Select temperatures in range from 0C to 100C (controlled by water baths and ice-water
mixtures in troughs). Remember the optimum temperature will be between 30C and 50C.
Place amylase solution and starch suspension separately in the water bath and wait until
they reach the desired temperature.
Mix together amylase solution and the starch suspension. The mixture is then kept at the
same temperature.
To measure the rate of reaction, drops of the mixture can be collected at intervals of one
minute (starting at time zero) and added to individual iodine drops on a white tile.
The time taken for the starch to disappear, i.e. the iodine remains orange/brown (remember
a blue/black colour indicates the presence of starch) is recorded.
Small concentrations of starch may persist making it difcult to decide when all the starch
has been digested.
The effect of temperature upon the action of catalase
Method:
Select temperatures in range from 0C to 100C (controlled by water baths and ice-water
mixtures in troughs). Remember the optimum temperature will be between 30C and 50C.
Measure 10 cm3 hydrogen peroxide solution into a large test tube and place in a water bath
Add the cube to the boiling tube (try not to spill any hydrogen peroxide) and immediately
start the timer.
Measure the height (h), of the foam every minute (from time zero) for 5 minutes.
The detergent may vary in its efciency to capture the oxygen. Variance in the relative rates
of reaction can be measured, but not the actual volumes generated.
Onion epidermis can be peeled away, cut into squares and mounted on slides
If the Onion epidermis is mounted in a strong sucrose solution plasmolysis, the cytoplasm
and vacuole will decrease in volume as water leaves the cell by osmosis and the cell
membrane will pull away from the cell wall.
If the sucrose solution is removed (e.g. using a paper towel) and replaced with water then
the water, by osmosis, will return to the cell, the volume of the cytoplasm and vacuole will
increase the the cell membrane will again press up against the cell wall.
Red blood cells in blood obtained from a butcher may be mounted on slides in hypotonic,
isotonic and hypertonic saline, and observed under a microscope to show the effects of
osmosis.
Hypotonic solution should cause the red blood cells to burst whereas the hypertonic
solutions should cause them to decrease in volume, i.e. shrink.
4
Edexcel IG Bio Experimental Methods
Plant tissues
A number of strips/cores/cubes of potato(or carrot etc.) of the same size are cut
Dry the pieces of potato with a paper towel and measure their starting mass
Place the pieces of potato into different concentrations of salt (or sucrose) solution
Remove the pieces of potato with a paper towel and measure their ending mass
Temperature and light are very important for photosynthesis. If not controlled the levels of
oxygen that build up will vary greatly.
Certain water plants photosynthesise too slowly and sufcient oxygen for testing will a
longer period of time to be produced.
6
Image source: http://www.elateafrica.org/elate/biology/biologyindex.html
Edexcel IG Bio Experimental Methods
Method 2:
1. Place a short piece of a
water plant (typically
elodea, cambomba or a
similar species) in
solution of sodium
hydrogen carbonate (this
provides a good source of
carbon dioxide).
2. Invert the water plant and
keep it submerged by
weighing it down
(plasticine and paper clips
both work well).
3. Whilst submerged cut the stem (near to the top), this enables oxygen bubbles to escape.
4. Place an a strong articial light source, e.g. a desk lamp close to the beaker containing the
water weed
5. Wait for (at least) 5 minutes as the plant equilibrates with the conditions.
6. Measure the (oxygen) bubble production by either:
a. counting the number of bubbles evolved in a minute
b. measuring how much time it takes for 10 bubbles to be given off.
7. Calculate the rate of photosynthesis use the equation below:
Rate of photosynthesis (bubble/min) = bubbles generated (bubbles)
Time taken (min)
Independent variables what can be investigated:
Light intensity can be varied by moving the lamp closer/further from the water plant
Colour/wavelength of light - coloured lters can be placed between the plant and the light
source.
Temperature the water the plant is placed in is maintained at different temperatures using
a water bath.
