350 BC

ON SOPHISTICAL REFUTATIONS
by Aristotle
translated by ! A! Pi"#ard$Ca%brid&e
Boo# I
'
LET (s no) dis"(ss so*+isti" re,(tations- i!e! )+at a**ear to be
re,(tations b(t are really ,alla"ies instead! e )ill be&in in t+e
nat(ral order )it+ t+e ,irst!
T+at so%e reasonin&s are &en(ine- )+ile ot+ers see% to be so b(t are
not- is e.ident! T+is +a**ens )it+ ar&(%ents- as also else)+ere-
t+ro(&+ a "ertain li#eness bet)een t+e &en(ine and t+e s+a%! For
*+ysi"ally so%e *eo*le are in a .i&oro(s "ondition- )+ile ot+ers
%erely see% to be so by blo)in& and ri&&in& t+e%sel.es o(t as t+e
tribes%en do t+eir .i"ti%s ,or sa"ri,i"e/ and so%e *eo*le are
bea(ti,(l t+an#s to t+eir bea(ty- )+ile ot+ers see% to be so- by
dint o, e%bellis+in& t+e%sel.es! So it is- too- )it+ inani%ate t+in&s/
,or o, t+ese- too- so%e are really sil.er and ot+ers &old- )+ile
ot+ers are not and %erely see% to be s("+ to o(r sense/ e!&! t+in&s
%ade o, lit+ar&e and tin see% to be o, sil.er- )+ile t+ose %ade o,
yello) %etal loo# &olden! In t+e sa%e )ay bot+ reasonin& and
re,(tation are so%eti%es &en(ine- so%eti%es not- t+o(&+ ine0*erien"e
%ay %a#e t+e% a**ear so1 ,or ine0*erien"ed *eo*le obtain only- as it
)ere- a distant .ie) o, t+ese t+in&s! For reasonin& rests on "ertain
state%ents s("+ t+at t+ey in.ol.e ne"essarily t+e assertion o,
so%et+in& ot+er t+an )+at +as been stated- t+ro(&+ )+at +as been
stated1 re,(tation is reasonin& in.ol.in& t+e "ontradi"tory o, t+e
&i.en "on"l(sion! No) so%e o, t+e% do not really a"+ie.e t+is-
t+o(&+ t+ey see% to do so ,or a n(%ber o, reasons/ and o, t+ese t+e
%ost *roli,i" and (s(al do%ain is t+e ar&(%ent t+at t(rns (*on na%es
only! It is i%*ossible in a dis"(ssion to brin& in t+e a"t(al t+in&s
dis"(ssed1 )e (se t+eir na%es as sy%bols instead o, t+e%/ and
t+ere,ore )e s(**ose t+at )+at ,ollo)s in t+e na%es- ,ollo)s in t+e
t+in&s as )ell- 2(st as *eo*le )+o "al"(late s(**ose in re&ard to
t+eir "o(nters! B(t t+e t)o "ases 3na%es and t+in&s4 are not ali#e!
For na%es are ,inite and so is t+e s(%$total o, ,or%(lae- )+ile t+in&s
are in,inite in n(%ber! Ine.itably- t+en- t+e sa%e ,or%(lae- and a
sin&le na%e- +a.e a n(%ber o, %eanin&s! A""ordin&ly 2(st as- in
"o(ntin&- t+ose )+o are not "le.er in %ani*(latin& t+eir "o(nters
are ta#en in by t+e e0*erts- in t+e sa%e )ay in ar&(%ents too t+ose
)+o are not )ell a"5(ainted )it+ t+e ,or"e o, na%es %isreason bot+
in t+eir o)n dis"(ssions and )+en t+ey listen to ot+ers! For t+is
reason- t+en- and ,or ot+ers to be %entioned later- t+ere e0ists
bot+ reasonin& and re,(tation t+at is a**arent b(t not real! No) ,or
so%e *eo*le it is better )ort+ )+ile to see% to be )ise- t+an to be
)ise )it+o(t see%in& to be 3,or t+e art o, t+e so*+ist is t+e
se%blan"e o, )isdo% )it+o(t t+e reality- and t+e so*+ist is one )+o
%a#es %oney ,ro% an a**arent b(t (nreal )isdo%4/ ,or t+e%- t+en- it is
"learly essential also to see% to a""o%*lis+ t+e tas# o, a )ise %an
rat+er t+an to a""o%*lis+ it )it+o(t see%in& to do so! To red("e it to
a sin&le *oint o, "ontrast it is t+e b(siness o, one )+o #no)s a
t+in&- +i%sel, to a.oid ,alla"ies in t+e s(b2e"ts )+i"+ +e #no)s and
to be able to s+o) (* t+e %an )+o %a#es t+e%/ and o, t+ese
a""o%*lis+%ents t+e one de*ends on t+e ,a"(lty to render an ans)er-
and t+e ot+er (*on t+e se"(rin& o, one! T+ose- t+en- )+o )o(ld be
so*+ists are bo(nd to st(dy t+e "lass o, ar&(%ents a,oresaid1 ,or it
is )ort+ t+eir )+ile1 ,or a ,a"(lty o, t+is #ind )ill %a#e a %an
see% to be )ise- and t+is is t+e *(r*ose t+ey +a**en to +a.e in .ie)!
Clearly- t+en- t+ere e0ists a "lass o, ar&(%ents o, t+is #ind- and
it is at t+is #ind o, ability t+at t+ose ai% )+o% )e "all so*+ists!
Let (s no) &o on to dis"(ss +o) %any #inds t+ere are o, so*+isti"al
ar&(%ents- and +o) %any in n(%ber are t+e ele%ents o, )+i"+ t+is
,a"(lty is "o%*osed- and +o) %any bran"+es t+ere +a**en to be o,
t+is in5(iry- and t+e ot+er ,a"tors t+at "ontrib(te to t+is art!
6
O, ar&(%ents in dialo&(e ,or% t+ere are ,o(r "lasses1
7ida"ti"- 7iale"ti"al- E0a%ination$ar&(%ents- and Contentio(s
ar&(%ents! 7ida"ti" ar&(%ents are t+ose t+at reason ,ro% t+e
*rin"i*les a**ro*riate to ea"+ s(b2e"t and not ,ro% t+e o*inions
+eld by t+e ans)erer 3,or t+e learner s+o(ld ta#e t+in&s on tr(st41
diale"ti"al ar&(%ents are t+ose t+at reason ,ro% *re%isses &enerally
a""e*ted- to t+e "ontradi"tory o, a &i.en t+esis1
e0a%ination$ar&(%ents are t+ose t+at reason ,ro% *re%isses )+i"+ are
a""e*ted by t+e ans)erer and )+i"+ any one )+o *retends to *ossess
#no)led&e o, t+e s(b2e"t is bo(nd to #no)$in )+at %anner- +as been
de,ined in anot+er treatise1 "ontentio(s ar&(%ents are t+ose t+at
reason or a**ear to reason to a "on"l(sion ,ro% *re%isses t+at
a**ear to be &enerally a""e*ted b(t are not so! T+e s(b2e"t- t+en-
o, de%onstrati.e ar&(%ents +as been dis"(ssed in t+e Analyti"s-
)+ile t+at o, diale"ti" ar&(%ents and e0a%ination$ar&(%ents +as been
dis"(ssed else)+ere1 let (s no) *ro"eed to s*ea# o, t+e ar&(%ents (sed
in "o%*etitions and "ontests!
3
First )e %(st &ras* t+e n(%ber o, ai%s entertained by t+ose )+o
ar&(e as "o%*etitors and ri.als to t+e deat+! T+ese are ,i.e in
n(%ber- re,(tation- ,alla"y- *arado0- sole"is%- and ,i,t+ly to
red("e t+e o**onent in t+e dis"(ssion to babblin&$i!e! to "onstrain
+i% to re*eat +i%sel, a n(%ber o, ti%es1 or it is to *rod("e t+e
a**earan"e o, ea"+ o, t+ese t+in&s )it+o(t t+e reality! For t+ey
"+oose i, *ossible *lainly to re,(te t+e ot+er *arty- or as t+e se"ond
best to s+o) t+at +e is "o%%ittin& so%e ,alla"y- or as a t+ird best to
lead +i% into *arado0- or ,o(rt+ly to red("e +i% to sole"is%- i!e!
to %a#e t+e ans)erer- in "onse5(en"e o, t+e ar&(%ent- to (se an
(n&ra%%ati"al e0*ression/ or- as a last resort- to %a#e +i% re*eat
+i%sel,!
8
T+ere are t)o styles o, re,(tation1 ,or so%e de*end on t+e
lan&(a&e (sed- )+ile so%e are inde*endent o, lan&(a&e! T+ose )ays o,
*rod("in& t+e ,alse a**earan"e o, an ar&(%ent )+i"+ de*end on lan&(a&e
are si0 in n(%ber1 t+ey are a%bi&(ity- a%*+iboly- "o%bination-
di.ision o, )ords- a""ent- ,or% o, e0*ression! O, t+is )e %ay ass(re
o(rsel.es bot+ by ind("tion- and by syllo&isti" *roo, based on
t+is$and it %ay be on ot+er ass(%*tions as )ell$t+at t+is is t+e
n(%ber o, )ays in )+i"+ )e %i&+t ,all to %ean t+e sa%e t+in& by t+e
sa%e na%es or e0*ressions! Ar&(%ents s("+ as t+e ,ollo)in& de*end (*on
a%bi&(ity! 9T+ose learn )+o #no)1 ,or it is t+ose )+o #no) t+eir
letters )+o learn t+e letters di"tated to t+e%9! For to 9learn9 is
a%bi&(o(s/ it si&ni,ies bot+ 9to (nderstand9 by t+e (se o,
#no)led&e- and also 9to a"5(ire #no)led&e9! A&ain- 9E.ils are &ood1
,or )+at needs to be is &ood- and e.ils %(st needs be9! For 9)+at
needs to be9 +as a do(ble %eanin&1 it %eans )+at is ine.itable- as
o,ten is t+e "ase )it+ e.ils- too 3,or e.il o, so%e #ind is
ine.itable4- )+ile on t+e ot+er +and )e say o, &ood t+in&s as )ell
t+at t+ey 9need to be9! :oreo.er- 9T+e sa%e %an is bot+ seated and
standin& and +e is bot+ si"# and in +ealt+1 ,or it is +e )+o stood
(* )+o is standin&- and +e )+o is re"o.erin& )+o is in +ealt+1 b(t
it is t+e seated %an )+o stood (*- and t+e si"# %an )+o )as
re"o.erin&9! For 9T+e si"# %an does so and so9- or 9+as so and so done
to +i%9 is not sin&le in %eanin&1 so%eti%es it %eans 9t+e %an )+o is
si"# or is seated no)9- so%eti%es 9t+e %an )+o )as si"# ,or%erly9!
O, "o(rse- t+e %an )+o )as re"o.erin& )as t+e si"# %an- )+o really )as
si"# at t+e ti%e1 b(t t+e %an )+o is in +ealt+ is not si"# at t+e sa%e
ti%e1 +e is 9t+e si"# %an9 in t+e sense not t+at +e is si"# no)- b(t
t+at +e )as si"# ,or%erly! E0a%*les s("+ as t+e ,ollo)in& de*end
(*on a%*+iboly1 9I )is+ t+at yo( t+e ene%y %ay "a*t(re9! Also t+e
t+esis- 9T+ere %(st be #no)led&e o, )+at one #no)s91 ,or it is
*ossible by t+is *+rase to %ean t+at #no)led&e belon&s to bot+ t+e
#no)er and t+e #no)n! Also- 9T+ere %(st be si&+t o, )+at one sees1 one
sees t+e *illar1 er&o t+e *illar +as si&+t9! Also- 9+at yo( *ro,ess
to$be- t+at yo( *ro,ess to$be1 yo( *ro,ess a stone to$be1 er&o yo(
*ro,ess$to$be a stone9! Also- 9S*ea#in& o, t+e silent is *ossible91
,or 9s*ea#in& o, t+e silent9 also +as a do(ble %eanin&1 it %ay %ean
t+at t+e s*ea#er is silent or t+at t+e t+in&s o, )+i"+ +e s*ea#s are
so! T+ere are t+ree .arieties o, t+ese a%bi&(ities and a%*+ibolies1
3'4 +en eit+er t+e e0*ression or t+e na%e +as stri"tly %ore t+an
one %eanin&- e!&! aetos and t+e 9do&9/ 364 )+en by "(sto% )e (se
t+e% so/ 334 )+en )ords t+at +a.e a si%*le sense ta#en alone +a.e %ore
t+an one %eanin& in "o%bination/ e!&! 9#no)in& letters9! For ea"+
)ord- bot+ 9#no)in&9 and 9letters9- *ossibly +as a sin&le %eanin&1 b(t
bot+ to&et+er +a.e %ore t+an one$eit+er t+at t+e letters t+e%sel.es
+a.e #no)led&e or t+at so%eone else +as it o, t+e%!
A%*+iboly and a%bi&(ity- t+en- de*end on t+ese %odes o, s*ee"+! U*on
t+e "o%bination o, )ords t+ere de*end instan"es s("+ as t+e ,ollo)in&1
9A %an "an )al# )+ile sittin&- and "an )rite )+ile not )ritin&9! For
t+e %eanin& is not t+e sa%e i, one di.ides t+e )ords and i, one
"o%bines t+e% in sayin& t+at 9it is *ossible to )al#$)+ile$sittin&9
and )rite )+ile not )ritin&;! T+e sa%e a**lies to t+e latter *+rase-
too- i, one "o%bines t+e )ords 9to )rite$)+ile$not$)ritin&91 ,or
t+en it %eans t+at +e +as t+e *o)er to )rite and not to )rite at on"e/
)+ereas i, one does not "o%bine t+e%- it %eans t+at )+en +e is not
)ritin& +e +as t+e *o)er to )rite! Also- 9He no) i, +e +as learnt
+is letters9! :oreo.er- t+ere is t+e sayin& t+at 9One sin&le t+in&
i, yo( "an "arry a "ro)d yo( "an "arry too9!
U*on di.ision de*end t+e *ro*ositions t+at 5 is 6 and 3- and odd-
and t+at t+e &reater is e5(al1 ,or it is t+at a%o(nt and %ore besides!
For t+e sa%e *+rase )o(ld not be t+o(&+t al)ays to +a.e t+e sa%e
%eanin& )+en di.ided and )+en "o%bined- e!&! 9I %ade t+ee a sla.e on"e
a ,ree %an9- and 9<od$li#e A"+illes le,t ,i,ty a +(ndred %en9!
An ar&(%ent de*endin& (*on a""ent it is not easy to "onstr("t in
(n)ritten dis"(ssion/ in )ritten dis"(ssions and in *oetry it is
easier! T+(s 3e!&!4 so%e *eo*le e%end Ho%er a&ainst t+ose )+o
"riti"i=e as (nnat(ral +is e0*ression to %en o( #ata*(t+etai
o%bro! For t+ey sol.e t+e di,,i"(lty by a "+an&e o, a""ent-
*rono(n"in& t+e o( )it+ an a"(ter a""ent! Also- in t+e *assa&e
abo(t A&a%e%non9s drea%- t+ey say t+at >e(s did not +i%sel, say 9e
&rant +i% t+e ,(l,il%ent o, +is *rayer9- b(t t+at +e bade t+e drea%
&rant it! Instan"es s("+ as t+ese- t+en- t(rn (*on t+e a""ent(ation!
Ot+ers "o%e abo(t o)in& to t+e ,or% o, e0*ression (sed- )+en )+at is
really di,,erent is e0*ressed in t+e sa%e ,or%- e!&! a %as"(line t+in&
by a ,e%inine ter%ination- or a ,e%inine t+in& by a %as"(line- or a
ne(ter by eit+er a %as"(line or a ,e%inine/ or- a&ain- )+en a
5(ality is e0*ressed by a ter%ination *ro*er to 5(antity or .i"e
.ersa- or )+at is a"ti.e by a *assi.e )ord- or a state by an a"ti.e
)ord- and so ,ort+ )it+ t+e ot+er di.isions *re.io(sly9 laid do)n! For
it is *ossible to (se an e0*ression to denote )+at does not belon&
to t+e "lass o, a"tions at all as t+o(&+ it did so belon&! T+(s 3e!&!4
9,lo(ris+in&9 is a )ord )+i"+ in t+e ,or% o, its e0*ression is li#e
9"(ttin&9 or 9b(ildin&91 yet t+e one denotes a "ertain 5(ality$i!e!
a "ertain "ondition$)+ile t+e ot+er denotes a "ertain a"tion! In t+e
sa%e %anner also in t+e ot+er instan"es!
Re,(tations- t+en- t+at de*end (*on lan&(a&e are dra)n ,ro% t+ese
"o%%on$*la"e r(les! O, ,alla"ies- on t+e ot+er +and- t+at are
inde*endent o, lan&(a&e t+ere are se.en #inds1
3'4 t+at )+i"+ de*ends (*on A""ident1
364 t+e (se o, an e0*ression absol(tely or not absol(tely b(t )it+
so%e 5(ali,i"ation o, res*e"t or *la"e- or ti%e- or relation1
334 t+at )+i"+ de*ends (*on i&noran"e o, )+at 9re,(tation9 is1
384 t+at )+i"+ de*ends (*on t+e "onse5(ent1
354 t+at )+i"+ de*ends (*on ass(%in& t+e ori&inal "on"l(sion1
3?4 statin& as "a(se )+at is not t+e "a(se1
3@4 t+e %a#in& o, %ore t+an one 5(estion into one!
5
Falla"ies- t+en- t+at de*end on A""ident o""(r )+ene.er any
attrib(te is "lai%ed to belon& in li#e %anner to a t+in& and to its
a""ident! For sin"e t+e sa%e t+in& +as %any a""idents t+ere is no
ne"essity t+at all t+e sa%e attrib(tes s+o(ld belon& to all o, a
t+in&9s *redi"ates and to t+eir s(b2e"t as )ell! T+(s 3e!&!4- 9I,
Coris"(s be di,,erent ,ro% A%anA- +e is di,,erent ,ro% +i%sel,1 ,or +e
is a %an91 or 9I, +e be di,,erent ,ro% So"rates- and So"rates be a
%an- t+en9- t+ey say- 9+e +as ad%itted t+at Coris"(s is di,,erent ,ro%
a %an- be"a(se it so +a**ens 3a""idit4 t+at t+e *erson ,ro% )+o% +e
said t+at +e 3Coris"(s4 is di,,erent is a %an9!
T+ose t+at de*end on )+et+er an e0*ression is (sed absol(tely or
in a "ertain res*e"t and not stri"tly- o""(r )+ene.er an e0*ression
(sed in a *arti"(lar sense is ta#en as t+o(&+ it )ere (sed absol(tely-
e!&! in t+e ar&(%ent 9I, )+at is not is t+e ob2e"t o, an o*inion- t+en
)+at is not is91 ,or it is not t+e sa%e t+in& 9to be 09 and 9to be9
absol(tely! Or a&ain- 9+at is- is not- i, it is not a *arti"(lar #ind
o, bein&- e!&! i, it is not a %an!9 For it is not t+e sa%e t+in&
9not to be 09 and 9not to be9 at all1 it loo#s as i, it )ere-
be"a(se o, t+e "loseness o, t+e e0*ression- i!e! be"a(se 9to be 09
is b(t little di,,erent ,ro% 9to be9- and 9not to be 09 ,ro% 9not to
be9! Li#e)ise also )it+ any ar&(%ent t+at t(rns (*on t+e *oint )+et+er
an e0*ression is (sed in a "ertain res*e"t or (sed absol(tely! T+(s
e!&! 9S(**ose an Indian to be bla"# all o.er- b(t )+ite in res*e"t
o, +is teet+/ t+en +e is bot+ )+ite and not )+ite!9 Or i, bot+
"+ara"ters belon& in a *arti"(lar res*e"t- t+en- t+ey say- 9"ontrary
attrib(tes belon& at t+e sa%e ti%e9! T+is #ind o, t+in& is in so%e
"ases easily seen by any one- e!&! s(**ose a %an )ere to se"(re t+e
state%ent t+at t+e Et+io*ian is bla"#- and )ere t+en to as# )+et+er +e
is )+ite in res*e"t o, +is teet+/ and t+en- i, +e be )+ite in t+at
res*e"t- )ere to s(**ose at t+e "on"l(sion o, +is 5(estions t+at
t+ere,ore +e +ad *ro.ed diale"ti"ally t+at +e )as bot+ )+ite and not
)+ite! B(t in so%e "ases it o,ten *asses (ndete"ted- .i=! in all "ases
)+ere- )+ene.er a state%ent is %ade o, so%et+in& in a "ertain res*e"t-
it )o(ld be &enerally t+o(&+t t+at t+e absol(te state%ent ,ollo)s as
)ell/ and also in all "ases )+ere it is not easy to see )+i"+ o, t+e
attrib(tes o(&+t to be rendered stri"tly! A sit(ation o, t+is #ind
arises- )+ere bot+ t+e o**osite attrib(tes belon& ali#e1 ,or t+en
t+ere is &eneral s(**ort ,or t+e .ie) t+at one %(st a&ree absol(tely
to t+e assertion o, bot+- or o, neit+er1 e!&! i, a t+in& is +al, )+ite
and +al, bla"#- is it )+ite or bla"#B
Ot+er ,alla"ies o""(r be"a(se t+e ter%s 9*roo,9 or 9re,(tation9 +a.e
not been de,ined- and be"a(se so%et+in& is le,t o(t in t+eir
de,inition! For to re,(te is to "ontradi"t one and t+e sa%e
attrib(te$not %erely t+e na%e- b(t t+e reality$and a na%e t+at is
not %erely synony%o(s b(t t+e sa%e na%e$and to "on,(te it ,ro% t+e
*ro*ositions &ranted- ne"essarily- )it+o(t in"l(din& in t+e
re"#onin& t+e ori&inal *oint to be *ro.ed- in t+e sa%e res*e"t and
relation and %anner and ti%e in )+i"+ it )as asserted! A 9,alse
assertion9 abo(t anyt+in& +as to be de,ined in t+e sa%e )ay! So%e
*eo*le- +o)e.er- o%it so%e one o, t+e said "onditions and &i.e a
%erely a**arent re,(tation- s+o)in& 3e!&!4 t+at t+e sa%e t+in& is bot+
do(ble and not do(ble1 ,or t)o is do(ble o, one- b(t not do(ble o,
t+ree! Or- it %ay be- t+ey s+o) t+at it is bot+ do(ble and not
do(ble o, t+e sa%e t+in&- b(t not t+at it is so in t+e sa%e res*e"t1
,or it is do(ble in len&t+ b(t not do(ble in breadt+! Or- it %ay be-
t+ey s+o) it to be bot+ do(ble and not do(ble o, t+e sa%e t+in& and in
t+e sa%e res*e"t and %anner- b(t not t+at it is so at t+e sa%e ti%e1
and t+ere,ore t+eir re,(tation is %erely a**arent! One %i&+t- )it+
so%e .iolen"e- brin& t+is ,alla"y into t+e &ro(* o, ,alla"ies
de*endent on lan&(a&e as )ell!
T+ose t+at de*end on t+e ass(%*tion o, t+e ori&inal *oint to be
*ro.ed- o""(r in t+e sa%e )ay- and in as %any )ays- as it is
*ossible to be& t+e ori&inal *oint/ t+ey a**ear to re,(te be"a(se
%en la"# t+e *o)er to #ee* t+eir eyes at on"e (*on )+at is t+e sa%e
and )+at is di,,erent!
