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System Selection and Optimization

for Low Life Cycle Cost
Dr. Ir. I Made Astina, M.Eng.
Copyright 2012, Dr. Ir. I Made Astina, M.Eng.
Content
Selection Criteria
Requirements
Energy Conservation
AHU
Control System
Unitary and Central System
Zoning System
Ducting System
Concept of Efficient HVAC System
Concept of Low Life Cycle Cost
Water-Cooled Chiller
Air-Cooled Chiller
Air Distribution System
Water Piping Distribution System
Cooling Tower Selection
Copyright 2012, Dr. Ir. I Made Astina, M.Eng.
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Criteria for System and Equipment Selection
The problem-solving process requires some criteria that can be
applied in describing and evaluating alternatives. In the selection of
HVAC systems, the following criteria are usedconsciously or
unconsciouslybecause only rarely is the problem-solving process
formally applied.
1. Demands of comfort or process
2. Energy conservation, code requirements
3. First cost versus life-cycle cost
4. Desires of owner, architect, and/or design office
5. Space limitations
6. Maintainability/reliability
7. Central plant versus distributed systems
8. Simplicity and controllability
Copyright 2012, Dr. Ir. I Made Astina, M.Eng.
Requirements of Comfort or Process
These requirements include temperature, always; humidity,
ventilation, and pressurization, sometimes; and zoning for better
control, if needed. In theory at least, the comfort requirement should
have a high priority. In practice, this criterion is sometimes
subordinated to first cost or to the desires of someone in authority.
This is happening less often as building occupants become more
sophisticated in their expectations.
Process requirements are more difficult and require a thorough
inquiry by the HVAC designer into the process and its needs. Until
the process is fully understood, the designer cannot provide an
adequate HVAC system. Most often, different parts of the process
have different temperature, humidity, pressure, and cleanliness
requirements; the most extreme of these can penalize the entire
HVAC system.
Copyright 2012, Dr. Ir. I Made Astina, M.Eng.
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Energy Conservation Criteria
This is usually a code requirement and not optional. Nonrenewable refers
primarily to fossil-fuel sources. Renewable sources include solar power,
wind, water, geothermal, waste processing, heat reclaim, and thelike. The
strictest codes prohibit any form of reheat (except from reclaimed or
renewable sources) unless humidity control is essential.
This restriction eliminates such popular systems as terminal reheat, two-
deck multizone, multizone, and constant volume dual-duct systems,
although the two-fan dual-duct system is still possible and the three-duct
multizonesystem is acceptable.
Most HVAC systems for process environments have opportunities for
heat reclaim and other ingenious ways of conserving energy. Off-peak
thermal storage systems are becoming popular for energy cost savings,
although these systems may actually consume more energy than
conventional systems.
The first cost reflects only the initial price, installed and ready to
operate.
The first cost ignores:
factors as expected life
ease of maintenance
operation cost and system efficiency
Most energy codes require some minimum efficiency rating.
The life-cycle cost includes all cost factors (first cost, operation,
maintenance, replacement, and estimated energy use) and can be
used to evaluate the total cost of the system over a period of years.
First Cost and Life-Cycle Cost
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First Cost .(Contd)
A common method of comparing the life-cycle costs of two or
more systems is to convert all costs to present-worth values.
Typically, first cost governs in buildings being built for
speculation or short-term investment.
Life-cycle costs are most often used by institutional builders
schools, hospitals, governmentand owners who expect to
occupy the building for an indefinite extended period.
Life-cycle cost analysis requires the assumption of an interest, or
discount, rate and may also include anticipated inflation.
What is Life Cycle Cost
Life-cycle cost analysis is a structured method of
determining the entire cost of a structure, product, or
component over its expected useful life.
Life-cycle cost analysis isn't as difficult as it appears.
Life-cycle cost analysis can provide Forest Service
decision makers with the financial information they
need to make responsible decisions about maintaining,
improving, and constructing facilities.
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Life Cycle Assessment is the Same as Life
Cycle Cost?
Life-Cycle Assessments are used to evaluate
the environmental costs associated with a
product, process, structure, or activity. They
identify energy and materials used and wastes
released to the environment.
Why Life Cycle Cost is Important
Over 30 years, the cost of operation and
maintenance for buildings is more than
the initial construction cost; how much
more depends on the building type and
location.
Designers and facilities managers
traditionally have focused on
minimizing the initial cost of a
structure. Unfortunately, this
practice often has produced
inefficient, short-lived structures
with unnecessarily high operation
and maintenance costs. Over the life
of a building, operation and
maintenance cost more than initial
construction (figure). This is true
both for new construction and for
major replacement and improvement
projects, so it makes sense to include
operation and maintenance when
evaluating cost effectiveness.
