎣ ⎦⎥
− j ϕ( t )
Let xce ( t ) = e nce ( t ) = xc ( t ) + j xs ( t ) .
1
Then, λ ( t ) = xs ( t )
Ac
where,
− j Φ( t )
X ce ( t ) = e Nce ( t ) = X c ( t ) + j X s ( t ) (A7.1.1)
Similarly,
1
Λ (t ) = Xs (t ) (A7.1.2)
Ac
1
RΛ ( τ ) = R Xs ( τ ) (A1.7.3a)
Ac2
7.59
E ⎡⎣ X ce ( t + τ ) X ce ( t ) ⎤⎦ = 0
− j ⎣⎡ Φ ( t + τ ) + Φ ( t ) ⎦⎤ ⎤
E ⎡⎣ X ce ( t + τ ) X ce ( t ) ⎤⎦ = E ⎡Nce ( t + τ ) Nce ( t ) e
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
(A7.4.1a)
j Φ(t + τ) + Φ( t ) ⎤
= E ⎡⎣Nce ( t + τ ) Nce ( t ) ⎤⎦ E ⎡⎢e
−
⎣ ⎥⎦
(A7.4.1b)
Eq. A7.4.1(b) is due to the condition that the signal and noise are statistically
independent.
Therefore
E ⎡⎣ X ce ( t + τ ) X ce ( t ) ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣R X c ( τ ) − R X s ( τ ) ⎤⎦ + j ⎡⎣R X c X s ( τ ) + R X s X c ( τ ) ⎤⎦ = 0
This implies R Xc ( τ ) = R X s ( τ ) .
E ⎡ X ce ( t + τ ) X ce
⎣
∗
{
( t )⎤⎦ = E ⎡⎢⎣e − j Φ(t + τ)
Nce ( t + τ ) ⎤⎥ ⎡⎢e ( ) Nce
⎦⎣
jΦ t ∗
( t )⎤⎥⎦ }
(A7.1.5)
= ⎡⎣R X c ( τ ) + R X s ( τ ) ⎤⎦ + j ⎡⎣R X s X c ( τ ) − R X c X s ( τ ) ⎤⎦
= 2 R X s ( τ ) + j ⎡⎣R X s X c ( τ ) − R X c X s ( τ ) ⎤⎦
1
R Xs ( τ ) = Re ⎡⎣( a1 + j b1 ) ( a2 + j b2 ) ⎤⎦
2
7.60
1
= ( a1 a2 − b1 b2 )
2
Now b1 = 2 RNs Nc ( τ ) = 0 for symmetric noise PSD, and a1 = 2 Rns ( τ ) . Hence,
R Xs ( τ ) =
1⎡
2⎣
{ }
2 RNs ( τ ) ⎤⎦ E cos ⎡⎣Φ ( t ) − Φ ( t + τ ) ⎤⎦
g ( τ)
That is,
S X s ( f ) = SNs ( f ) ∗ G ( f )
where g ( τ ) ←⎯→ G ( f ) .
1
As SΛ ( f ) = S Xs ( f ) , we have,
Ac2
1 ⎡
SΛ ( f ) = SN ( f ) ∗ G ( f ) ⎤⎦
Ac2 ⎣ s
− j Φ(t ) j Φ(t )
By definition, g ( τ ) is the real part of the ACF of e . We know that e is
BT
approximately , as shown in Fig. A7.1.
2
7.61
∞
Note that g ( 0 ) = ∫ G (f ) d f = E ⎡⎣cos ( 0 ) ⎤⎦ = 1 .
−∞
∞
For f ≤ W , G ( f ) ∗ SNs ( f ) N0 ∫ G (f ) d f = N0 . That is, Φ ( t ) is
−∞
might as well set ϕ ( t ) = 0 in the Eq. 7.22 (b), for the purpose of calculating the
7.62
References
1) Herbert Taub and D. L. Shilling, Principles of Communication systems, (2nd
P P
7.63