T+e re,(tation )+i"+ de*ends (*on t+e "onse5(ent arises be"a(se
*eo*le s(**ose t+at t+e relation o, "onse5(en"e is "on.ertible! For
)+ene.er- s(**ose A is- B ne"essarily is- t+ey t+en s(**ose also
t+at i, B is- A ne"essarily is! T+is is also t+e so(r"e o, t+e
de"e*tions t+at attend o*inions based on sense$*er"e*tion! For
*eo*le o,ten s(**ose bile to be +oney be"a(se +oney is attended by a
yello) "olo(r1 also- sin"e a,ter rain t+e &ro(nd is )et in
"onse5(en"e- )e s(**ose t+at i, t+e &ro(nd is )et- it +as been
rainin&/ )+ereas t+at does not ne"essarily ,ollo)! In r+etori"
*roo,s ,ro% si&ns are based on "onse5(en"es! For )+en r+etori"ians
)is+ to s+o) t+at a %an is an ad(lterer- t+ey ta#e +old o, so%e
"onse5(en"e o, an ad(ltero(s li,e- .i=! t+at t+e %an is s%artly
dressed- or t+at +e is obser.ed to )ander abo(t at ni&+t! T+ere are-
+o)e.er- %any *eo*le o, )+o% t+ese t+in&s are tr(e- )+ile t+e "+ar&e
in 5(estion is (ntr(e! It +a**ens li#e t+is also in real reasonin&/
e!&! :eliss(s9 ar&(%ent- t+at t+e (ni.erse is eternal- ass(%es t+at
t+e (ni.erse +as not "o%e to be 3,or ,ro% )+at is not not+in& "o(ld
*ossibly "o%e to be4 and t+at )+at +as "o%e to be +as done so ,ro% a
,irst be&innin&! I,- t+ere,ore- t+e (ni.erse +as not "o%e to be- it
+as no ,irst be&innin&- and is t+ere,ore eternal! B(t t+is does not
ne"essarily ,ollo)1 ,or e.en i, )+at +as "o%e to be al)ays +as a ,irst
be&innin&- it does not also ,ollo) t+at )+at +as a ,irst be&innin& +as
"o%e to be/ any %ore t+an it ,ollo)s t+at i, a %an in a ,e.er be
+ot- a %an )+o is +ot %(st be in a ,e.er!
T+e re,(tation )+i"+ de*ends (*on treatin& as "a(se )+at is not a
"a(se- o""(rs )+ene.er )+at is not a "a(se is inserted in t+e
ar&(%ent- as t+o(&+ t+e re,(tation de*ended (*on it! T+is #ind o,
t+in& +a**ens in ar&(%ents t+at reason ad i%*ossible1 ,or in t+ese
)e are bo(nd to de%olis+ one o, t+e *re%isses! I,- t+en- t+e ,alse
"a(se be re"#oned in a%on& t+e 5(estions t+at are ne"essary to
establis+ t+e res(ltin& i%*ossibility- it )ill o,ten be t+o(&+t t+at
t+e re,(tation de*ends (*on it- e!&! in t+e *roo, t+at t+e 9so(l9
and 9li,e9 are not t+e sa%e1 ,or i, "o%in&$to$be be "ontrary to
*eris+in&- t+en a *arti"(lar ,or% o, *eris+in& )ill +a.e a
*arti"(lar ,or% o, "o%in&$to$be as its "ontrary1 no) deat+ is a
*arti"(lar ,or% o, *eris+in& and is "ontrary to li,e1 li,e- t+ere,ore-
is a "o%in& to$be- and to li.e is to "o%e$to$be! B(t t+is is
i%*ossible1 a""ordin&ly- t+e 9so(l9 and 9li,e9 are not t+e sa%e! No)
t+is is not *ro.ed1 ,or t+e i%*ossibility res(lts all t+e sa%e- e.en
i, one does not say t+at li,e is t+e sa%e as t+e so(l- b(t %erely says
t+at li,e is "ontrary to deat+- )+i"+ is a ,or% o, *eris+in&- and t+at
*eris+in& +as 9"o%in&$to$be9 as its "ontrary! Ar&(%ents o, t+at
#ind- t+en- t+o(&+ not in"on"l(si.e absol(tely- are in"on"l(si.e in
relation to t+e *ro*osed "on"l(sion! Also e.en t+e 5(estioners
t+e%sel.es o,ten ,ail 5(ite as %("+ to see a *oint o, t+at #ind!
S("+- t+en- are t+e ar&(%ents t+at de*end (*on t+e "onse5(ent and
(*on ,alse "a(se! T+ose t+at de*end (*on t+e %a#in& o, t)o 5(estions
into one o""(r )+ene.er t+e *l(rality is (ndete"ted and a sin&le
ans)er is ret(rned as i, to a sin&le 5(estion! No)- in so%e "ases-
it is easy to see t+at t+ere is %ore t+an one- and t+at an ans)er is
not to be &i.en- e!&! 97oes t+e eart+ "onsist o, sea- or t+e s#yB9 B(t
in so%e "ases it is less easy- and t+en *eo*le treat t+e 5(estion as
one- and eit+er "on,ess t+eir de,eat by ,ailin& to ans)er t+e
5(estion- or are e0*osed to an a**arent re,(tation! T+(s 9Is A and
is B a %anB9 9Ces!9 9T+en i, any one +its A and B- +e )ill stri#e a
%an9 3sin&(lar4-9not %en9 3*l(ral4! Or a&ain- )+ere *art is &ood and
*art bad- 9is t+e )+ole &ood or badB9 For )+i"+e.er +e says- it is
*ossible t+at +e %i&+t be t+o(&+t to e0*ose +i%sel, to an a**arent
re,(tation or to %a#e an a**arently ,alse state%ent1 ,or to say t+at
so%et+in& is &ood )+i"+ is not &ood- or not &ood )+i"+ is &ood- is
to %a#e a ,alse state%ent! So%eti%es- +o)e.er- additional *re%isses
%ay a"t(ally &i.e rise to a &en(ine re,(tation/ e!&! s(**ose a %an
)ere to &rant t+at t+e des"ri*tions 9)+ite9 and 9na#ed9 and 9blind9
a**ly to one t+in& and to a n(%ber o, t+in&s in a li#e sense! For i,
9blind9 des"ribes a t+in& t+at "annot see t+o(&+ nat(re desi&ned it to
see- it )ill also des"ribe t+in&s t+at "annot see t+o(&+ nat(re
desi&ned t+e% to do so! +ene.er- t+en- one t+in& "an see )+ile
anot+er "annot- t+ey )ill eit+er bot+ be able to see or else bot+ be
blind/ )+i"+ is i%*ossible!
?
T+e ri&+t )ay- t+en- is eit+er to di.ide a**arent *roo,s and
re,(tations as abo.e- or else to re,er t+e% all to i&noran"e o, )+at
9re,(tation9 is- and %a#e t+at o(r startin&$*oint1 ,or it is
*ossible to analyse all t+e a,oresaid %odes o, ,alla"y into brea"+es
o, t+e de,inition o, a re,(tation! In t+e ,irst *la"e- )e %ay see i,
t+ey are in"on"l(si.e1 ,or t+e "on"l(sion o(&+t to res(lt ,ro% t+e
*re%isses laid do)n- so as to "o%*el (s ne"essarily to state it and
not %erely to see% to "o%*el (s! Ne0t )e s+o(ld also ta#e t+e
de,inition bit by bit- and try t+e ,alla"y t+ereby! For o, t+e
,alla"ies t+at "onsist in lan&(a&e- so%e de*end (*on a do(ble %eanin&-
e!&! a%bi&(ity o, )ords and o, *+rases- and t+e ,alla"y o, li#e .erbal
,or%s 3,or )e +abit(ally s*ea# o, e.eryt+in& as t+o(&+ it )ere a
*arti"(lar s(bstan"e4$)+ile ,alla"ies o, "o%bination and di.ision
and a""ent arise be"a(se t+e *+rase in 5(estion or t+e ter% as altered
is not t+e sa%e as )as intended! E.en t+is- +o)e.er- s+o(ld be t+e
sa%e- 2(st as t+e t+in& si&ni,ied s+o(ld be as )ell- i, a re,(tation
or *roo, is to be e,,e"ted/ e!&! i, t+e *oint "on"erns a do(blet- t+en
yo( s+o(ld dra) t+e "on"l(sion o, a 9do(blet9- not o, a 9"loa#9! For
t+e ,or%er "on"l(sion also )o(ld be tr(e- b(t it +as not been
*ro.ed/ )e need a ,(rt+er 5(estion to s+o) t+at 9do(blet9 %eans t+e
sa%e t+in&- in order to satis,y any one )+o as#s )+y yo( t+in# yo(r
*oint *ro.ed!
Falla"ies t+at de*end on A""ident are "lear "ases o, i&noratio
elen"+i )+en on"e 9*roo,9 +as been de,ined! For t+e sa%e de,inition
o(&+t to +old &ood o, 9re,(tation9 too- e0"e*t t+at a %ention o,
9t+e "ontradi"tory9 is +ere added1 ,or a re,(tation is a *roo, o,
t+e "ontradi"tory! I,- t+en- t+ere is no *roo, as re&ards an
a""ident o, anyt+in&- t+ere is no re,(tation! For s(**osin&- )+en A
and B are- C %(st ne"essarily be- and C is )+ite- t+ere is no
ne"essity ,or it to be )+ite on a""o(nt o, t+e syllo&is%! So- i, t+e
trian&le +as its an&les e5(al to t)o ri&+t$an&les- and it +a**ens to
be a ,i&(re- or t+e si%*lest ele%ent or startin& *oint- it is not
be"a(se it is a ,i&(re or a startin& *oint or si%*lest ele%ent t+at it
+as t+is "+ara"ter! For t+e de%onstration *ro.es t+e *oint abo(t it
not 5(a ,i&(re or 5(a si%*lest ele%ent- b(t 5(a trian&le! Li#e)ise
also in ot+er "ases! I,- t+en- re,(tation is a *roo,- an ar&(%ent
)+i"+ ar&(ed *er a""idens "o(ld not be a re,(tation! It is- +o)e.er-
2(st in t+is t+at t+e e0*erts and %en o, s"ien"e &enerally s(,,er
re,(tation at t+e +and o, t+e (ns"ienti,i"1 ,or t+e latter %eet t+e
s"ientists )it+ reasonin&s "onstit(ted *er a""idens/ and t+e
s"ientists ,or la"# o, t+e *o)er to dra) distin"tions eit+er say 9Ces9
to t+eir 5(estions- or else *eo*le s(**ose t+e% to +a.e said 9Ces9-
alt+o(&+ t+ey +a.e not!
T+ose t+at de*end (*on )+et+er so%et+in& is said in a "ertain
res*e"t only or said absol(tely- are "lear "ases o, i&noratio
elen"+i be"a(se t+e a,,ir%ation and t+e denial are not "on"erned
)it+ t+e sa%e *oint! For o, 9)+ite in a "ertain res*e"t9 t+e
ne&ation is 9not )+ite in a "ertain res*e"t9- )+ile o, 9)+ite
absol(tely9 it is 9not )+ite- absol(tely9! I,- t+en- a %an treats
t+e ad%ission t+at a t+in& is 9)+ite in a "ertain res*e"t9 as t+o(&+
it )ere said to be )+ite absol(tely- +e does not e,,e"t a
re,(tation- b(t %erely a**ears to do so o)in& to i&noran"e o, )+at
re,(tation is!
T+e "learest "ases o, all- +o)e.er- are t+ose t+at )ere *re.io(sly
des"ribed9 as de*endin& (*on t+e de,inition o, a 9re,(tation91 and
t+is is also )+y t+ey )ere "alled by t+at na%e! For t+e a**earan"e
o, a re,(tation is *rod("ed be"a(se o, t+e o%ission in t+e de,inition-
and i, )e di.ide ,alla"ies in t+e abo.e %anner- )e o(&+t to set
97e,e"ti.e de,inition9 as a "o%%on %ar# (*on t+e% all!
T+ose t+at de*end (*on t+e ass(%*tion o, t+e ori&inal *oint and (*on
statin& as t+e "a(se )+at is not t+e "a(se- are "learly s+o)n to be
"ases o, i&noratio elen"+i t+ro(&+ t+e de,inition t+ereo,! For t+e
"on"l(sion o(&+t to "o%e abo(t 9be"a(se t+ese t+in&s are so9- and t+is
does not +a**en )+ere t+e *re%isses are not "a(ses o, it1 and a&ain it
s+o(ld "o%e abo(t )it+o(t ta#in& into a""o(nt t+e ori&inal *oint-
and t+is is not t+e "ase )it+ t+ose ar&(%ents )+i"+ de*end (*on
be&&in& t+e ori&inal *oint!
T+ose t+at de*end (*on t+e ass(%*tion o, t+e ori&inal *oint and (*on
statin& as t+e "a(se )+at is not t+e "a(se- are "learly s+o)n to be
"ases o, i&noratio elen"+i t+ro(&+ t+e de,inition t+ereo,! For t+e
"on"l(sion o(&+t to "o%e abo(t 9be"a(se t+ese t+in&s are so9- and t+is
does not +a**en )+ere t+e *re%isses are not "a(ses o, it1 and a&ain it
s+o(ld "o%e abo(t )it+o(t ta#in& into a""o(nt t+e ori&inal *oint-
and t+is is not t+e "ase )it+ t+ose ar&(%ents )+i"+ de*end (*on
be&&in& t+e ori&inal *oint!
T+ose t+at de*end (*on t+e "onse5(ent are a bran"+ o, A""ident1
,or t+e "onse5(ent is an a""ident- only it di,,ers ,ro% t+e a""ident
in t+is- t+at yo( %ay se"(re an ad%ission o, t+e a""ident in t+e
"ase o, one t+in& only 3e!&! t+e identity o, a yello) t+in& and
+oney and o, a )+ite t+in& and s)an4- )+ereas t+e "onse5(ent al)ays
in.ol.es %ore t+an one t+in&1 ,or )e "lai% t+at t+in&s t+at are t+e
sa%e as one and t+e sa%e t+in& are also t+e sa%e as one anot+er- and
t+is is t+e &ro(nd o, a re,(tation de*endent on t+e "onse5(ent! It is-
+o)e.er- not al)ays tr(e- e!&! s(**ose t+at and B are t+e sa%e as C
*er a""idens/ ,or bot+ 9sno)9 and t+e 9s)an9 are t+e sa%e as so%et+in&
)+ite9! Or a&ain- as in :eliss(s9 ar&(%ent- a %an ass(%es t+at to
9+a.e been &enerated9 and to 9+a.e a be&innin&9 are t+e sa%e t+in&- or
to 9be"o%e e5(al9 and to 9ass(%e t+e sa%e %a&nit(de9! For be"a(se )+at
+as been &enerated +as a be&innin&- +e "lai%s also t+at )+at +as a
be&innin& +as been &enerated- and ar&(es as t+o(&+ bot+ )+at +as
been &enerated and )+at is ,inite )ere t+e sa%e be"a(se ea"+ +as a
be&innin&! Li#e)ise also in t+e "ase o, t+in&s t+at are %ade e5(al
+e ass(%es t+at i, t+in&s t+at ass(%e one and t+e sa%e %a&nit(de
be"o%e e5(al- t+en also t+in&s t+at be"o%e e5(al ass(%e one %a&nit(de1
i!e! +e ass(%es t+e "onse5(ent! Inas%("+- t+en- as a re,(tation
de*endin& on a""ident "onsists in i&noran"e o, )+at a re,(tation is-
"learly so also does a re,(tation de*endin& on t+e "onse5(ent! e
s+all +a.e ,(rt+er to e0a%ine t+is in anot+er )ay as )ell!
T+ose ,alla"ies t+at de*end (*on t+e %a#in& o, se.eral 5(estions
into one "onsist in o(r ,ail(re to disse"t t+e de,inition o,
9*ro*osition9! For a *ro*osition is a sin&le state%ent abo(t a
sin&le t+in&! For t+e sa%e de,inition a**lies to 9one sin&le t+in&
only9 and to t+e 9t+in&9- si%*ly- e!&! to 9%an9 and to 9one sin&le %an
only9 and li#e)ise also in ot+er "ases! I,- t+en- a 9sin&le
*ro*osition9 be one )+i"+ "lai%s a sin&le t+in& o, a sin&le t+in&- a
9*ro*osition9- si%*ly- )ill also be t+e *(ttin& o, a 5(estion o,
t+at #ind! No) sin"e a *roo, starts ,ro% *ro*ositions and re,(tation
is a *roo,- re,(tation- too- )ill start ,ro% *ro*ositions! I,- t+en- a
*ro*osition is a sin&le state%ent abo(t a sin&le t+in&- it is
ob.io(s t+at t+is ,alla"y too "onsists in i&noran"e o, )+at a
re,(tation is1 ,or in it )+at is not a *ro*osition a**ears to be
one! I,- t+en- t+e ans)erer +as ret(rned an ans)er as t+o(&+ to a
sin&le 5(estion- t+ere )ill be a re,(tation/ )+ile i, +e +as
ret(rned one not really b(t a**arently- t+ere )ill be an a**arent
re,(tation o, +is t+esis! All t+e ty*es o, ,alla"y- t+en- ,all (nder
i&noran"e o, )+at a re,(tation is- so%e o, t+e% be"a(se t+e
"ontradi"tion- )+i"+ is t+e distin"ti.e %ar# o, a re,(tation- is
%erely a**arent- and t+e rest ,ailin& to "on,or% to t+e de,inition
o, a *roo,!
@
T+e de"e*tion "o%es abo(t in t+e "ase o, ar&(%ents t+at de*end on
a%bi&(ity o, )ords and o, *+rases be"a(se )e are (nable to di.ide
t+e a%bi&(o(s ter% 3,or so%e ter%s it is not easy to di.ide- e!&!
9(nity9- 9bein&9- and 9sa%eness94- )+ile in t+ose t+at de*end on
"o%bination and di.ision- it is be"a(se )e s(**ose t+at it %a#es no
di,,eren"e )+et+er t+e *+rase be "o%bined or di.ided- as is indeed t+e
"ase )it+ %ost *+rases! Li#e)ise also )it+ t+ose t+at de*end on
a""ent1 ,or t+e lo)erin& or raisin& o, t+e .oi"e (*on a *+rase is
t+o(&+t not to alter its %eanin&$)it+ any *+rase- or not )it+ %any!
it+ t+ose t+at de*end on t+e o, e0*ression it is be"a(se o, t+e
li#eness o, e0*ression! For it is +ard to distin&(is+ )+at #ind o,
t+in&s are si&ni,ied by t+e sa%e and )+at by di,,erent #inds o,
e0*ression1 ,or a %an )+o "an do t+is is *ra"ti"ally ne0t door to
t+e (nderstandin& o, t+e tr(t+! A s*e"ial reason )+y a %an is liable
to be +(rried into assent to t+e ,alla"y is t+at )e s(**ose e.ery
*redi"ate o, e.eryt+in& to be an indi.id(al t+in&- and )e (nderstand
it as bein& one )it+ t+e t+in&1 and )e t+ere,ore treat it as a
s(bstan"e1 ,or it is to t+at )+i"+ is one )it+ a t+in& or s(bstan"e-
as also to s(bstan"e itsel,- t+at 9indi.id(ally9 and 9bein&9 are
dee%ed to belon& in t+e ,(llest sense! For t+is reason- too- t+is ty*e
o, ,alla"y is to be ran#ed a%on& t+ose t+at de*end on lan&(a&e/ in t+e
,irst *la"e- be"a(se t+e de"e*tion is e,,e"ted t+e %ore readily )+en
)e are in5(irin& into a *roble% in "o%*any )it+ ot+ers t+an )+en )e do
so by o(rsel.es 3,or an in5(iry )it+ anot+er *erson is "arried on by
%eans o, s*ee"+- )+ereas an in5(iry by onesel, is "arried on 5(ite
as %("+ by %eans o, t+e ob2e"t itsel,4/ se"ondly a %an is liable to be
de"ei.ed- e.en )+en in5(irin& by +i%sel,- )+en +e ta#es s*ee"+ as
t+e basis o, +is in5(iry1 %oreo.er t+e de"e*tion arises o(t o, t+e
li#eness 3o, t)o di,,erent t+in&s4- and t+e li#eness arises o(t o, t+e
lan&(a&e! it+ t+ose ,alla"ies t+at de*end (*on A""ident- de"e*tion
"o%es abo(t be"a(se )e "annot distin&(is+ t+e sa%eness and ot+erness
o, ter%s- i!e! t+eir (nity and %(lti*li"ity- or )+at #inds o,
*redi"ate +a.e all t+e sa%e a""idents as t+eir s(b2e"t! Li#e)ise
also )it+ t+ose t+at de*end on t+e Conse5(ent1 ,or t+e "onse5(ent is a
bran"+ o, A""ident! :oreo.er- in %any "ases a**earan"es *oint to
t+is$and t+e "lai% is %ade t+at i, is inse*arable ,ro% B- so also is B
,ro% it+ t+ose t+at de*end (*on an i%*er,e"tion in t+e de,inition
o, a re,(tation- and )it+ t+ose t+at de*end (*on t+e di,,eren"e
bet)een a 5(ali,ied and an absol(te state%ent- t+e de"e*tion
"onsists in t+e s%allness o, t+e di,,eren"e in.ol.ed/ ,or )e treat t+e
li%itation to t+e *arti"(lar t+in& or res*e"t or %anner or ti%e as
addin& not+in& to t+e %eanin&- and so &rant t+e state%ent (ni.ersally!
Li#e)ise also in t+e "ase o, t+ose t+at ass(%e t+e ori&inal *oint- and
t+ose o, ,alse "a(se- and all t+at treat a n(%ber o, 5(estions as one1
,or in all o, t+e% t+e de"e*tion lies in t+e s%allness o, t+e
di,,eren"e1 ,or o(r ,ail(re to be 5(ite e0a"t in o(r de,inition o,
9*re%iss9 and o, 9*roo,9 is d(e to t+e a,oresaid reason!
D
Sin"e )e #no) on +o) %any *oints a**arent syllo&is%s de*end- )e #no)
also on +o) %any so*+isti"al syllo&is%s and re,(tations %ay de*end! By
a so*+isti"al re,(tation and syllo&is% I %ean not only a syllo&is%
or re,(tation )+i"+ a**ears to be .alid b(t is not- b(t also one
)+i"+- t+o(&+ it is .alid- only a**ears to be a**ro*riate to t+e t+in&
in 5(estion! T+ese are t+ose )+i"+ ,ail to re,(te and *ro.e *eo*le
to be i&norant a""ordin& to t+e nat(re o, t+e t+in& in 5(estion- )+i"+
)as t+e ,(n"tion o, t+e art o, e0a%ination! No) t+e art o, e0a%inin&
is a bran"+ o, diale"ti"1 and t+is %ay *ro.e a ,alse "on"l(sion
be"a(se o, t+e i&noran"e o, t+e ans)erer! So*+isti" re,(tations on t+e
ot+er +and- e.en t+o(&+ t+ey *ro.e t+e "ontradi"tory o, +is t+esis- do
not %a#e "lear )+et+er +e is i&norant1 ,or so*+ists entan&le t+e
s"ientist as )ell )it+ t+ese ar&(%ents!