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Basic Formula for Life-Cycle Cost
What Information needed in Life-Cycle Cost
The following information is needed for a simple life cycle
cost analysis:
The initial cost of each system.
The expected life of each system (usually years).
The expected average yearly maintenance, operation, and repair
costs of each system.
Maintenance and repair costs that occur only every several
years, averaged over the time between occurrences.
Operation, including fuel, electricity, and water use costs as well
as ongoing costs such as operator wages, regular cleaning or
restocking, etc.
Any salvage or other residual value you will get out of the
system when you have finished using it in this application.
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Life cycle cost example
In this example, the life cycle cost for chillers with three
different rated efficiencies of 0.5, 0.55, and 0.65 kW/RT are
estimated that chillers operate 10 hours a day and 250 days a
year. The chiller loading 500 RT and chiller efficiency are
assumed to be fixed. If the electricity cost is $0.10/kWh and the
electricity cost is expected to escalate by 2% per year, the annual
energy cost for operating the chiller can be computed as follows
Energy cost =Cooling load hours of operation efficiency
(kW/RT) electricity tariff
For the 0.5 kW/RT chiller, the energy cost year 1
=500 RT 10 h/day 250 days/year 0.5 kW/RT
$0.10/kWh =$ 62,500
Contd
The energy cost for Year 2 with 2 percent escalation of tariff will
be $63,750 (=$62,500 1.02). Similarly, the annual energy cost
for operating each of the three chillers can be computed. The life
cycle cost computed for the three chiller combinations based on
the following first cost is given in the next Table.
$300,000 for 0.5 kW/RT chiller
$275,000 for 0,55 kW/RT chiller
$250,000 for 0,65 kW/RT chiller
Note: all costs are annual energy costs except for Year 0, which
includes the capital cost of the chillers
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Result: Life cycle cost for different chiller
This example show that the first option of using 0.50 kW/RT
highest-efficiency chiller has the lowest total cost over a 10-year
period.
In case of variable cooling load
Other results are given in the three next tables.
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Energy saving estimation for variable cooling load 0.50
kW/RT chiller
Energy saving estimation for variable cooling load 0.55
kW/RT chiller
10
Energy saving estimation for variable cooling load 0.65
kW/RT chiller
Result: Life-Cycle Cost for Chillers Operating at
Variable Load
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Someone in authority very often lays down guidelines which must
be followed by the designer. This is particularly true for
institutional owners and major retailers.
The designers job is to follow the criteria of the employer or the
client unless it is obvious that some requirements are unsuitable in
an unusual environment.
Examples of such environmental conditions are extremely high or
low outside-air humidity, high altitude (which affects the AHU
and air-cooled condenser capacity), and contaminated outside air
(which may require special filtration and treatment).
Desires of Owner, Architect, or Design Office
Copyright 2012, Dr. Ir. I Made Astina, M.Eng.
Architects can influence the HVAC system selection by the space
they make available in a new building. In retrofit situations,
designers must work with existing space. Sometimes in existing
buildings it is necessary to take additional space to provide a suitable
HVAC system.
For example, in adding air conditioning to a school, it is often
necessary to convert a classroom to an equipment room. Rooftop
systems are another alternative where space is limited, if the
building structure will support such systems.
In new buildings, if space is too restricted, it is desirable todiscuss
the implications of the space limitations in terms of equipment
efficiency and maintainability with the architect.
There are ways of providing a functional HVAC system in very little
space, such as individual room units and rooftop units, but these
systems often have a high life-cycle cost.
Space Limitations
Copyright 2012, Dr. Ir. I Made Astina, M.Eng.
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This criterion includes equipment quality (the mean time between
failures is commonly used); ease of maintenance (are high-
maintenance items readily accessible in the unit?); and accessibility
(Is the unit readily accessible? Is there adequate space around it for
removing and replacing items?).
Rooftop units may be readily accessible if an inside stair and a roof
penthouse exist; but if an outside ladder must be climbed, the
adjective readily must be deleted.
Many equipment rooms are easy to get, but are too small for
adequate access or maintenance. This criterion is critical in the life-
cycle cost analysis and in the long-term satisfaction of the building
owner and occupants.
Maintainability
Copyright 2012, Dr. Ir. I Made Astina, M.Eng.
Central plants may include only a chilled water source, both heating
and chilled water, an intermediate temperature water supply for
individual room heat pumps, or even a large, central air-handling
system.