Weaknesses:
Temperature and light are very important for photosynthesis. If not controlled the levels of
oxygen that build up will vary greatly.
The age/freshness of the water plant affect how fast growth and photosynthesis occurs
A starch test on a variegated leaf can be used to demonstrate that chlorophyll is needed for
photosynthesis.
To show that carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis, a leaf on a plant may be
surrounded by air with no carbon dioxide. To remove the carbon dioxide from the air insert a
leaf into a conical ask (or plastic bag, ziplock bags work well) containing a small amount of
potassium or sodium hydroxide.
Weaknesses:
A good experiment always includes a control. An untreated leaf should always be tested
along with the treated leaves to provide evidence that the factor investigated is responsible
for the observed changes.
Temperature and light are very important for photosynthesis. If not controlled the levels of
starch that build up will vary greatly.
Certain plants photosynthesise too slowly and longer in sunshine to develop starch reserves
Certain plants are very efcient at relocating the glucose from photosynthesis and hence the
starch reserves are distributed more evenly through the plant and dont show clear
differences between covered and uncovered regions.
If the plant is exposed too long then, like above, there is no clear difference between treated
areas/leaves as the glucose has been relocated and starch reserves are present throughout
the plant.
8
Edexcel IG Bio Experimental Methods
2.32 describe an experiment to investigate the energy content in a food sample.
A Calorimeter is a simple device used to determine the energy content of food. It takes 4.2 joules of
energy to heat 1g/1ml of water by 1
O
C. Using this information, food can be burnt and the heat
energy used to heat water. The increase in temperature of the water can be calculated to
determine how much energy was contained in the food.
Method:
1. A boiling tube is mounted at a near vertical angle in a clamp stand.
2. The water temperature is recorded.
3. 25cm3 of water is added to the boiling tube.
4. A small quantity mass of the food sample (e.g. potato chips/crisps) is weighed and the mass
noted.
5. The food sample is put in a crucible or burning spoon and ignited (for example in the ame
of a Bunsen burner).
6. The crucible/burning spoon containing the food sample is quickly placed directly under the
boiling tube.
7. When the food sample has completely burnt note the maximum water temperature (the
temperature may continue to rise for a short time after the completion of combustion)
8. The energy content of the food is calculated using the equation:
Energy content of food sample (joules per gram) =
mass of water heated (g) x temperature rise (oC) x 4.2 x 1 / mass of food sample (g)
Weaknesses:
The glass of the test tube is heated not just the water
Limewater only measures increases in carbon dioxide, hydrogen carbonate indicator can
show decreases as well as increases
Changes in hydrogen carbonate indicator are reversible and colour changes constantly
reect changes in carbon dioxide concentration whereas once limewater has become cloudy
it will not clear if carbon dioxide levels drop, the change is irreversible.
hydrogen carbonate indicator is more sensitive and will respond to smaller changes in
carbon dioxide than limewater
When cellular respiration occurs it gives off heat. The changes below to the equipment setup allow
for heat to be detected and measured:
Wrap the large test tube with an insulating material (or use a vacuum ask).
Place a thermometer in the second hole to measure temperature changes in the large test
tube.
Weaknesses:
The system is closed and oxygen is used up. After a certain point there will be no oxygen
left for seeds to use for respiration
Temperature should be controlled, if too low then respiration will not happen
No additional water is provided. Seeds need water for germination and growth
Colour changes in the indicate show a change in carbon dioxide levels, but cannot indicate
how large the change is.
10
Edexcel IG Bio Experimental Methods
2.43 describe experiments to investigate the effect of light on net gas exchange from a leaf, using
hydrogen-carbonate indicator
A leaf/plant can be placed in a sealed tube
of air-equilibrated hydrogen carbonate
solution (red in colour) and placed in the
light or in the dark.
Method:
Setup the apparatus below according to
the diagram. The tubes should be left for
several hours, ideally at least 24 hours.