T+at )e #no) t+e% by t+e sa%e line o, in5(iry is "lear1 ,or t+e sa%e
"onsiderations )+i"+ %a#e it a**ear to an a(dien"e t+at t+e *oints
re5(ired ,or t+e *roo, )ere as#ed in t+e 5(estions and t+at t+e
"on"l(sion )as *ro.ed- )o(ld %a#e t+e ans)erer t+in# so as )ell- so
t+at ,alse *roo, )ill o""(r t+ro(&+ all or so%e o, t+ese %eans1 ,or
)+at a %an +as not been as#ed b(t t+in#s +e +as &ranted- +e )o(ld also
&rant i, +e )ere as#ed! O, "o(rse- in so%e "ases t+e %o%ent )e add t+e
%issin& 5(estion- )e also s+o) (* its ,alsity- e!&! in ,alla"ies
t+at de*end on lan&(a&e and on sole"is%! I, t+en- ,alla"io(s *roo,s o,
t+e "ontradi"tory o, a t+esis de*end on t+eir a**earin& to re,(te-
it is "lear t+at t+e "onsiderations on )+i"+ bot+ *roo,s o, ,alse
"on"l(sions and an a**arent re,(tation de*end %(st be t+e sa%e in
n(%ber! No) an a**arent re,(tation de*ends (*on t+e ele%ents
in.ol.ed in a &en(ine one1 ,or t+e ,ail(re o, one or ot+er o, t+ese
%(st %a#e t+e re,(tation %erely a**arent- e!&! t+at )+i"+ de*ends on
t+e ,ail(re o, t+e "on"l(sion to ,ollo) ,ro% t+e ar&(%ent 3t+e
ar&(%ent ad i%*ossible4 and t+at )+i"+ treats t)o 5(estions as one and
so de*ends (*on a ,la) in t+e *re%iss- and t+at )+i"+ de*ends on t+e
s(bstit(tion o, an a""ident ,or an essential attrib(te- and$a bran"+
o, t+e last$t+at )+i"+ de*ends (*on t+e "onse5(ent1 %ore o.er- t+e
"on"l(sion %ay ,ollo) not in ,a"t b(t only .erbally1 t+en- instead
o, *ro.in& t+e "ontradi"tory (ni.ersally and in t+e sa%e res*e"t and
relation and %anner- t+e ,alla"y %ay be de*endent on so%e li%it o,
e0tent or on one or ot+er o, t+ese 5(ali,i"ations1 %oreo.er- t+ere
is t+e ass(%*tion o, t+e ori&inal *oint to be *ro.ed- in .iolation
o, t+e "la(se 9)it+o(t re"#onin& in t+e ori&inal *oint9! T+(s )e
s+o(ld +a.e t+e n(%ber o, "onsiderations on )+i"+ t+e ,alla"io(s
*roo,s de*end1 ,or t+ey "o(ld not de*end on %ore- b(t all )ill
de*end on t+e *oints a,oresaid!
A so*+isti"al re,(tation is a re,(tation not absol(tely b(t
relati.ely to so%e one1 and so is a *roo,- in t+e sa%e )ay! For (nless
t+at )+i"+ de*ends (*on a%bi&(ity ass(%es t+at t+e a%bi&(o(s ter%
+as a sin&le %eanin&- and t+at )+i"+ de*ends on li#e .erbal ,or%s
ass(%es t+at s(bstan"e is t+e only "ate&ory- and t+e rest in t+e
sa%e )ay- t+ere )ill be neit+er re,(tations nor *roo,s- eit+er
absol(tely or relati.ely to t+e ans)erer1 )+ereas i, t+ey do ass(%e
t+ese t+in&s- t+ey )ill stand- relati.ely to t+e ans)erer/ b(t
absol(tely t+ey )ill not stand1 ,or t+ey +a.e not se"(red a
state%ent t+at does +a.e a sin&le %eanin&- b(t only one t+at a**ears
to +a.e- and t+at only ,ro% t+is *arti"(lar %an!
E
T+e n(%ber o, "onsiderations on )+i"+ de*end t+e re,(tations o,
t+ose )+o are re,(ted- )e o(&+t not to try to &ras* )it+o(t a
#no)led&e o, e.eryt+in& t+at is! T+is- +o)e.er- is not t+e *ro.in"e o,
any s*e"ial st(dy1 ,or *ossibly t+e s"ien"es are in,inite in n(%ber-
so t+at ob.io(sly de%onstrations %ay be in,inite too! No)
re,(tations %ay be tr(e as )ell as ,alse1 ,or )+ene.er it is
*ossible to de%onstrate so%et+in&- it is also *ossible to re,(te t+e
%an )+o %aintains t+e "ontradi"tory o, t+e tr(t+/ e!&! i, a %an +as
stated t+at t+e dia&onal is "o%%ens(rate )it+ t+e side o, t+e
s5(are- one %i&+t re,(te +i% by de%onstratin& t+at it is
in"o%%ens(rate! A""ordin&ly- to e0+a(st all *ossible re,(tations )e
s+all +a.e to +a.e s"ienti,i" #no)led&e o, e.eryt+in&1 ,or so%e
re,(tations de*end (*on t+e *rin"i*les t+at r(le in &eo%etry and t+e
"on"l(sions t+at ,ollo) ,ro% t+ese- ot+ers (*on t+ose t+at r(le in
%edi"ine- and ot+ers (*on t+ose o, t+e ot+er s"ien"es! For t+e
%atter o, t+at- t+e ,alse re,(tations li#e)ise belon& to t+e n(%ber o,
t+e in,inite1 ,or a""ordin& to e.ery art t+ere is ,alse *roo,- e!&!
a""ordin& to &eo%etry t+ere is ,alse &eo%etri"al *roo,- and
a""ordin& to %edi"ine t+ere is ,alse %edi"al *roo,! By 9a""ordin& to
t+e art9- I %ean 9a""ordin& to t+e *rin"i*les o, it9! Clearly- t+en-
it is not o, all re,(tations- b(t only o, t+ose t+at de*end (*on
diale"ti" t+at )e need to &ras* t+e "o%%on$*la"e r(les1 ,or t+ese
stand in a "o%%on relation to e.ery art and ,a"(lty! And as re&ards
t+e re,(tation t+at is a""ordin& to one or ot+er o, t+e *arti"(lar
s"ien"es it is t+e tas# o, t+at *arti"(lar s"ientist to e0a%ine
)+et+er it is %erely a**arent )it+o(t bein& real- and- i, it be
real- )+at is t+e reason ,or it1 )+ereas it is t+e b(siness o,
diale"ti"ians so to e0a%ine t+e re,(tation t+at *ro"eeds ,ro% t+e
"o%%on ,irst *rin"i*les t+at ,all (nder no *arti"(lar s*e"ial st(dy!
For i, )e &ras* t+e startin&*oints o, t+e a""e*ted *roo,s on any
s(b2e"t )+ate.er )e &ras* t+ose o, t+e re,(tations "(rrent on t+at
s(b2e"t! For a re,(tation is t+e *roo, o, t+e "ontradi"tory o, a &i.en
t+esis- so t+at eit+er one or t)o *roo,s o, t+e "ontradi"tory
"onstit(te a re,(tation! e &ras*- t+en- t+e n(%ber o,
"onsiderations on )+i"+ all s("+ de*end1 i,- +o)e.er- )e &ras* t+is-
)e also &ras* t+eir sol(tions as )ell/ ,or t+e ob2e"tions to t+ese are
t+e sol(tions o, t+e%! e also &ras* t+e n(%ber o, "onsiderations on
)+i"+ t+ose re,(tations de*end- t+at are %erely a**arent$a**arent- I
%ean- not to e.erybody- b(t to *eo*le o, a "ertain sta%*/ ,or it is an
inde,inite tas# i, one is to in5(ire +o) %any are t+e "onsiderations
t+at %a#e t+e% a**arent to t+e %an in t+e street! A""ordin&ly it is
"lear t+at t+e diale"ti"ian9s b(siness is to be able to &ras* on +o)
%any "onsiderations de*ends t+e ,or%ation- t+ro(&+ t+e "o%%on ,irst
*rin"i*les- o, a re,(tation t+at is eit+er real or a**arent- i!e!
eit+er diale"ti"al or a**arently diale"ti"al- or s(itable ,or an
e0a%ination!
'0
It is no tr(e distin"tion bet)een ar&(%ents )+i"+ so%e *eo*le dra)
)+en t+ey say t+at so%e ar&(%ents are dire"ted a&ainst t+e e0*ression-
and ot+ers a&ainst t+e t+o(&+t e0*ressed1 ,or it is abs(rd to
s(**ose t+at so%e ar&(%ents are dire"ted a&ainst t+e e0*ression and
ot+ers a&ainst t+e t+o(&+t- and t+at t+ey are not t+e sa%e! For )+at
is ,ail(re to dire"t an ar&(%ent a&ainst t+e t+o(&+t e0"e*t )+at
o""(rs )+ene.er a %an does not in (sin& t+e e0*ression t+in# it to
be (sed in +is 5(estion in t+e sa%e sense in )+i"+ t+e *erson
5(estioned &ranted itB And t+is is t+e sa%e t+in& as to dire"t t+e
ar&(%ent a&ainst t+e e0*ression! On t+e ot+er +and- it is dire"ted
a&ainst t+e t+o(&+t )+ene.er a %an (ses t+e e0*ression in t+e sa%e
sense )+i"+ t+e ans)erer +ad in %ind )+en +e &ranted it! I, no) any
3i!e! bot+ t+e 5(estioner and t+e *erson 5(estioned4- in dealin&
)it+ an e0*ression )it+ %ore t+an one %eanin&- )ere to s(**ose it to
+a.e one %eanin&$as e!&! it %ay be t+at 9Bein&9 and 9One9 +a.e %any
%eanin&s- and yet bot+ t+e ans)erer ans)ers and t+e 5(estioner *(ts
+is 5(estion s(**osin& it to be one- and t+e ar&(%ent is to t+e e,,e"t
t+at 9All t+in&s are one9$)ill t+is dis"(ssion be dire"ted any %ore
a&ainst t+e e0*ression t+an a&ainst t+e t+o(&+t o, t+e *erson
5(estionedB I,- on t+e ot+er +and- one o, t+e% s(**oses t+e e0*ression
to +a.e %any %eanin&s- it is "lear t+at s("+ a dis"(ssion )ill not
be dire"ted a&ainst t+e t+o(&+t! S("+ bein& t+e %eanin&s o, t+e
*+rases in 5(estion- t+ey "learly "annot des"ribe t)o se*arate "lasses
o, ar&(%ent! For- in t+e ,irst *la"e- it is *ossible ,or any s("+
ar&(%ent as bears %ore t+an one %eanin& to be dire"ted a&ainst t+e
e0*ression and a&ainst t+e t+o(&+t- and ne0t it is *ossible ,or any
ar&(%ent )+atsoe.er/ ,or t+e ,a"t o, bein& dire"ted a&ainst t+e
t+o(&+t "onsists not in t+e nat(re o, t+e ar&(%ent- b(t in t+e s*e"ial
attit(de o, t+e ans)erer to)ards t+e *oints +e "on"edes! Ne0t- all
o, t+e% %ay be dire"ted to t+e e0*ression! For 9to be dire"ted a&ainst
t+e e0*ression9 %eans in t+is do"trine 9not to be dire"ted a&ainst t+e
t+o(&+t9! For i, not all are dire"ted a&ainst eit+er e0*ression or
t+o(&+t- t+ere )ill be "ertain ot+er ar&(%ents dire"ted neit+er
a&ainst t+e e0*ression nor a&ainst t+e t+o(&+t- )+ereas t+ey say
t+at all %(st be one or t+e ot+er- and di.ide t+e% all as dire"ted
eit+er a&ainst t+e e0*ression or a&ainst t+e t+o(&+t- )+ile ot+ers
3t+ey say4 t+ere are none! B(t in *oint o, ,a"t t+ose t+at de*end on
%ere e0*ression are only a bran"+ o, t+ose syllo&is%s t+at de*end on a
%(lti*li"ity o, %eanin&s! For t+e abs(rd state%ent +as a"t(ally been
%ade t+at t+e des"ri*tion 9de*endent on %ere e0*ression9 des"ribes all
t+e ar&(%ents t+at de*end on lan&(a&e1 )+ereas so%e o, t+ese are
,alla"ies not be"a(se t+e ans)erer ado*ts a *arti"(lar attit(de
to)ards t+e%- b(t be"a(se t+e ar&(%ent itsel, in.ol.es t+e as#in& o, a
5(estion s("+ as bears %ore t+an one %eanin&!
It is- too- alto&et+er abs(rd to dis"(ss Re,(tation )it+o(t ,irst
dis"(ssin& Proo,1 ,or a re,(tation is a *roo,- so t+at one o(&+t to
dis"(ss *roo, as )ell be,ore des"ribin& ,alse re,(tation1 ,or a
re,(tation o, t+at #ind is a %erely a**arent *roo, o, t+e
"ontradi"tory o, a t+esis! A""ordin&ly- t+e reason o, t+e ,alsity )ill
be eit+er in t+e *roo, or in t+e "ontradi"tion 3,or %ention o, t+e
9"ontradi"tion9 %(st be added4- )+ile so%eti%es it is in bot+- i,
t+e re,(tation be %erely a**arent! In t+e ar&(%ent t+at s*ea#in& o,
t+e silent is *ossible it lies in t+e "ontradi"tion- not in t+e *roo,/
in t+e ar&(%ent t+at one "an &i.e )+at one does not *ossess- it lies
in bot+/ in t+e *roo, t+at Ho%er9s *oe% is a ,i&(re t+ro(&+ its
bein& a "y"le it lies in t+e *roo,! An ar&(%ent t+at does not ,ail
in eit+er res*e"t is a tr(e *roo,!
B(t- to ret(rn to t+e *oint )+en"e o(r ar&(%ent di&ressed- are
%at+e%ati"al reasonin&s dire"ted a&ainst t+e t+o(&+t- or notB And i,
any one t+in#s 9trian&le9 to be a )ord )it+ %any %eanin&s- and &ranted
it in so%e di,,erent sense ,ro% t+e ,i&(re )+i"+ )as *ro.ed to "ontain
t)o ri&+t an&les- +as t+e 5(estioner +ere dire"ted +is ar&(%ent
a&ainst t+e t+o(&+t o, t+e ,or%er or notB
:oreo.er- i, t+e e0*ression bears %any senses- )+ile t+e ans)erer
does not (nderstand or s(**ose it to +a.e t+e%- s(rely t+e
5(estioner +ere +as dire"ted +is ar&(%ent a&ainst +is t+o(&+tF Or
+o) else o(&+t +e to *(t +is 5(estion e0"e*t by s(&&estin& a
distin"tion$s(**ose one9s 5(estion to be s*ea#in& o, t+e silent
*ossible or notB9$as ,ollo)s- 9Is t+e ans)er ANoA in one sense- b(t
ACesA in anot+erB9 I,- t+en- any one )ere to ans)er t+at it )as not
*ossible in any sense and t+e ot+er )ere to ar&(e t+at it )as- +as not
+is ar&(%ent been dire"ted a&ainst t+e t+o(&+t o, t+e ans)ererB Cet
+is ar&(%ent is s(**osed to be one o, t+ose t+at de*end on t+e
e0*ression! T+ere is not- t+en- any de,inite #ind o, ar&(%ents t+at is
dire"ted a&ainst t+e t+o(&+t! So%e ar&(%ents are- indeed- dire"ted
a&ainst t+e e0*ression1 b(t t+ese are not all e.en a**arent
re,(tations- let alone all re,(tations! For t+ere are also a**arent
re,(tations )+i"+ do not de*end (*on lan&(a&e- e!&! t+ose t+at
de*end (*on a""ident- and ot+ers!
I,- +o)e.er- any one "lai%s t+at one s+o(ld a"t(ally dra) t+e
distin"tion- and say- 9By As*ea#in& o, t+e silentA I %ean- in one
sense t+is and in t+e ot+er sense t+at9- s(rely to "lai% t+is is in
t+e ,irst *la"e abs(rd 3,or so%eti%es t+e 5(estioner does not see
t+e a%bi&(ity o, +is 5(estion- and +e "annot *ossibly dra) a
distin"tion )+i"+ +e does not t+in# to be t+ere41 in t+e se"ond *la"e-
)+at else b(t t+is )ill dida"ti" ar&(%ent beB For it )ill %a#e
%ani,est t+e state o, t+e "ase to one )+o +as ne.er "onsidered- and
does not #no) or s(**ose t+at t+ere is any ot+er %eanin& b(t one!
For )+at is t+ere to *re.ent t+e sa%e t+in& also +a**enin& to (s in
"ases )+ere t+ere is no do(ble %eanin&B 9Are t+e (nits in ,o(r e5(al
to t+e t)osB Obser.e t+at t+e t)os are "ontained in ,o(r in one
sense in t+is )ay- in anot+er sense in t+at9! Also- 9Is t+e
#no)led&e o, "ontraries one or notB Obser.e t+at so%e "ontraries are
#no)n- )+ile ot+ers are (n#no)n9! T+(s t+e %an )+o %a#es t+is "lai%
see%s to be (na)are o, t+e di,,eren"e bet)een dida"ti" and diale"ti"al
ar&(%ent- and o, t+e ,a"t t+at )+ile +e )+o ar&(es dida"ti"ally s+o(ld
not as# 5(estions b(t %a#e t+in&s "lear +i%sel,- t+e ot+er s+o(ld
%erely as# 5(estions!
''
:oreo.er- to "lai% a 9Ces9 or 9No9 ans)er is t+e b(siness not o, a
%an )+o is s+o)in& so%et+in&- b(t o, one )+o is +oldin& an
e0a%ination! For t+e art o, e0a%inin& is a bran"+ o, diale"ti" and +as
in .ie) not t+e %an )+o +as #no)led&e- b(t t+e i&norant *retender! He-
t+en- is a diale"ti"ian )+o re&ards t+e "o%%on *rin"i*les )it+ t+eir
a**li"ation to t+e *arti"(lar %atter in +and- )+ile +e )+o only
a**ears to do t+is is a so*+ist! No) ,or "ontentio(s and so*+isti"al
reasonin&1 3'4 one s("+ is a %erely a**arent reasonin&- on s(b2e"ts on
)+i"+ diale"ti"al reasonin& is t+e *ro*er %et+od o, e0a%ination-
e.en t+o(&+ its "on"l(sion be tr(e1 ,or it %isleads (s in re&ard to
t+e "a(se1 also 364 t+ere are t+ose %isreasonin&s )+i"+ do not "on,or%
to t+e line o, in5(iry *ro*er to t+e *arti"(lar s(b2e"t- b(t are
&enerally t+o(&+t to "on,or% to t+e art in 5(estion! For ,alse
dia&ra%s o, &eo%etri"al ,i&(res are not "ontentio(s 3,or t+e res(ltin&
,alla"ies "on,or% to t+e s(b2e"t o, t+e art4$any %ore t+an is any
,alse dia&ra% t+at %ay be o,,ered in *roo, o, a tr(t+$e!&!
Hi**o"rates9 ,i&(re or t+e s5(arin& o, t+e "ir"le by %eans o, t+e
l(n(les! B(t Bryson9s %et+od o, s5(arin& t+e "ir"le- e.en i, t+e
"ir"le is t+ereby s5(ared- is still so*+isti"al be"a(se it does not
"on,or% to t+e s(b2e"t in +and! So- t+en- any %erely a**arent
reasonin& abo(t t+ese t+in&s is a "ontentio(s ar&(%ent- and any
reasonin& t+at %erely a**ears to "on,or% to t+e s(b2e"t in +and-
e.en t+o(&+ it be &en(ine reasonin&- is a "ontentio(s ar&(%ent1 ,or it
is %erely a**arent in its "on,or%ity to t+e s(b2e"t$%atter- so t+at it
is de"e*ti.e and *lays ,o(l! For 2(st as a ,o(l in a ra"e is a
de,inite ty*e o, ,a(lt- and is a #ind o, ,o(l ,i&+tin&- so t+e art
o, "ontentio(s reasonin& is ,o(l ,i&+tin& in dis*(tation1 ,or in t+e
,or%er "ase t+ose )+o are resol.ed to )in at all "osts snat"+ at
e.eryt+in&- and so in t+e latter "ase do "ontentio(s reasoners! T+ose-
t+en- )+o do t+is in order to )in t+e %ere .i"tory are &enerally
"onsidered to be "ontentio(s and 5(arrelso%e *ersons- )+ile t+ose
)+o do it to )in a re*(tation )it+ a .ie) to %a#in& %oney are
so*+isti"al! For t+e art o, so*+istry is- as )e said-9 a #ind o, art
o, %oney$%a#in& ,ro% a %erely a**arent )isdo%- and t+is is )+y t+ey
ai% at a %erely a**arent de%onstration1 and 5(arrelso%e *ersons and
so*+ists bot+ e%*loy t+e sa%e ar&(%ents- b(t not )it+ t+e sa%e
%oti.es1 and t+e sa%e ar&(%ent )ill be so*+isti"al and "ontentio(s-
b(t not in t+e sa%e res*e"t/ rat+er- it )ill be "ontentio(s in so
,ar as its ai% is an a**arent .i"tory- )+ile in so ,ar as its ai% is
an a**arent )isdo%- it )ill be so*+isti"al1 ,or t+e art o, so*+istry
is a "ertain a**earan"e o, )isdo% )it+o(t t+e reality! T+e "ontentio(s
ar&(%ent stands in so%e)+at t+e sa%e relation to t+e diale"ti"al as
t+e dra)er o, ,alse dia&ra%s to t+e &eo%etri"ian/ ,or it be&(iles by
%isreasonin& ,ro% t+e sa%e *rin"i*les as diale"ti" (ses- 2(st as t+e
dra)er o, a ,alse dia&ra% be&(iles t+e &eo%etri"ian! B(t )+ereas t+e
latter is not a "ontentio(s reasoner- be"a(se +e bases +is ,alse
dia&ra% on t+e *rin"i*les and "on"l(sions t+at ,all (nder t+e art o,
&eo%etry- t+e ar&(%ent )+i"+ is s(bordinate to t+e *rin"i*les o,
diale"ti" )ill yet "learly be "ontentio(s as re&ards ot+er s(b2e"ts!