Many buildings have no central plant. This decision is, in part,
influenced by previously cited criteria and is itself a factor in the life-
cycle cost analysis. In general, central plant equipment has a longer
life than packaged equipment and can be operated more efficiently.
The disadvantages include the cost of pumping and piping or, for the
central AHU, longer duct systems and more fan horsepower. There is
no simple answer to this choice.
Each building must be evaluated separately.
Central Plant versus Distributed Systems
Copyright 2012, Dr. Ir. I Made Astina, M.Eng.
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This is the most important criterion in terms of how the system
will really work.
There is an accepted truism that operators will soon reduce the
HVAC system and controls to their level of understanding. This is
not to criticize the operator, who may have had little or no
instruction about the system. It is simply a fact of life.
The designer who wants or needs to use a complex system must
provide for adequate trainingand retrainingfor operators.
The best rule is: Never add an unnecessary complication to the
system or its controls.
Simplicity and Controllability
Copyright 2012, Dr. Ir. I Made Astina, M.Eng.
Chiller Size Configuration
Chillers are usually oversized for new building installations due to the
unavailability of accurate load estimation tools, leading to the use of
high safety factors in the design. This over sizing repeats even the
system are retrofitted since replacement of chillers is often done on a
one-to-one basis.
Chillers are normally sized to meet the peak load without much
consideration of the load profile. Since the cooling load of a building
varies with time, this can result in chillers operating at part load for long
periods of the day, waste much energy.
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Contd
Sizing and configuration of chillers for new building
should be done using accurate estimation tools, while
the measured cooling load profile should be used
when retrofitting existing buildings.
Chillers should be sized based on the peak load and
load profile.
Various combination of chillers can be operated
during the day to match the buildings cooling load
profile.
This would ensure that the chillers are able to
operate with their best efficiency range at all times.
kWh consumption =cooling load in RT hours of
operation efficiency (kW/RT) of chiller
Example
Consider the building cooling load profile shown in the next figure. The
cooling load of the building varies from about 500 RT in the night to a
peak of 1800 RT during the afternoon. This building cooling loadprofile
can be satisfied by an infinite number of chiller combinations. If one
chiller is used, an 1800 RT capacity chiller would be required. However,
this would lead to very inefficient operation of the chiller during periods
of low cooling load, (in the night when the load is about 500 RT). If two
equally sized chillers of 900 RT each are used to meet the peak load of
1800 RT, it will also result in very poor efficiency at night during part-
load operation. A chiller combination that provides a smaller capacity
chiller to operate at night and higher capacity chiller to operate during
the daytime would lead to better efficiency due to better matching of
chiller capacity to load. Since performance data for chillers can normally
be obtained from the chiller manufactures, if the building cooling load
profile and operating hours are known, the expected energy consumption
of a chiller can be computed.
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Cooling Load Profile for a Day in Building
Part-Load Performance Data for 1800-RT Capacity
Chiller
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Estimated Hourly Energy Consumption for an 1800-RT Chiller
Part-load Performance Data for 500-, 650-, and 1000-RT
Capacity Chiller
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Estimated Energy Consumption for Chiller Combination of
Two 1000-RT Chillers
Estimated Energy Consumption for Chiller Combination of Two 650-
RT and one 500-RT Chillers
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Annual Energy Consumption for the Three Different
Chiller Combinations
Options in System and Equipment Selection
Many of the various systems and equipment are available and
those all may be our options.
Air Handling Unit (AHU)
Fan Coil Unit (FCU)
Radiant and Convective Heating and Cooling
Refrigeration Equipment
Condenser Cooling System: water-cooled condenser
air-cooled condenser
Heating Equipment: recovery waste heat from condenser
other renewable energy
Cooling tower type
Copyright 2012, Dr. Ir. I Made Astina, M.Eng.
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Automatic Flow Control Valves Save Money
Less Valves Required in System
Higher Accuracy
Lower Installation Cost
Lower Test, Adjust & Balance (TAB) Cost
Lower Long Term Maintenance Cost
Lower Pumping Capacity Requirement
Can Be used in Variable Flow Systems
Why it saves money?
Typical Manual Balancing System
Circuit Balance Valves
required at all terminal units as
well as riser.
System to be rebalanced when
new terminal unit brought on
line.
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Automatic Flow Control System
Automatic Flow Control
Valves (AFCV) only required at
terminal units.
No system rebalance needed
when new terminal unit brought
on line. AFCV dynamically
adjust to maintain flow.
No AFCV required on riser.
AFCV offers unmatched flexibility for your design.