Expected results:
Tube B No colour change. This tube is a control to check that all the colour changes
that occur are due the presence of the leaf.
Tube C The hydrogen carbonate indicator turns purple due to decreased levels of carbon
dioxide. The leaf is respiring at the same rate as the leaf in tube A, but due to higher levels
of photosynthesis more carbon dioxide is being used as a reactant (in photosynthesis)
than is being produced (by respiration).
Tube D?? Ideally a second control should be setup identically to tube B, but additionally
wrapped in foil so that like tube A it receives no light.
Variants and extensions:
Small invertebrates (on a gauze platform) can be used to show the effect of respiration
relative to photosynthesis
Similarly to the small invertebrates water snails can be used with the waterweed to show the
effect of respiration relative to photosynthesis
n.b. if using animals they must not be harmed during the experiment and the conditions they
are subjected too must ones normally experienced in their natural environments.
Weaknesses:
Health and size of plants varies. Therefore the rate of respiration and photosynthesis will
also vary. Ideally repeats should be used to make the investigation more reliable.
The effect of night-time respiration may be larger than the net reduction of carbon dioxide
during the day meaning tube C as well as tube A contains yellow hydrogen carbonate
indicator solution. An articial light should be used to make sure that this does not happen.
Due to use of the water bath and placement in the room tube C may receive minimal light
levels and hence photosynthesis may not be greater than respiration. As previously an
articial light should be used.
11
Edexcel IG Bio Experimental Methods
2.48 describe experiments to investigate the effect of exercise on breathing in humans.
n.b. this experiment is best done in pairs. Be careful not to exercise to hard and also make sure
you talk to your teacher before participating if you have asthma or any other condition that affects
your breathing.
Method:
1. Fill a large plastic soft drink bottle (1l) completely with water and screw the cap in place.
2. Invert the drinks bottle and place just the neck of the bottle under water in the sink (or
trough).
3. Carefully unscrew the cap. n.b. whilst the neck of the bottle remains under water the bottle
should stay full of water.
4. Breathe a normal breath out. The air breathed out should displace some of the water in the
bottle.
5. Inset the end of a plastic tube into the neck of the bottle.
6. Mark a line to show the level of the water.
7. Empty the water bottle.
8. Fill the water bottle up to the marked line.
9. Pour the water from the water bottle into a large (1l) measuring cylinder.
volume (cm
3
) of water in the measuring cylinder = volume (cm
3
) of a normal breath.
10. Count and record breaths per minute at rest.
11. Calculate breathing rate after exercise (use the formula below).
12. Exercise for 1 minute
13. Count and record breaths per minute immediately after the exercise.
14. Calculate breathing rate after exercise (use the formula below).
Breathing rate at rest (cm
3
per minute) = breaths per minute x volume of each breath
Weaknesses:
Breath volume changes and during exercise and afterward it should be larger than at rest.
Breaths per minute is likely to decrease during the minute of measurement after exercise as
the oxygen debt is repaid
12
Edexcel IG Bio Experimental Methods
2.56 describe experiments to investigate the role of environmental factors in determining the rate
of transpiration from a leafy shoot
A bubble potometer can be used to illustrate
the effects of light, wind, temperature and air
humidity.
Potometers come in a variety of designs, but
all follow the same basic principles and
usually consist of:
A reservoir. By turning the tap on the reservoir, the position of the bubble can be set at the
start of the experiment. Some designs of potometer use a syringe instead of a funnel with a
tap.
A tube for holding the shoot. In the diagram the shoot is held in place by inserting a
rubber bung in the tube. The hole in the bung through which the shoot passes must be
thoroughly greased with petroleum jelly to keep it airtight.
Method:
1. Set up the apparatus as in the diagram above.
2. Leave undisturbed for 5 minutes or until the shoot equilibrates to the conditions.
3. Introduce a bubble into the capillary tubing by lifting the whole potometer upwards. To do
this, loosen the screw on the boss and slide the boss up the clamp stand so that the
capillary tube comes out of the water in the beaker. Retighten the screw on the boss.