T+(s- e!&! t+o(&+ t+e s5(arin& o, t+e "ir"le by %eans o, t+e l(n(les
is not "ontentio(s- Bryson9s sol(tion is "ontentio(s1 and t+e ,or%er
ar&(%ent "annot be ada*ted to any s(b2e"t e0"e*t &eo%etry- be"a(se
it *ro"eeds ,ro% *rin"i*les t+at are *e"(liar to &eo%etry- )+ereas t+e
latter "an be ada*ted as an ar&(%ent a&ainst all t+e n(%ber o,
*eo*le )+o do not #no) )+at is or is not *ossible in ea"+ *arti"(lar
"onte0t1 ,or it )ill a**ly to t+e% all! Or t+ere is t+e %et+od )+ereby
Anti*+on s5(ared t+e "ir"le! Or a&ain- an ar&(%ent )+i"+ denied t+at
it )as better to ta#e a )al# a,ter dinner- be"a(se o, >eno9s ar&(%ent-
)o(ld not be a *ro*er ar&(%ent ,or a do"tor- be"a(se >eno9s ar&(%ent
is o, &eneral a**li"ation! I,- t+en- t+e relation o, t+e "ontentio(s
ar&(%ent to t+e diale"ti"al )ere e0a"tly li#e t+at o, t+e dra)er o,
,alse dia&ra%s to t+e &eo%etri"ian- a "ontentio(s ar&(%ent (*on t+e
a,oresaid s(b2e"ts "o(ld not +a.e e0isted! B(t- as it is- t+e
diale"ti"al ar&(%ent is not "on"erned )it+ any de,inite #ind o, bein&-
nor does it s+o) anyt+in&- nor is it e.en an ar&(%ent s("+ as )e
,ind in t+e &eneral *+iloso*+y o, bein&! For all bein&s are not
"ontained in any one #ind- nor- i, t+ey )ere- "o(ld t+ey *ossibly ,all
(nder t+e sa%e *rin"i*les! A""ordin&ly- no art t+at is a %et+od o,
s+o)in& t+e nat(re o, anyt+in& *ro"eeds by as#in& 5(estions1 ,or it
does not *er%it a %an to &rant )+i"+e.er +e li#es o, t+e t)o
alternati.es in t+e 5(estion1 ,or t+ey )ill not bot+ o, t+e% yield a
*roo,! 7iale"ti"- on t+e ot+er +and- does *ro"eed by 5(estionin&-
)+ereas i, it )ere "on"erned to s+o) t+in&s- it )o(ld +a.e re,rained
,ro% *(ttin& 5(estions- e.en i, not abo(t e.eryt+in&- at least abo(t
t+e ,irst *rin"i*les and t+e s*e"ial *rin"i*les t+at a**ly to t+e
*arti"(lar s(b2e"t in +and! For s(**ose t+e ans)erer not to &rant
t+ese- it )o(ld t+en no lon&er +a.e +ad any &ro(nds ,ro% )+i"+ to
ar&(e any lon&er a&ainst t+e ob2e"tion! 7iale"ti" is at t+e sa%e
ti%e a %ode o, e0a%ination as )ell! For neit+er is t+e art o,
e0a%ination an a""o%*lis+%ent o, t+e sa%e #ind as &eo%etry- b(t one
)+i"+ a %an %ay *ossess- e.en t+o(&+ +e +as not #no)led&e! For it is
*ossible e.en ,or one )it+o(t #no)led&e to +old an e0a%ination o,
one )+o is )it+o(t #no)led&e- i, also t+e latter &rants +i% *oints
ta#en not ,ro% t+in& t+at +e #no)s or ,ro% t+e s*e"ial *rin"i*les o,
t+e s(b2e"t (nder dis"(ssion b(t ,ro% all t+at ran&e o, "onse5(en"es
atta"+in& to t+e s(b2e"t )+i"+ a %an %ay indeed #no) )it+o(t #no)in&
t+e t+eory o, t+e s(b2e"t- b(t )+i"+ i, +e do not #no)- +e is bo(nd to
be i&norant o, t+e t+eory! So t+en "learly t+e art o, e0a%inin& does
not "onsist in #no)led&e o, any de,inite s(b2e"t! For t+is reason-
too- it deals )it+ e.eryt+in&1 ,or e.ery 9t+eory9 o, anyt+in&
e%*loys also "ertain "o%%on *rin"i*les! Hen"e e.erybody- in"l(din&
e.en a%ate(rs- %a#es (se in a )ay o, diale"ti" and t+e *ra"ti"e o,
e0a%inin&1 ,or all (nderta#e to so%e e0tent a ro(&+ trial o, t+ose )+o
*ro,ess to #no) t+in&s! +at ser.es t+e% +ere is t+e &eneral
*rin"i*les1 ,or t+ey #no) t+ese o, t+e%sel.es 2(st as )ell as t+e
s"ientist- e.en i, in )+at t+ey say t+ey see% to t+e latter to &o
)ildly astray ,ro% t+e%! All- t+en- are en&a&ed in re,(tation/ ,or
t+ey ta#e a +and as a%ate(rs in t+e sa%e tas# )it+ )+i"+ diale"ti"
is "on"erned *ro,essionally/ and +e is a diale"ti"ian )+o e0a%ines
by t+e +el* o, a t+eory o, reasonin&! No) t+ere are %any identi"al
*rin"i*les )+i"+ are tr(e o, e.eryt+in&- t+o(&+ t+ey are not s("+ as
to "onstit(te a *arti"(lar nat(re- i!e! a *arti"(lar #ind o, bein&-
b(t are li#e ne&ati.e ter%s- )+ile ot+er *rin"i*les are not o, t+is
#ind b(t are s*e"ial to *arti"(lar s(b2e"ts/ a""ordin&ly it is
*ossible ,ro% t+ese &eneral *rin"i*les to +old an e0a%ination on
e.eryt+in&- and t+at t+ere s+o(ld be a de,inite art o, so doin&-
and- %oreo.er- an art )+i"+ is not o, t+e sa%e #ind as t+ose )+i"+
de%onstrate! T+is is )+y t+e "ontentio(s reasoner does not stand in
t+e sa%e "ondition in all res*e"ts as t+e dra)er o, a ,alse dia&ra%1
,or t+e "ontentio(s reasoner )ill not be &i.en to %isreasonin& ,ro%
any de,inite "lass o, *rin"i*les- b(t )ill deal )it+ e.ery "lass!
T+ese- t+en- are t+e ty*es o, so*+isti"al re,(tations1 and t+at it
belon&s to t+e diale"ti"ian to st(dy t+ese- and to be able to e,,e"t
t+e%- is not di,,i"(lt to see1 ,or t+e in.esti&ation o, *re%isses
"o%*rises t+e )+ole o, t+is st(dy!
'6
So %("+- t+en- ,or a**arent re,(tations! As ,or s+o)in& t+at t+e
ans)erer is "o%%ittin& so%e ,alla"y- and dra)in& +is ar&(%ent into
*arado0$,or t+is )as t+e se"ond ite% o, t+e so*+ist9s *ro&ra%%e$in t+e
,irst *la"e- t+en- t+is is best bro(&+t abo(t by a "ertain %anner o,
5(estionin& and t+ro(&+ t+e 5(estion! For to *(t t+e 5(estion
)it+o(t ,ra%in& it )it+ re,eren"e to any de,inite s(b2e"t is a &ood
bait ,or t+ese *(r*oses1 ,or *eo*le are %ore in"lined to %a#e %ista#es
)+en t+ey tal# at lar&e- and t+ey tal# at lar&e )+en t+ey +a.e no
de,inite s(b2e"t be,ore t+e%! Also t+e *(ttin& o, se.eral 5(estions-
e.en t+o(&+ t+e *osition a&ainst )+i"+ one is ar&(in& be 5(ite
de,inite- and t+e "lai% t+at +e s+all say only )+at +e t+in#s-
"reate ab(ndant o**ort(nity ,or dra)in& +i% into *arado0 or ,alla"y-
and also- )+et+er to any o, t+ese 5(estions +e re*lies 9Ces9 or
re*lies 9No9- o, leadin& +i% on to state%ents a&ainst )+i"+ one is
)ell o,, ,or a line o, atta"#! No)adays- +o)e.er- %en are less able to
*lay ,o(l by t+ese %eans t+an t+ey )ere ,or%erly1 ,or *eo*le re2oin
)it+ t+e 5(estion- 9+at +as t+at to do )it+ t+e ori&inal s(b2e"tB9 It
is- too- an ele%entary r(le ,or eli"itin& so%e ,alla"y or *arado0 t+at
one s+o(ld ne.er *(t a "ontro.ersial 5(estion strai&+t a)ay- b(t say
t+at one *(ts it ,ro% t+e )is+ ,or in,or%ation1 ,or t+e *ro"ess o,
in5(iry t+(s in.ited &i.es roo% ,or an atta"#!
A r(le s*e"ially a**ro*riate ,or s+o)in& (* a ,alla"y is t+e
so*+isti" r(le- t+at one s+o(ld dra) t+e ans)erer on to t+e #ind o,
state%ents a&ainst )+i"+ one is )ell s(**lied )it+ ar&(%ents1 t+is "an
be done bot+ *ro*erly and i%*ro*erly- as )as said be,ore!9 A&ain- to
dra) a *arado0i"al state%ent- loo# and see to )+at s"+ool o,
*+iloso*+ers t+e *erson ar&(in& )it+ yo( belon&s- and t+en 5(estion
+i% as to so%e *oint )+erein t+eir do"trine is *arado0i"al to %ost
*eo*le1 ,or )it+ e.ery s"+ool t+ere is so%e *oint o, t+at #ind! It
is an ele%entary r(le in t+ese %atters to +a.e a "olle"tion o, t+e
s*e"ial 9t+eses9 o, t+e .ario(s s"+ools a%on& yo(r *ro*ositions! T+e
sol(tion re"o%%ended as a**ro*riate +ere- too- is to *oint o(t t+at
t+e *arado0 does not "o%e abo(t be"a(se o, t+e ar&(%ent1 )+ereas
t+is is )+at +is o**onent al)ays really )ants!
:oreo.er- ar&(e ,ro% %en9s )is+es and t+eir *ro,essed o*inions!
For *eo*le do not )is+ t+e sa%e t+in&s as t+ey say t+ey )is+1 t+ey say
)+at )ill loo# best- )+ereas t+ey )is+ )+at a**ears to be to t+eir
interest1 e!&! t+ey say t+at a %an o(&+t to die nobly rat+er t+an to
li.e in *leas(re- and to li.e in +onest *o.erty rat+er t+an in
dis+ono(rable ri"+es/ b(t t+ey )is+ t+e o**osite! A""ordin&ly- a %an
)+o s*ea#s a""ordin& to +is )is+es %(st be led into statin& t+e
*ro,essed o*inions o, *eo*le- )+ile +e )+o s*ea#s a""ordin& to t+ese
%(st be led into ad%ittin& t+ose t+at *eo*le #ee* +idden a)ay1 ,or
in eit+er "ase t+ey are bo(nd to introd("e a *arado0/ ,or t+ey )ill
s*ea# "ontrary eit+er to %en9s *ro,essed or to t+eir +idden o*inions!
T+e )idest ran&e o, "o%%on$*la"e ar&(%ent ,or leadin& %en into
*arado0i"al state%ent is t+at )+i"+ de*ends on t+e standards o, Nat(re
and o, t+e La)1 it is so t+at bot+ Calli"les is dra)n as ar&(in& in
t+e <or&ias- and t+at all t+e %en o, old s(**osed t+e res(lt to "o%e
abo(t1 ,or nat(re 3t+ey said4 and la) are o**osites- and 2(sti"e is
a ,ine t+in& by a le&al standard- b(t not by t+at o, nat(re!
A""ordin&ly- t+ey said- t+e %an )+ose state%ent a&rees )it+ t+e
standard o, nat(re yo( s+o(ld %eet by t+e standard o, t+e la)- b(t t+e
%an )+o a&rees )it+ t+e la) by leadin& +i% to t+e ,a"ts o, nat(re1 ,or
in bot+ )ays *arado0i"al state%ents %ay be "o%%itted! In t+eir .ie)
t+e standard o, nat(re )as t+e tr(t+- )+ile t+at o, t+e la) )as t+e
o*inion +eld by t+e %a2ority! So t+at it is "lear t+at t+ey- too- (sed
to try eit+er to re,(te t+e ans)erer or to %a#e +i% %a#e *arado0i"al
state%ents- 2(st as t+e %en o, to$day do as )ell!
So%e 5(estions are s("+ t+at in bot+ ,or%s t+e ans)er is
*arado0i"al/ e!&! 9O(&+t one to obey t+e )ise or one9s ,at+erB9 and
9O(&+t one to do )+at is e0*edient or )+at is 2(stB9 and 9Is it
*re,erable to s(,,er in2(sti"e or to do an in2(ryB9 Co( s+o(ld lead
*eo*le- t+en- into .ie)s o**osite to t+e %a2ority and to t+e
*+iloso*+ers/ i, any one s*ea#s as do t+e e0*ert reasoners- lead +i%
into o**osition to t+e %a2ority- )+ile i, +e s*ea#s as do t+e
%a2ority- t+en into o**osition to t+e reasoners! For so%e say t+at
o, ne"essity t+e +a**y %an is 2(st- )+ereas it is *arado0i"al to t+e
%any t+at a #in& s+o(ld be +a**y! To lead a %an into *arado0es o, t+is
sort is t+e sa%e as to lead +i% into t+e o**osition o, t+e standards
o, nat(re and la)1 ,or t+e la) re*resents t+e o*inion o, t+e %a2ority-
)+ereas *+iloso*+ers s*ea# a""ordin& to t+e standard o, nat(re and t+e
tr(t+!
'3
Parado0es- t+en- yo( s+o(ld see# to eli"it by %eans o, t+ese
"o%%on$*la"e r(les! No) as ,or %a#in& any one babble- )e +a.e
already said )+at )e %ean by 9to babble9! T+is is t+e ob2e"t in .ie)
in all ar&(%ents o, t+e ,ollo)in& #ind1 I, it is all t+e sa%e to state
a ter% and to state its de,inition- t+e 9do(ble9 and 9do(ble o,
+al,9 are t+e sa%e1 i, t+en 9do(ble9 be t+e 9do(ble o, +al,9- it
)ill be t+e 9do(ble o, +al, o, +al,9! And i,- instead o, 9do(ble9-
9do(ble o, +al,9 be a&ain *(t- t+en t+e sa%e e0*ression )ill be
re*eated t+ree ti%es- 9do(ble o, +al, o, +al, o, +al,9! Also 9desire
is o, t+e *leasant- isn9t itB9 desire is "onation ,or t+e *leasant1
a""ordin&ly- 9desire9 is 9"onation ,or t+e *leasant ,or t+e *leasant9!
All ar&(%ents o, t+is #ind o""(r in dealin& 3'4 )it+ any relati.e
ter%s )+i"+ not only +a.e relati.e &enera- b(t are also t+e%sel.es
relati.e- and are rendered in relation to one and t+e sa%e t+in&- as
e!&! "onation is "onation ,or so%et+in&- and desire is desire o,
so%et+in&- and do(ble is do(ble o, so%et+in&- i!e! do(ble o, +al,1
also in dealin& 364 )it+ any ter%s )+i"+- t+o(&+ t+ey be not
relati.e ter%s at all- yet +a.e t+eir s(bstan"e- .i=! t+e t+in&s o,
)+i"+ t+ey are t+e states or a,,e"tions or )+at not- indi"ated as )ell
in t+eir de,inition- t+ey bein& *redi"ated o, t+ese t+in&s! T+(s
e!&! 9odd9 is a 9n(%ber "ontainin& a %iddle91 b(t t+ere is an 9odd
n(%ber91 t+ere,ore t+ere is a 9n(%ber$"ontainin&$a$%iddle n(%ber9!
Also- i, sn(bness be a "on"a.ity o, t+e nose- and t+ere be a sn(b
nose- t+ere is t+ere,ore a 9"on"a.e$nose nose9!
Peo*le so%eti%es a**ear to *rod("e t+is res(lt- )it+o(t really
*rod("in& it- be"a(se t+ey do not add t+e 5(estion )+et+er t+e
e0*ression 9do(ble9- 2(st by itsel,- +as any %eanin& or no- and i, so-
)+et+er it +as t+e sa%e %eanin&- or a di,,erent one/ b(t t+ey dra)
t+eir "on"l(sion strai&+t a)ay! Still it see%s- inas%("+ as t+e )ord
is t+e sa%e- to +a.e t+e sa%e %eanin& as )ell!
'8
e +a.e said be,ore )+at #ind o, t+in& 9sole"is%9 is!9 It is
*ossible bot+ to "o%%it it- and to see% to do so )it+o(t doin& so- and
to do so )it+o(t see%in& to do so! S(**ose- as Prota&oras (sed to
say t+at %enis 39)rat+94 and *ele0 39+el%et94 are %as"(line1
a""ordin& to +i% a %an )+o "alls )rat+ a 9destr("tress9 3o(lo%enen4
"o%%its a sole"is%- t+o(&+ +e does not see% to do so to ot+er
*eo*le- )+ere +e )+o "alls it a 9destr("tor9 3o(lo%enon4 "o%%its no
sole"is% t+o(&+ +e see%s to do so! It is "lear- t+en- t+at any one
"o(ld *rod("e t+is e,,e"t by art as )ell1 and ,or t+is reason %any
ar&(%ents see% to lead to sole"is% )+i"+ do not really do so- as
+a**ens in t+e "ase o, re,(tations!
Al%ost all a**arent sole"is%s de*end (*on t+e )ord 9t+is9 3tode4-
and (*on o""asions )+en t+e in,le"tion denotes neit+er a %as"(line nor
a ,e%inine ob2e"t b(t a ne(ter! For 9+e9 3o(tos4 si&ni,ies a
%as"(line- and 9s+e9 3a(te4 ,e%inine/ b(t 9t+is9 3to(to4- t+o(&+
%eant to si&ni,y a ne(ter- o,ten also si&ni,ies one or ot+er o, t+e
,or%er1 e!&! 9+at is t+isB9 9It is Callio*e9/ 9it is a lo&9/ 9it is
Coris"(s9! No) in t+e %as"(line and ,e%inine t+e in,le"tions are all
di,,erent- )+ereas in t+e ne(ter so%e are and so%e are not! O,ten-
t+en- )+en 9t+is9 3to(to4 +as been &ranted- *eo*le reason as i, 9+i%9
3to(ton4 +ad been said1 and li#e)ise also t+ey s(bstit(te one
in,le"tion ,or anot+er! T+e ,alla"y "o%es abo(t be"a(se 9t+is9
3to(to4 is a "o%%on ,or% o, se.eral in,le"tions1 ,or 9t+is9 si&ni,ies
so%eti%es 9+e9 3o(tos4 and so%eti%es 9+i%9 3to(ton4! It s+o(ld
si&ni,y t+e% alternately/ )+en "o%bined )it+ 9is9 3esti4 it s+o(ld be
9+e9- )+ile )it+ 9bein&9 it s+o(ld be 9+i%91 e!&! 9Coris"(s
3Go*is#os4 is9- b(t 9bein& Coris"(s9 3Go*is#on4! It +a**ens in t+e
sa%e )ay in t+e "ase o, ,e%inine no(ns as )ell- and in t+e "ase o, t+e
so$"alled 9"+attels9 t+at +a.e ,e%inine or %as"(line desi&nations! For
only t+ose na%es )+i"+ end in o and n- +a.e t+e desi&nation *ro*er
to a "+attel- e!&! 0(lon 39lo&94- s"+oinion 39ro*e94/ t+ose )+i"+ do
not end so +a.e t+at o, a %as"(line or ,e%inine ob2e"t- t+o(&+ so%e o,
t+e% )e a**ly to "+attels1 e!&! as#os 39)ines#in94 is a %as"(line
no(n- and #line 39bed94 a ,e%inine! For t+is reason in "ases o, t+is
#ind as )ell t+ere )ill be a di,,eren"e o, t+e sa%e sort bet)een a
"onstr("tion )it+ 9is9 3esti4 or )it+ 9bein&9 3to einai4! Also-
Sole"is% rese%bles in a "ertain )ay t+ose re,(tations )+i"+ are said
to de*end on t+e li#e e0*ression o, (nli#e t+in&s! For- 2(st as
t+ere )e "o%e (*on a %aterial sole"is%- so +ere )e "o%e (*on a .erbal1
,or 9%an9 is bot+ a 9%atter9 ,or e0*ression and also a 9)ord91 and
so is )+ite9!
It is "lear- t+en- t+at ,or sole"is%s )e %(st try to "onstr("t o(r
ar&(%ent o(t o, t+e a,oresaid in,le"tions!
T+ese- t+en- are t+e ty*es o, "ontentio(s ar&(%ents- and t+e
s(bdi.isions o, t+ose ty*es- and t+e %et+ods ,or "ond("tin& t+e%
a,oresaid! B(t it %a#es no little di,,eren"e i, t+e %aterials ,or
*(ttin& t+e 5(estion be arran&ed in a "ertain %anner )it+ a .ie) to
"on"eal%ent- as in t+e "ase o, diale"ti"s! Follo)in& t+en (*on )+at )e
+a.e said- t+is %(st be dis"(ssed ,irst!
'5
it+ a .ie) t+en to re,(tation- one reso(r"e is len&t+$,or it is
di,,i"(lt to #ee* se.eral t+in&s in .ie) at on"e/ and to se"(re len&t+
t+e ele%entary r(les t+at +a.e been stated be,ore9 s+o(ld be e%*loyed!
One reso(r"e- on t+e ot+er +and- is s*eed/ ,or )+en *eo*le are le,t
be+ind t+ey loo# a+ead less! :oreo.er- t+ere is an&er and
"ontentio(sness- ,or )+en a&itated e.erybody is less able to ta#e "are
o, +i%sel,! Ele%entary r(les ,or *rod("in& an&er are to %a#e a s+o) o,
t+e )is+ to *lay ,o(l- and to be alto&et+er s+a%eless! :oreo.er- t+ere
is t+e *(ttin& o, one9s 5(estions alternately- )+et+er one +as %ore
t+an one ar&(%ent leadin& to t+e sa%e "on"l(sion- or )+et+er one +as
ar&(%ents to s+o) bot+ t+at so%et+in& is so- and t+at it is not so1
,or t+e res(lt is t+at +e +as to be on +is &(ard at t+e sa%e ti%e
eit+er a&ainst %ore t+an one line- or a&ainst "ontrary lines- o,
ar&(%ent! In &eneral- all t+e %et+ods des"ribed be,ore o, *rod("in&
"on"eal%ent are (se,(l also ,or *(r*oses o, "ontentio(s ar&(%ent1
,or t+e ob2e"t o, "on"eal%ent is to a.oid dete"tion- and t+e ob2e"t o,
t+is is to de"ei.e!
To "o(nter t+ose )+o re,(se to &rant )+ate.er t+ey s(**ose to +el*
one9s ar&(%ent- one s+o(ld *(t t+e 5(estion ne&ati.ely- as t+o(&+
desiro(s o, t+e o**osite ans)er- or at any rate as t+o(&+ one *(t
t+e 5(estion )it+o(t *re2(di"e/ ,or )+en it is obs"(re )+at ans)er one
)ants to se"(re- *eo*le are less re,ra"tory! Also )+en- in dealin&
)it+ *arti"(lars- a %an &rants t+e indi.id(al "ase- )+en t+e ind("tion
is done yo( s+o(ld o,ten not *(t t+e (ni.ersal as a 5(estion- b(t ta#e
it ,or &ranted and (se it1 ,or so%eti%es *eo*le t+e%sel.es s(**ose
t+at t+ey +a.e &ranted it- and also a**ear to t+e a(dien"e to +a.e
done so- ,or t+ey re%e%ber t+e ind("tion and ass(%e t+at t+e 5(estions
"o(ld not +a.e been *(t ,or not+in&! In "ases )+ere t+ere is no ter%
to indi"ate t+e (ni.ersal- still yo( s+o(ld a.ail yo(rsel, o, t+e
rese%blan"e o, t+e *arti"(lars to s(it yo(r *(r*ose/ ,or rese%blan"e
o,ten es"a*es dete"tion! Also- )it+ a .ie) to obtainin& yo(r
*re%iss- yo( o(&+t to *(t it in yo(r 5(estion side by side )it+ its
"ontrary! E!&! i, it )ere ne"essary to se"(re t+e ad%ission t+at 9A
%an s+o(ld obey +is ,at+er in e.eryt+in&9- as# 9S+o(ld a %an obey
+is *arents in e.eryt+in&- or disobey t+e% in e.eryt+in&B9/ and to
se"(re t+at 9A n(%ber %(lti*lied by a lar&e n(%ber is a lar&e n(%ber9-
as# 9S+o(ld one a&ree t+at it is a lar&e n(%ber or a s%all oneB9 For
t+en- i, "o%*elled to "+oose- one )ill be %ore in"lined to t+in# it
a lar&e one1 ,or t+e *la"in& o, t+eir "ontraries "lose beside t+e%
%a#es t+in&s loo# bi& to %en- bot+ relati.ely and absol(tely- and
)orse and better!