Automatic Is Accurate
Most manual valves give somewhere between 15%
to 25%
Automatic valves increase your accuracy to 10% as
a general rule
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Lower Installation Cost
17 Components
21 Connections
5 Components
1 Package
4 Connections
Less Valves Required with AFCV
In this manual system, 26 manually adjusted flow control
valves are required. In the same system using automatic
valves, only 18 valves are required.
AFVC
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Less Valves Required With AFCV
No balancing valve required in bypass with AFCV
Two balancing valve replaced by one AFCV
Lower TAB Cost
Because AFCV are pressure independent, they are
balanced from the time the pump is turned on. Thus, only
flow verification is needed, saving as much as 60% over
outdated manually adjusted valves.
1.5 Hrs to manually balance 1 coil.
$50 / Hour Labor
X
1.5 Hrs
$75 Per Coil
X
100 Coils
$7500 Balancing Cost
.5 Hrs to verify flow on AFCV.
$50 / Hour Labor
X
.5 Hrs
$25 Per Coil
X
100 Coils
$2500 Balancing Cost
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Less Energy Consumed With AFCV
When your building load changes, AFCV can dynamically change to
maintain your flow requirements.
When the P decreases, the valves open to maintain a constant flow
rate.
When the P increases, the valves close slightly to maintain a
constant flow rate.
Manually adjusted valves cannot adjust to the changing P to
maintain a constant flow rate. If P increases, so does the flow, if P
decreases, so does the flow.
Less Energy Consumed With AFCV
Application:
In an office building on a Spring day, the building may not
be calling for less chilled water than what it was designed
for. Except for a cafeteria which is at 100% capacity. By
using AFCV, you can reduce your pump speed to meet
only the chilled water need you have. With manually
adjusted valves you do not have that luxury. In turn,
reducing your pumping cost and saving money.
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Less Energy Consumed With AFCV
Less Energy Consumed With AFCV
How Flow balancing cuts HVAC energy costs. (Use .06 kwh-hr cost)
Flow Parameters Unbalanced Flow Balanced Flow
Flow, GPM 1050 870
Pressure, ft of head 62 75
Power, BHP 21.8 19.8
Power Consumptioin, KWH 18.2 16.4
Cost Per KWH $0.06 $0.06
Annual Electrical Cost $7098 $6396
Annual Savings $0 $702
Annual Savings Percent 0% 9.9%

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AFCV With Variable Speed Pumps
Automatic Can accommodate changes in system.
Only AFCV can change to maintain exact flow rate.
For use with 2 position valves is excellent application.
AFCV With Variable Flow Systems
Control Valve has complete authority except when fully open and
flow is beyond design.
Prevents Overflow of coil.
Aids in preventing valve cavitation.
Aids in preventing premature erosion of control valve body.
Many engineers have suggested that AFCV is not suited
for variable flow systems. Here are some reasons they
are perfect for the job:
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Cost Savings With AFCV
27 Circuit Setters = $729
Installation Labor = $675
TAB Labor = $2,025
Total Installed Cost = $3,429
18 AFCV = $954
Installation Labor = $450
TAB Labor = $450
Total Installed Cost = $1,854
In this example, we saved $1575 first cost alone.
Where to use Automatic Flow Control Valves
Water Source Heat Pumps
Fan Coils
VAV Box with Reheat Coils
Air Handlers
Unit Ventilators
Cabinet Heaters
Radiant Floor Heating Systems
Hydronic Baseboard Heaters
Cooling Towers
Chillers
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Automatic Flow Control Placement
In most applications, it is best to place the AFCV on
the return side of a coil. This ensures that your water
tube is full and providing maximum heat transfer.
Supply side will work, but is not ideal as too much air
or turbulence may occur.
Automatic Flow Control Placement
In an open system, the AFCV
must be on the return side of the
coils to ensure that the tubes are
flooded and ensure maximum
heat transfer.
In an closed loop system, the
AFCV can be on the return side or
the supply side of the coils. The
best practice is still to have your
AFCV on the return side.
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AFCV For All Applications
A small inline
valve will work in
tight spaces
A multipurpose
valve provides
unlimited options.
Larger valves
accommodate high
flow rates.
Air Handling Unit
Air-handling units (AHUs) include factory-assembled package units
and field-erected, built-up units. The common components are a fan
or fans, cooling and/or heating coils, and air filters.
Most units also include a mixing chamber with outside and return
air connections with dampers. The size range is from small fan-coil
units with as little as 100 ft
3
/min capacity to built-up systems
handling over 100,000 ft
3
/min.