4. Gently blot the end of the capillary tube with a piece of paper towel and an air bubble should
appear in the capillary tube.
5. Loosen the screw on the boss and lower the potometer, so that the capillary tube just goes
back into the water in the beaker. Retighten the screw on the boss.
6. There are two ways of taking measurements:
a. Measure the distance the bubble travels in a xed amount of time, e.g. 5 mins
b. Measure the time taken for the bubble to travel a xed distance, e.g. 3 cm.
7. Calculate the rate of movement of the air bubble (and hence rate of transpiration) using the
formula given here. SI units are cm/s.
Rate of transpiration (cm/s) = Distance moved by the air bubble (cm)
Time taken (s)
13
Edexcel IG Bio Experimental Methods
Independent variables what can be investigated:
Light - Plants covered with dark polythene bags simulate darkness and can be compared
with plants covered with transparent polythene bags.
Humidity - Plant in a sealed polythene bag (versus one not in a bag) can be used to
simulate humid conditions
Temperature - Controlling temperature is more difcult, but can be done by controlling the
room temperature.
n.b. use of potted plants is acceptable. The pot and the soil needs to be sealed with polythene
during the investigation. The mass of the potted plant before and after the investigation is
measured. The larger the loss in mass the greater the rate of transpiration.
Weaknesses:
If the plant shoot is not well sealed then the air bubble will either not move or will move less
Leakages will also cause false readings due to too little or too much movement.
The plant shoot needs to be fresh if the same shoot is used over a number of days the rate
of transpiration is likely to decrease as the cut shoot is slowly dying
14
Edexcel IG Bio Experimental Methods
4.2 explain how quadrats can be used to estimate the population size of an organism in two
different areas
4.3 explain how quadrats can be used to sample the distribution of organisms in their habitats.
Method:
1. Count the number of organisms in a single quadrat
2. Count the number of quadrats that t in the given area.
3. Use the formula below to calculate the population size:
Population size = (number of organisms in a quadrat) x (number of quadrats in the area)
Worked example:
The more quadrats placed the more reliable the estimate population size
Temperature - place the side-arm test tube in a water bath. The end of the glass pipette
simply needs to be submerged in the bath.
pH - add the same volumes of different pH solutions (made using, acids, alkali, water)
Weaknesses:
An increase in temperature causes gases to expand. If temperature is not controlled this will
cause the number of bubbles generated to change dramatically.
If too much yeast/glucose solution is added, or if respiration is too fast then the mixture will
ow out the the pipette along with the carbon dioxide gas.
If respiration is too fast then the oil layer maybe disrupted and respiration will become
aerobic.
16
Edexcel IG Bio Experimental Methods
2.81 & 2.82 Controlled experiments to demonstrate phototropic and geotropic plant growth
responses
n.b. students are not expected to describe the methodology, but might well be asked to analyse
data in examinations
Method:
Place petri dishes containing moist cotton wool and the plant material into light-proof boxes
(cardboard boxes work well)
Cut a hole to create a small slit in one side of the box to allow light to be shone into the box
from a single direction.
Touch one or both prongs against the ngertips of a student who is looking away.
The student then has to judge whether one or two points were used and their response
recorded as correct or incorrect.
Repeat the whole process on the back of the hand, wrist and forearm.
Conclusion and analysis:
Use the data to identify which body area is the most sensitive.
Conclusions can be related to the number of sensory nerve endings, receptive eld size and
the thickness of skin.
3a A practical exercise comparing oral structure in insect- pollinated and wind-pollinated
owers
n.b. students are not expected to describe the methodology, but might well be asked to analyse
data in examinations
Collect suitable specimens and using teacher guidance identify the different reproductive
structures.
Though insect-pollinated owers are often available year round due to orists.
Wind-pollinated owers are often more difcult to nd at certain times of the year.
17