A stron& a**earan"e o, +a.in& been re,(ted is o,ten *rod("ed by
t+e %ost +i&+ly so*+isti"al o, all t+e (n,air tri"#s o, 5(estioners-
)+en )it+o(t *ro.in& anyt+in&- instead o, *(ttin& t+eir ,inal
*ro*osition as a 5(estion- t+ey state it as a "on"l(sion- as t+o(&+
t+ey +ad *ro.ed t+at 9T+ere,ore so$and$so is not tr(e9
It is also a so*+isti"al tri"#- )+en a *arado0 +as been laid do)n-
,irst to *ro*ose at t+e start so%e .ie) t+at is &enerally a""e*ted-
and t+en "lai% t+at t+e ans)erer s+all ans)er )+at +e t+in#s abo(t it-
and to *(t one9s 5(estion on %atters o, t+at #ind in t+e ,or% 97o
yo( t+in# t+at!!!B9 For t+en- i, t+e 5(estion be ta#en as one o, t+e
*re%isses o, one9s ar&(%ent- eit+er a re,(tation or a *arado0 is bo(nd
to res(lt/ i, +e &rants t+e .ie)- a re,(tation/ i, +e re,(ses to &rant
it or e.en to ad%it it as t+e re"ei.ed o*inion- a *arado0/ i, +e
re,(ses to &rant it- b(t ad%its t+at it is t+e re"ei.ed o*inion-
so%et+in& .ery li#e a re,(tation- res(lts!
:oreo.er- 2(st as in r+etori"al dis"o(rses- so also in t+ose ai%ed
at re,(tation- yo( s+o(ld e0a%ine t+e dis"re*an"ies o, t+e
ans)erer9s *osition eit+er )it+ +is o)n state%ents- or )it+ t+ose o,
*ersons )+o% +e ad%its to say and do ari&+t- %oreo.er )it+ t+ose o,
*eo*le )+o are &enerally s(**osed to bear t+at #ind o, "+ara"ter- or
)+o are li#e t+e%- or )it+ t+ose o, t+e %a2ority or o, all %en! Also
2(st as ans)erers- too- o,ten- )+en t+ey are in *ro"ess o, bein&
"on,(ted- dra) a distin"tion- i, t+eir "on,(tation is 2(st abo(t to
ta#e *la"e- so 5(estioners also s+o(ld resort to t+is ,ro% ti%e to
ti%e to "o(nter ob2e"tors- *ointin& o(t- s(**osin& t+at a&ainst one
sense o, t+e )ords t+e ob2e"tion +olds- b(t not a&ainst t+e ot+er-
t+at t+ey +a.e ta#en it in t+e latter sense- as e!&! Cleo*+on does
in t+e :androb(l(s! T+ey s+o(ld also brea# o,, t+eir ar&(%ent and
"(t do)n t+eir ot+er lines o, atta"#- )+ile in ans)erin&- i, a %an
*er"ei.es t+is bein& done be,ore+and- +e s+o(ld *(t in +is ob2e"tion
and +a.e +is say ,irst! One s+o(ld also lead atta"#s so%eti%es a&ainst
*ositions ot+er t+an t+e one stated- on t+e (nderstood "ondition
t+at one "annot ,ind lines o, atta"# a&ainst t+e .ie) laid do)n- as
Ly"o*+ron did )+en ordered to deli.er a e(lo&y (*on t+e lyre! To
"o(nter t+ose )+o de%and 9A&ainst )+at are yo( dire"tin& yo(r
e,,ortB9- sin"e one is &enerally t+o(&+t bo(nd to state t+e "+ar&e
%ade- )+ile- on t+e ot+er +and- so%e )ays o, statin& it %a#e t+e
de,en"e too easy- yo( s+o(ld state as yo(r ai% only t+e &eneral res(lt
t+at al)ays +a**ens in re,(tations- na%ely t+e "ontradi"tion o, +is
t+esis $.i=! t+at yo(r e,,ort is to deny )+at +e +as a,,ir%ed- or to
a,,ir% )+at +e denied1 don9t say t+at yo( are tryin& to s+o) t+at
t+e #no)led&e o, "ontraries is- or is not- t+e sa%e! One %(st not
as# one9s "on"l(sion in t+e ,or% o, a *re%iss- )+ile so%e
"on"l(sions s+o(ld not e.en be *(t as 5(estions at all/ one s+o(ld
ta#e and (se it as &ranted!
'?
e +a.e no) t+ere,ore dealt )it+ t+e so(r"es o, 5(estions- and t+e
%et+ods o, 5(estionin& in "ontentio(s dis*(tations1 ne0t )e +a.e to
s*ea# o, ans)erin&- and o, +o) sol(tions s+o(ld be %ade- and o, )+at
re5(ires t+e%- and o, )+at (se is ser.ed by ar&(%ents o, t+is #ind!
T+e (se o, t+e%- t+en- is- ,or *+iloso*+y- t)o,old! For in t+e ,irst
*la"e- sin"e ,or t+e %ost *art t+ey de*end (*on t+e e0*ression- t+ey
*(t (s in a better "ondition ,or seein& in +o) %any senses any ter% is
(sed- and )+at #ind o, rese%blan"es and )+at #ind o, di,,eren"es o""(r
bet)een t+in&s and bet)een t+eir na%es! In t+e se"ond *la"e t+ey are
(se,(l ,or one9s o)n *ersonal resear"+es/ ,or t+e %an )+o is easily
"o%%itted to a ,alla"y by so%e one else- and does not *er"ei.e it-
is li#ely to in"(r t+is ,ate o, +i%sel, also on %any o""asions!
T+irdly and lastly- t+ey ,(rt+er "ontrib(te to one9s re*(tation-
.i=! t+e re*(tation o, bein& )ell trained in e.eryt+in&- and not
ine0*erien"ed in anyt+in&1 ,or t+at a *arty to ar&(%ents s+o(ld ,ind
,a(lt )it+ t+e%- i, +e "annot de,initely *oint o(t t+eir )ea#ness-
"reates a s(s*i"ion- %a#in& it see% as t+o(&+ it )ere not t+e tr(t+ o,
t+e %atter b(t %erely ine0*erien"e t+at *(t +i% o(t o, te%*er!
Ans)erers %ay "learly see +o) to %eet ar&(%ents o, t+is #ind- i, o(r
*re.io(s a""o(nt )as ri&+t o, t+e so(r"es )+en"e ,alla"ies "a%e- and
also o(r distin"tions ade5(ate o, t+e ,or%s o, dis+onesty in *(ttin&
5(estions! B(t it is not t+e sa%e t+in& ta#e an ar&(%ent in one9s +and
and t+en to see and sol.e its ,a(lts- as it is to be able to %eet it
5(i"#ly )+ile bein& s(b2e"ted to 5(estions1 ,or )+at )e #no)- )e o,ten
do not #no) in a di,,erent "onte0t! :oreo.er- 2(st as in ot+er
t+in&s s*eed is en+an"ed by trainin&- so it is )it+ ar&(%ents too-
so t+at s(**osin& )e are (n*ra"tised- e.en t+o(&+ a *oint be "lear
to (s- )e are o,ten too late ,or t+e ri&+t %o%ent! So%eti%es too it
+a**ens as )it+ dia&ra%s/ ,or t+ere )e "an so%eti%es analyse t+e
,i&(re- b(t not "onstr("t it a&ain1 so too in re,(tations- t+o(&+ )e
#no) t+e t+in& on )+i"+ t+e "onne0ion o, t+e ar&(%ent de*ends- )e
still are at a loss to s*lit t+e ar&(%ent a*art!
'@
First t+en- 2(st as )e say t+at )e o(&+t so%eti%es to "+oose to
*ro.e so%et+in& in t+e &eneral esti%ation rat+er t+an in tr(t+- so
also )e +a.e so%eti%es to sol.e ar&(%ents rat+er in t+e &eneral
esti%ation t+an a""ordin& to t+e tr(t+! For it is a &eneral r(le in
,i&+tin& "ontentio(s *ersons- to treat t+e% not as re,(tin&- b(t as
%erely a**earin& to re,(te1 ,or )e say t+at t+ey don9t really *ro.e
t+eir "ase- so t+at o(r ob2e"t in "orre"tin& t+e% %(st be to dis*el
t+e a**earan"e o, it! For i, re,(tation be an (na%bi&(o(s
"ontradi"tion arri.ed at ,ro% "ertain .ie)s- t+ere "o(ld be no need to
dra) distin"tions a&ainst a%*+iboly and a%bi&(ity1 t+ey do not
e,,e"t a *roo,! T+e only %oti.e ,or dra)in& ,(rt+er distin"tions is
t+at t+e "on"l(sion rea"+ed loo#s li#e a re,(tation! +at- t+en- )e
+a.e to be)are o,- is not bein& re,(ted- b(t see%in& to be- be"a(se o,
"o(rse t+e as#in& o, a%*+ibolies and o, 5(estions t+at t(rn (*on
a%bi&(ity- and all t+e ot+er tri"#s o, t+at #ind- "on"eal e.en a
&en(ine re,(tation- and %a#e it (n"ertain )+o is re,(ted and )+o is
not! For sin"e one +as t+e ri&+t at t+e end- )+en t+e "on"l(sion is
dra)n- to say t+at t+e only denial %ade o, One9s state%ent is
a%bi&(o(s- no %atter +o) *re"isely +e %ay +a.e addressed +is
ar&(%ent to t+e .ery sa%e *oint as onesel,- it is not "lear )+et+er
one +as been re,(ted1 ,or it is not "lear )+et+er at t+e %o%ent one is
s*ea#in& t+e tr(t+! I,- on t+e ot+er +and- one +ad dra)n a
distin"tion- and 5(estioned +i% on t+e a%bi&(o(s ter% or t+e
a%*+iboly- t+e re,(tation )o(ld not +a.e been a %atter o, (n"ertainty!
Also )+at is in"identally t+e ob2e"t o, "ontentio(s ar&(ers- t+o(&+
less so no)adays t+an ,or%erly- )o(ld +a.e been ,(l,illed- na%ely t+at
t+e *erson 5(estioned s+o(ld ans)er eit+er 9Ces9 or 9No91 )+ereas
no)adays t+e i%*ro*er ,or%s in )+i"+ 5(estioners *(t t+eir 5(estions
"o%*el t+e *arty 5(estioned to add so%et+in& to +is ans)er in
"orre"tion o, t+e ,a(ltiness o, t+e *ro*osition as *(t1 ,or "ertainly-
i, t+e 5(estioner distin&(is+es +is %eanin& ade5(ately- t+e ans)erer
is bo(nd to re*ly eit+er 9Ces9 or 9No9!
I, any one is &oin& to s(**ose t+at an ar&(%ent )+i"+ t(rns (*on
a%bi&(ity is a re,(tation- it )ill be i%*ossible ,or an ans)erer to
es"a*e bein& re,(ted in a sense1 ,or in t+e "ase o, .isible ob2e"ts
one is bo(nd o, ne"essity to deny t+e ter% one +as asserted- and to
assert )+at one +as denied! For t+e re%edy )+i"+ so%e *eo*le +a.e
,or t+is is 5(ite (na.ailin&! T+ey say- not t+at Coris"(s is bot+
%(si"al and (n%(si"al- b(t t+at t+is Coris"(s is %(si"al and t+is
Coris"(s (n%(si"al! B(t t+is )ill not do- ,or to say 9t+is Coris"(s is
(n%(si"al9- or 9%(si"al9- and to say 9t+is Coris"(s9 is so- is to
(se t+e sa%e e0*ression1 and t+is +e is bot+ a,,ir%in& and denyin&
at on"e! 9B(t *er+a*s t+ey do not %ean t+e sa%e!9 ell- nor did t+e
si%*le na%e in t+e ,or%er "ase1 so )+ere is t+e di,,eren"eB I,-
+o)e.er- +e is to as"ribe to t+e one *erson t+e si%*le title
9Coris"(s9- )+ile to t+e ot+er +e is to add t+e *re,i0 9one9 or
9t+is9- +e "o%%its an abs(rdity1 ,or t+e latter is no %ore
a**li"able to t+e one t+an to t+e ot+er1 ,or to )+i"+e.er +e adds
it- it %a#es no di,,eren"e!
All t+e sa%e- sin"e i, a %an does not distin&(is+ t+e senses o, an
a%*+iboly- it is not "lear )+et+er +e +as been "on,(ted or +as not
been "on,(ted- and sin"e in ar&(%ents t+e ri&+t to distin&(is+ t+e% is
&ranted- it is e.ident t+at to &rant t+e 5(estion si%*ly )it+o(t
dra)in& any distin"tion is a %ista#e- so t+at- e.en i, not t+e %an
+i%sel,- at any rate +is ar&(%ent loo#s as t+o(&+ it +ad been re,(ted!
It o,ten +a**ens- +o)e.er- t+at- t+o(&+ t+ey see t+e a%*+iboly- *eo*le
+esitate to dra) s("+ distin"tions- be"a(se o, t+e dense "ro)d o,
*ersons )+o *ro*ose 5(estions o, t+e #ind- in order t+at t+ey %ay
not be t+o(&+t to be obstr("tionists at e.ery t(rn1 t+en- t+o(&+
t+ey )o(ld ne.er +a.e s(**osed t+at t+at )as t+e *oint on )+i"+ t+e
ar&(%ent t(rned- t+ey o,ten ,ind t+e%sel.es ,a"ed by a *arado0!
A""ordin&ly- sin"e t+e ri&+t o, dra)in& t+e distin"tion is &ranted-
one s+o(ld not +esitate- as +as been said be,ore!
I, *eo*le ne.er %ade t)o 5(estions into one 5(estion- t+e ,alla"y
t+at t(rns (*on a%bi&(ity and a%*+iboly )o(ld not +a.e e0isted eit+er-
b(t eit+er &en(ine re,(tation or none! For )+at is t+e di,,eren"e
bet)een as#in& 9Are Callias and T+e%isto"les %(si"alB9 and )+at one
%i&+t +a.e as#ed i, t+ey- bein& di,,erent- +ad +ad one na%eB For i,
t+e ter% a**lied %eans %ore t+an one t+in&- +e +as as#ed %ore t+an one
5(estion! I, t+en it be not ri&+t to de%and si%*ly to be &i.en a
sin&le ans)er to t)o 5(estions- it is e.ident t+at it is not *ro*er to
&i.e a si%*le ans)er to any a%bi&(o(s 5(estion- not e.en i, t+e
*redi"ate be tr(e o, all t+e s(b2e"ts- as so%e "lai% t+at one
s+o(ld! For t+is is e0a"tly as t+o(&+ +e +ad as#ed 9Are Coris"(s and
Callias at +o%e or not at +o%eB9- s(**osin& t+e% to be bot+ in or bot+
o(t1 ,or in bot+ "ases t+ere is a n(%ber o, *ro*ositions1 ,or t+o(&+
t+e si%*le ans)er be tr(e- t+at does not %a#e t+e 5(estion one! For it
is *ossible ,or it to be tr(e to ans)er e.en "o(ntless di,,erent
5(estions )+en *(t to one- all to&et+er )it+ eit+er a 9Ces9 or a 9No91
b(t still one s+o(ld not ans)er t+e% )it+ a sin&le ans)er1 ,or t+at is
t+e deat+ o, dis"(ssion! Rat+er- t+e "ase is li#e as t+o(&+
di,,erent t+in&s +as a"t(ally +ad t+e sa%e na%e a**lied to t+e%! I,
t+en- one s+o(ld not &i.e a sin&le ans)er to t)o 5(estions- it is
e.ident t+at )e s+o(ld not say si%*ly 9Ces9 or 9No9 in t+e "ase o,
a%bi&(o(s ter%s eit+er1 ,or t+e re%ar# is si%*ly a re%ar#- not an
ans)er at all- alt+o(&+ a%on& dis*(tants s("+ re%ar#s are loosely
dee%ed to be ans)ers- be"a(se t+ey do not see )+at t+e "onse5(en"e is!
As )e said- t+en- inas%("+ as "ertain re,(tations are &enerally
ta#en ,or s("+- t+o(&+ not s("+ really- in t+e sa%e )ay also "ertain
sol(tions )ill be &enerally ta#en ,or sol(tions- t+o(&+ not really
s("+! No) t+ese- )e say- %(st so%eti%es be ad.an"ed rat+er t+an t+e
tr(e sol(tions in "ontentio(s reasonin&s and in t+e en"o(nter )it+
a%bi&(ity! T+e *ro*er ans)er in sayin& )+at one t+in#s is to say
9<ranted9/ ,or in t+at )ay t+e li#eli+ood o, bein& re,(ted on a side
iss(e is %ini%i=ed! I,- on t+e ot+er +and- one is "o%*elled to say
so%et+in& *arado0i"al- one s+o(ld t+en be %ost "are,(l to add t+at 9it
see%s9 so1 ,or in t+at )ay one a.oids t+e i%*ression o, bein& eit+er
re,(ted or *arado0i"al! Sin"e it is "lear )+at is %eant by 9be&&in&
t+e ori&inal 5(estion9- and *eo*le t+in# t+at t+ey %(st at all "osts
o.ert+ro) t+e *re%isses t+at lie near t+e "on"l(sion- and *lead in
e0"(se ,or re,(sin& to &rant +i% so%e o, t+e% t+at +e is be&&in& t+e
ori&inal 5(estion- so )+ene.er any one "lai%s ,ro% (s a *oint s("+
as is bo(nd to ,ollo) as a "onse5(en"e ,ro% o(r t+esis- b(t is ,alse
or *arado0i"al- )e %(st *lead t+e sa%e1 ,or t+e ne"essary "onse5(en"es
are &enerally +eld to be a *art o, t+e t+esis itsel,! :oreo.er-
)+ene.er t+e (ni.ersal +as been se"(red not (nder a de,inite na%e- b(t
by a "o%*arison o, instan"es- one s+o(ld say t+at t+e 5(estioner
ass(%es it not in t+e sense in )+i"+ it )as &ranted nor in )+i"+ +e
*ro*osed it in t+e *re%iss1 ,or t+is too is a *oint (*on )+i"+ a
re,(tation o,ten de*ends!
I, one is debarred ,ro% t+ese de,en"es one %(st *ass to t+e ar&(%ent
t+at t+e "on"l(sion +as not been *ro*erly s+o)n- a**roa"+in& it in t+e
li&+t o, t+e a,oresaid distin"tion bet)een t+e di,,erent #inds o,
,alla"y!
In t+e "ase- t+en- o, na%es t+at are (sed literally one is bo(nd
to ans)er eit+er si%*ly or by dra)in& a distin"tion1 t+e ta"it
(nderstandin&s i%*lied in o(r state%ents- e!&! in ans)er to
5(estions t+at are not *(t "learly b(t elli*ti"ally$it is (*on t+is
t+at t+e "onse5(ent re,(tation de*ends! For e0a%*le- 9Is )+at
belon&s to At+enians t+e *ro*erty o, At+eniansB9 Ces! 9And so it is
li#e)ise in ot+er "ases! B(t obser.e/ %an belon&s to t+e ani%al
#in&do%- doesn9t +eB9 Ces! 9T+en %an is t+e *ro*erty o, t+e ani%al
#in&do%!9 B(t t+is is a ,alla"y1 ,or )e say t+at %an 9belon&s to9
t+e ani%al #in&do% be"a(se +e is an ani%al- 2(st as )e say t+at
Lysander 9belon&s to9 t+e S*artans- be"a(se +e is a S*artan! It is
e.ident- t+en- t+at )+ere t+e *re%iss *(t ,or)ard is not "lear- one
%(st not &rant it si%*ly!
+ene.er o, t)o t+in&s it is &enerally t+o(&+t t+at i, t+e one is
tr(e t+e ot+er is tr(e o, ne"essity- )+ereas- i, t+e ot+er is tr(e-
t+e ,irst is not tr(e o, ne"essity- one s+o(ld- i, as#ed )+i"+ o, t+e%
is tr(e- &rant t+e s%aller one1 ,or t+e lar&er t+e n(%ber o,
*re%isses- t+e +arder it is to dra) a "on"l(sion ,ro% t+e%! I,- a&ain-
t+e so*+ist tries to se"(re t+at +as a "ontrary )+ile B +as not-
s(**ose )+at +e says is tr(e- yo( s+o(ld say t+at ea"+ +as a "ontrary-
only ,or t+e one t+ere is no establis+ed na%e!
Sin"e- a&ain- in re&ard to so%e o, t+e .ie)s t+ey e0*ress- %ost
*eo*le )o(ld say t+at any one )+o did not ad%it t+e% )as tellin& a
,alse+ood- )+ile t+ey )o(ld not say t+is in re&ard to so%e- e!&! to
any %atters )+ereon o*inion is di.ided 3,or %ost *eo*le +a.e no
distin"t .ie) )+et+er t+e so(l o, ani%als is destr("tible or
i%%ortal4- a""ordin&ly 3'4 it is (n"ertain in )+i"+ o, t)o senses
t+e *re%iss *ro*osed is (s(ally %eant$)+et+er as %a0i%s are 3,or
*eo*le "all by t+e na%e o, 9%a0i%s9 bot+ tr(e o*inions and &eneral
assertions4 or li#e t+e do"trine 9t+e dia&onal o, a s5(are is
in"o%%ens(rate )it+ its side91 and %oreo.er 364 )+ene.er o*inions
are di.ided as to t+e tr(t+- )e t+en +a.e s(b2e"ts o, )+i"+ it is .ery
easy to "+an&e t+e ter%inolo&y (ndete"ted! For be"a(se o, t+e
(n"ertainty in )+i"+ o, t+e t)o senses t+e *re%iss "ontains t+e tr(t+-
one )ill not be t+o(&+t to be *layin& any tri"#- )+ile be"a(se o,
t+e di.ision o, o*inion- one )ill not be t+o(&+t to be tellin& a
,alse+ood! C+an&e t+e ter%inolo&y t+ere,ore- ,or t+e "+an&e )ill
%a#e t+e *osition irre,(table!
:oreo.er- )+ene.er one ,oresees any 5(estion "o%in&- one s+o(ld
*(t in one9s ob2e"tion and +a.e one9s say be,ore+and1 ,or by doin&
so one is li#ely to e%barrass t+e 5(estioner %ost e,,e"t(ally!
'D
Inas%("+ as a *ro*er sol(tion is an e0*os(re o, ,alse reasonin&-
s+o)in& on )+at #ind o, 5(estion t+e ,alsity de*ends- and )+ereas
9,alse reasonin&9 +as a do(ble %eanin&$,or it is (sed eit+er i, a
,alse "on"l(sion +as been *ro.ed- or i, t+ere is only an a**arent
*roo, and no real one$t+ere %(st be bot+ t+e #ind o, sol(tion 2(st
des"ribed-9 and also t+e "orre"tion o, a %erely a**arent *roo,- so
as to s+o) (*on )+i"+ o, t+e 5(estions t+e a**earan"e de*ends! T+(s it
"o%es abo(t t+at one sol.es ar&(%ents t+at are *ro*erly reasoned by
de%olis+in& t+e%- )+ereas one sol.es %erely a**arent ar&(%ents by
dra)in& distin"tions! A&ain- inas%("+ as o, ar&(%ents t+at are
*ro*erly reasoned so%e +a.e a tr(e and ot+ers a ,alse "on"l(sion-
t+ose t+at are ,alse in res*e"t o, t+eir "on"l(sion it is *ossible
to sol.e in t)o )ays/ ,or it is *ossible bot+ by de%olis+in& one o,
t+e *re%isses as#ed- and by s+o)in& t+at t+e "on"l(sion is not t+e
real state o, t+e "ase1 t+ose- on t+e ot+er +and- t+at are ,alse in
res*e"t o, t+e *re%isses "an be sol.ed only by a de%olition o, one
o, t+e%/ ,or t+e "on"l(sion is tr(e! So t+at t+ose )+o )is+ to sol.e
an ar&(%ent s+o(ld in t+e ,irst *la"e loo# and see i, it is *ro*erly
reasoned- or is (nreasoned/ and ne0t- )+et+er t+e "on"l(sion be tr(e
or ,alse- in order t+at )e %ay e,,e"t t+e sol(tion eit+er by dra)in&
so%e distin"tion or by de%olis+in& so%et+in&- and de%olis+in& it
eit+er in t+is )ay or in t+at- as )as laid do)n be,ore! T+ere is a
.ery &reat deal o, di,,eren"e bet)een sol.in& an ar&(%ent )+en bein&
s(b2e"ted to 5(estions and )+en not1 ,or to ,oresee tra*s is
di,,i"(lt- )+ereas to see t+e% at one9s leis(re is easier!