When a package unit includes a cooling source, such as a
refrigeration compressor and condenser, or a heating source, such as
a gas-fired heater or electric heating coil, or both, then the unit is
said to be self-contained. This classification includes heat pumps.
Many systems for rooftop mounting are self-contained, with
capacities as great as 100 tons or more of cooling and a comparable
amount of heating.
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Some room units for wall or window installation have capacities as
small as 0.5 or 0.75 ton. Split-system packages are also available,
with the heating and/or cooling source section matching the fan coil
section but installed outdoors.
Heating coils may use steam or high- or low-temperature water; or
direct-fired heating may be used, usually gas or electric
resistance. Heat reclaim systems of various types are employed.
Humidification equipment includes the steam grid, evaporative, and
condenser and fan; a supply fan; air filter; and an economy-cycle
outside-air control system with return, relief, and outside air
dampers.
Unit arrangement may be single-zone or multizone. If the dampers
at the unit are removed, multizoneunits may be used as double-
duct systems.
Contd
The split-system AHU consists of two packages.
The outdoor section includes a refrigeration compressor,
condenser (usually air-cooled), and condenser fan.
The indoor section includes the evaporator cooling coil, heating
element, supply fan, and air filter.
Control of outside air for ventilation is not usually included. The
two sections are field connected through refrigerant piping and
electric wiring. Controls are included, but some field wiring is
necessary. Heating may be obtained by means of any conventional
fuel, usually gas, oil, electricity, or rarely, hot water from acentral
plant. Split-system heat pumps are common. Split systems are
usually small, ranging up to 15- or 20 RT capacity.
Split-System AHU
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This is a special class of a package AHU, designed primarily for use
in large mainframe computer rooms where a carefully controlled
environment is required. Supply air is discharged downward into the
plenum space below the raised floor, from which it enters the computer
equipment cabinets directly or is transferred into the room through floor
supply registers. Return air enters the AHU directly from the room. The
unit includes a supply fan, high-efficiency filters, humidifier, direct-
expansion cooling coil, refrigeration compressor (s), and water-cooled
condenser. Alternatively, a remote air-cooled condenser can be used, or a
water coil with a remote source of chilled water. Electric reheat is typical,
although hot water may be used. Units are available up to 20 RT capacity,
and multiple-unit installations are common. No ductwork is used in most
down-flow applications. These units have found some application in low-
grade clean room applications where humidity control is desired. Fan-
assisted HEPA filters can be incorporated in a system.
Package AHU with humidity controls
Built-up (Field-Assembled) AHU
The built-up AHU is field-assembled from individual components
selected by the designer. This allows the designer complete
flexibility of size and arrangement.
The built-up AHU tends to have a higher first cost than a package
system but may be designed to be more efficient and easier to
maintain.
Criteria for making the choice between built up and package
equipment include the size of the system, budget, space available
for equipment, and environmental requirements.
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Terminal Units & Mixing boxes
A terminal unit is a part of a larger air-handling systemdouble-
duct, VAV, or induction.
The terminal unit is installed in or near to the zone which it
serves and provides final control of the air temperature and/or air
volume in that zone. Included in this category are mixing boxes,
VAV boxes, terminal reheat coils, and induction units.
Mixing boxes for double-duct systems and mixing fresh and re-
circulated air. The conventional box includes a constant-volume
device to compensate for variations in static pressure in the hot
and cold ducts.
Two other VAV boxes are used. One is the fan-powered mixing
box. The fan-powered box is a small fan-and-damper unit designed
to circulate air at constant volume to the zone, while mixing return
air with conditioned supply air from a central VAV unit. Unit
capacities range from 100 to 1000 ft
3
/min. While the fan motors
are individually small (all are fractional horsepower), in the
aggregate a large amount of fan energy may be used. Fan noise
must be carefully attenuated. The constant volume to the zones
combined with central-station variable volume may be
advantageous in some situations.
VAV boxes
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Reheat coils may be installed in conjunction with any of the
terminal units described above or may be installed in any zone
branch duct.
When used with variable-volume, the reheat coil is controlled
to provide heating only when zone airflow is at its minimum,
usually 35 to 40 percent of maximum.
The room controller will then allow heating as required.
Normally, reheat will be provided only in exterior zones.
Reheat Coils
Central Plant
The design and construction of central plants for heating and
cooling is one of the most challenging and interesting aspects of
the HVAC design profession. Central plants range in size from
small to very large, from residential to industrial utility scale.
There are many areas of individual expertise and many levels of
competence among designers.
Several fundamental types of plants and aspects of plant design
are discussed
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Some concerns are common to central plants.