'E
O, t+e re,(tations- t+en- t+at de*end (*on a%bi&(ity and a%*+iboly
so%e "ontain so%e 5(estion )it+ %ore t+an one %eanin&- )+ile ot+ers
"ontain a "on"l(sion bearin& a n(%ber o, senses1 e!&! in t+e *roo,
t+at 9s*ea#in& o, t+e silent9 is *ossible- t+e "on"l(sion +as a do(ble
%eanin&- )+ile in t+e *roo, t+at 9+e )+o #no)s does not (nderstand
)+at +e #no)s9 one o, t+e 5(estions "ontains an a%*+iboly! Also t+e
do(ble$ed&ed sayin& is tr(e in one "onte0t b(t not in anot+er1 it
%eans so%et+in& t+at is and so%et+in& t+at is not!
+ene.er- t+en- t+e %any senses lie in t+e "on"l(sion no
re,(tation ta#es *la"e (nless t+e so*+ist se"(res as )ell t+e
"ontradi"tion o, t+e "on"l(sion +e %eans to *ro.e/ e!&! in t+e *roo,
t+at 9seein& o, t+e blind9 is *ossible1 ,or )it+o(t t+e
"ontradi"tion t+ere )as no re,(tation! +ene.er- on t+e ot+er +and-
t+e %any senses lie in t+e 5(estions- t+ere is no ne"essity to be&in
by denyin& t+e do(ble$ed&ed *re%iss1 ,or t+is )as not t+e &oal o,
t+e ar&(%ent b(t only its s(**ort! At t+e start- t+en- one s+o(ld
re*ly )it+ re&ard to an a%bi&(ity- )+et+er o, a ter% or o, a *+rase-
in t+is %anner- t+at 9in one sense it is so- and in anot+er not so9-
as e!&! t+at 9s*ea#in& o, t+e silent9 is in one sense *ossible b(t
in anot+er not *ossible1 also t+at in one sense 9one s+o(ld do )+at
%(st needs be done9- b(t not in anot+er1 ,or 9)+at %(st needs be9
bears a n(%ber o, senses! I,- +o)e.er- t+e a%bi&(ity es"a*es one-
one s+o(ld "orre"t it at t+e end by %a#in& an addition to t+e
5(estion1 9Is s*ea#in& o, t+e silent *ossibleB9 9No- b(t to s*ea# o,
)+ile +e is silent is *ossible!9 Also- in "ases )+i"+ "ontain t+e
a%bi&(ity in t+eir *re%isses- one s+o(ld re*ly in li#e %anner1 97o
*eo*le$t+en not (nderstand )+at t+ey #no)B ACes- b(t not t+ose )+o
#no) it in t+e %anner des"ribed91 ,or it is not t+e sa%e t+in& to
say t+at 9t+ose )+o #no) "annot (nderstand )+at t+ey #no)9- and to say
t+at 9t+ose )+o #no) so%et+in& in t+is *arti"(lar %anner "annot do
so9! In &eneral- too- e.en t+o(&+ +e dra)s +is "on"l(sion in a 5(ite
(na%bi&(o(s %anner- one s+o(ld "ontend t+at )+at +e +as ne&ated is not
t+e ,a"t )+i"+ one +as asserted b(t only its na%e/ and t+at
t+ere,ore t+ere is no re,(tation!
60
It is e.ident also +o) one s+o(ld sol.e t+ose re,(tations t+at
de*end (*on t+e di.ision and "o%bination o, )ords1 ,or i, t+e
e0*ression %eans so%et+in& di,,erent )+en di.ided and )+en "o%bined-
as soon as one9s o**onent dra)s +is "on"l(sion one s+o(ld ta#e t+e
e0*ression in t+e "ontrary )ay! All s("+ e0*ressions as t+e
,ollo)in& de*end (*on t+e "o%bination or di.ision o, t+e )ords1 9as H
bein& beaten )it+ t+at )it+ )+i"+ yo( sa) +i% bein& beatenB9 and
97id yo( see +i% bein& beaten )it+ t+at )it+ )+i"+ +e )as bein&
beatenB9 T+is ,alla"y +as also in it an ele%ent o, a%*+iboly in t+e
5(estions- b(t it really de*ends (*on "o%bination! For t+e %eanin&
t+at de*ends (*on t+e di.ision o, t+e )ords is not really a do(ble
%eanin& 3,or t+e e0*ression )+en di.ided is not t+e sa%e4- (nless also
t+e )ord t+at is *rono(n"ed- a""ordin& to its breat+in&- as eros and
eros is a "ase o, do(ble %eanin&! 3In )ritin&- indeed- a )ord is t+e
sa%e )+ene.er it is )ritten o, t+e sa%e letters and in t+e sa%e
%anner$ and e.en t+ere *eo*le no)adays *(t %ar#s at t+e side to
s+o) t+e *ron(n"iation$ b(t t+e s*o#en )ords are not t+e sa%e!4
A""ordin&ly an e0*ression t+at de*ends (*on di.ision is not an
a%bi&(o(s one! It is e.ident also t+at not all re,(tations de*end (*on
a%bi&(ity as so%e *eo*le say t+ey do!
T+e ans)erer- t+en- %(st di.ide t+e e0*ression1 ,or
9I$sa)$a$%an$bein&$beaten )it+ %y eyes9 is not t+e sa%e as to say 9I
sa) a %an bein&$beaten$)it+$%y$eyes9! Also t+ere is t+e ar&(%ent o,
E(t+yde%(s *ro.in& 9T+en yo( #no) no) in Si"ily t+at t+ere are
trire%es in Pirae(s91 and a&ain- 9Can a &ood %an )+o is a "obbler be
badB9 9No!9 9B(t a &ood %an %ay be a bad "obbler1 t+ere,ore a &ood
"obbler )ill be bad!9 A&ain- 9T+in&s t+e #no)led&e o, )+i"+ is &ood-
are &ood t+in&s to learn- aren9t t+eyB9 9Ces!9 9T+e #no)led&e-
+o)e.er- o, e.il is &ood1 t+ere,ore e.il is a &ood t+in& to #no)!9
9Ces! B(t- yo( see- e.il is bot+ e.il and a t+in&$to$learn- so t+at
e.il is an e.il$t+in&$to$learn- alt+o(&+ t+e #no)led&e o, e.ils is
&ood!9 A&ain- 9Is it tr(e to say in t+e *resent %o%ent t+at yo( are
bornB9 9Ces!9 9T+en yo( are born in t+e *resent %o%ent!9 9No/ t+e
e0*ression as di.ided +as a di,,erent %eanin&1 ,or it is tr(e to
say$in$t+e$*resent$%o%ent t+at Ayo( are bornA- b(t not ACo( are
born$in$t+e$*resent$%o%entA!9 A&ain- 9Co(ld yo( do )+at yo( "an- and
as yo( "anB9 9Ces!9 9B(t )+en not +ar*in&- yo( +a.e t+e *o)er to +ar*1
and t+ere,ore yo( "o(ld +ar* )+en not +ar*in&!9 9No1 +e +as not t+e
*o)er to +ar*$)+ile$not$+ar*in&/ %erely- )+en +e is not doin& it- +e
+as t+e *o)er to do it!9 So%e *eo*le sol.e t+is last re,(tation in
anot+er )ay as )ell! For- t+ey say- i, +e +as &ranted t+at +e "an do
anyt+in& in t+e )ay +e "an- still it does not ,ollo) t+at +e "an
+ar* )+en not +ar*in&1 ,or it +as not been &ranted t+at +e )ill do
anyt+in& in e.ery )ay in )+i"+ +e "an/ and it is not t+e sa%e t+in&9
to do a t+in& in t+e )ay +e "an9 and 9to do it in e.ery )ay in )+i"+
+e "an9! B(t e.idently t+ey do not sol.e it *ro*erly1 ,or o, ar&(%ents
t+at de*end (*on t+e sa%e *oint t+e sol(tion is t+e sa%e- )+ereas t+is
)ill not ,it all "ases o, t+e #ind nor yet all )ays o, *(ttin& t+e
5(estions1 it is .alid a&ainst t+e 5(estioner- b(t not a&ainst +is
ar&(%ent!
6'
A""ent(ation &i.es rise to no ,alla"io(s ar&(%ents- eit+er as
)ritten or as s*o#en- e0"e*t *er+a*s so%e ,e) t+at %i&+t be %ade (*/
e!&! t+e ,ollo)in& ar&(%ent! 9Is o( #atal(eis a +o(seB9 9Ces!9 9Is
t+en o( #atal(eis t+e ne&ation o, #atal(eisB9 9Ces!9 9B(t yo(
said t+at o( #atal(eis is a +o(se1 t+ere,ore t+e +o(se is a
ne&ation!9 Ho) one s+o(ld sol.e t+is- is "lear1 ,or t+e )ord does
not %ean t+e sa%e )+en s*o#en )it+ an a"(ter and )+en s*o#en )it+ a
&ra.er a""ent!
66
It is "lear also +o) one %(st %eet t+ose ,alla"ies t+at de*end on
t+e identi"al e0*ressions o, t+in&s t+at are not identi"al- seein&
t+at )e are in *ossession o, t+e #inds o, *redi"ations! For t+e one
%an- say- +as &ranted- )+en as#ed- t+at a ter% denotin& a s(bstan"e
does not belon& as an attrib(te- )+ile t+e ot+er +as s+o)n t+at so%e
attrib(te belon&s )+i"+ is in t+e Cate&ory o, Relation or o, I(antity-
b(t is (s(ally t+o(&+t to denote a s(bstan"e be"a(se o, its
e0*ression/ e!&! in t+e ,ollo)in& ar&(%ent1 9Is it *ossible to be
doin& and to +a.e done t+e sa%e t+in& at t+e sa%e ti%eB9 9No!9 9B(t-
yo( see- it is s(rely *ossible to be seein& and to +a.e seen t+e
sa%e t+in& at t+e sa%e ti%e- and in t+e sa%e as*e"t!9 A&ain- 9Is any
%ode o, *assi.ity a %ode o, a"ti.ityB9 9No!9 9T+en A+e is "(tA- A+e is
b(rntA- A+e is str("# by so%e sensible ob2e"tA are ali#e in e0*ression
and all denote so%e ,or% o, *assi.ity- )+ile a&ain Ato sayA- Ato r(nA-
Ato seeA are li#e one li#e one anot+er in e0*ression1 b(t- yo( see-
Ato seeA is s(rely a ,or% o, bein& str("# by a sensible ob2e"t/
t+ere,ore it is at t+e sa%e ti%e a ,or% o, *assi.ity and o, a"ti.ity!9
S(**ose- +o)e.er- t+at in t+at "ase any one- a,ter &rantin& t+at it is
not *ossible to do and to +a.e done t+e sa%e t+in& in t+e sa%e ti%e-
)ere to say t+at it is *ossible to see and to +a.e seen it- still +e
+as not yet been re,(ted- s(**ose +i% to say t+at 9to see9 is not a
,or% o, 9doin&9 3a"ti.ity4 b(t o, 9*assi.ity91 ,or t+is 5(estion is
re5(ired as )ell- t+o(&+ +e is s(**osed by t+e listener to +a.e
already &ranted it- )+en +e &ranted t+at 9to "(t9 is a ,or% o,
*resent- and 9to +a.e "(t9 a ,or% o, *ast- a"ti.ity- and so on )it+
t+e ot+er t+in&s t+at +a.e a li#e e0*ression! For t+e listener adds
t+e rest by +i%sel,- t+in#in& t+e %eanin& to be ali#e1 )+ereas
really t+e %eanin& is not ali#e- t+o(&+ it a**ears to be so be"a(se o,
t+e e0*ression! T+e sa%e t+in& +a**ens +ere as +a**ens in "ases o,
a%bi&(ity1 ,or in dealin& )it+ a%bi&(o(s e0*ressions t+e tyro in
ar&(%ent s(**oses t+e so*+ist to +a.e ne&ated t+e ,a"t )+i"+ +e 3t+e
tyro4 a,,ir%ed- and not %erely t+e na%e1 )+ereas t+ere still )ants t+e
5(estion )+et+er in (sin& t+e a%bi&(o(s ter% +e +ad a sin&le %eanin&
in .ie)1 ,or i, +e &rants t+at t+at )as so- t+e re,(tation )ill be
e,,e"ted!
Li#e t+e abo.e are also t+e ,ollo)in& ar&(%ents! It is as#ed i, a
%an +as lost )+at +e on"e +ad and a,ter)ards +as not1 ,or a %an )ill
no lon&er +a.e ten di"e e.en t+o(&+ +e +as only lost one die! No1
rat+er it is t+at +e +as lost )+at +e +ad be,ore and +as not no)/
b(t t+ere is no ne"essity ,or +i% to +a.e lost as %("+ or as %any
t+in&s as +e +as not no)! So t+en- +e as#s t+e 5(estions as to )+at +e
+as- and dra)s t+e "on"l(sion as to t+e )+ole n(%ber t+at +e +as1
,or ten is a n(%ber! I, t+en +e +ad as#ed to be&in )it+- )+et+er a %an
no lon&er +a.in& t+e n(%ber o, t+in&s +e on"e +ad +as lost t+e )+ole
n(%ber- no one )o(ld +a.e &ranted it- b(t )o(ld +a.e said 9Eit+er
t+e )+ole n(%ber or one o, t+e%9! Also t+ere is t+e ar&(%ent t+at 9a
%an %ay &i.e )+at +e +as not &ot91 ,or +e +as not &ot only one die!
No1 rat+er it is t+at +e +as &i.en not )+at +e +ad not &ot- b(t in a
%anner in )+i"+ +e +ad not &ot it- .i=! 2(st t+e one! For t+e )ord
9only9 does not si&ni,y a *arti"(lar s(bstan"e or 5(ality or n(%ber-
b(t a %anner relation- e!&! t+at it is not "o(*led )it+ any ot+er!
It is t+ere,ore 2(st as i, +e +ad as#ed 9Co(ld a %an &i.e )+at +e
+as not &otB9 and- on bein& &i.en t+e ans)er 9No9- )ere to as# i, a
%an "o(ld &i.e a t+in& 5(i"#ly )+en +e +ad not &ot it 5(i"#ly- and- on
t+is bein& &ranted- )ere to "on"l(de t+at 9a %an "o(ld &i.e )+at +e
+ad not &ot9! It is 5(ite e.ident t+at +e +as not *ro.ed +is *oint1
,or to 9&i.e 5(i"#ly9 is not to &i.e a t+in&- b(t to &i.e in a "ertain
%anner/ and a %an "o(ld "ertainly &i.e a t+in& in a %anner in )+i"+ +e
+as not &ot it- e!&! +e %i&+t +a.e &ot it )it+ *leas(re and &i.e it
)it+ *ain!
Li#e t+ese are also all ar&(%ents o, t+e ,ollo)in& #ind1 9Co(ld a
%an stri#e a blo) )it+ a +and )+i"+ +e +as not &ot- or see )it+ an eye
)+i"+ +e +as not &otB9 For +e +as not &ot only one eye! So%e *eo*le
sol.e t+is "ase- )+ere a %an +as %ore t+an one eye- or %ore t+an one
o, anyt+in& else- by sayin& also t+at +e +as only one! Ot+ers also
sol.e it as t+ey sol.e t+e re,(tation o, t+e .ie) t+at 9)+at a %an
+as- +e +as re"ei.ed91 ,or A &a.e only one .ote/ and "ertainly B- t+ey
say- +as only one .ote ,ro% A! Ot+ers- a&ain- *ro"eed by de%olis+in&
strai&+t a)ay t+e *ro*osition as#ed- and ad%ittin& t+at it is 5(ite
*ossible to +a.e )+at one +as not re"ei.ed/ e!&! to +a.e re"ei.ed
s)eet )ine- b(t t+en- o)in& to its &oin& bad in t+e "o(rse o, re"ei*t-
to +a.e it so(r! B(t- as )as said also abo.e-9 all t+ese *ersons
dire"t t+eir sol(tions a&ainst t+e %an- not a&ainst +is ar&(%ent!
For i, t+is )ere a &en(ine sol(tion- t+en- s(**ose any one to &rant
t+e o**osite- +e "o(ld ,ind no sol(tion- 2(st as +a**ens in ot+er
"ases/ e!&! s(**ose t+e tr(e sol(tion to be 9So$and$so is *artly
tr(e and *artly not9- t+en- i, t+e ans)erer &rants t+e e0*ression
)it+o(t any 5(ali,i"ation- t+e so*+ist9s "on"l(sion ,ollo)s! I,- on
t+e ot+er +and- t+e "on"l(sion does not ,ollo)- t+en t+at "o(ld not be
t+e tr(e sol(tion1 and )+at )e say in re&ard to t+e ,ore&oin& e0a%*les
is t+at- e.en i, all t+e so*+ist9s *re%isses be &ranted- still no
*roo, is e,,e"ted!
:oreo.er- t+e ,ollo)in& too belon& to t+is &ro(* o, ar&(%ents! 9I,
so%et+in& be in )ritin& did so%e one )rite itB9 9Ces!9 9B(t it is
no) in )ritin& t+at yo( are seated$a ,alse state%ent- t+o(&+ it )as
tr(e at t+e ti%e )+en it )as )ritten1 t+ere,ore t+e state%ent t+at )as
)ritten is at t+e sa%e ti%e ,alse and tr(e!9 B(t t+is is ,alla"io(s-
,or t+e ,alsity or tr(t+ o, a state%ent or o*inion indi"ates not a
s(bstan"e b(t a 5(ality1 ,or t+e sa%e a""o(nt a**lies to t+e "ase o,
an o*inion as )ell! A&ain- 9Is )+at a learner learns )+at +e
learnsB9 9Ces!9 9B(t s(**ose so%e one learns Aslo)A 5(i"#9! T+en +is
3t+e so*+ist9s4 )ords denote not )+at t+e learner learns b(t +o) +e
learns it! Also- 97oes a %an tread (*on )+at +e )al#s t+ro(&+B
9Ces!9 9B(t H )al#s t+ro(&+ a )+ole day!9 No- rat+er t+e )ords
denote not )+at +e )al#s t+ro(&+- b(t )+en +e )al#s/ 2(st as )+en
any one (ses t+e )ords 9to drin# t+e "(*9 +e denotes not )+at +e
drin#s- b(t t+e .essel o(t o, )+i"+ +e drin#s! Also- 9Is it eit+er
by learnin& or by dis"o.ery t+at a %an #no)s )+at +e #no)sB9 9Ces!9
9B(t s(**ose t+at o, a *air o, t+in&s +e +as dis"o.ered one and
learned t+e ot+er- t+e *air is not #no)n to +i% by eit+er %et+od!9 No1
9)+at9 +e #no)s- %eans9 e.ery sin&le t+in&9 +e #no)s- indi.id(ally/
b(t t+is does not %ean 9all t+e t+in&s9 +e #no)s- "olle"ti.ely! A&ain-
t+ere is t+e *roo, t+at t+ere is a 9t+ird %an9 distin"t ,ro% :an and
,ro% indi.id(al %en! B(t t+at is a ,alla"y- ,or 9:an9- and indeed
e.ery &eneral *redi"ate- denotes not an indi.id(al s(bstan"e- b(t a
*arti"(lar 5(ality- or t+e bein& related to so%et+in& in a
*arti"(lar %anner- or so%et+in& o, t+at sort! Li#e)ise also in t+e
"ase o, 9Coris"(s9 and 9Coris"(s t+e %(si"ian9 t+ere is t+e *roble%-
Are t+ey t+e sa%e or di,,erentB9 For t+e one denotes an indi.id(al
s(bstan"e and t+e ot+er a 5(ality- so t+at it "annot be isolated/
t+o(&+ it is not t+e isolation )+i"+ "reates t+e 9t+ird %an9- b(t
t+e ad%ission t+at it is an indi.id(al s(bstan"e! For 9:an9 "annot
be an indi.id(al s(bstan"e- as Callias is! Nor is t+e "ase i%*ro.ed
one )+it e.en i, one )ere to "all t+e "le%ent +e +as isolated not an
indi.id(al s(bstan"e b(t a 5(ality1 ,or t+ere )ill still be t+e one
beside t+e %any- 2(st as 9:an9 )as! It is e.ident t+en t+at one %(st
not &rant t+at )+at is a "o%%on *redi"ate a**lyin& to a "lass
(ni.ersally is an indi.id(al s(bstan"e- b(t %(st say t+at denotes
eit+er a 5(ality- or a relation- or a 5(antity- or so%et+in& o, t+at
#ind!
63
It is a &eneral r(le in dealin& )it+ ar&(%ents t+at de*end on
lan&(a&e t+at t+e sol(tion al)ays ,ollo)s t+e o**osite o, t+e *oint on
)+i"+ t+e ar&(%ent t(rns1 e!&! i, t+e ar&(%ent de*ends (*on
"o%bination- t+en t+e sol(tion "onsists in di.ision/ i, (*on di.ision-
t+en in "o%bination! A&ain- i, it de*ends on an a"(te a""ent- t+e
sol(tion is a &ra.e a""ent/ i, on a &ra.e a""ent- it is an a"(te! I,
it de*ends on a%bi&(ity- one "an sol.e it by (sin& t+e o**osite
ter%/ e!&! i, yo( ,ind yo(rsel, "allin& so%et+in& inani%ate- des*ite
yo(r *re.io(s denial t+at it )as so- s+o) in )+at sense it is ali.e1
i,- on t+e ot+er +and- one +as de"lared it to be inani%ate and t+e
so*+ist +as *ro.ed it to be ani%ate- say +o) it is inani%ate! Li#e)ise
also in a "ase o, a%*+iboly! I, t+e ar&(%ent de*ends on li#eness o,
e0*ression- t+e o**osite )ill be t+e sol(tion! 9Co(ld a %an &i.e
)+at +e +as not &otB 9No- not )+at +e +as not &ot/ b(t +e "o(ld &i.e
it in a )ay in )+i"+ +e +as not &ot it- e!&! one die by itsel,!9
7oes a %an #no) eit+er by learnin& or by dis"o.ery ea"+ t+in& t+at
+e #no)s- sin&lyB b(t not t+e t+in&s t+at +e #no)s- "olle"ti.ely!9
Also a %an treads- *er+a*s- on any t+in& +e )al#s t+ro(&+- b(t not
on t+e ti%e +e )al#s t+ro(&+! Li#e)ise also in t+e "ase o, t+e ot+er
e0a%*les!