Central plants preferably are located in the middle of or adjacent to
the loads they serve.
Distribution piping costs may loom large if primary piping runs
long distances to get to the service point.
The combining of multiple service units into one plant is the act
which achieves the economy of scale and the convenience of
operation, so distance is a tradeoff, but the central location is
still a favored point to start.
For large plants serving congested campuses, a remote or
peripheral location may be preferred. This allows better access
to the plant and removes plant, traffic, noise, and emissions
from the more densely populated areas.
Some Concerns (Siting)
For high-rise buildings, there is the question of the basement, roof,
or in between. On-grade locations have the best access.
Sometimes buildings are occupied from the ground up during
extended construction, suggesting a low-level site. Where water
systems are involved, pressures may become very high at lower
building levels. This is less of a problem with chillers than with
boilers.
Systems with boilers often take the equipment to the roof, partly for
pressure considerations, partly to eliminate the problem of taking the
flue up through the building, partly for emission dispersion. Cooling
towers need to be near the chiller served if possible, to reducethe
cost of piping, but the cooling-tower vapor plume can be a problem
in cool weather if it impacts the building (window cleaning,
condensation on structure, etc.).
A vapor plume is a cold-weather visual problem in year-round
operation and may cause a local snow effect in cold climates.
Siting
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Strong enough to withstand vibration, to support equipment and
piping, to contain yet accept expansion and contraction,
to enclose and subdue noise, and to support maintenance through
access and hoist points. In some environments, plant structures are
fully enclosed by heavy masonry.
In the industrial environment, in mild climates, plant structures may
be open, offering only a roof and access, possibly a sound
enclosure. Some well-designed plants may take on an aesthetic
aspect including large expanses of glass and careful lighting.
Some feel that a plant that looks good may work better, since more
time is given to function and layout than in the quick and dirty
arrangements so often encountered.
Well-arranged plants usually are more easily maintained, given
the space associated with form and symmetry.
Structure
As a general note, reinforced-concrete floors and below-grade
walls have proved to be durable. Steel-frame superstructures with
intermediate floors of concrete and steel work very well. Steel
members with grating for walkways are very popular.
Plant enclosures should allow for future equipment replacement or
addition, with wall openings and possibly roof sections which can
be removed and replaced.
Structure
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Many plants, particularly those with chillers or electric boilers,
comprise a major electrical load for the facility.
The electrical service should be well thought through, and should
allow for any projected plant expansion, if not in present gear, at
least in space and concept.
Electrical equipment is often housed in a separate room with
filtered, fan-forced ventilation. Some electronic gear needs to be in
an air conditioned space.
Many motors are involved in a plant, motor control centers
(MCCs) are preferred to individual combination starters. Large
plants may have several MCCsto reduce the length of wiring runs.
The electrical service should have a degree of redundancy.
Hospitals and other critical-care facilities require access to at least
two independent utility substations. Standby power generation may
be included in plant design.
Electric Service
In central plants there is no substitute for isolation
valves for every piece of equipment. Multiple high-pressure
steam boilers require double valvingwith intermediate vent
valves to protect workers inside a unit that is down for
maintenance. Valves should be installed in accessible locations.
Valving
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Chilled Water Plants
Central chilled water plants for HVAC systems have evolved to a
combination of factory-built chillers and pumps in a variety of piping
and pumping configurations. Since the cooling effort may requirea
large amount of energy to drive the process, much attention is given
to schemes which reduce energy use. In some office space cooling
services, the cooling function may be considered noncritical and
subject to a low initial and operating cost design concept. In other
applications such as computer rooms and electronics manufacturing,
the product may have such high value and the quality of product may
be so sensitive to environmental conditions that no expense will be
spared to provide reliable cooling.
Interestingly, systems which have low operating cost may be quite
reliable because it takes better equipment and better arrangements
to operate with less energy input, assuming proven technology inthe
equipment design.
There are several key factors in designing a quality chilled water
plant:
Well-configured chiller(s)
Efficient pumps
A good piping scheme with ample valving
A good control concept
Good access for maintenance and replacement
Key Factors Chilled Water Plant
Pumping through the chiller makes the chiller, which typically has
a relatively high (10- to 20-ft) pressure drop, the first pressure-drop
device in the system. This reduces the remaining pressure throughout
the system. Chiller heat exchangers (tube bundles) are usually rated
for 150 lb/in
2
gauge working pressure and are not threatened by the
condition.
37
Air Cooled or Water-Cooled Chiller?
Both systems have advantage and disadvantage. Following as
simple problem can be followed to get initial comparison.
Consider a building with a cooling load of 100 RT. The chiller
operates, on an average 55 hours a week and the efficiency of the
air cooled chiller systems is 0.9 kW/RT. If the chiller used is
water cooled chiller and has the efficiency is 0.7 kW/RT, what is
energy saving for a year.
Energy saving = 1000 RT (0.9 0.7) kW/RT 55 hours/week
52 weeks/year =572,000 kWh/year
The design challenge in the central
plant arrangement is to deliver
service to the distribution system while
operating the plant as efficiently
as possible. Variations in load have
more impact on chillers than on boilers,
so the following discussion will
concentrate on chiller plants. Most that
is said also applies to heating plants.
Simple Arrangement
Such a simple system may seldom be found, but it illustrates
the use of variable speed in all the system elements for energy
conservation.
Simple Arrangement of Chiller
38
Constant volume pumping system
In an elementary system with one
chiller and one or more air handling
unit (AHU) coils.
The goal is to provide essentially
constant flow through the chiller
while modulating flow through the
AHU coils. The three-way control
valves accomplish this.
Elementary System
Multi Chiller Arrangement
In any system with two or more chillers,
the situation becomes more complex,
with potential operating difficulties, but
with greater opportunities for energy
conservation.
The first necessary step is to use two-way
valves for control of the AHU coils. If
three-way valves are used, then the
system tends to require constant flow
through all pumps and chillers and little
or no energy conservation is possible.
Either the flow rate or temperature control varies with the number of
chiller-pump combinations on-line. With two-way valves, the
distribution system flow can vary in proportion to the load.
39
Chiller Selection Analysis
Consider a building that operates from 8am to 10pm. The
current hourly kWh consumption can be computed, as shown
in next Table, by multiplying the hourly building cooling load
by the present chiller efficiency (air-cooled chiller). If these
data are not available, a kWh consumption meter can be used
to compute the electricity consumption of chiller. Next using
manufactures efficiency data, the kWh consumption for the
proposed water-cooled chiller can be estimated.
The difference between present (3915 kWh) and proposed
(1803 kWh) totally kWh consumption gives the daily saving
(2112 kWh). Additional savings will also result from
reduction in peak power demand usage and cooling load
coincide
Energy Saving Estimation
40
Contd
Peak demand savings
=Peak cooling load (RT) difference in air-cooled and
water-cooled chiller efficiencies (kW/RT)
=300 (1.2 0.57) =189 kW
Condenser water pumps and cooling towers can be taken as 0.15 kW/TR.
Water losses due to evaporation, drift, and blow down to be 1.5%of the
total condenser water flow. In typical systems, which are designed for a
temperature difference of 5.6
o
C (10
o
F), between condenser water leaving
and entering the system, the condenser water flow is 0.19 L/s per RT.
Therefore, the makeup water consumption will be 2.8 10
-3
L/s per RT
(0.19 1.5%) or 1.02 L/hr per RT. The extra cost for the makeup water
and electricity consumption for the condenser water pump and cooling
towers can be computed for the same buildings cooling load profile as
shown in the next Table.
Extra Water Consumption for water-cooled chiller
41
Contd
The net kWh savings =(2112 458) =1654 kWh/day.
Makeup water consumption =31.11 m
3
/day
If the utility tariffs are:
electricity usage =$0.10/kWh
Peak demand =$10/kW per month
water usage =$1/m
3
The net annual savings (based on 365 days a year)
=[(1,654 kWh/day electricity tariff) (31.11 m
3
/day water
tariff)] days/year +[189 kW monthly demand charges
12 months/year]
=[(1654 0.1) (31.11 1)] 365 +[189 12] =$ 71,700
The reliability of these systems can
be increased by using an additional
header between the pumps and the
chillers.
This allows any combination of
pumps and chillers to be used. With
either arrangement, two-position
manual or automatic control valves
must be provided to isolate off-line
chillers. Pumps are isolated by the
check valve.
Multiple Chiller Plant with floating bypass, secondary pumping
42
In large campus systems, the piping-
head losses in buildings may vary
greatly from one building to another.
To avoid penalizing the distribution
pump, it has been common practice
to provide a secondary pump (or
pumps) at each building or at least at
the high-head-loss buildings.
A hydraulic isolator A-B is required to prevent the building system
pressure variations from affecting the distribution system. The
building distribution system can be any of the three basic types. Flow
between the building and distribution systems can be modulated by
the control valve shown, which responds to building load as it affects
the secondary water supply and return temperature. The central plant
pump must bear the responsibility for the pressure drop to and from
the building and through the control valve.