68
In dealin& )it+ ar&(%ents t+at de*end on A""ident- one and t+e
sa%e sol(tion %eets all "ases! For sin"e it is indeter%inate )+en an
attrib(te s+o(ld be as"ribed to a t+in&- in "ases )+ere it belon&s
to t+e a""ident o, t+e t+in&- and sin"e in so%e "ases it is
&enerally a&reed and *eo*le ad%it t+at it belon&s- )+ile in ot+ers
t+ey deny t+at it need belon&- )e s+o(ld t+ere,ore- as soon as t+e
"on"l(sion +as been dra)n- say in ans)er to t+e% all ali#e- t+at t+ere
is no need ,or s("+ an attrib(te to belon&! One %(st- +o)e.er- be
*re*ared to add("e an e0a%*le o, t+e #ind o, attrib(te %eant! All
ar&(%ents s("+ as t+e ,ollo)in& de*end (*on A""ident! 97o yo( #no)
)+at I a% &oin& to as# yo(B yo( #no) t+e %an )+o is a**roa"+in&9- or
9t+e %an in t+e %as#9B 9Is t+e stat(e yo(r )or# o, artB9 or 9Is t+e
do& yo(r ,at+erB9 9Is t+e *rod("t o, a s%all n(%ber )it+ a s%all
n(%ber a s%all n(%berB9 For it is e.ident in all t+ese "ases t+at
t+ere is no ne"essity ,or t+e attrib(te )+i"+ is tr(e o, t+e t+in&9s
a""ident to be tr(e o, t+e t+in& as )ell! For only to t+in&s t+at
are indistin&(is+able and one in essen"e is it &enerally a&reed t+at
all t+e sa%e attrib(tes belon&/ )+ereas in t+e "ase o, a &ood t+in&-
to be &ood is not t+e sa%e as to be &oin& to be t+e s(b2e"t o, a
5(estion/ nor in t+e "ase o, a %an a**roa"+in&- or )earin& a %as#-
is 9to be a**roa"+in&9 t+e sa%e t+in& as 9to be Coris"(s9- so t+at
s(**ose I #no) Coris"(s- b(t do not #no) t+e %an )+o is a**roa"+in&-
it still isn9t t+e "ase t+at I bot+ #no) and do not #no) t+e sa%e %an/
nor- a&ain- i, t+is is %ine and is also a )or# o, art- is it t+ere,ore
%y )or# o, art- b(t %y *ro*erty or t+in& or so%et+in& else! 3T+e
sol(tion is a,ter t+e sa%e %anner in t+e ot+er "ases as )ell!4
So%e sol.e t+ese re,(tations by de%olis+in& t+e ori&inal *ro*osition
as#ed1 ,or t+ey say t+at it is *ossible to #no) and not to #no) t+e
sa%e t+in&- only not in t+e sa%e res*e"t1 a""ordin&ly- )+en t+ey don9t
#no) t+e %an )+o is "o%in& to)ards t+e%- b(t do #no) Corsi"(s- t+ey
assert t+at t+ey do #no) and don9t #no) t+e sa%e ob2e"t- b(t not in
t+e sa%e res*e"t! Cet- as )e +a.e already re%ar#ed- t+e "orre"tion
o, ar&(%ents t+at de*end (*on t+e sa%e *oint o(&+t to be t+e sa%e-
)+ereas t+is one )ill not stand i, one ado*ts t+e sa%e *rin"i*le in
re&ard not to #no)in& so%et+in&- b(t to bein&- or to bein& is a in a
"ertain state- e!&! s(**ose t+at H is ,at+er- and is also yo(rs1 ,or
i, in so%e "ases t+is is tr(e and it is *ossible to #no) and not to
#no) t+e sa%e t+in&- yet )it+ t+at "ase t+e sol(tion stated +as
not+in& to do! Certainly t+ere is not+in& to *re.ent t+e sa%e ar&(%ent
,ro% +a.in& a n(%ber o, ,la)s/ b(t it is not t+e e0*osition o, any and
e.ery ,a(lt t+at "onstit(tes a sol(tion1 ,or it is *ossible ,or a
%an to s+o) t+at a ,alse "on"l(sion +as been *ro.ed- b(t not to s+o)
on )+at it de*ends- e!&! in t+e "ase o, >eno9s ar&(%ent to *ro.e
t+at %otion is i%*ossible! So t+at e.en i, any one )ere to try to
establis+ t+at t+is do"trine is an i%*ossible one- +e still is
%ista#en- and e.en i, +e *ro.ed +is "ase ten t+o(sand ti%es o.er-
still t+is is no sol(tion o, >eno9s ar&(%ent1 ,or t+e sol(tion )as all
alon& an e0*osition o, ,alse reasonin&- s+o)in& on )+at its ,alsity
de*ends! I, t+en +e +as not *ro.ed +is "ase- or is tryin& to establis+
e.en a tr(e *ro*osition- or a ,alse one- in a ,alse %anner- to *oint
t+is o(t is a tr(e sol(tion! Possibly- indeed- t+e *resent
s(&&estion %ay .ery )ell a**ly in so%e "ases1 b(t in t+ese "ases- at
any rate- not e.en t+is )o(ld be &enerally a&reed1 ,or +e #no)s bot+
t+at Coris"(s is Coris"(s and t+at t+e a**roa"+in& ,i&(re is
a**roa"+in&! To #no) and not to #no) t+e sa%e t+in& is &enerally
t+o(&+t to be *ossible- )+en e!&! one #no)s t+at H is )+ite- b(t
does not reali=e t+at +e is %(si"al1 ,or in t+at )ay +e does #no)
and not #no) t+e sa%e t+in&- t+o(&+ not in t+e sa%e res*e"t! B(t as to
t+e a**roa"+in& ,i&(re and Coris"(s +e #no)s bot+ t+at it is
a**roa"+in& and t+at +e is Coris"(s!
A li#e %ista#e to t+at o, t+ose )+o% )e +a.e %entioned is t+at o,
t+ose )+o sol.e t+e *roo, t+at e.ery n(%ber is a s%all n(%ber1 ,or i,-
)+en t+e "on"l(sion is not *ro.ed- t+ey *ass t+is o.er and say t+at
a "on"l(sion +as been *ro.ed and is tr(e- on t+e &ro(nd t+at e.ery
n(%ber is bot+ &reat and s%all- t+ey %a#e a %ista#e!
So%e *eo*le also (se t+e *rin"i*le o, a%bi&(ity to sol.e t+e
a,oresaid reasonin&s- e!&! t+e *roo, t+at 9H is yo(r ,at+er9- or
9son9- or 9sla.e9! Cet it is e.ident t+at i, t+e a**earan"e a *roo,
de*ends (*on a *l(rality o, %eanin&s- t+e ter%- or t+e e0*ression in
5(estion- o(&+t to bear a n(%ber o, literal senses- )+ereas no one
s*ea#s o, A as bein& 9B9s "+ild9 in t+e literal sense- i, B is t+e
"+ild9s %aster- b(t t+e "o%bination de*ends (*on A""ident! 9Is A
yo(rsB9 9Ces!9 9And is A a "+ildB9 9Ces!9 9T+en t+e "+ild A is yo(rs-9
be"a(se +e +a**ens to be bot+ yo(rs and a "+ild/ b(t +e is not 9yo(r
"+ild9!
T+ere is also t+e *roo, t+at 9so%et+in& Ao, e.ilsA is &ood9/ ,or
)isdo% is a 9#no)led&e Ao, e.ilsA9! B(t t+e e0*ression t+at t+is is
9o, so and$so9 3J9so$and$so9s94 +as not a n(%ber o, %eanin&s1 it %eans
t+at it is 9so$and$so9s *ro*erty9! e %ay s(**ose o, "o(rse- on t+e
ot+er +and- t+at it +as a n(%ber o, %eanin&s$,or )e also say t+at
%an is 9o, t+e ani%als9- t+o(&+ not t+eir *ro*erty/ and also t+at
any ter% related to 9e.ils9 in a )ay e0*ressed by a &eniti.e "ase is
on t+at a""o(nt a so$and$so 9o, e.ils9- t+o(&+ it is not one o, t+e
e.ils$b(t in t+at "ase t+e a**arently di,,erent %eanin&s see% to
de*end on )+et+er t+e ter% is (sed relati.ely or absol(tely! 9Cet it
is "on"ei.ably *ossible to ,ind a real a%bi&(ity in t+e *+rase
ASo%et+in& o, e.ils is &oodA!9 Per+a*s- b(t not )it+ re&ard to t+e
*+rase in 5(estion! It )o(ld o""(r %ore nearly- s(**ose t+at 9A
ser.ant is &ood o, t+e )i"#ed9/ t+o(&+ *er+a*s it is not 5(ite ,o(nd
e.en t+ere1 ,or a t+in& %ay be 9&ood9 and be 9H9s9 )it+o(t bein& at
t+e sa%e ti%e 9H9s &ood9! Nor is t+e sayin& t+at 9:an is o, t+e
ani%als9 a *+rase )it+ a n(%ber o, %eanin&s1 ,or a *+rase does not
be"o%e *ossessed o, a n(%ber o, %eanin&s %erely s(**ose )e e0*ress
it elli*ti"ally1 ,or )e e0*ress 9<i.e %e t+e Iliad9 by 5(otin& +al,
a line o, it- e!&! 9<i.e %e ASin&- &oddess- o, t+e )rat+!!!A9
65
T+ose ar&(%ents )+i"+ de*end (*on an e0*ression t+at is .alid o, a
*arti"(lar t+in&- or in a *arti"(lar res*e"t- or *la"e- or %anner-
or relation- and not .alid absol(tely- s+o(ld be sol.ed by "onsiderin&
t+e "on"l(sion in relation to its "ontradi"tory- to see i, any o,
t+ese t+in&s "an *ossibly +a.e +a**ened to it! For it is i%*ossible
,or "ontraries and o**osites and an a,,ir%ati.e and a ne&ati.e to
belon& to t+e sa%e t+in& absol(tely/ t+ere is- +o)e.er- not+in& to
*re.ent ea"+ ,ro% belon&in& in a *arti"(lar res*e"t or relation or
%anner- or to *re.ent one o, t+e% ,ro% belon&in& in a *arti"(lar
res*e"t and t+e ot+er absol(tely! So t+at i, t+is one belon&s
absol(tely and t+at one in a *arti"(lar res*e"t- t+ere is as yet no
re,(tation! T+is is a ,eat(re one +as to ,ind in t+e "on"l(sion by
e0a%inin& it in "o%*arison )it+ its "ontradi"tory!
All ar&(%ents o, t+e ,ollo)in& #ind +a.e t+is ,eat(re1 9Is it
*ossible ,or )+at is$not to beB ANo!A B(t- yo( see- it is so%et+in&-
des*ite its not bein&!9 Li#e)ise also- Bein& )ill not be/ ,or it
)ill not +e so%e *arti"(lar ,or% o, bein&! Is it *ossible ,or t+e sa%e
%an at t+e sa%e ti%e to be a #ee*er and a brea#er o, +is oat+B9 9Can
t+e sa%e %an at t+e sa%e ti%e bot+ obey and disobey t+e sa%e %anB9
Or isn9t it t+e "ase t+at bein& so%et+in& in *arti"(lar and Bein&
are not t+e sa%eB On t+e ot+er +and- Not$bein&- e.en i, it be
so%et+in&- need not also +a.e absol(te 9bein&9 as )ell! Nor i, a %an
#ee*s +is oat+ in t+is *arti"(lar instan"e or in t+is *arti"(lar
res*e"t- is +e bo(nd also to be a #ee*er o, oat+s absol(tely- b(t +e
)+o s)ears t+at +e )ill brea# +is oat+- and t+en brea#s it- #ee*s t+is
*arti"(lar oat+ only/ +e is not a #ee*er o, +is oat+1 nor is t+e
disobedient %an 9obedient9- t+o(&+ +e obeys one *arti"(lar "o%%and!
T+e ar&(%ent is si%ilar- also- as re&ards t+e *roble% )+et+er t+e sa%e
%an "an at t+e sa%e ti%e say )+at is bot+ ,alse and tr(e1 b(t it
a**ears to be a tro(bleso%e 5(estion be"a(se it is not easy to see
in )+i"+ o, t+e t)o "onne0ions t+e )ord 9absol(tely9 is to be
rendered$)it+ 9tr(e9 or )it+ 9,alse9! T+ere is- +o)e.er- not+in& to
*re.ent it ,ro% bein& ,alse absol(tely- t+o(&+ tr(e in so%e *arti"(lar
res*e"t or relation- i!e! bein& tr(e in so%e t+in&s- t+o(&+ not 9tr(e9
absol(tely! Li#e)ise also in "ases o, so%e *arti"(lar relation and
*la"e and ti%e! For all ar&(%ents o, t+e ,ollo)in& #ind de*end (*on
t+is!9 Is +ealt+- or )ealt+- a &ood t+in&B9 9Ces!9 9B(t to t+e ,ool
)+o does not (se it ari&+t it is not a &ood t+in&1 t+ere,ore it is
bot+ &ood and not &ood!9 9Is +ealt+- or *oliti"al *o)er- a &ood
t+in&B9 9Ces! AB(t so%eti%es it is not *arti"(larly &ood1 t+ere,ore
t+e sa%e t+in& is bot+ &ood and not &ood to t+e sa%e %an!9 Or rat+er
t+ere is not+in& to *re.ent a t+in&- t+o(&+ &ood absol(tely- bein& not
&ood to a *arti"(lar %an- or bein& &ood to a *arti"(lar %an- and yet
not &ood or +ere! 9Is t+at )+i"+ t+e *r(dent %an )o(ld not )is+- an
e.ilB9 9Ces!9 9B(t to &et rid o,- +e )o(ld not )is+ t+e &ood1
t+ere,ore t+e &ood is an e.il!9 B(t t+at is a %ista#e/ ,or it is not
t+e sa%e t+in& to say 9T+e &ood is an e.il9 and 9to &et rid o, t+e
&ood is an e.il9! Li#e)ise also t+e ar&(%ent o, t+e t+ie, is %ista#en!
For it is not t+e "ase t+at i, t+e t+ie, is an e.il t+in&- a"5(irin&
t+in&s is also e.il1 )+at +e )is+es- t+ere,ore- is not )+at is e.il
b(t )+at is &ood/ ,or to a"5(ire so%et+in& &ood is &ood! Also- disease
is an e.il t+in&- b(t not to &et rid o, disease! 9Is t+e 2(st
*re,erable to t+e (n2(st- and )+at ta#es *la"e 2(stly to )+at ta#es
*la"e (n2(stlyB 9Ces!9 9B(t to to be *(t to deat+ (n2(stly is
*re,erable!9 9Is it 2(st t+at ea"+ s+o(ld +a.e +is o)nB9 9Ces!9 9B(t
)+ate.er de"isions a %an "o%es to on t+e stren&t+ o, +is *ersonal
o*inion- e.en i, it be a ,alse o*inion- are .alid in la)1 t+ere,ore
t+e sa%e res(lt is bot+ 2(st and (n2(st!9 Also- s+o(ld one de"ide in
,a.o(r o, +i% )+o says )+at is (n2(stB9 9T+e ,or%er!9 9B(t yo( see- it
is 2(st ,or t+e in2(red *arty to say ,(lly t+e t+in&s +e +as s(,,ered/
and t+ese are ,alla"ies! For be"a(se to s(,,er a t+in& (n2(stly is
*re,erable- (n2(st )ays are not t+ere,ore *re,erable- t+o(&+ in t+is
*arti"(lar "ase t+e (n2(st %ay .ery )ell be better t+an t+e 2(st!
Also- to +a.e one9s o)n is 2(st- )+ile to +a.e )+at is anot+er9s is
not 2(st1 all t+e sa%e- t+e de"ision in 5(estion %ay .ery )ell be a
2(st de"ision- )+ate.er it be t+at t+e o*inion o, t+e %an )+o &a.e t+e
de"ision s(**orts1 ,or be"a(se it is 2(st in t+is *arti"(lar "ase or
in t+is *arti"(lar %anner- it is not also 2(st absol(tely! Li#e)ise
also- t+o(&+ t+in&s are (n2(st- t+ere is not+in& to *re.ent t+e
s*ea#in& o, t+e% bein& 2(st1 ,or be"a(se to s*ea# o, t+in&s is 2(st-
t+ere is no ne"essity t+at t+e t+in&s s+o(ld be 2(st- any %ore t+an
be"a(se to s*ea# o, t+in&s be o, (se- t+e t+in&s need be o, (se!
Li#e)ise also in t+e "ase o, )+at is 2(st! So t+at it is not t+e
"ase t+at be"a(se t+e t+in&s s*o#en o, are (n2(st- t+e .i"tory &oes to
+i% )+o s*ea#s (n2(st t+in&s1 ,or +e s*ea#s o, t+in&s t+at are 2(st to
s*ea# o,- t+o(&+ absol(tely- i!e! to s(,,er- t+ey are (n2(st!
6?
Re,(tations t+at de*end on t+e de,inition o, a re,(tation %(st-
a""ordin& to t+e *lan s#et"+ed abo.e- be %et by "o%*arin& to&et+er t+e
"on"l(sion )it+ its "ontradi"tory- and seein& t+at it s+all in.ol.e
t+e sa%e attrib(te in t+e sa%e res*e"t and relation and %anner and
ti%e! I, t+is additional 5(estion be *(t at t+e start- yo( s+o(ld
not ad%it t+at it is i%*ossible ,or t+e sa%e t+in& to be bot+ do(ble
and not do(ble- b(t &rant t+at it is *ossible- only not in s("+ a
)ay as )as a&reed to "onstit(te a re,(tation o, yo(r "ase! All t+e
,ollo)in& ar&(%ents de*end (*on a *oint o, t+at #ind! 97oes a %an
)+o #no)s A to be A- #no) t+e t+in& "alled AB9 and in t+e sa%e )ay-
9is one )+o is i&norant t+at A is A i&norant o, t+e t+in& "alled AB9
9Ces!9 9B(t one )+o #no)s t+at Coris"(s is Coris"(s %i&+t be
i&norant o, t+e ,a"t t+at +e is %(si"al- so t+at +e bot+ #no)s and
is i&norant o, t+e sa%e t+in&!9 Is a t+in& ,o(r "(bits lon& &reater
t+an a t+in& t+ree "(bits lon&B9 9Ces!9 9B(t a t+in& %i&+t &ro) ,ro%
t+ree to ,o(r "(bits in len&t+/ 9no) )+at is 9&reater9 is &reater t+an
a 9less91 a""ordin&ly t+e t+in& in 5(estion )ill be bot+ &reater and
less t+an itsel, in t+e sa%e res*e"t!
6@
As to re,(tations t+at de*end on be&&in& and ass(%in& t+e ori&inal
*oint to be *ro.ed- s(**ose t+e nat(re o, t+e 5(estion to be
ob.io(s- one s+o(ld not &rant it- e.en t+o(&+ it be a .ie) &enerally
+eld- b(t s+o(ld tell +i% t+e tr(t+! S(**ose- +o)e.er- t+at it es"a*es
one- t+en- t+an#s to t+e badness o, ar&(%ents o, t+at #ind- one s+o(ld
%a#e one9s error re"oil (*on t+e 5(estioner- and say t+at +e +as
bro(&+t no ar&(%ent1 ,or a re,(tation %(st be *ro.ed inde*endently
o, t+e ori&inal *oint! Se"ondly- one s+o(ld say t+at t+e *oint )as
&ranted (nder t+e i%*ression t+at +e intended not to (se it as a
*re%iss- b(t to reason a&ainst it- in t+e o**osite )ay ,ro% t+at
ado*ted in re,(tations on side iss(es!
6D
Also- t+ose re,(tations t+at brin& one to t+eir "on"l(sion t+ro(&+
t+e "onse5(ent yo( s+o(ld s+o) (* in t+e "o(rse o, t+e ar&(%ent
itsel,! T+e %ode in )+i"+ "onse5(en"es ,ollo) is t)o,old! For t+e
ar&(%ent eit+er is t+at as t+e (ni.ersal ,ollo)s on its
*arti"(lar$as 3e!&!4 9ani%al9 ,ollo)s ,ro% 9%an9$so does t+e
*arti"(lar on its (ni.ersal1 ,or t+e "lai% is %ade t+at i, A is al)ays
,o(nd )it+ B- t+en B also is al)ays ,o(nd )it+ A! Or else it
*ro"eeds by )ay o, t+e o**osites o, t+e ter%s in.ol.ed1 ,or i, A
,ollo)s B- it is "lai%ed t+at A9s o**osite )ill ,ollo) B9s o**osite!
On t+is latter "lai% t+e ar&(%ent o, :eliss(s also de*ends1 ,or +e
"lai%s t+at be"a(se t+at )+i"+ +as "o%e to be +as a be&innin&- t+at
)+i"+ +as not "o%e to be +as none- so t+at i, t+e +ea.en +as not
"o%e to be- it is also eternal! B(t t+at is not so/ ,or t+e se5(en"e
is .i"e .ersa!
6E
In t+e "ase o, any re,(tations )+ose reasonin& de*ends on so%e
addition- loo# and see i, (*on its s(btra"tion t+e abs(rdity ,ollo)s
none t+e less1 and t+en i, so- t+e ans)erer s+o(ld *oint t+is o(t- and
say t+at +e &ranted t+e addition not be"a(se +e really t+o(&+t it- b(t
,or t+e sa#e o, t+e ar&(%ent- )+ereas t+e 5(estioner +as not (sed it
,or t+e *(r*ose o, +is ar&(%ent at all!
30
To %eet t+ose re,(tations )+i"+ %a#e se.eral 5(estions into one- one
s+o(ld dra) a distin"tion bet)een t+e% strai&+t a)ay at t+e start! For
a 5(estion %(st be sin&le to )+i"+ t+ere is a sin&le ans)er- so t+at
one %(st not a,,ir% or deny se.eral t+in&s o, one t+in&- nor one t+in&
o, %any- b(t one o, one! B(t 2(st as in t+e "ase o, a%bi&(o(s ter%s-
an attrib(te belon&s to a ter% so%eti%es in bot+ its senses- and
so%eti%es in neit+er- so t+at a si%*le ans)er does one- as it +a**ens-
no +ar% des*ite t+e ,a"t t+at t+e 5(estion is not si%*le- so it is
in t+ese "ases o, do(ble 5(estions too! +ene.er- t+en- t+e se.eral
attrib(tes belon& to t+e one s(b2e"t- or t+e one to t+e %any- t+e
%an )+o &i.es a si%*le ans)er en"o(nters no obsta"le e.en t+o(&+ +e
+as "o%%itted t+is %ista#e1 b(t )+ene.er an attrib(te belon&s to one
s(b2e"t b(t not to t+e ot+er- or t+ere is a 5(estion o, a n(%ber o,
attrib(tes belon&in& to a n(%ber o, s(b2e"ts and in one sense bot+
belon& to bot+- )+ile in anot+er sense- a&ain- t+ey do not- t+en t+ere
is tro(ble- so t+at one %(st be)are o, t+is! T+(s 3e!&!4 in t+e
,ollo)in& ar&(%ents1 S(**osin& to be &ood and B e.il- yo( )ill- i, yo(
&i.e a sin&le ans)er abo(t bot+- be "o%*elled to say t+at it is tr(e
to "all t+ese &ood- and t+at it is tr(e to "all t+e% e.il and li#e)ise
to "all t+e% neit+er &ood nor e.il 3,or ea"+ o, t+e% +as not ea"+
"+ara"ter4- so t+at t+e sa%e t+in& )ill be bot+ &ood and e.il and
neit+er &ood nor e.il! Also- sin"e e.eryt+in& is t+e sa%e as itsel,
and di,,erent ,ro% anyt+in& else- inas%("+ as t+e %an )+o ans)ers
do(ble 5(estions si%*ly "an be %ade to say t+at se.eral t+in&s are
9t+e sa%e9 not as ot+er t+in&s b(t 9as t+e%sel.es9- and also t+at t+ey
are di,,erent ,ro% t+e%sel.es- it ,ollo)s t+at t+e sa%e t+in&s %(st be
bot+ t+e sa%e as and di,,erent ,ro% t+e%sel.es! :oreo.er- i, )+at is
&ood be"o%es e.il )+ile )+at is e.il is &ood- t+en t+ey %(st bot+
be"o%e t)o! So o, t)o (ne5(al t+in&s ea"+ bein& e5(al to itsel,- it
)ill ,ollo) t+at t+ey are bot+ e5(al and (ne5(al to t+e%sel.es!