Secondary Pump
A disadvantage of secondary pumping is the
high parasitic pumping cost which may
ensue. Secondary pumps are sized for
maximum pressure drop at maximum flow.
Taking advantage of load diversity is a key
to energy cost control. If secondary pumps
are used, they should be fitted with variable-
speed control related to secondary system
load.
The above Figure shows a secondary pumping scheme which has beenused by
many, but should be avoided. When the three-way valve goes to the full-demand
condition, it places the secondary pump in series with the central plant pumps and
in hard-coupled parallel with all other secondary pumps. At times of peak demand
or at a time when there is insufficient plant capacity on line to satisfy all secondary
systems, the secondary pumps start fighting each other for water and the strong
units win while the weak units suffer. A common consequence of hard-coupled
secondary pumps is a pressure reversal in the system where the central return line
pressure rises above the supply line pressure, usually to the consternation of all
involved. Decoupling the secondary pumps is a quick fix, but energy savings
follow with variable-speed control for all pumps.
Three Way Valve Solve
43
Multiple pumps and chillers with
common header
This system can utilize chillers of different
capacities and easily allows any one of several
machines to operate in a standby mode.
Free winter cooling can be incorporated as
part of a chiller or can be added into the
system, preferably precoolingthe system
return water. The direction of flow in the
floating-bypass line combined with flow
measurement in the secondary supply line of
the system pumps yields the signal to add or
remove chillers from service. Note that a one-
to-one relationship between pump and chiller
means that failure of either element makes the
combination unusable.
Common Header Arrangement
It has been suggested that overall system efficiency may be
improved by using variable-speed control on all motors of the
chiller plantcooling-tower fans, condensing water pumps, chiller
compressors, and chilled water pumps (as well as the air system
fans).
By using special computer programs, each element can be operated
at its point of maximum efficiency relative to the other elements.
This would minimize energy consumption. Considerable
development work will be necessary to make this concept useful,
but it could well be the next generation of control design.
Variable Speed Control
44
Thermal Storage Control
An important variation of the central chilled water plant scheme
includes thermal storage. There are several reasons to create a bank
of passive cooling capacity, most focused on saving energy cost, but
including system reliability in case of chiller failure or power
curtailment.
The basic concept of thermal storage which may be applied to chilled
or hot water, but most often is used with chilled water, is to generate
and store cooling capacity at off hours to reduce the peak electrical
demand of the complex. This is meaningful since an electrically
driven chiller and pumps may represent 20 to 30 percent or more of
the total building demand. Further, many utilities offer financial
incentives to owners who will incorporate demand shifting concepts
into building system designs.
The utility benefit is that a kilowatt of shifted or deferred demand is
equivalent to a kilowatt of new generating capacity. Note that there
is little actual energy saving in thermal storage. It takes almost as
much energyor more energyto make chilled water at night as
during the day, particularly where storage systems use colder
primary supply water temperatures.
The thermal storage media are usually water in large-volume tanks;
ice as part of the circulating chilled water system or indirectly made
by dropping the chilled water temperature to below freezing
(requires a glycol-brine chilled water solution) and building ice on a
heat exchange surface; or blocks of encapsulated eutectic salts,
where the salts undergo a phase change in the middle of the chilled
water supply/return temperature range. The blocks are stacked and
involved in the chilled water circulating pattern.
Contd
45
Central plant, one-to-one arrangement
Condensing water systemfor multiple chillers, multiple
pumps, and multiple cooling towers.
Cooling Tower and Arrangement
Chiller Technology Alternatives
46
Load Efficiency Chiller
Single-Zone AHU
47
Multi-Zone AHU
Three-duct multi-zone air-handling unit.
Zone Reheat Coil
48
Mixing Box and Damper Operating Sequence
Dual Duct Air-Handling system
Double-duct two-fan air-handling system..
49
System Optimization and Selection play important role in design
thermal system including HVAC system. Most important criteria
should be included in these tasks. Central plants are the heart of
the systems which produce heating and cooling capacity for
buildings and complexes. They range from small to large, simple
to complex. They involve a variety of inputs, manipulations, and
outputs, each suited to the needs and resources of the specific
project. Smaller plants should generally stay with simple schemes
and standard equipment, while large systems can drift toward
more sophisticated concepts and more tailored installations.
Economic evaluations should support design concepts, and long-
term ease of operation and maintenance should be established as
a key factor.
Closing Remarks
Copyright 2007-2012, Dr. Ir. I Made Astina, M.Eng.
Discussion