No) t+ese re,(tations ,all into t+e *ro.in"e o, ot+er sol(tions as
)ell1 ,or 9bot+9 and 9all9 +a.e %ore t+an one %eanin&- so t+at t+e
res(ltin& a,,ir%ation and denial o, t+e sa%e t+in& does not o""(r-
e0"e*t .erbally1 and t+is is not )+at )e %eant by a re,(tation! B(t it
is "lear t+at i, t+ere be not *(t a sin&le 5(estion on a n(%ber o,
*oints- b(t t+e ans)erer +as a,,ir%ed or denied one attrib(te only
o, one s(b2e"t only- t+e abs(rdity )ill not "o%e to *ass!
3'
it+ re&ard to t+ose )+o dra) one into re*eatin& t+e sa%e t+in& a
n(%ber o, ti%es- it is "lear t+at one %(st not &rant t+at *redi"ations
o, relati.e ter%s +a.e any %eanin& in abstra"tion by t+e%sel.es-
e!&! t+at 9do(ble9 is a si&ni,i"ant ter% a*art ,ro% t+e )+ole *+rase
9do(ble o, +al,9 %erely on t+e &ro(nd t+at it ,i&(res in it! For ten
,i&(res in 9ten %in(s one9 and in 9not do9- and &enerally t+e
a,,ir%ation in t+e ne&ation/ b(t ,or all t+at- s(**ose any one )ere to
say- 9T+is is not )+ite9- +e does not say t+at it is )+ite! T+e bare
)ord 9do(ble9- one %ay *er+a*s say- +as not e.en any %eanin& at all-
any %ore t+an +as 9t+e9 in 9t+e +al,91 and e.en i, it +as a %eanin&-
yet it +as not t+e sa%e %eanin& as in t+e "o%bination! Nor is
9#no)led&e9 t+e sa%e t+in& in a s*e"i,i" bran"+ o, it 3s(**ose it-
e!&! to be 9%edi"al #no)led&e94 as it is in &eneral1 ,or in &eneral it
)as t+e 9#no)led&e o, t+e #no)able9! In t+e "ase o, ter%s t+at are
*redi"ated o, t+e ter%s t+ro(&+ )+i"+ t+ey are de,ined- yo( s+o(ld say
t+e sa%e t+in&- t+at t+e ter% de,ined is not t+e sa%e in abstra"tion
as it is in t+e )+ole *+rase! For 9"on"a.e9 +as a &eneral %eanin&
)+i"+ is t+e sa%e in t+e "ase o, a sn(b nose- and o, a bandy le&-
b(t )+en added to eit+er s(bstanti.e not+in& *re.ents it ,ro%
di,,erentiatin& its %eanin&/ in ,a"t it bears one sense as a**lied
to t+e nose- and anot+er as a**lied to t+e le&1 ,or in t+e ,or%er
"onne0ion it %eans 9sn(b9 and in t+e latter 9bandys+a*ed9/ i!e! it
%a#es no di,,eren"e )+et+er yo( say 9a sn(b nose9 or 9a "on"a.e nose9!
:oreo.er- t+e e0*ression %(st not be &ranted in t+e no%inati.e "ase1
,or it is a ,alse+ood! For sn(bness is not a "on"a.e nose b(t
so%et+in& 3e!&! an a,,e"tion4 belon&in& to a nose1 +en"e- t+ere is
no abs(rdity in s(**osin& t+at t+e sn(b nose is a nose *ossessin&
t+e "on"a.ity t+at belon&s to a nose!
36
it+ re&ard to sole"is%s- )e +a.e *re.io(sly said )+at it is t+at
a**ears to brin& t+e% abo(t/ t+e %et+od o, t+eir sol(tion )ill be
"lear in t+e "o(rse o, t+e ar&(%ents t+e%sel.es! Sole"is% is t+e
res(lt ai%ed at in all ar&(%ents o, t+e ,ollo)in& #ind1 9Is a t+in&
tr(ly t+at )+i"+ yo( tr(ly "all itB9 9Ces9! 9B(t- s*ea#in& o, a stone-
yo( "all +i% real1 t+ere,ore o, a stone it ,ollo)s t+at A+i% is
realA!9 No1 rat+er- tal#in& o, a stone %eans not sayin& )+i"+9 b(t
9)+o%9- and not 9t+at9 b(t 9+i%9! I,- t+en- any one )ere to as#- 9Is a
stone +i% )+o% yo( tr(ly "all +i%B9 +e )o(ld be &enerally t+o(&+t
not to be s*ea#in& &ood <ree#- any %ore t+an i, +e )ere to as#- 9Is +e
)+at yo( "all +erB9 S*ea# in t+is )ay o, a 9sti"#9 or any ne(ter )ord-
and t+e di,,eren"e does not brea# o(t! For t+is reason- also- no
sole"is% is in"(rred- s(**ose any one as#s- 9Is a t+in& )+at yo( say
it to beB9 9Ces9! 9B(t- s*ea#in& o, a sti"#- yo( "all it real1
t+ere,ore- o, a sti"# it ,ollo)s t+at it is real!9 9Stone9- +o)e.er-
and 9+e9 +a.e %as"(line desi&nations! No) s(**ose so%e one )ere to
as#- 9Can A+eA be a s+eA 3a ,e%ale4B9- and t+en a&ain- 9ell- b(t is
not +e Coris"(sB9 and t+en )ere to say- 9T+en +e is a As+eA-9 +e +as
not *ro.ed t+e sole"is%- e.en i, t+e na%e 9Coris"(s9 does si&ni,y a
9s+e9- i,- on t+e ot+er +and- t+e ans)erer does not &rant t+is1 t+is
*oint %(st be *(t as an additional 5(estion1 )+ile i, neit+er is it
t+e ,a"t nor does +e &rant it- t+en t+e so*+ist +as not *ro.ed +is
"ase eit+er in ,a"t or as a&ainst t+e *erson +e +as been
5(estionin&! In li#e %anner- t+en- in t+e abo.e instan"e as )ell it
%(st be de,initely *(t t+at 9+e9 %eans t+e stone! I,- +o)e.er- t+is
neit+er is so nor is &ranted- t+e "on"l(sion %(st not be stated1
t+o(&+ it ,ollo)s a**arently- be"a(se t+e "ase 3t+e a""(sati.e4-
t+at is really (nli#e- a**ears to be li#e t+e no%inati.e! 9Is it
tr(e to say t+at t+is ob2e"t is )+at yo( "all it by na%eB9 9Ces9! 9B(t
yo( "all it by t+e na%e o, a s+ield1 t+is ob2e"t t+ere,ore is Ao, a
s+ieldA!9 No1 not ne"essarily- be"a(se t+e %eanin& o, 9t+is ob2e"t9 is
not 9o, a s+ield9 b(t 9a s+ield91 9o, a s+ield9 )o(ld be t+e %eanin&
o, 9t+is ob2e"t9s9! Nor a&ain i, 9He is )+at yo( "all +i% by na%e9-
)+ile 9t+e na%e yo( "all +i% by is Cleon9s9- is +e t+ere,ore
9Cleon9s91 ,or +e is not 9Cleon9s9- ,or )+at )as said )as t+at 9He-
not +is- is )+at I "all +i% by na%e9! For t+e 5(estion- i, *(t in
t+e latter )ay- )o(ld not e.en be <ree#! 97o yo( #no) t+isB9 9Ces!9
9B(t t+is is +e1 t+ere,ore yo( #no) +e9! No1 rat+er 9t+is9 +as not t+e
sa%e %eanin& in 97o yo( #no) t+isB9 as in 9T+is is a stone9/ in t+e
,irst it stands ,or an a""(sati.e- in t+e se"ond ,or a no%inati.e
"ase! 9+en yo( +a.e (nderstandin& o, anyt+in&- do yo( (nderstand itB9
9Ces!9 9B(t yo( +a.e (nderstandin& o, a stone1 t+ere,ore yo(
(nderstand o, a stone!9 No1 t+e one *+rase is in t+e &eniti.e- 9o, a
stone9- )+ile t+e ot+er is in t+e a""(sati.e- 9a stone91 and )+at
)as &ranted )as t+at 9yo( (nderstand t+at- not o, t+at- o, )+i"+ yo(
+a.e (nderstandin&9- so t+at yo( (nderstand not 9o, a stone9- b(t 9t+e
stone9!
T+(s t+at ar&(%ents o, t+is #ind do not *ro.e sole"is% b(t %erely
a**ear to do so- and bot+ )+y t+ey so a**ear and +o) yo( s+o(ld %eet
t+e%- is "lear ,ro% )+at +as been said!
33
e %(st also obser.e t+at o, all t+e ar&(%ents a,oresaid it is
easier )it+ so%e to see )+y and )+ere t+e reasonin& leads t+e +earer
astray- )+ile )it+ ot+ers it is %ore di,,i"(lt- t+o(&+ o,ten t+ey
are t+e sa%e ar&(%ents as t+e ,or%er! For )e %(st "all an ar&(%ent t+e
sa%e i, it de*ends (*on t+e sa%e *oint/ b(t t+e sa%e ar&(%ent is a*t
to be t+o(&+t by so%e to de*end on di"tion- by ot+ers on a""ident- and
by ot+ers on so%et+in& else- be"a(se ea"+ o, t+e%- )+en )or#ed )it+
di,,erent ter%s- is not so "lear as it )as! A""ordin&ly- 2(st as in
,alla"ies t+at de*end on a%bi&(ity- )+i"+ are &enerally t+o(&+t to
be t+e silliest ,or% o, ,alla"y- so%e are "lear e.en to t+e %an in t+e
street 3,or +(%oro(s *+rases nearly all de*end on di"tion/ e!&! 9T+e
%an &ot t+e "art do)n ,ro% t+e stand9/ and 9+ere are yo( bo(ndB9
9To t+e yard ar%9/ and 9+i"+ "o) )ill "al.e a,oreB9 9Neit+er- b(t
bot+ be+ind/9 and 9Is t+e Nort+ )ind "learB9 9No- indeed/ ,or it +as
%(rdered t+e be&&ar and t+e %er"+ant!A Is +e a <ood eno(&+$Gin&B9 9No-
indeed/ a Rob$son91 and so )it+ t+e &reat %a2ority o, t+e rest as
)ell4- )+ile ot+ers a**ear to el(de t+e %ost e0*ert 3and it is a
sy%*to% o, t+is t+at t+ey o,ten ,i&+t abo(t t+eir ter%s- e!&!
)+et+er t+e %eanin& o, 9Bein&9 and 9One9 is t+e sa%e in all t+eir
a**li"ations or di,,erent/ ,or so%e t+in# t+at 9Bein&9 and 9One9
%ean t+e sa%e/ )+ile ot+ers sol.e t+e ar&(%ent o, >eno and
Par%enides by assertin& t+at 9One9 and 9Bein&9 are (sed in a n(%ber o,
senses4- li#e)ise also as re&ards ,alla"ies o, A""ident and ea"+ o,
t+e ot+er ty*es- so%e o, t+e ar&(%ents )ill be easier to see )+ile
ot+ers are %ore di,,i"(lt/ also to &ras* to )+i"+ "lass a ,alla"y
belon&s- and )+et+er it is a re,(tation or not a re,(tation- is not
e5(ally easy in all "ases!
An in"isi.e ar&(%ent is one )+i"+ *rod("es t+e &reatest
*er*le0ity1 ,or t+is is t+e one )it+ t+e s+ar*est ,an&! No) *er*le0ity
is t)o,old- one )+i"+ o""(rs in reasoned ar&(%ents- res*e"tin& )+i"+
o, t+e *ro*ositions as#ed one is to de%olis+- and t+e ot+er in
"ontentio(s ar&(%ents- res*e"tin& t+e %anner in )+i"+ one is to assent
to )+at is *ro*o(nded! T+ere,ore it is in syllo&isti" ar&(%ents t+at
t+e %ore in"isi.e ones *rod("e t+e #eenest +eart$sear"+in&! No) a
syllo&isti" ar&(%ent is %ost in"isi.e i, ,ro% *re%isses t+at are as
&enerally a""e*ted as *ossible it de%olis+es a "on"l(sion t+at is
a""e*ted as &enerally as *ossible! For t+e one ar&(%ent- i, t+e
"ontradi"tory is "+an&ed abo(t- %a#es all t+e res(ltin& syllo&is%s
ali#e in "+ara"ter1 ,or al)ays ,ro% *re%isses t+at are &enerally
a""e*ted it )ill *ro.e a "on"l(sion- ne&ati.e or *ositi.e as t+e
"ase %ay be- t+at is 2(st as &enerally a""e*ted/ and t+ere,ore one
is bo(nd to ,eel *er*le0ed! An ar&(%ent- t+en- o, t+is #ind is t+e
%ost in"isi.e- .i=! t+e one t+at *(ts its "on"l(sion on all ,o(rs )it+
t+e *ro*ositions as#ed/ and se"ond "o%es t+e one t+at ar&(es ,ro%
*re%isses- all o, )+i"+ are e5(ally "on.in"in&1 ,or t+is )ill
*rod("e an e5(al *er*le0ity as to )+at #ind o, *re%iss- o, t+ose
as#ed- one s+o(ld de%olis+! Herein is a di,,i"(lty1 ,or one %(st
de%olis+ so%et+in&- b(t )+at one %(st de%olis+ is (n"ertain! O,
"ontentio(s ar&(%ents- on t+e ot+er +and- t+e %ost in"isi.e is t+e one
)+i"+- in t+e ,irst *la"e- is "+ara"teri=ed by an initial
(n"ertainty )+et+er it +as been *ro*erly reasoned or not/ and also
)+et+er t+e sol(tion de*ends on a ,alse *re%iss or on t+e dra)in& o, a
distin"tion/ )+ile- o, t+e rest- t+e se"ond *la"e is +eld by t+at
)+ose sol(tion "learly de*ends (*on a distin"tion or a de%olition- and
yet it does not re.eal "learly )+i"+ it is o, t+e *re%isses as#ed-
)+ose de%olition- or t+e dra)in& o, a distin"tion )it+in it- )ill
brin& t+e sol(tion abo(t- b(t e.en lea.es it .a&(e )+et+er it is on
t+e "on"l(sion or on one o, t+e *re%isses t+at t+e de"e*tion de*ends!
No) so%eti%es an ar&(%ent )+i"+ +as not been *ro*erly reasoned is
silly- s(**osin& t+e ass(%*tions re5(ired to be e0tre%ely "ontrary
to t+e &eneral .ie) or ,alse/ b(t so%eti%es it o(&+t not to be +eld in
"onte%*t! For )+ene.er so%e 5(estion is le,t o(t- o, t+e #ind t+at
"on"erns bot+ t+e s(b2e"t and t+e ner.e o, t+e ar&(%ent- t+e reasonin&
t+at +as bot+ ,ailed to se"(re t+is as )ell- and also ,ailed to reason
*ro*erly- is silly/ b(t )+en )+at is o%itted is so%e e0traneo(s
5(estion- t+en it is by no %eans to be li&+tly des*ised- b(t t+e
ar&(%ent is 5(ite res*e"table- t+o(&+ t+e 5(estioner +as not *(t +is
5(estions )ell!
K(st as it is *ossible to brin& a sol(tion so%eti%es a&ainst t+e
ar&(%ent- at ot+ers a&ainst t+e 5(estioner and +is %ode o,
5(estionin&- and at ot+ers a&ainst neit+er o, t+ese- li#e)ise also
it is *ossible to %ars+al one9s 5(estions and reasonin& bot+ a&ainst
t+e t+esis- and a&ainst t+e ans)erer and a&ainst t+e ti%e- )+ene.er
t+e sol(tion re5(ires a lon&er ti%e to e0a%ine t+an t+e *eriod
a.ailable!
38
As to t+e n(%ber- t+en- and #ind o, so(r"es )+en"e ,alla"ies arise
in dis"(ssion- and +o) )e are to s+o) t+at o(r o**onent is
"o%%ittin& a ,alla"y and %a#e +i% (tter *arado0es/ %oreo.er- by t+e
(se o, )+at %aterials soles"is% is bro(&+t abo(t- and +o) to
5(estion and )+at is t+e )ay to arran&e t+e 5(estions/ %oreo.er- as to
t+e 5(estion )+at (se is ser.ed by all ar&(%ents o, t+is #ind- and
"on"ernin& t+e ans)erer9s *art- bot+ as a )+ole in &eneral- and in
*arti"(lar +o) to sol.e ar&(%ents and sole"is%s$on all t+ese t+in&s
let t+e ,ore&oin& dis"(ssion s(,,i"e! It re%ains to re"all o(r
ori&inal *ro*osal and to brin& o(r dis"(ssion to a "lose )it+ a ,e)
)ords (*on it!
O(r *ro&ra%%e )as- t+en- to dis"o.er so%e ,a"(lty o, reasonin& abo(t
any t+e%e *(t be,ore (s ,ro% t+e %ost &enerally a""e*ted *re%isses
t+at t+ere are! For t+at is t+e essential tas# o, t+e art o,
dis"(ssion 3diale"ti"4 and o, e0a%ination 3*eirasti"4! Inas%("+-
+o)e.er- as it is anne0ed to it- on a""o(nt o, t+e near *resen"e o,
t+e art o, so*+istry 3so*+isti"4- not only to be able to "ond("t an
e0a%ination diale"ti"ally b(t also )it+ a s+o) o, #no)led&e- )e
t+ere,ore *ro*osed ,or o(r treatise not only t+e a,oresaid ai% o,
bein& able to e0a"t an a""o(nt o, any .ie)- b(t also t+e ai% o,
ens(rin& t+at in standin& (* to an ar&(%ent )e s+all de,end o(r t+esis
in t+e sa%e %anner by %eans o, .ie)s as &enerally +eld as *ossible!
T+e reason o, t+is )e +a.e e0*lained/ ,or t+is- too- )as )+y
So"rates (sed to as# 5(estions and not to ans)er t+e%/ ,or +e (sed
to "on,ess t+at +e did not #no)! e +a.e %ade "lear- in t+e "o(rse
o, )+at *re"edes- t+e n(%ber bot+ o, t+e *oints )it+ re,eren"e to
)+i"+- and o, t+e %aterials ,ro% )+i"+- t+is )ill be a""o%*lis+ed- and
also ,ro% )+at so(r"es )e "an be"o%e )ell s(**lied )it+ t+ese1 )e +a.e
s+o)n- %oreo.er- +o) to 5(estion or arran&e t+e 5(estionin& as a
)+ole- and t+e *roble%s "on"ernin& t+e ans)ers and sol(tions to be
(sed a&ainst t+e reasonin&s o, t+e 5(estioner! e +a.e also "leared (*
t+e *roble%s "on"ernin& all ot+er %atters t+at belon& to t+e sa%e
in5(iry into ar&(%ents! In addition to t+is )e +a.e been t+ro(&+ t+e
s(b2e"t o, Falla"ies- as )e +a.e already stated abo.e!
T+at o(r *ro&ra%%e- t+en- +as been ade5(ately "o%*leted is "lear!
B(t )e %(st not o%it to noti"e )+at +as +a**ened in re&ard to t+is
in5(iry! For in t+e "ase o, all dis"o.eries t+e res(lts o, *re.io(s
labo(rs t+at +a.e been +anded do)n ,ro% ot+ers +a.e been ad.an"ed
bit by bit by t+ose )+o +a.e ta#en t+e% on- )+ereas t+e ori&inal
dis"o.eries &enerally %a#e ad.an"e t+at is s%all at ,irst t+o(&+
%("+ %ore (se,(l t+an t+e de.elo*%ent )+i"+ later s*rin&s o(t o, t+e%!
For it %ay be t+at in e.eryt+in&- as t+e sayin& is- 9t+e ,irst start
is t+e %ain *art91 and ,or t+is reason also it is t+e %ost
di,,i"(lt/ ,or in *ro*ortion as it is %ost *otent in its in,l(en"e- so
it is s%allest in its "o%*ass and t+ere,ore %ost di,,i"(lt to see1
)+ereas )+en t+is is on"e dis"o.ered- it is easier to add and
de.elo* t+e re%ainder in "onne0ion )it+ it! T+is is in ,a"t )+at +as
+a**ened in re&ard to r+etori"al s*ee"+es and to *ra"ti"ally all t+e
ot+er arts1 ,or t+ose )+o dis"o.ered t+e be&innin&s o, t+e% ad.an"ed
t+e% in all only a little )ay- )+ereas t+e "elebrities o, to$day are
t+e +eirs 3so to s*ea#4 o, a lon& s(""ession o, %en )+o +a.e
ad.an"ed t+e% bit by bit- and so +a.e de.elo*ed t+e% to t+eir
*resent ,or%- Tisias "o%in& ne0t a,ter t+e ,irst ,o(nders- t+en
T+rasy%a"+(s a,ter Tisias- and T+eodor(s ne0t to +i%- )+ile se.eral
*eo*le +a.e %ade t+eir se.eral "ontrib(tions to it1 and t+ere,ore it
is not to be )ondered at t+at t+e art +as attained "onsiderable
di%ensions! O, t+is in5(iry- on t+e ot+er +and- it )as not t+e "ase
t+at *art o, t+e )or# +ad been t+oro(&+ly done be,ore- )+ile *art
+ad not! Not+in& e0isted at all! For t+e trainin& &i.en by t+e *aid
*ro,essors o, "ontentio(s ar&(%ents )as li#e t+e treat%ent o, t+e
%atter by <or&ias! For t+ey (sed to +and o(t s*ee"+es to be learned by
+eart- so%e r+etori"al- ot+ers in t+e ,or% o, 5(estion and ans)er-
ea"+ side s(**osin& t+at t+eir ar&(%ents on eit+er side &enerally ,all
a%on& t+e%! And t+ere,ore t+e tea"+in& t+ey &a.e t+eir *(*ils )as
ready b(t ro(&+! For t+ey (sed to s(**ose t+at t+ey trained *eo*le
by i%*artin& to t+e% not t+e art b(t its *rod("ts- as t+o(&+ any one
*ro,essin& t+at +e )o(ld i%*art a ,or% o, #no)led&e to ob.iate any
*ain in t+e ,eet- )ere t+en not to tea"+ a %an t+e art o,
s+oe$%a#in& or t+e so(r"es )+en"e +e "an a"5(ire anyt+in& o, t+e #ind-
b(t )ere to *resent +i% )it+ se.eral #inds o, s+oes o, all sorts1
,or +e +as +el*ed +i% to %eet +is need- b(t +as not i%*arted an art to
+i%! :oreo.er- on t+e s(b2e"t o, R+etori" t+ere e0ists %("+ t+at +as
been said lon& a&o- )+ereas on t+e s(b2e"t o, reasonin& )e +ad not+in&
else o, an earlier date to s*ea# o, at all- b(t )ere #e*t at )or#
,or a lon& ti%e in e0*eri%ental resear"+es! I,- t+en- it see%s to
yo( a,ter ins*e"tion t+at- s("+ bein& t+e sit(ation as it e0isted at
t+e start- o(r in.esti&ation is in a satis,a"tory "ondition "o%*ared
)it+ t+e ot+er in5(iries t+at +a.e been de.elo*ed by tradition-
t+ere %(st re%ain ,or all o, yo(- or ,or o(r st(dents- t+e tas# o,
e0tendin& (s yo(r *ardon ,or t+e s+ort"o%in&s o, t+e in5(iry- and
,or t+e dis"o.eries t+ereo, yo(r )ar% t+an#s!
$THE EN7$
!